Resource and Development

‘Resource’:
Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, is called a
resource. It should be technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable.
Only then, it can be termed as a ‘Resource’. Examples: minerals, forests, fossil fuels etc.
Classification of Resources:
(a) On the basis of origin: Biotic and Abiotic.
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility: Renewable and Non-renewable.
(c) On the basis of ownership: Individual (Personal), Community, National and International.
(d) On the basis of status and development: Potential, Developed, Reserve and Stock.
• Biotic Resources are obtained from the biosphere. They have life or are living resources,
e.g., human beings, fisheries, forests, etc.
• Abiotic Resources include all non-living things, e.g., rocks and minerals.
Renewable Resources:
The resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical and mechanical processes
are known as renewable or replenishable resources, e.g., water, wildlife, forests, solar energy, wind
energy, etc.
Non-renewable Resources:
The resources which once get exhausted, cannot be remade. They take a long geological period of
time, i.e., millions of years in their formation, e.g., minerals, fossil’ fuels, etc.
1. Individual resources: Owned by individuals, e.g., own land, house;
2. Community Owned Resources: Resources which are accessible to all the members of the
community, e.g., parks, playground;
3. National Resources: Resources which belong to the nation, e.g., roads, railways; and
4. International resources: Resources which no individual country can utilize, e.g., oceanic
waters beyond 200 km.

 
1. Potential resources: Resources found in a region but not in use, e.g., solar energy in
Rajasthan,
wind in Gujarat;
2. Stock: Resources available but do not have appropriate technology to access, e.g., lack of
technical know how to use hydrogen and oxygen as source of energy; and
3. Reserve: Subset of stock. Can be used for future needs, e.g., water in the dams, forest
resources.
Sustainable development:
Sustainable economic development means that ‘development should take place without damaging
the environment and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of future
generation’.
Land under important relief features in India:
Plains-43%, Mountains-30%, Plateaus-27%
Land Degradation:
Continuous use of land over a long period of time without taking appropriate measures to conserve
and manage it.
Measures to solve problem of land degradation:
Afforestation, proper management of grazing to control overgrazing planting of shelter belts of
plants, stabilization of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes, control of mining activities, avoid
over-irrigation and overuse of fertilizers and pesticides;
Soil erosion:
The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is soil erosion. Reasons for soil
erosion include—
(a) Human activities like deforestation, over grazing construction, mining defective method of
fanning etc.;
(b) Natural forces like wind, glacier and water flow.
Types of erosion:
(a) Gully erosion. The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels known
as gullies. This makes the land bad land and in the Chambal basin such land is known as ravines;
(b) Sheet erosion. When top soil over large area is washed away it is known as sheet erosion.
Methods to prevent soil erosion in hilly area:
Ploughing along the contour lines-contour ploughing; terrace cultivation; strip farming and shelter
belts.
Soils and its types:
• Alluvial soils: Entire northern plains are made of alluvial soil. Also found in the eastern
coastal plains particularly in the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Kaveri rivers. Fertile soil therefore, fit for agriculture purpose. Regions of alluvial soils are
intensively cultivated and densely populated. Rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime
which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.
• Black soil: Black in colour and are also known as regur soils. Ideal for growing cotton and
is also known as black cotton soil. Found in the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa,
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh also along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys. Made up
of extremely fine, i.e., clayey material. Well-known for their capacity to hold moisture. Rich
in calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.
• Red and yellow soils: Found in the areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern parts of
the Deccan plateau. Also found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the
middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats. Develop a reddish
colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
• Laterite soils: Develops in areas with high temperature and heavy rainfall. Found in
Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and the hilly areas of Odisha and Assam.
Suitable for cultivation with adequate doses of manures and fertilizers. Low Humus content
because decomposers, like bacteria, get destroyed due to high temperature.
• Arid soils: Found in the western parts of Rajasthan. After proper irrigation these soils
become cultivable. Lacks humus and moisture because dry climate, high temperature make
 evaporation faster. Salt content is very high and common salt is obtained by evaporating the
water.
• Forest soils: Found in the hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rain forests are
available. Feature differs based on location. Loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse
grained in the upper slopes. Sil in the lower parts of the valleys particularly on the river
terraces and alluvial fans are fertile.

2. Forest and Wildlife Resources

India’s Biodiversity
Q. Hint: Why is biodiversity important?

Biodiversity
Biodiversity is:
• Rich variety of wildlife and flora
• Diversity in form and function of life forms
• Interdependence in a network called ecosystem
Ecosystem or ecological system: A biological community, where all the living organisms interact
with each other and are interdependent.

Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is important for ecological balance, availability of resources, coexistence of species,
economic and ecological development and spiritual and recreational pursuits.
• Coexistence of life forms: An ecosystem is a home to many species from lichen to banyan
trees to human beings.
• Interdependence: All the species are interdependent for their survival.
• Resource availability: For example, plants, animals and micro-organisms re-create the
quality of the air we breathe, the water we drink and the soil that produces our food, things
without which we cannot survive.
• Forests play a key role in the ecological system as these are also the primary producers on
which all other living beings depend.
• Biodiversity provides wood, rubber, medicines dyes and other products useful to human
beings.
• Biodiversity enables recreational, cultural and scientific growth through tourism, spirituality
and medicines.

Biodiversity in India
• India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological diversity.
 • It has nearly 8 percent of the total number of species in the world.
• Twice or thrice this number is yet to be discovered.

Decline of biodiversity
• Due to insensitivity towards the environment, many species are under stress.
• 10 per cent of India’s recorded wild flora and 20 per cent of its mammals are on the
threatened list.
• Species which are on the verge of extinction are categorised as critical species.
• Asiatic cheetah, pink-headed duck, mountain quail, forest spotted owlet, and plants like
madhuca insignis (a wild variety of mahua) and hubbardia heptaneuron are categorised as
critical species in India.

Flora and Fauna

Q. Hint: What are the categories of flora and fauna in India based on the IUCN List?

IUCN
• IUCN stands for the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
• It is a global authority that surveys the natural world and undertakes measures to safeguard
it.
• According to IUCN, the wildlife species are categorised into six categories based on the
severity of the threat to their survival.

IUCN List
• Normal species
• Endangered species
• Vulnerable species
• Rare species
• Endemic species
• Extinct species

Normal species
• The population level of such species is enough for their survival.
• For example, sal, pine, rodents, and cattle are normal species.

Endangered species
• Wildlife species that are on the verge of extinction are known as endangered species.
 • Various negative factors lead to population decline in these species.
• The survival rate of such species is very low.
• Examples of endangered species are blackbuck, crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino,
lion-tailed macaque, and sangai.

Vulnerable species
• Species whose population has fallen to a point where they may become endangered in the
future are categorised as vulnerable.
• The populations of vulnerable species decline faster under unfavourable conditions.
• Examples of vulnerable species are blue sheep, Asiatic elephant, and Gangetic dolphin.

Rare species
• Rare species have a small population and are more likely to become vulnerable or
endangered species.
• The decline in their population is due to the unfavourable factors in their environment.
• Examples of rare species are Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox, and
hornbill.

Endemic species
• These wildlife species are limited to some particular areas.
• They are isolated from the world due to natural and geographical barriers.
• Examples of endemic species are Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, and
Mithun

Extinct species
• These species are after searches in their native place.
• They have completely disappeared from the places where they had a natural habitat.
• Examples of extinct species are the Asiatic cheetah and pink-headed duck.

Government efforts
• Various organisations are working at the national and international levels to keep an eye on
the declining numbers of wildlife species.
• Such organisations also help in the conservation of these species.
• Examples of organisations are WWF (Worldwide Fund for Nature), WCS (Wildlife
Conservation Society), National Wildlife Federation, PETA (People for the Ethical
Treatment of Animals).
Decline in Biodiversity
Q. Hint: What negative factors have caused a decline in India’s floral and faunal diversity?

Nature, a valuable resource

• Human beings are dependent on nature directly or indirectly.
• Various products are obtained from nature, such as wood, barks, leaves, rubber, medicines,
dyes, food, fuel, fodder, manure.
• Certain human activities have resulted in the depletion of forest and wildlife resources.

Colonial period
• The greatest loss of Indian forests occurred during the colonial period.
• This loss was due to development and expansion in various sectors such as:
1. Railways
2. Agriculture
3. Commercial expansion
4. Scientific forestry
5. Mining activities

Decline in forest and wildlife — agricultural activities

• The decline in forests and wildlife continued even after independence due to various
reasons.
• The agricultural expansion was one major reason for the loss of forest cover.
• To meet the food demand of the growing population, acres of forest land was cleared to
grow crops.
• Forest Survey of India has estimated that from 1951 to 1980, nearly 26,200 sq km of forest
area was cleared and converted into agricultural land.
• Shifting cultivation, or jhum cultivation was another major reason for the depletion of forest
cover.

Decline in forest and wildlife – development projects

• Many development projects after independence have severely affected the forests and
wildlife of India.
• More than 5,000 sq. km of forest land was cleared for river valley projects.
• For example, Narmada Sagar Project in Madhya Pradesh will cover about 40,000 hectares of
forest land.

Decline in forest and wildlife – mining activities

• Forests are also cleared to make way for mining sites.
• Excessive mining to extract various minerals have resulted in the degradation of soil quality.
• Loss of forest cover also adversely affects the wildlife.
• Loss of natural habitat
• Blocking of migration routes
 • For example, wildlife species and the forest of the Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal are
under threat because of excessive mining of dolomite in the region.

Decline in forest and wildlife – overgrazing

• According to many foresters and environmentalists, overgrazing and wood collection for
fuel are significant reasons behind deforestation.
• This view is challenged as fuel fodder is collected by lopping and not by felling trees.
• Forests are storehouses of minerals, forest products, and other valuable resources.

Other reasons for the decline in forests and wildlife

A significant decline is witnessed in the biodiversity of the country. Various reasons for the decline
are:
1. Habitat destruction
2. Hunting
3. Poaching
4. Overexploitation
5. Environmental pollution
6. Poisoning and forest fires

Reasons for environmental degradation

• Unequal access to resources
• Unbalanced consumption of resources
• Unequal responsibility-sharing for environmental well-being
• Overpopulation
• The richer consume more natural resources
• Americans consume 40 times more natural resources than Somalians.
• Thus, an average American depletes natural resources at a faster rate than an average
Somalian.
• The richer section of Indian society causes more ecological damage.
• This section of the society has greater access to various resources and tends to
overuse or misuse them.
• But the same richer section bears minimal responsibility for environmental
conservation.
• The poor section of Indian society has the lowest access to resources and causes
minimal waste of resources.

Biological Loss and Impact on Community

Biological loss correlated with loss of cultural diversity
• Loss of forest and wildlife leads to loss of rich biodiversity of the country.
• Biological loss is also correlated to loss of cultural diversity.
 • Cultural loss is evident as the loss of forest lands and wildlife have marginalised many tribal
and forest-dependent communities.
• These tribes and communities depend on forests for their food, water, medicine, wood, and
cultural practices.
• As these tribes and communities decline or are absorbed in mainstream society, their
cultures are lost, and India’s cultural diversity declines.

Impact of deforestation on women

• Deforestation has affected human beings directly or indirectly in many ways.
• Among the poor, it has affected women more than men.
• Women bear responsibilities to meet the basic needs of the family, such as:
• Collection of fuel (wood) from the forest
• Collection of fodder for cattle
• Fetching water
• Due to the depletion of forest cover, the labour of women has increased manifolds.
• Women have to walk several kilometres to fetch water, fuel, fodder, and other necessities.
• These hardships have led to serious health problems among women.
• It has also resulted in serious social problems such as:
• Neglect of home and children due to long working hours.

The Indirect impact of environmental degradation

• Deforestation may cause severe droughts or floods.
• Poor people are most vulnerable to natural calamities due to a lack of access to resources.
• Environmental destruction also leads to poverty, especially for forest-dependent
communities.
• It is the duty of each individual and society as a whole to adopt strategies and policies for the
conservation of forests and wildlife.

Conservation Strategies
Q. Hint – What conservation strategies are adopted by the Indian government to protect
biodiversity?

Meaning of conservation
• Conservation is the care and protection of valuable natural resources so that these will be
available for future generations.
• Conservation prevents excessive exploitation of resources by human beings.
• It also promotes awareness among people of the need for sustainable use of these resources.

Need for conservation

• Increased demand for forest and wildlife products has caused increased destruction and
degradation of forest and wildlife resources.
• Conservation helps to preserve the ecological balance of the environment.
 • Conservation helps to preserve valuable natural resources such as water, air, and soil.
• It also preserves plant species and fisheries for breeding in the future.
• The country’s agricultural and industrial advancement in recent years has been accelerated
by proper conservation of forest and wildlife resources.

The Indian Wildlife Protection Act

• In 1972, The Indian Wildlife Protection Act was passed.
• The main aim of the Act was to protect the natural habitats of wild species.
• The wildlife protection program published a list of protected species.
• The Act also aimed at protecting endangered species by prohibiting their hunting and
restricting trade in these species.

Role of central government

• To conserve the flora and fauna of the country, the central government established many
national parks, sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves.
• Various projects, such as Project Tiger, Project Elephant, and Project Crocodile, were
introduced to protect certain species that were threatened and were on the verge of
extinction.
• Many wildlife species have been given full or partial legal protection against their hunting
and trade within the country.
• For example, Indian elephant, blackbuck (chinkara), the great Indian bustard (godawan), and
the snow leopard.

Project Tiger
• Due to illegal hunting and poaching of tigers worldwide, the number of tigers dropped
drastically from 55,000 to 1,827 in the 1970s.
• These malpractices were found mainly in India and Nepal, as these two countries held about
two-thirds of the surviving tiger population.
• Project Tiger was launched in 1973 to conserve the existing tiger population.
• Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand, Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal are among
the few tiger reserves in the country.

New approach of conservation

• The meaning of conservation is no longer limited to the preservation of endangered species.
• Conservation programs are now also focusing on biodiversity conservation, conservation of
insects, and so on.
• Butterflies, moths, beetles, and one dragonfly species are also included in the protected
species under the Wildlife Acts of 1980 and 1986.
• In 1991, six species of plants were also included in the protected list.
Classification of Forests in India
Forests and wildlife resources in India are owned by the Forest Department or other government
bodies. Forests in India are classified into three categories — reserved forests, protected forests, and
unclassed forests.

Reserved forests
• These forests are protected areas that do not allow hunting and poaching.
• Reserved forests are created to protect the natural habitats of wildlife species.
• More than half of the total forest land in India is declared as reserved forests.

Protected forests
• Habitats and wildlife species in these forests are protected from further depletion.
• One-third of the total forest land in India is declared as protected forests by the Forest
Department.
• Reserved and protected forests are called permanent forests.

Unclassed forests
• Forests that are not in the reserved or protected categories are termed unclassed forests.
• These forests and wastelands may be owned by the government or by private individuals and
communities.
• These forests are found in parts of the north-eastern states of India and Gujarat.

3. Water Resources
• Water
→ Some facts and Figures
• Dams
• Multi-purpose river projects

→ Objectives of multi-purpose river projects

→ Disadvantages of Multi-purpose river projects

→ Movements against Multi-purpose river projects

• Rainwater Harvesting

→ How Tankas works
Water

• Water is a renewable resource

• Three-fourth of the earth’s surface is covered with water but only a small proportion of it accounts
for freshwater fit for use.
Some facts and Figures

• 96.5 percent of the total volume of world’s water is estimated to exist as oceans and only 2.5 per
cent as freshwater.

• India receives nearly 4 percent of the global precipitation and ranks 133 in the world in terms of
water availability per person per annum.

• By 2025, it is predicted that large parts of India will join countries or regions having absolute
water scarcity.
Water Scarcity and need for water conservation and management

• The lack sufficient water as compared to its demand in a region is known as Water Scarcity.

• Causes of Water Scarcity are:

→ over-exploitation

→ excessive use and unequal access to water among different social groups.

→ Large population
Dams

• A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often creating a
reservoir, lake or impoundment.
Multi-purpose river projects

• Multi-purpose river projects large dams that serve several purposes in addition to impounding the
water of a river and used later to irrigate agricultural fields. For example, the Sutluj-Beas river
basin, the Bhakra–Nangal project etc.
Advantages of multi-purpose river projects are:

→ Electricity generation

→ Irrigation

→ Water supply for domestic and industrial uses

→ Flood control

→ Recreation

→ Inland navigation 

→ Fish breeding
Disadvantages of Multi-purpose river projects are:

→ It affects the natural flow of river causing poor sediment flow and excessive sedimentation at the
bottom of the reservoir.
→ It destroys the habitats for the rivers’ aquatic life.
→ It submerges the existing vegetation and soil if created on the floodplains.
→ It displaces the local people of the place where it is created.
→ These are unsuccessful in controlling floods at the time of excessive rainfall.
→ These projects induced earthquakes, caused water- borne diseases and pests and pollution
resulting from excessive use of water.
Movements against Mult-purpose river projects

• These projects cause of many new social movements like the ‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’ and the
‘Tehri Dam Andolan’ etc.
→ This is due to the large-scale displacement of local communities.

• Inter-state water disputes are also becoming common with regard to sharing the costs and benefits
of the multi-purpose project.
Rainwater Harvesting

• Rainwater Harvesting refers to the practice of storing and using of rainwater from the surface on
which it falls.

• In hill and mountainous regions, people built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of the
Western Himalayas for agriculture.

• In Rajasthan, ‘Rooftop rain water harvesting’ was commonly practised to store drinking water.

• In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate their fields. 

• In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain fed storage structures
that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil.

• In the semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan, almost all the houses traditionally had underground
tanks or tankas for storing drinking water.

• How Tankas works:

→ Tankas were connected to the sloping roofs of the houses through a pipe.
→ Rain falling on the rooftops would travel down the pipe and was stored in these underground
‘tankas’.

4. Agriculture
India is an agricultural country because of the following reasons:
1. Two-third of its population is engaged in agricultural activities.
2. Agriculture is a primary activity and produces most of the food and food grains.
3. It produces raw materials for our various industries, e.g., cotton textile, sugar industry.
4. Agricultural products, like tea, coffee, spices are exported and earn foreign exchange.
Primitive Subsistence Farming:
This type of farming is practiced in few pockets of India on small patches of land using primitive
tools and family/community labor. Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and other food
crops to sustain their families. When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a fresh
patch of land for cultivation. This type of shifting allows nature to replenish the fertility of the soil
through natural processes. Land productivity is low as the farmer does not use fertilizers or other
modem inputs.
Intensive Subsistence Farming:
It is practiced in areas of high population pressure on land. It is labor intensive farming. Yield per
hectare is high because high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used. The size of the
land-holdings is small and uneconomical. Farmers take maximum output from the limited land by
raising 2-3 crops in a year from the same land, i.e., multiple cropping is practiced.
Commercial Agriculture:
In this, crops are mainly grown for commercial purposes. It is practiced on large pieces of land on
scientific and commercial lines using machines and modem technology. There is higher use of
modem agricultural inputs, e.g., HYV seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, etc. The degree of
commercialization varies from one region to another. Rice is a commercial crop in Punjab, while in
Odisha it is subsistence crop. E.g., plantation agriculture.
Characteristics of plantation agriculture:
A single type of crop is grown on a large area. Plantation is carried out on large estates using lot of
capital intensive units. Lot of migrant laborers work on these estates. The plantation has an interface
of agriculture and industry. All the produce is used as raw material in the respective industries. The
production is mainly for the market, i.e., commercial agriculture.
Rabi, Kharif and Zaid are the three cropping seasons:
• Rabi crops (Winter crops): Sown in winter—October to December. Harvested in summer
—April to June. Important crops: wheat, barley, mustard, peas, gram, etc.
• Kharif crops (Crops of the rainy season): Sown—onset of monsoon (June-July).
Harvested— September-October. Important crops: rice, maize, millets, jowar, bajra, tur
(arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean.
• Zaid season: It is a short cropping season during summer months mainly between March-
April and June-July. Main crops—watermelon, musk melon, cucumber etc.
Rice is the most important food crop (Kharif crop) of India. India holds second position in rice
production after China. Cultivation—High temperature of 25° C and above and high humidity with
annual rainfall of 100 cms is required. Four major regions of rice cultivation are —
1. Plains of North, India;
2. Plains of North-Eastern India;
3. Coastal areas; and
4. Deltaic regions. Irrigated rice is produced in Punjab, Haryana, Western UP and Rajasthan.
Wheat is the second most important cereal crop of India. It is the main food crop.
Geographical conditions:
Cool and moist growing season. Bright sunshine at the time of ripening. Rainfall: 50 to 75 cm
evenly distributed over the growing season, loamy soil.
Wheat growing zones—
1. The Ganga-Sutlej plains in the North-West and
2. Black soil region of the Deccan.
Wheat producing states—Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
Jowar is the third most important food crop with respect to area and production, kharif crop,
rainfed crop grown in moist areas.
Major producing states
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Millets are called coarse grains. They have high nutritional value, important part of the diet for poor
people. Examples:
• Ragi: Leading producer is Karnataka, followed by Tamil Nadu. Himachal Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Uttaranchal, Sikkim etc. are other important regions.
• Jowar: Maharashtra is the leading producer followed by Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh.
• Bajra: It grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soils. Rajasthan is the largest
producer followed by Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.
Maize crop — Geographical conditions:
Kharif crop, requires temperature between 21° C to 27° C, requires moderate rainfall between 50-
100 cm. It grows well in old alluvial soils.
Maize is a crop which is used both as food and fodder. In some states like Bihar, maize is grown in
rabi season also. Maize production in India has increased due to factors like—use of modem inputs
such as HYV seeds; use of fertilisers; and use of irrigation facilities.
India is the second largest producer of sugarcane after Brazil.
Geographical conditions:
It is a tropical as well as subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and humid climate. Temperature:
21°C to 27°C. Annual rainfall between 75 cm and 100 cms. Irrigation is required in the regions of
low rainfall. It can be grown on a variety of soils. It needs manual labour from sowing to
harvesting.
Six major states producing sugarcane—Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana. Sugarcane is the main source of sugar, gur (jaggery),
khandsari and molasses.
Oilseeds:
India is the largest producer of oil seeds in the world. 12% of the total cropped area is under oilseed
production. Six major oilseeds produced in India—Groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til),
soyabean, castor-seeds, linseed, sunflower and cotton-seeds. Most of these oilseeds are edible and
are used as cooking mediums. Some are also used as raw material in the production of soap,
cosmetics and ointments.
Tea Geographical conditions:
It grows well in tropical and subtropical climates. It requires deep, fertile, well drained soil, rich in
humus and organic matter. It requires warm and moist frost free climate round the year. Frequent
showers evenly distributed through the year ensure continuous growth of tender leaves. Tea is a
labour intensive industry. It requires abundant, cheap and skilled labour.
Coffee:
Most important beverage crop of South India, India produces 4% of the world’s coffee production.
Major states—Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu (mainly in Nilgiri hills).
Cotton is mainly produced in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. Cotton is the fibre crop
which is mainly grown in the black soil of the Deccan Plateau region.
1. Position. India is the 3rd largest producer of cotton in the world.
2. Geographical conditions. Requires—high temperature; light rainfall or irrigation; 210 frost-
free days; bright sunshine; black cotton soil; Kharif crop and requires 6-8 months to mature.
3. Major cotton producing states—Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Jute:
Mainly grown in West Bengal, Bihar and Assam, known as golden fibre. Jute is mainly grown in
West Bengal, especially in the Hoogly Basin because there the geographical conditions favour its
growth. These conditions are—
• High temperature required during the time of growth,
• Jute grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed
every year.
Jute products are—gunny bags, ropes, mats, carpets, yams and other ornamental artifacts.
Rubber is produced in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, Andaman and Nicobar islands and Garo
hills of Meghalaya. Conditions: It requires hot and humid climate. Rainfall—200 cms. Temperature
— above 25° C. Maximum rubber is consumed in the manufacture of auto tyres and tubes and cycle
tyres and tubes.
Institutional reforms in Agriculture:
1. Collectivization and consolidation of land holdings to make them economically viable.
2. The green revolution based on the use of package technology and the White Revolution to
increase milk production.
3. Cooperation with farmers and Abolition of Zamindari system.
4. Provision of crop insurance to protect the farmers against losses caused by natural
calamities, i.e., drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease.
5. Establishment of ‘Grameen Banks’, Cooperative Societies and Banks.
6. Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS).
7. Special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers on radio and TV.
8. Announcement of minimum support price, remunerative and procurement prices for crops to
check the exploitation of farmers.

Minerals and Energy Resources Class 10 Notes Social Science

Geography Chapter 5
Mineral:
Geologists define mineral as a “homogeneous, naturally occurring substance with a definable
internal structure.” They have physical and chemical properties by which they can be identified.
Rocks are combinations or aggregates of minerals in varying proportions. Some rocks consist of a
single mineral, e.g., limestone while most rocks consist of several minerals.
The term ‘ore’ is used to describe an accumulation of any mineral mixed with other elements.
Minerals generally occur in the following forms:
1. Veins and lodes. In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks, faults
or joints by getting solidified in them. The smaller occurrences are called veins and the
larger lodes, e.g., metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead, etc. are found in lodes and
veins.
2. In sedimentary rocks minerals occur in beds or layers. They are formed as a result of
deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata. Some sedimentary minerals
are formed as a result of evaporation, especially in arid regions, e.g., gypsum, potash and
salt.
3. Another mode of formation involves decomposition of surface rocks and the removal of
soluble contents, leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores. Bauxite is
formed this way.
4. Placer deposits. Certain minerals occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the
base of hills, e.g., gold, silver, tin and platinum. These are called placer deposits and contain
minerals which are not corroded by water.
5. Ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals, e.g., common salt, magnesium and
bromide are largely derived from the ocean waters. The ocean beds are rich in manganese
nodules.
Four types of iron ores are:
Magnetite, Hematite, Siderite and Limonite.
Two best ores are:
• Magnetite—It is the finest iron ore available with upto 70% iron content. It has excellent
magnetic qualities and is especially valuable in the electrical industry.
• Hematite—It is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of quantity used. It has 50-
60% iron content.
Four major iron ore belts:
1. Odisha-Jharkhand Belt: Badampahar Mines—High grade hematite ore is found here.
2. Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt: Bailadila Mines—Super high grade hematite ore deposits are
found in Bailadila range. Iron ore from these mines is exported to Japan and South Korea.
3. Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur Tumkur Belt in Karnataka: Kudremukh Mines — A 100
per cent export unit. The ore is transported as slurry to a port near Mangalore.
4. Maharashtra-Goa Belt: Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra—Ores are not of very high quality.
Iron ore is exported through Marmagao port.
Aluminium is obtained from bauxite ore. It is an important metal because—it has the strength of
metals such as iron, and is extremely light at the same time; it has good conductivity; and it has
great malleability.
Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium
silicates. Leading State of bauxite production is Odisha, producing 45% of the total bauxite of India.
The most important bauxite deposits are found in Panchpatmali in Koraput district.
Other States are Gujarat (17%), Jharkhand (14%) and Maharashtra (11%).
Mica is made up of a series of plates or leaves. It splits easily into such thin sheets that a thousand
put together are only a few centimeters thick. Mica is indispensable for electric and electronic
industry because it has —
• excellent di-electric strength;
• Low power loss factor;
• Insulating properties; and
• Resistance to high voltage.
Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of Chhota Nagpur Plateau. Jharkhand is the leading
producer. The important mica producing belt here is Koderma-Gaya-Hazaribagh.
Dangers involved in mining are—
1. The risk of collapsing mine roofs;
2. Inundation, i.e., flooding in mines;
3. Fires in coal-mines is a constant threat to miners; and
4. Poisonous gases, dust and noxious fumes inhaled by miners make them vulnerable to
pulmonary diseases.
Adverse effects of mining on the environment:
1. The water sources in the region get contaminated;
2. Dumping of the slurry and waste leads to degradation of land and soil; and
3. It also leads to an increase in stream and river pollution.
Conservation of minerals is necessary because:
1. The formation of minerals takes a long geological period of millions of years.
2. They are finite in nature, non-renewable and exhaustible.
3. The rate of replenishment of minerals is infinitely small in comparison to rate of
consumption.
4. They have to be preserved for our future generations.
Methods of mineral conservation:
1. We should use minerals in a planned and sustainable manner.
2. Improved technologies need to be evolved to allow use of low grade ores at low cost.
3. Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and other substitutes.
4. Wastage’s in mining, processing and distribution should be minimized.
5. Controlled export of minerals.
Energy resources can be classified as conventional and non-conventional sources.
Conventional sources include coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity (both hydel and thermal).
All these sources have been in use for quite some time.
Non-conventional sources of energy are relatively new sources as their large scale generation has
started recently. These include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.
Coal as an important source of energy:
1. It provides a substantial part of the nation’s energy needs as it is abundantly available.
2. It is used for power generation, to supply energy for industrial and domestic needs.
 3. India is highly dependent on coal for meeting its commercial needs. Its share in total—67%.
4. It can easily be converted into other forms of energy—electricity, gas, oil, etc.
Coal as an industrial raw material:
1. It is an indispensable raw material for iron and steel industry.
2. It provides raw material for chemical industries and synthetic textile industries.
3. Many coal-based products are processed in industries, e.g., coal tar, graphite, soft coke, etc.
4. Power generation industry is mainly based on this fossil fuel.
Four types of coal and their characteristics:
(a) Anthracite—1. It is the highest quality hard coal; 2. It contains more than 80% carbon content.
It gives less smoke. ,
(b) Bituminous— 1. It is the most popular coal in commercial use and has 60-80% carbon content;
2. Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous coal and is of special value for smelting iron in blast
furnaces.
(c) Lignite—1. It is a low grade brown coal; 2. It is soft with high moisture content. The main
lignite reserve is Neyveli in Tamil Nadu.
(d) Peat—1. It has a low carbon and high moisture content; 2. It has low heating capacity and gives
lot of smoke on burning.
Occurrence of coal:
• Gondwana Coal Belt—A little over 200 million years in age. Mainly metallurgical coal is
found in: (a) Damodar Valley Belt (West Bengal, Jharkhand) which contains important coal
mines of Jharia, Raniganj and Bokaro; (b) The Godavari Valley Belt; (c) The Mahanadi
Valley Belt; and (d) Wardha Valley Belt.
• Tertiary coal deposits are only about 55 million years old, i.e., they are comparatively
younger. They occur in North-Eastern States, namely: (a) Assam (b) Meghalaya, (c)
Arunachal Pradesh and (d) Nagaland.
Petroleum:
It is the second most important energy source of India after coal. It can be easily trans-ported by
pipelines and does not leave any residue. It provides fuel for heat and light. It provides lubricants
for machinery. It provides raw material for a number of manufacturing industries. It is an important
fuel used in transportation sector. Petroleum refineries act as a ‘nodal industry’ for synthetic textiles,
fertilizers and many chemical industries.
Occurrence and formation of petroleum:
Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock
formations of the tertiary age. In regions of folding anticlines it occurs where oil is trapped in the
crest of the upfold. The oil bearing layer is porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may
flow. Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks.
Distribution of petroleum:
1. Mumbai High—It is an offshore oilfield and is the richest oilfield of India. Its share is about
63% of India’s petroleum production;
2. Gujarat—It produces 18% petroleum of India. Ankaleshwar is the most important field; and
3. Assam—It is the oldest oil producing State of India. Its contribution in the total production
is 16%. Important oilfields are Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan.
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy:
• Nuclear Energy:
Nuclear energy is obtained by altering the structure of atom. When the structure of an atom
is altered, too much energy is released in the form of heat. This heat is utilised to generate
electric power. Uranium and Thorium are used for generating atomic power. These minerals
are available in Jharkhand, Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan.
• Solar Energy:
Photovoltaic technology is used to convert solar energy into electricity. The largest solar
plant of India is located at Madhapur near Bhuj. Solar energy holds great promises for the
future. It can help in minimizing the dependence on firewood and animal dung cakes in rural
areas. This will also help in conservation of fossil fuels.
• Wind Power:
The wind farm cluster in Tamil Nadu (from Nagarcoil to Madurai) is the largest cluster in
India. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep are also
important centres of wind power production. India is now a “Wind Super Power” in the
world.
• Biogas:
Biogas can be produced from shrubs, farm waste, and animal and human waste. It is more
efficient than kerosene, dung cake and charcoal. Biogas plants can be set up at municipal,
cooperative and individual levels. The gobar gas plants provide energy and also manure.
• Tidal Energy:
Dams are built across inlets. The water flows into the inlet during high tide and gets trapped
when the gate is closed. Once the tide recedes, the floodgates are opened so that water can
flow back to the sea. The flow of water is used to run the turbine to generate electricity. A
900 mw tidal energy power plant is set up by the National Hydropower Corporation in the
Gulf of Kuchchh.
• Geo Thermal Energy:
We know that the inside of the earth is very hot. At some places, this heat is released on the
surface through fissures. Groundwater in such areas becomes hot and rises up in the form of
steam. This steam is used to drive turbines. Two geo thermal energy projects—the Parvati
valley near Manikam in Himachal Pradesh and the Puga valley in Ladakh.
Importance of energy:
Energy is required for all activities. It is needed to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel vehicles
and to drive machinery in industries. It is the basic requirement for economic development. Every
sector of national economy—agriculture, industry, transport and commerce needs greater inputs of
energy. Energy demands, in the form of electricity, are growing because of increasing use of
electrical gadgets and appliances.
Ways to conserve energy:
1. Using more of public transport system instead of individual vehicles.
2. Switching off electrical devices when not in use, using power saving devices.
3. Using non-conventional sources of energy such as solar energy, wind energy, etc.
4. Getting the power equipment regularly checked to detect damages and leakages.
5. Minerals and Energy Resources
Mineral:
Geologists define mineral as a “homogeneous, naturally occurring substance with a definable
internal structure.” They have physical and chemical properties by which they can be identified.
Rocks are combinations or aggregates of minerals in varying proportions. Some rocks consist of a
single mineral, e.g., limestone while most rocks consist of several minerals.
The term ‘ore’ is used to describe an accumulation of any mineral mixed with other elements.
Minerals generally occur in the following forms:
1. Veins and lodes. In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks, faults
or joints by getting solidified in them. The smaller occurrences are called veins and the
larger lodes, e.g., metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead, etc. are found in lodes and
veins.
2. In sedimentary rocks minerals occur in beds or layers. They are formed as a result of
deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata. Some sedimentary minerals
are formed as a result of evaporation, especially in arid regions, e.g., gypsum, potash and
salt.
3. Another mode of formation involves decomposition of surface rocks and the removal of
soluble contents, leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores. Bauxite is
formed this way.
4. Placer deposits. Certain minerals occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the
base of hills, e.g., gold, silver, tin and platinum. These are called placer deposits and contain
minerals which are not corroded by water.
5. Ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals, e.g., common salt, magnesium and
bromide are largely derived from the ocean waters. The ocean beds are rich in manganese
nodules.
Four types of iron ores are:
Magnetite, Hematite, Siderite and Limonite.
Two best ores are:
• Magnetite—It is the finest iron ore available with upto 70% iron content. It has excellent
magnetic qualities and is especially valuable in the electrical industry.
• Hematite—It is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of quantity used. It has 50-
60% iron content.
Four major iron ore belts:
1. Odisha-Jharkhand Belt: Badampahar Mines—High grade hematite ore is found here.
2. Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt: Bailadila Mines—Super high grade hematite ore deposits are
found in Bailadila range. Iron ore from these mines is exported to Japan and South Korea.
3. Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur Tumkur Belt in Karnataka: Kudremukh Mines — A 100
per cent export unit. The ore is transported as slurry to a port near Mangalore.
4. Maharashtra-Goa Belt: Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra—Ores are not of very high quality.
Iron ore is exported through Marmagao port.
Aluminium is obtained from bauxite ore. It is an important metal because—it has the strength of
metals such as iron, and is extremely light at the same time; it has good conductivity; and it has
great malleability.
Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium
silicates. Leading State of bauxite production is Odisha, producing 45% of the total bauxite of India.
The most important bauxite deposits are found in Panchpatmali in Koraput district.
Other States are Gujarat (17%), Jharkhand (14%) and Maharashtra (11%).
Mica is made up of a series of plates or leaves. It splits easily into such thin sheets that a thousand
put together are only a few centimeters thick. Mica is indispensable for electric and electronic
industry because it has —
• excellent di-electric strength;
• Low power loss factor;
• Insulating properties; and
• Resistance to high voltage.
Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of Chhota Nagpur Plateau. Jharkhand is the leading
producer. The important mica producing belt here is Koderma-Gaya-Hazaribagh.
Dangers involved in mining are—
1. The risk of collapsing mine roofs;
2. Inundation, i.e., flooding in mines;
3. Fires in coal-mines is a constant threat to miners; and
4. Poisonous gases, dust and noxious fumes inhaled by miners make them vulnerable to
pulmonary diseases.
Adverse effects of mining on the environment:
1. The water sources in the region get contaminated;
2. Dumping of the slurry and waste leads to degradation of land and soil; and
3. It also leads to an increase in stream and river pollution.
Conservation of minerals is necessary because:
1. The formation of minerals takes a long geological period of millions of years.
2. They are finite in nature, non-renewable and exhaustible.
3. The rate of replenishment of minerals is infinitely small in comparison to rate of
consumption.
4. They have to be preserved for our future generations.
Methods of mineral conservation:
1. We should use minerals in a planned and sustainable manner.
2. Improved technologies need to be evolved to allow use of low grade ores at low cost.
3. Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and other substitutes.
4. Wastage’s in mining, processing and distribution should be minimized.
5. Controlled export of minerals.
Energy resources can be classified as conventional and non-conventional sources.
Conventional sources include coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity (both hydel and thermal).
All these sources have been in use for quite some time.
Non-conventional sources of energy are relatively new sources as their large scale generation has
started recently. These include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.
Coal as an important source of energy:
1. It provides a substantial part of the nation’s energy needs as it is abundantly available.
2. It is used for power generation, to supply energy for industrial and domestic needs.
3. India is highly dependent on coal for meeting its commercial needs. Its share in total—67%.
4. It can easily be converted into other forms of energy—electricity, gas, oil, etc.
Coal as an industrial raw material:
1. It is an indispensable raw material for iron and steel industry.
2. It provides raw material for chemical industries and synthetic textile industries.
3. Many coal-based products are processed in industries, e.g., coal tar, graphite, soft coke, etc.
4. Power generation industry is mainly based on this fossil fuel.
Four types of coal and their characteristics:
(a) Anthracite—1. It is the highest quality hard coal; 2. It contains more than 80% carbon content.
It gives less smoke. ,
(b) Bituminous— 1. It is the most popular coal in commercial use and has 60-80% carbon content;
2. Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous coal and is of special value for smelting iron in blast
furnaces.
(c) Lignite—1. It is a low grade brown coal; 2. It is soft with high moisture content. The main
lignite reserve is Neyveli in Tamil Nadu.
(d) Peat—1. It has a low carbon and high moisture content; 2. It has low heating capacity and gives
lot of smoke on burning.
Occurrence of coal:
• Gondwana Coal Belt—A little over 200 million years in age. Mainly metallurgical coal is
found in: (a) Damodar Valley Belt (West Bengal, Jharkhand) which contains important coal
mines of Jharia, Raniganj and Bokaro; (b) The Godavari Valley Belt; (c) The Mahanadi
Valley Belt; and (d) Wardha Valley Belt.
• Tertiary coal deposits are only about 55 million years old, i.e., they are comparatively
younger. They occur in North-Eastern States, namely: (a) Assam (b) Meghalaya, (c)
Arunachal Pradesh and (d) Nagaland.
Petroleum:
It is the second most important energy source of India after coal. It can be easily trans-ported by
pipelines and does not leave any residue. It provides fuel for heat and light. It provides lubricants
for machinery. It provides raw material for a number of manufacturing industries. It is an important
fuel used in transportation sector. Petroleum refineries act as a ‘nodal industry’ for synthetic textiles,
fertilizers and many chemical industries.
Occurrence and formation of petroleum:
Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock
formations of the tertiary age. In regions of folding anticlines it occurs where oil is trapped in the
crest of the upfold. The oil bearing layer is porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may
flow. Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks.
Distribution of petroleum:
1. Mumbai High—It is an offshore oilfield and is the richest oilfield of India. Its share is about
63% of India’s petroleum production;
2. Gujarat—It produces 18% petroleum of India. Ankaleshwar is the most important field; and
3. Assam—It is the oldest oil producing State of India. Its contribution in the total production
is 16%. Important oilfields are Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan.
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy:
• Nuclear Energy:
Nuclear energy is obtained by altering the structure of atom. When the structure of an atom
is altered, too much energy is released in the form of heat. This heat is utilised to generate
electric power. Uranium and Thorium are used for generating atomic power. These minerals
are available in Jharkhand, Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan.
• Solar Energy:
Photovoltaic technology is used to convert solar energy into electricity. The largest solar
plant of India is located at Madhapur near Bhuj. Solar energy holds great promises for the
future. It can help in minimizing the dependence on firewood and animal dung cakes in rural
areas. This will also help in conservation of fossil fuels.
• Wind Power:
The wind farm cluster in Tamil Nadu (from Nagarcoil to Madurai) is the largest cluster in
India. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep are also
important centres of wind power production. India is now a “Wind Super Power” in the
world.
• Biogas:
Biogas can be produced from shrubs, farm waste, and animal and human waste. It is more
efficient than kerosene, dung cake and charcoal. Biogas plants can be set up at municipal,
cooperative and individual levels. The gobar gas plants provide energy and also manure.
• Tidal Energy:
Dams are built across inlets. The water flows into the inlet during high tide and gets trapped
when the gate is closed. Once the tide recedes, the floodgates are opened so that water can
flow back to the sea. The flow of water is used to run the turbine to generate electricity. A
900 mw tidal energy power plant is set up by the National Hydropower Corporation in the
Gulf of Kuchchh.
• Geo Thermal Energy:
We know that the inside of the earth is very hot. At some places, this heat is released on the
surface through fissures. Groundwater in such areas becomes hot and rises up in the form of
steam. This steam is used to drive turbines. Two geo thermal energy projects—the Parvati
valley near Manikam in Himachal Pradesh and the Puga valley in Ladakh.
Importance of energy:
Energy is required for all activities. It is needed to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel vehicles
and to drive machinery in industries. It is the basic requirement for economic development. Every
sector of national economy—agriculture, industry, transport and commerce needs greater inputs of
energy. Energy demands, in the form of electricity, are growing because of increasing use of
electrical gadgets and appliances.
Ways to conserve energy:
1. Using more of public transport system instead of individual vehicles.
2. Switching off electrical devices when not in use, using power saving devices.
3. Using non-conventional sources of energy such as solar energy, wind energy, etc.
4. Getting the power equipment regularly checked to detect damages and leakages.