Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ELECTROPOLISHING
A User's Guide to
Applications, Quality Standards and
Specifications
Telephone: 713-849-2090
Fax: 713-849-2091
Email: info@delstar.com
Website: www.delstar.com
January 2003
Ninth Edition
Delstar Metal Finishing, Inc.’s User's Guide to Electropolishing summarizes much of what has been
written about electropolishing in textbooks, magazines, technical journals and handbooks, and it is
believed to be accurately represented. However, Delstar makes no guarantees, warranties or
representations regarding its accuracy and use.
In the absence of nationally accepted electropolishing finish standards, Delstar's research and
development teams created recommended standards and specifications representing the various
needs of industry. This User’s Guide is provided as a service to engineers, designers and industry in
an effort to promote the use of electropolishing in various applications.
WHAT IS ELECTROPOLISHING?
HOW IS IT ACCOMPLISHED? 1
HISTORY OF ELECTROPOLISHING 2
BENEFITS OF ELECTROPOLISHING 3
APPLICATIONS 12
PHOTOMICROGRAPHS:
The Proof of Quality Assured Electropolishing 21
WHAT IS ELECTROPOLISHING?
HOW IS IT ACCOMPLISHED?
________________________________________________________________________
In electropolishing, the metal is removed ion by ion from the surface of the
metal object in question. Electrochemistry and the fundamental principles
of electrolysis (Faraday's Law) replace traditional mechanical finishing
techniques, including grinding, milling, blasting and buffing as the final
finish. In very basic terms, the object to be electropolished is immersed in
an electrolyte and subjected to a direct electrical current. The object is
maintained anodic, with the cathodic connection being made to a
nearby metal conductor.
1
HISTORY OF ELECTROPOLISHING
________________________________________________________________________
During World War II, extensive research and process development by both
Allied scientists yielded a substantial number of new formulas and results.
Data from these projects was published during the post-war period in
hundreds of articles describing electropolishing's applications and its
theoretical basis. Dozens of new patents were registered between 1940
and 1955. Important applications were developed for the military during
World War II and the Korean conflict.
2
BENEFITS OF ELECTROPOLISHING
________________________________________________________________________
♦ Surface retains the true grain structure and properties of the bulk
metal
3
Ease of Cleaning
♦ Decarburizes metals
4
WHAT METALS CAN BE ELECTROPOLISHED?
________________________________________________________________________
Most metals can be electropolished successfully, but the best results are
obtained with metals with fine grain boundaries that are free of non-
metallic inclusions and seams. Those metals having a high content of
silicon, lead or sulfur are usually troublesome.
Stainless steels are the most frequently electropolished alloys, and all can
be processed. Castings will polish to a bright finish but not to the same
brightness or smoothness produced by wrought alloys.
♦ Aluminum ♦ Titanium
♦ Copper ♦ Kovar
♦ Cupronickel ♦ Inconel
♦ Brass ♦ Columbium
♦ Bronze ♦ Leaded Steel (Low-Lead)
♦ Nickel Silver ♦ Beryllium
♦ Monel ♦ Vanadium
♦ Hastelloy ♦ Tantalum
♦ Beryllium Copper ♦ Silver and Gold
5
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE ELECTROPOLISHED SURFACE
________________________________________________________________________
Important Considerations
A smooth, highly reflective electropolished surface is determined to a
large extent by the surface conditions of the metal and the process
controls.
Surface Conditions. Base metal conditions that can result in less than
optimum electropolishing finishes include the presence of non-metallic
inclusions, improper annealing, overpickling, heat scale, large grain size,
directional roll marks, insufficient cold reduction or excessive cold
working. These conditions may be inherent in the metal as it comes from
the mill. During electropolishing, metal is removed, revealing these flaws.
6
electropolishing not attainable by mechanical means. Because there is no
mechanical disturbance of the surface during the metal removal process, the
electropolished surface possesses the true grain structure and properties of
the bulk metal.
The surface of a metal is often described as that place where the metal
ceases to exist. This certainly can be said of an electropolished surface, but
not for a surface that has been mechanically finished by cutting, smearing,
skin rolling, buffing, drilling, boring, reaming, broaching or grinding.
The differences are much more than simply topographical. The damage
associated with cold working penetrates deeply into the metal; likewise,
abrasives become embedded in the surface. The mechanical strength of the
surface is lowered significantly by the cold working that accompanies simple
cutting operations. For example, the application of a mechanical finishing
process to steel having a tensile strength of 100,000 psi can leave a surface
skin of worked metal possessing only a tensile strength of only 35,000 psi.
Unpolished No. 2D. This is a dull finish produced on hand sheet mills or
continuous mills by cold rolling the metal to the specified thickness,
followed by annealing and descaling. The dull finish may result from the
descaling operations or may be developed by a final light cold roll pass
on dull rolls. This finish is favorable to the surface retention of lubricants in
deep drawing operations, and it is generally used in forming deep-drawn
articles that may be polished after fabrication.
8
Polished No. 4. This is a general purpose mechanically polished stainless
steel finish that is widely used for architectural panels and trim as well as for
restaurant, dairy and kitchen equipment. Initial grinding is followed by
coarser abrasives, with sheets eventually finished out with 100-150 mesh
abrasives. Although microscopically flat, the grain of Polished No. 4 stainless
steel still contains deep grooves and other microscopic cavities that entrap
and retain contaminants.
Buffed No. 6. A dull satin finish possessing low reflectivity, a Buffed No. 6
finish is produced with a greaseless compound and 200-grit abrasive, and is
top-dressed with chrome rouge.
Buffed No. 7. This very reflective finish is produced by buffing a surface that
first was refined with 220-grit abrasives to approximate a No. 6 finish. It is then
buffed lightly with a white chrome rouge without removing the satin finish
lines.
COMPARISON TABLE
Differences Between Polished and Buffed Milled Finishes, Abrasive Grit
Numbers and Surface Roughness (Before and After Electropolishing)
9
Smoothness is not an independent variable in surface definition. It is one
factor of an important subject that is referred to as "surface metallurgy."
Smoothness specifications, based on gages, can be achieved by both
electropolishing and mechanical abrasive finishing techniques.
Surface Roughness
10
Friction Reduction
Electropolishing reduces the coefficient of friction of metals. The process
removes or rounds off the small surface asperities, yielding a coefficient of
friction that measures approximately one-fourth of the coefficient
registered by a mechanically finished surface.
Electropolished Castings
Various alloys are used in most castings, making this particular product
less well suited to electropolishing. A major exception to this rule is
stainless steel.
Limitations
11
APPLICATIONS
________________________________________________________________________
12
Experience tells us that any container used in mixing, blending or storage
processes for liquids or powders is an excellent candidate for
electropolishing. The non-stick qualities of an electropolished surface
have obvious advantages in these applications. Companies who have
used electropolished parts successfully in the above applications include
Exxon, Shell, Union Carbide, Goodyear, Ethyl, Occidental, BASF, Allied,
Dow Chemical, Mobay and others.
Clean Rooms
Clean rooms demand non-contaminating and non-particulating surfaces.
Electropolishing is the ultimate finish for clean room tables, chairs, waste
containers, light fixtures, exposed electrical conduit and outlet boxes,
manufacturing and processing equipment, and other metallic
components used in this application.
Medical Applications
For many years, the medical field has been a beneficiary of
electropolishing. All hospital, medical and surgical equipment (scalpels,
clamps, saws, bone and joint implants, prosthetic devices, burn beds and
rehabilitation whirlpools) should be electropolished to facilitate cleaning
and achieve high levels of non-contamination. All metal articles exposed
to radiation and requiring regular decontamination are prime candidates
for electropolishing.
13
Machined Parts
All screws, bolts, washers, valve stems and bodies, and other machined
parts benefit from electropolishing. The process provides a number of
advantages, including deburring and stress relieving of the surface, easy
clean up, a non-stick, non-contaminating, non-particulating finish, and a
pleasing cosmetic appearance. It has been demonstrated that machined
parts of electropolished 304 stainless steel exhibit superior corrosion
resistance when compared to the same parts fashioned from non-
electropolished 316 stainless steel. Precise machining using
electropolishing techniques is an advantage in many applications.
Nuclear
Electropolishing is a critical finish in the nuclear industry. Used to polish
surfaces located in radioactive environments, electropolishing reduces
contamination pick-up and increases the effectiveness of conventional
decontamination techniques. The process can be used to decontaminate
radioactive metallic surfaces to non-detectable levels. Any
contamination located on or embedded in the surface can be removed
by the electropolishing process. In addition, residual contaminated
electrolyte can be removed in the rinsing operation. A very effective
application for electropolishing is the polishing of nuclear plant
recirculation piping for stress-relief of internal surfaces that have already
been mechanically polished.
♦ Thermowells
14
♦ Paper Mill Equipment
Paper slurry pipe systems and head boxes are two of many applications
♦ Electromachining
Occasionally, parts are made to improper tolerances or to tolerances
needing a slight change. Electropolishing can be a valuable tool to alter
tolerances by precisely controlling the removal of a small amount of
metal.
♦ Passivation
Electropolishing serves as an excellent passivation process. The process
removes contamination located on or just beneath the surface and
passivates stainless steel to a much greater extent than any other
treatment.
15
GOOD & BAD ELECTROPOLISHING:
How to Recognize Quality Work
________________________________________________________________________
However, there are times when even the best efforts of the Electropolisher
do not produce the desired results. A stainless steel part produced from a
specific alloy or possessing a unique history may present certain
problems. Pits, exposed seams, a grainy or dull luster, "patchy luster" and
a generally "unfinished" look are examples of situations where the
problem may be rooted in the material.
16
A uniform, fine crystal homogeneous structure produces the best
electropolishing results. However, certain structural characteristics can
vary in stainless steel without affecting the nominally specified properties,
yet influence the electropolishing results. Examples include broken down,
highly oriented structures, grain boundary precipitation of carbides, and
other non-homogeneities – all of which cause a lower quality
electropolished finish.
Recognizing Quality
17
HOW TO SPECIFY ELECTROPOLISHING:
The Standards of Quality
________________________________________________________________________
For many years, the lack of accepted specifications for electropolishing left
many uncertain as to how to specify the finish desired on the metal surface.
There are four primary and generally accepted finish standards for
electropolishing. (See next page for specifics.)
To achieve quality electropolishing, Step One must be the specification of the
correct metal alloy. For example, a general materials specification to
manufacture a part from "300 series stainless steel" alloys can create
problems. Some 300 series stainless steels Electropolish better than others.
Type 316 generally polishes better than Type 304. Type 303 stainless
possesses sulfide inclusions, which presents an obstacle to high-grade
electropolishing. Selection of the material should be discussed with the
Electropolisher.
Step Two is the selection of the final finish required for the application being
considered. An intermediate step of mechanical abrasive polishing may be
required to achieve the final finish desired. Generally, electropolishing can
reduce the Ra or RMS reading on a mechanically polished surface by
approximately 50 percent. For example, if the existing mill or mechanically
polished surface shows a surface reading of 50 Ra, one can expect an
electropolished surface reading of approximately 25 Ra. There are factors,
however, that can depress or elevate the final Ra reading. Quality
Electropolishers use sample coupons of the metals to be electropolished in
order to help determine the final finish.
Step Three: Any mechanical polishing required to achieve the specified final
finish must be considered. Multiple passes of ever-finer abrasive grits are
recommended as mandatory for best results. Very coarse grits (less than 80
grit) should be avoided. Surface quality obtained by Electropolishing is
directly related to the quality of the pre-electropolished surface.
Electropolishing cannot remove digs, gouges, scratches or other similar
surface distortions. Discussion of the mechanical polishing requirements with
the Electropolisher will help assure the quality of the desired final finish.
Delstar Corporation recognized some time ago that the creation and
implementation of nationally accepted standards regarding electropolished
finishes was desperately needed in order to establish and maintain quality.
Working closely with an independent research institute, our research and
development teams led the industry's response to this challenge by
establishing the Electropolish Finish Standards (EFS). Each standard contains
specifications in order to enable customers to accurately specify the final
finish desired. Details on grades EFS-1, EFS-2, EFS-3 and EFS-4 are described
on the following page.
18
ELECTROPOLISH FINISH
STANDARDS (EFS)
________________________________________________________________________
19
EFS-2 (Critical Applications Not Requiring Surface Verification)
"Part is to be pre-cleaned if necessary, and 100 percent electropolished to
uniform overall finish with maximum brightness, luster and reflectivity on
required surfaces as shown by symbol on print. If indicated, final finish must
be to the Ra or RMS finish noted. Specified electropolished surfaces to be free
of frosting, shadows, streaks, erosion, stains, water spots and irregular patterns
in the finish. Specified surfaces also to be free of pebbly, orange peel or
pitted appearance. Part is then to be cleaned to acid-free condition
throughout, D.I. water rinsed, dried and packaged to protect the
electropolished surface."
Special Note
Specifications should be included in any written description of work as well
as on the part drawing. The electropolishing specification should be a part
of, and in addition to, any required mechanical polishing specification.
Special post-electropolishing cleaning and/or packing instructions should
also be included.
20
SEM PHOTOMICROGRAPHS:
The Proof of Quality Assured Electropolishing
________________________________________________________________________
21
Comparative Photomicroscopy Showing Stainless Steel Plate As
Received and in Successive States of Electropolishing
Inadequate Electropolishing
22
Comparative Photomicroscopy Showing Stainless Steel Plate
As Received and in Successive States of Electropolishing (cont’d.)
Premium-Grade Electropolishing
23
Comparative Photomicroscopy of Two Standard
Mill Finishes Before and After Electropolishing
Before Electropolishing
After Electropolishing
24
Comparative Photomicroscopy of Two Standard
Mill Finishes Before and After Electropolishing (cont’d)
Before Electropolishing
After Electropolishing
25
Comparative Photomicroscopy of Stainless Steel Tubing
Surfaces
Before Electropolishing
After Electropolishing
26
Comparative Photomicroscopy of Stainless Steel Tubing
Surfaces (cont’d.)
Before Electropolishing
After Electropolishing
27
DELSTAR: THE QUALITY LEADER
________________________________________________________________________
28