Child and Adolescent Development

Interpret theories and finding related to child and adolescent development along the
biological, linguistic, cognitive, social, and psychological dimensions.

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

A. Basic Concepts
⮚ Growth
✔ pertains to the physical change and increase in size
✔ can be measured quantitatively
✔ indicators of growth are height, weight, bone size, and dentition
✔ the growth rate is rapid during the
a. Prenatal c. Infancy
b. Neonatal d. Adolescence
✔ Slows during childhood
✔ Minimal during adulthood
⮚ Development
✔ Involves increase in the complexity of function and skill progression
✔ The capacity and skill of a person to adapt to the environment
✔ Pertains to the behavioural aspect of growth
⮚ Maturation
✔ Consists of changes that occur relatively independent of the environment
✔ Usually considered to be genetically programmed—the result of heredity
⮚ ZPD
✔ Zone of proximal development wherein the child acquires new skills and information with the help or
assistance of an adult or an adult peer
⮚ Heredity
✔ The process of transmitting biological traits from parents to offspring through genes, the basic units
of heredity
⮚ Environment
✔ Refers to the surrounding condition that influences growth and development
⮚ Theory
✔ Ideas based on observations and other kinds of evidences which are organized in a systematic
manner
✔ Used to explain and predict the behaviours and development of children and adults
⮚ Ethological Theory
✔ Views development in terms of evolutionary concepts
⮚ Attachment
✔ Refers to the emotional bond to another person
✔ Lasting psychological connectedness between human beings
✔ An innate human survival mechanism
✔ A control system that achieves these specific goals:
1. Helps the infant maintain proximity (closeness to the caretaker)
2. Provides the young child with security as base from which to explore the world
3. Helps the child regulate his / her emotions
✔ John Bowly focused on how attachment difficulties were transmitted from one generation to the next
⮚ Psychosexual Theory
✔ Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality development that focuses on the changing seat of sensual
pleasures of the individual
⮚ Psychosocial Theory
✔ Erik Erikson’s theory of personality which focuses on the individual’s interactions with the society.
⮚ Ecological Theory
✔ Eric Brofenbrenner’s theory of development in which the process is a joint function of the person and
all levels of the environment
⮚ Sociohistoric-Cognitive / Linguistic Theory
✔ Lev Semanovich Vygotsky’s belief that the child is socially dependent at the beginning of his
cognitive life
✔ Development is concerned as dependent on social interaction

Environment System
The Microsystem- the setting in which the individual lives
The Mesosystem- relations between the Microsystems or connections between contexts
The Exosystem- when experiences in another social setting in which the individual does not have an active
role influences what s/he experiences in immediate context
The Macrosystem- involves the culture in which individuals live
✔ Culture refers to the behaviour patterns, beliefs and all other products of a group of people that are
passed on from generation to generation.
The Chronosystem- the patterning of environmental events and transitions over one’s life-span includes
sociohistorical circumstances

THEORIES

1. Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory

STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Oral Birth to Center of pleasure: mouth (major source of gratifications and
1½ y/o exploration)
Primary need: security
Major conflict: weaning
2. Anal 1½ to 3 y/o Source of pleasure: anus and bladder (sensual satisfaction and
self-control)
Major conflict: toilet training
3. Phallic 4 to 6 y/o Center of pleasure: child’s genital (masturbation)
Major conflict: Oedipus and Electra Complex
4. Latency 6 y/o to Energy directed to physical and intellectual activities
puberty Sexual impulses repressed
Relationship between peers of same sex
5. Genital Puberty Energy directed towards full sexual maturity and function and
onwards development of skills to cope with the environment

2. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Theory

STAGE AGE CENTRAL (+) RESOLUTION (-) RESOLUTION

TASK
1. Infancy Birth- Trust vs. Learn to trust others Mistrust, withdrawal,
18 Mistrust estrangement
mos
2. Early 1½ to Autonomy Self-control w/o loss of Compulsive, self-restraint
Childhood 3 y/o vs. Shame self-esteem or compliance
and Doubt Ability to cooperate and Wilfulness and defiance
express oneself
3. Late 3 to Initiative vs. Learns to become Lack of self-confidence
Childhood 5 y/o Guilt assertive Pessimism, fear of
Ability to evaluate one’s wrongdoing
own behavior Over-control and
over-restriction
4. School Age 6 to Industry vs. Learns to create, Loss of hope, sense of
12 Inferiority develop and manipulate being mediocre
y/o Develops sense of Withdrawal from school
competence and and peers
perseverance *Those who ignore, rebuff,
*Parents, teachers who deride their effort are
support, reward and strengthening feelings of
praise children are inferiority
encouraging and
helping children develop
their sense of industry
5. 12- Identity vs. Coherent sense of self Feelings of confusion,
Adolescence 20 Role Plans to actualize one’s indecisiveness and possible
Confusion abilities anti-social behaviour
*Seeking to find an *When the adolescents fail
identity, adolescents try to develop a sense of
on many new roles. If identity, s/he experiences
they experience role confusion or a
continuity in their “negative identity.”
perception of self,
identity develops.
6. Young 18-2 Intimacy vs. Intimate relationship Impersonal relationships
Adulthood 5 Isolation with another person
 Commitment to work Avoidance of relationship,
and relationships career or lifestyle
*Center of intimacy is commitments
the ability to share with *Failure to establish close
and care for others and intimate relationship
results to a feeling of
isolation
7. Adulthood 25-6 Generativity Creativity, productivity, Self-indulgence,
5 vs. concern for others self-concern, lack of
Stagnation interests and commitments
8. Maturity 65 Integrity vs. Acceptance of worth and Sense of loss, contempt for
y/o Despair uniqueness of one’s others
to own life
death Acceptance of death

3. Havighurst’s Developmental Stage and Tasks

DEVELOPMENTAL DEVELOPMENTAL TASK

STAGE
1. Infancy vs. ● Eat solid food
Childhood ● Talk; walk
● Control elimination of wastes
● Relate emotionally to others
● Distinguish right from wrong through development of conscience
● Learn sex differences and sexual modesty
● Achieve personal independence
● Form simple concepts of social and physical reality
2. Middle ● Learn physical skills required for games
Childhood ● Build healthy attitudes towards oneself
● Learn to socialize with peers
● Learn appropriate masculine or feminine role
● Gain basic reading, writing and mathematical skills
● Develop concepts necessary for everyday living
● Formulate a conscience based on a value system
● Achieve personal independence
● Develop attitudes toward social groups and institutions
3. Adolescence ● Establish more mature relationships with same-age individuals of
both sexes
● Achieve a masculine or feminine social role
● Accept own body
● Establish emotional independence from parents
● Achieve assurance or economic independence
● Prepare for an occupation
● Prepare for marriage and building of family
● Acquire skills necessary to fulfil civic responsibilities
● Develop a set of values that guides behaviour
4. Early ● Select a partner
Adulthood ● Learn to live with a partner
● Start a family
● Manage a home
● Establish self in a career / occupation
● Assume civic responsibilities
● Become a part of a social group
5. Middle ● Fulfil civic and social responsibilities
Adulthood ● Maintain an economic standard of living
● Assist adolescent children to become responsible, happy adults
● Relate one’s partner
● Adjust to physiological changes
● Adjust to aging parents
6. Later Maturity ● Adjust to physiological changes and alterations in health status
● Adjust to retirement and altered income
● Adjust to death of spouse
● Develop affiliation with one’s age group
● Meet civic and social responsibilities
● Establish satisfactory living arrangements

4. Sullivan’s Interpersonal Model of Personality Development

STAGE AGE DESCRIPTION

1. Infancy Birth to ½ yrs Infant learns to rely on caregivers to meet needs and desires
2. Childhood 1½ to 6 yrs Child begins to learn and to delay immediate gratification of
needs and desires
3. Juvenile 6 to 9 yrs Child forms fulfilling peer relationship
4. 9 to 12 yrs Child relates successfully to same-sex peers
Preadolescence
5. Early 12 to 14 yrs Adolescent learns to be independent and forms
Adolescence relationships with members of the opposite sex
6. Late 14 to 21 yrs Person establishes an intimate, long lasting relationship
Adolescence with someone of the opposite sex

5. Piaget’s Phases of Cognitive Development

PHASE AGE DESCRIPTION

A. Sensorimotor Birth to 2 Sensory organs and muscles become more functional
years
Stage 1: Use of Birth to 1 Movements are primarily reflexive
reflexes month
Stage 2: Primary 1-4 months Perceptions center around one’s body.
circular reaction Objects are perceived as extension of the self.
Stage 3: 4-8 months Becomes aware of external environment. Initiates acts
Secondary circular to change the movement
reaction
Stage 4: 8-12 months Differentiates goals and goal-directed activities
Coordination of
secondary
schemata
Stage 5: Tertiary 12-18 months Experiments with methods to reach goals. Develops
circular reaction rituals that become significant
Stage 6: Invention 18-24 months Uses mental imagery to understand the environment
of new means Uses fantasy

B. Preoperational 2-7 years Emerging ability to think

*Children use symbolism (images and language) to
represent and understand various aspects of
environment

Pre-conceptual 2-4 years Thinking tends to be egocentric

stage Exhibits use of symbolism
Intuitive stage 4-7 years Unable to break down a whole into separate parts
Able to classify objects according to one trait

C. Concrete 7-11 years Learns to reason about events between here-and-now

Operations *Can understand the basic properties of and relations
among objects and events in the everyday world
*Able to solve concrete (hands-on) problem in logical
fashion

D. Formal 11+ years Able to see relationships and to reason in the abstract
Operations *Becomes more scientific in thinking
*Capable of systematic, deductive reasoning

6. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

LEVEL AND STAGE DESCRIPTION

Level I: Pre- Conventional Authority figures are obeyed.

(Birth to 9 years) Misbehavior is viewed in terms of damage done

Stage 1: Punishment and
Obedience Orientation
Stage 2: Instrumental-
Relativist Orientation
Level II: Conventional
A deed is perceived as “wrong” if one is punished; the activity is
right is one is not punished
“Right” is defined as that which is acceptable to and approved
by the self
When actions satisfy one’s needs, they are “right”
Cordial interpersonal relationships are maintained

(9-13 years) Approval of others is sought through one’s actions

Stage 3: Interpersonal Authority is respected
Concordance
Stage 4: Law and Order Individual feels “duty bound” to maintain social order.
Orientation Behaviour is “right” when it conforms to the rules
Level III: Post- Conventional Individual understands the morality of having
(13+ years) democratically established laws

Stage 5: Social Contract It is “wrong” to violate others’ rights

Orientation
Stage 6: Universal Ethics The person understands the principles of human rights and
Orientation personal conscience. The person believes that trust is a basis
for relationship.

7. Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development

LEVEL AND STAGE DESCRIPTION

I. Orientation of Concentrates on what is best for self
Individual Survival Selfish
Transition Dependent on others
Transition 1: Form Recognizes connections to others
Selfishness to Makes responsible choices in terms of self and others
Responsibility
II. Goodness and Puts needs of others ahead of own
Self-sacrifice Feels responsible for others
Is independent
May use guilt to manipulate others when attempting to helo
Transition 2: From Decision based on intentions and consequences, not on others’
Goodness to Truth responses
Considers needs of self and others
Wants to help others while being responsible to self
III. Morality and Sees self and others as morally equal
Non-Violence Assumes responsibilities for own decisions
Basic tenet to hurt no one including self
Conflict between selfishness and selflessness
Self-judgement is not dependent on others’ perceptions but rather on
consequence and intentions of actions

8. Fowler’s Stages of Faith

STAGE AGE DESCRIPTION

Pre-Stage: Trust, hope and love compete with
Undifferentiated Infant environmental inconsistencies or threats
Faith abandonment
Stage 1: Intuitive Imitates parental behaviours and attitudes
Projective Faith Toddler- Pre-schooler about religion and spirituality
Has no real understanding of spiritual concepts
Accepts existence of a deity
Stage 2: Mythical- School-Aged Child Religious and moral beliefs are symbolized by
Literal Faith stories
Appreciate other’s viewpoints
Accepts concepts of reciprocal fairness
Stage 3: Adolescent Questions values and religious beliefs in an
Synthetic- attempt to form own identity
Conventional
Faith
Stage 4: Late Adolescent and Assumes responsibility for own attitudes and
Individuative- Young Adult beliefs
Reflective Faith
Stage 5: Adult Integrates others perspectives about faith into
Conjunctive Faith own definition of truth
Stage 6: Adult Makes concept of “I”
Universalizing
Faith

Principles of Growth and Development

1. Nature and Nurture

⮚ Development is influenced by both heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
 ⮚ The nature (heredity) is responsible for many of our physical characteristics such as hair, and eye
color, facial features and to some extent the height and weight.
⮚ Many of our characteristics can be influenced by environment (nurture).
2. Growth and development is a continuous process
⮚ As a child develops, s/he adds to the skill already acquired and the new skills become the basis for
further achievement and mastery of skills
⮚ Most children follow a similar pattern
⮚ Also, one stage of development lays the foundation for the next stage of development
3. Development proceeds from the head downward.
⮚ This is called the cephalocaudal principle
⮚ This principle describes the directions of growth and development
⮚ According to this principle, the child gains control of the head first, then the arms and then the
legs
4. Development proceeds from the center of the body outward.
⮚ This is the principle of proximodistal development that also describes the direction of
development.
⮚ This means that the spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body. The child’s arms develop
before the hands and the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes.

5. Development depends on maturation and learning.

⮚ Maturation refers to the sequential characteristics of biological growth and development.
⮚ The biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new abilities. Changes in the
brain and nervous system account largely for maturation.
6. Development proceeds from the simple (concrete) to the more complex.
⮚ Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems. For example,
learning relationships between things (how things are similar) or classification, is an important
ability in cognitive development.
7. Growth and development proceed from general to specific.
⮚ In motor development, the infant will be able to grasp an object with whole hand before using only
the thumb and forefinger.
⮚ The infant’s first motor movements are very generalized, undirected and reflexive, waving arms or
kicking before being able to reach or creep toward an object.
⮚ Growth occurs from large muscle movements to more refined (smaller) muscle movements.
8. There are individual rates of growth and development.
⮚ Each child is different and the rates at which individual children grow is different. Although the
patterns and sequences for growth and development are usually the same for all children, the rates
at which individual children reach developmental stages will be different.

Stages of Human Development: These pertain to the number of period in a man’s life cycle. Although the
focus of discussion is on individuals of school age, a brief description of those in other stages of development
is also given.

1. Prenatal Stage (conception-birth)

The prenatal period in many aspects is considered as one of the most—if not the most, important
period of all in the life span of a person. This person begins at conception and ends at birth and
approximately 270 to 280 days in length or nine calendar months.
Prenatal period is divided into three major phases:
a. Germinal Stage (fertilization to 2 weeks)
✔ This is also known as the period of the zygote
✔ Zygote refers to the newly formed cell after the union of the egg cell and the sperm cell, a
process which is also known as fertilization
✔ Cell division begins in a time no longer than 36 hours after fertilization.
✔ Subsequently, for 3 to 4 days the zygote from the oviduct travels down to the fallopian tube
and the to the uterus where the implantation begins.
b. Embryonic Period (2 weeks to 2 months or 8 weeks)
✔ Also known as the period of the embryo
✔ The cell known as zygote before is now known as embryo
✔ By the 14th day after fertilization, the blastocyst is already implanted in the uterus.
✔ The umbilical cord attaches the placenta functionally to the mother
✔ The foundations for the eyes, ears, nose, mouth extremities (upper and lower) and the
digestive system have been laid on the 8th week
✔ The 1½ inches long embryo, weighing one-tenth to one-fifteenth of an ounce, develops at the
end of the first month
 ✔ This period is considered as the most critical period for the reason that the embryo is most
vulnerable to damage and defect
✔ During the first trimester (3 months of pregnancy) almost all birth defects occur and chances
are, the defects will be permanent
c. Fetal Period (8 weeks to birth)
✔ Also called as the period of the fetus
✔ The embryo before is now known as fetus in this stage
✔ The fetal stage begins with the formation of the first bone cells
✔ Various organs grow functionally and take the appearance of the human body
✔ The fetus can now kick and can manipulate its extremities (upper and lower) and can open
its mouth, frown, and turn its head, as well as take a few “breaths” by the end of the third
month
✔ By the end of the fifth month, the fetus is one foot long and weighs a pound
✔ At the end of the sixth month, the fetus’ eyelids can be opened; it develops grasps and more
than enough taste buds
✔ The fetus weighs two pounds and its all organ systems have become functional at the end of
the seventh month
✔ During the eighth and ninth month, the fetus becomes rounds and heavy and is able to lift
its head
2. Infancy Stage (birth-two weeks)
Infancy is the transition period intervening between birth and two weeks of life and identified as the
shortest of all developmental period.
✔ The word “infant” suggests extreme helplessness
✔ Subdivisions of infancy include the a) period of the partunate or from the time that the fetal
body has emerged from the mother’s body and lasts until the umbilical cord has been cut
and tied and the b) period of the neonate or from the cutting and tying of the umbilical cord
to the end of the second week of the postnatal life
✔ Newborns up to two days are typically unattractive and are extremely feeble due to regular
restraints
✔ Most often, he is asleep, drowsy, cries and gets excited easily
✔ The neonate is sensitive to brightness as indicated by his papillary response to change in
illumination, his visual images are likely to be blurred because of failure of the lens to focus
on the object
✔ The roots of language are crying, cooing and babbling.
3. Babyhood Stage (2nd week to second year of life)
Compared to infancy, babyhood stage is characterized by decreasing dependency for the reason that
this is the time when babies achieve enough body control to become independent.
✔ Developmental tasks include” learning to walk, learning to take solid foods, having organs of
elimination under partial control, achieving reasonable psychological stability especially in
hunger rhythm and sleep, relating emotionally to parents and siblings, and learning the
foundations of speech
✔ Babyhood skills fall under two categories: hand skills and leg skills
✔ Crying, cooing, babbling, gesturing and emotional expressions are examples of prespeech
forms of communication
✔ Common emotional patterns involve anger, fear, curiosity, joy and affection
✔ Babies are also capable of establishing or forming friendships
✔ Considered non-moral due to their lack of scale of values and conscience and they
demonstrate obedience to rules without question
4. Early Childhood Stage (two to six years of life)
Names given to describe the stage are: problem or troublesome age, toy age, preschool age, pre-gang
age, exploratory and the questioning age.
✔ Developmental tasks include: control of elimination, self-feeding, self-dressing and doing
some things without much help, development of motor skills that allow him to explore and
do things to satisfy his curiosity and acquisition of adequate vocabulary to communicate his
thoughts and feelings with those around him
✔ Intellectual development as described by Piaget encompass the two subperiods: (a) the
preconceptual period (2-4 years) and includes egocentrism, animism and transductive
reasoning; and (b) intuitive period (4-6 years) and includes inattention to transformations,
centration, and irreversibility.
✔ Early childhood is also characterized by heightened emotionality.
✔ The presence of the significant others or the primary group is also given importance because
they serve as models for the child who usually identifies with them and patterns his
behaviour after them.
 ✔ The preschool child should be given as much as physical experience as possible and play
activities to learn by doing and to develop his intellectual capacity
✔ This stage is also regarded as the teachable moment for acquiring skills because children
enjoy the repetition essential to learning skills; they are adventuresome and like to try new
things and have already learned skills to interfere with the acquisition of the new ones
✔ Because speech development advances rapidly this time, as seen in the improvement in
comprehension as well as in the different speech skills, talking to young children will leave a
strong impact
✔ The concept of morality emerge as a result of interactions with adults and peers
✔ Other common interest include interest in religion, in the human body, in self, in sex, and in
clothes.
5. Late Childhood Stage (six to ten or twelve years of life)
Late childhood is the period for learning the basic skills in life.
✔ It coincides with the child’s elementary school years, entering Grade 1 at six and graduating
at the age of 12
✔ Names to describe the stage are: troublesome age, sloppy age, quarrelsome age, elementary
school age, critical period in the achievement drive, gang age, and age of conformity.
✔ Physical growth is at slow and relatively even rate because of the influence of health,
nutrition, immunization, sex and intelligence
✔ Children in this stage win recognition by being able to do things
✔ Developmental tasks include: learning physical skills necessary for group and organized
games; learning to get along with agemates and members of his family and community;
learning fundamental skills in reading, writing and numeracy; develop appropriate masculine
or feminine social roles; develop healthy self-concept and conscience; achieve personal
independence by being able to perform life skills; learn to perform the different roles
expected of him and think rationally to adjust to situations; make decisions and solve
problems
✔ There is a rapid increase in understanding and in the accuracy of concepts during this stage
as a result of increased intelligence and partly as a result of increased learning opportunities.
✔ The child’s social development is enhanced by his interaction with his peers in work or in
play.
✔ In resolving moral conflicts, it is necessary for the significant others to teach the child then
values of respect for others and set themselves as examples or models.
✔ Most children develop moral codes influenced by moral standards of the groups with which
they are identified, and a conscience which guides their behaviour in a place of the external
controls needed when they were younger
✔ It is also necessary for parents and teachers to understand the child’s thinking and to
facilitate his intellectual growth and development
✔ Healthy relationships with himself and others could be brought about by the child’s
understanding of his emotions and his ability to express his emotions, as well.
6. Preadolescence or Puberty Stage (ten or twelve or thirteen of fourteen years of life)
Derived from the Latin word pubertas which means age of manhood
✔ The word growth spurt refers to the rapid acceleration in height and weight that marks the
beginning of adolescence
✔ Considered as unique and distinctive period and characterized by certain developmental
changes that occur at no other time in the life span
✔ An overlapping period because it encompasses the closing years of childhood and the
beginning years of adolescence
✔ A relatively short period, lasting from two to four years or less
✔ Manifested in both internal and external changes in the body with both the primary and
secondary sex characteristics
✔ Primary sex characteristics include the menarche for the girls or the first menstrual flow and
the nocturnal emissions for boys
✔ Secondary sex characteristics on the other hand include the physical features which
distinguish males from females and may be the source of appeal among the members of the
opposite sex
✔ Puberty is divided into three stages: (a) prepubescent—secondary sex characteristics begin
their development but their reproductive organs are not yet fully developed, (b)
pubescent—characterized by menarche for girls and nocturnal emissions in boys, (c)post
pubescent—secondary sex characteristics become well developed and the sex organs begin
to function in a mature manner
✔ The onset of puberty has an important implication in the personality development of the
individual
 ✔ A critical period for the development of positive attitudes towards one’s body and oneself in
general
7. Adolescence Stage (thirteen or fourteen to eighteen years of life)
Adolescence is the age when the individual becomes integrated into society of adults; the age when the
child no longer feels that he is below the level of his elders but equal, at least in rights.
✔ Came from the Latin word adolescere meaning to grow or to grow to maturity
✔ Early adolescence extends roughly from thirteen to sixteen or seventeen years, and late
adolescence covers the period then until eighteen, the age of legal maturity.
✔ The developmental tasks of adolescence are focused on the developing independence in
preparation for adulthood and in establishing a sense of identity
✔ Adolescence is am period of heightened emotionality, a time of “storm and stress”
✔ The important social changes in adolescence include increased peer-group influence, more
mature patterns of social behaviour, new social groupings and new values in the selection of
friends and leaders and social acceptance.
✔ Relationships between adolescents and members of their families tend to deteriorate in early
adolescence though these relationships often improve as adolescence grows to close,
especially among adolescent girls and their family members
✔ Peer groups become the general source of behaviour; desire for greater independence shown
✔ Great concern about what others think of them
✔ Have increased ability to engage in mental manipulations and test hypotheses; thinking
becomes more abstract, liberal, and knowledge
8. Adulthood Stage (twenty to sixty-five years of life)
✔ The need for love and intimacy are met in adult life, becomes more fulfilling in marriage,
with the involvement of commitment
✔ The need for generativity is through achievement
✔ Burn out and alienation become a problem with work
✔ Moral development processes responsibility for the welfare of others
✔ Changes in the primary senses and the organ reserve decline upon growing older
✔ Menopause for women and climacteric for men signify the decline of sex and reproduction

9. Old Age (sixty-five years of life)

✔ Composed of individuals at and over the age of 65, most of whom have retired from work
✔ Most individuals in this late years begin to show slow, physical, intellectual and social
activities
✔ While there is a gradual decline of cognition in older life, older people see art and nature in a
deeper, more appreciative way
✔ Symptoms of senility which include severe memory loss, rambling conversation,
disorientation, and personality change occurs because of dementia, a pathological loss of
intellectual functioning.
✔ In late adulthood, affiliation needs are more important than achievement needs

PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

Directions: Read and analyze each item and select the correct option that answers each question. Analyze the
items using the first 5 items as your sample. Write only the letter of your choice in your answer sheet.

1. Dr. Escoto, the school physician conducted a physical examination in Ms. Manuel’s class. What concept
best describes the quantitative increase observed by Dr. Escoto among the learners in terms of height
and weight?
a. Development c. Learning
b. Growth d. Maturation
Analysis:
Option A: Is not the correct answer because development refers to the systematic and orderly changes
in organism’s experiences.
Option B: The best answer because it refers to the quantitative changes or the observable
changes in humans.
Option C: An incorrect answer because it refers to the portion of development that is the result of
experiences and the interaction with the environment.
Option D: Not the correct answer because maturation refers to the unfolding of traits potentially
present in the individual because of heredity.

2. Which situation best illustrates the concept of growth?

 a. A kinder pupil gains 2 pounds within two months
b. A high school student gets a score of 85 in a mental ability test.
c. An education student gained knowledge on approaches and strategies in teaching different
subjects
d. An elementary grader has learned to play piano
Analysis:
Option A: This is the best answer because it refers to the progressive increase and
continuous advancement of the child from birth to maturity.
Option B: Is not a correct answer because it does not refer to any increment or increase in human
beings.
Option C: An incorrect option because it refers to the development of learning as a result of
experience.
Option D: Cannot be considered because this refers to a skill.

3. Which statement below best describes development?

a. A high school student’s height increased from 5’2” to 5’4”
b. A high school student’s change in weight from 110 lbs. to 125 lbs.
c. A student had learned to operate the computer
d. A student’s enlargement of hips.
Analysis:
Options A and B: Both options cannot be considered because these refer to the quantitative and
continuous changes from birth to maturity
Option C: Is the correct answer because development is the process in the life of a human
being by which the individual’s potentialities unfold and appear.
Option D: Cannot be considered as the correct answer because it refers to the increment of the bodily
parts.

4. What concept can best describe Francisco’s ability to walk without a support at age 12 months because
of the “internal ripening” that occurred in his muscles, bones and nervous system development?
a. Development c. Learning
b. Growth d. Maturation
Analysis:
Option A: This refers to the qualitative increase in human functioning through the life span
Option B: Is not the correct answer because it refers to the easily measurable and sometimes obvious
features of human beings
Option C: An incorrect option because it refers to the acquisition of knowledge, emotions, values and
skills.
Option D: This is the best answer because it refers to state of the body and its readiness for
the behaviour.

5. Teacher Jesus in now 69 years old has been observing changes in himself such as the aging process.
Which term refers to the development change in the individual?
a. Development c. Learning
b. Growth d. Maturation
Analysis:
Option A: Not a best option because this pertains to the continuous qualities that occurred in our
advancement from birth to maturity.
Option B: Is not a correct answer because this refers primarily to the physical changes such as increase
in height, weight, and size.
Option C: An incorrect option because learning refers to the change in behaviour as a result of some
form of experience.
Option D: This is the best option because maturation refers to the state of the body and its
readiness for behaviour.

6. Manuel, a five-year old boy can hold his pen and write his name with his right hand. Which term
describes Manuel’s action / behaviour?
a. Development c. Learning
b. Growth d. Maturation

7. Which of the following theory can help Miss Samson determine the readiness of her learners by
administering a readiness test?
a. Conditioning Theories c. Maturation Theory
b. Cognitive Development Theory d. Ethological Theory
8. Mr. Francisco was very much worried about the thumb sucking of his son. A friend of him says that
certain behaviour among infants. Who presented that notion that certain behaviour like thumb-sucking
is normal behaviour?
a. Sigmund Freud c. John Bowly
b. Erick Erickson d. Urie Bronfrenbenner

9. A newborn infant move his whole body at one time, instead of moving a part of it. Which of the
following principles is illustrated by this behaviour?
a. Development proceeds from specific to general.
b. Development proceeds from general to specific.
c. Development follows an orderly pattern.
d. Development follows a general pattern.

10. Train up a child in the way he should be; when he grows up, he will not depart from it. Which principle
supports this?
a. Development is determined by the heredity.
b. Development is determined by the environment.
c. Early development is more critical than the late development.
d. Early development is less critical than late development.

11. Which stage of the psychosexual theory does young boys experience rivalry with their father for their
mother’s attention and affection?
a. Oral c. Phallic
b. Anal d. Latency

12. Angela focuses her attention on the school work and vigorous play that consume most of her physical
energy. Which stage of psychosexual theory illustrates her behaviour?
a. Oral c. Phallic
b. Anal d. Latency

13. Which of the following is likely to be developed if infants are shown genuine affection?
a. Trust c. Initiative
b. Autonomy d. Industry

14. Christian develops an integral and coherent sense of self. He seeks answers to the question. “Who am
I?” Which of the following is Christian likely to develop?
a. Initiative c. Intimacy
b. Identity and Role confusion d. Autonomy

15. Ms. Cruz uses images and language to represent and understand her various lessons to preschool
learners. What stage in the cognitive theory of development explains this?
a. Sensorimotor c. Concrete operation
b. Preoperational d. Formal operation

16. Connie develops concepts necessary for everyday living, builds healthy attitudes towards oneself, and
achieve personal independence. These are among the attributes of an individual in what particular
stage?
a. Infancy and early childhood c. Adolescence
b. Middle Childhood d. Early adulthood

17. Some children are more active than others, as everyone knows—extremely high levels of activity or
hyperactivity are considered problematic. How may a teacher help a child who is hyperactive?
a. Make him the leader of a class.
b. Transfer him to another class.
c. Give him challenging activities that are appropriate to his ability level and interests.
d. Allow him to spend longer at the playground until he gets tired.

18. Marivic gets jealous whenever she sees her father showing love and affection to her mother. Which of
the following is she showing according to Freud?
a. Complex c. Electra Complex
b. Phallic d. Oedipus complex
 19. In Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, which of the following statements would illustrate Edward
who is 11 years old?
a. Able to see relationships and to reason in the abstract.
b. Unable to break down a whole into separate parts.
c. Differentiates goals and goal-directed activities.
d. Experiments with methods to reach goals.

20. Violeta goes with her mother in school. She enjoys the workplace of her mother. Which of the following
ecological theories is illustrated by the situation?
a. Microsystem c. Exosystem
b. Mesosystem d. Macrosystem

21. Danilo wants to seek independence by separating from his family. He had just finished his tertiary
level. In what Levinson’s season of adult development is manifested by Danilo?
a. Early adult transition c. Transition
b. Entrance to the adult world d. Setting down

22. Ana believes that authority is respected. She is now in what particular level in the moral development
theory of Lawrence Kohlberg?
a. Social contract c. Interpersonal concordance
b. Law and order orientation d. Universal ethics orientation

23. What level has a four year old learner like Maryann reached when she acquired new skills such as
putting the same shapes and the same colors together?
a. Development c. Zone of Proximal Development
b. Maturation d. Learning

24. Which of the following principles can be the basis of the growing realization of the significance of the
early childhood education?
a. The young children are capable of doing many things at an early stage.
b. The child should be seen and should learn.
c. The first five years of life are the formative years of the child.
d. Early childhood experiences can be interesting and challenging.

25. Which of the following learner’s characteristics will affect most of the learners learning in the academic
areas?
a. His affective characteristics c. His psychomotor characteristics
b. His cognitive characteristics d. His socio-emotional characteristics

PART III – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

Directions: Enhance your test taking skills by answering the items below. Write only the letter of the best
answer.

1. Which of the following is true about human development?

a. Human development considers both maturation and learning.
b. Development refers to the progressive series of changes on an orderly coherent type toward the
goal of maturity.
c. Development is the gradual and orderly unfolding of the characteristics of the individuals as
they go through the successive stages of growth.
d. All of the above.

2. What do you call the quantitative increase in terms of height and weight as observed by the school
physician during the physical examination of the students?
a. Development c. Learning
b. Growth d. Maturation

3. Mrs. Alvarez conducts research on the psychosocial domain of development. In what particular area of
child’s development is Mrs. Alvarez most likely to be interested with?
 a. Perceptual abilities c. Emotions
b. Brain-wave patterns d. Use of language

4. Which of the following is the correct order of psychosexual stages proposed by Sigmund Freud?
a. Oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, genital stage
b. Anal stage, oral stage, phallic stage, latency stage, genital stage
c. Oral stage, anal stage, genital stage, latency stage, phallic stage
d. Anal stage, oral stage, genital stage, latency stage, phallic stage

5. What is the best description of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of human development?

a. Eight crises all people are thought to face.
b. Four psychosocial stages in the latency period.
c. The same number of stages as Freud’s but with different names
d. A stage theory that is not psychoanalytic

6. In Erikson’s theory, what is the unresolved crisis of an adult who has difficulty establishing a secure,
mutual relationship with a lifetime partner?
a. Initiave vs. Guilt c. Intimacy vs. Isolation
b. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt d. Trust vs. Mistrust

7. Alyssa is eight years old, and although she understands some logical principles, she still has troubles
in understanding hypothetical concepts. According to Piaget, Alyssa belongs to what particular stage of
cognitive development?
a. Sensorimotor c. Concrete operational
b. Preoperational d. Formal operational

8. Which of the following provides the best broad description of the relationship between heredity and
environment in determining height?
a. Heredity is the primary influence, with environment affecting development only in severe
situations.
b. Heredity and environment contribute equally to development.
c. Environment is the major influence on physical characteristics.
d. Heredity directs the individual’s potential and environment determines whether and to what
degree the individual reaches that potential.

9. What is the correct sequence of prenatal stages of development?

a. Embryo, germinal, fetus c. Germinal, embryo, fetus
b. Germinal, fetus, embryo d. Embryo, fetus, germinal

10. When a baby realized that a rubber duck which has fallen out of the tub must be somewhere on the
floor, he is likely to achieved what aspect of cognitive development.
a. Object permanence c. Mental combinations
b. Deferred imitation d. Goal-directed behaviour

11. Which of the following will be Freud’s description of the child’s behaviour if he has a biting, sarcastic
manner?
a. Anally expulsive c. Fixated in the oral stage
b. Anally retentive d. Experiencing the crisis of trust vs. mistrust

12. What is Freud’s idea about a young boy’s guilty feelings brought about b y jealousy of his father’s
relationship with his mother?
a. Electra complex c. Phallic complex
b. Oedipus complex d. Penis envy complex

13. When a little girl who says she wants her mother to go vacation so that she can marry her father, Freud
believes that she is voicing a fantasy consistent with?
a. Oedipus complex c. Theory of the mind
b. Electra complex d. Crisis of Initiative vs. Guilt

14. Which of the following can best describe the preschoolers’ readiness to learn new tasks and play
activities?
a. Emerging competency and self-awareness
b. Theory of the Mind
 c. Relationships with parents
d. Growing identification with others

15. Erikson noted that when the preschoolers eagerly begin many new activities but are vulnerable to
criticism and feelings of failure, they are experiencing what particular crisis?
a. Identity vs. role confusion c. Basic trust vs, mistrust
b. Initiative vs. Guilt d. Efficacy vs. helplessness

16. What stage of Piaget’s Cognitive Development does a person belong to when he can understand
specific logical ideas and apply them to concrete problems?
a. Preoperational thought c. Concrete operational thought
b. Operational though d. Formal operational thought

17. What is the best explanation of Piaget’s concrete operational thought to describe the school-age child’s
mental ability?
a. A child can reason logically about things and events he or she perceives
b. A child’s ability to think about how he thinks
c. Can understand that certain characteristics of an object remain the same when other
characteristics are changed
d. Can understand that moral principles may supersede the standards of society

18. Elisa who is between 9 and 11 years or age is most likely to demonstrate moral reasoning at which
Kohlberg’s stage?
a. Pre-conventional c. Post-conventional
b. Conventional d. none of the above

19. According to Kohlberg, a dutiful citizen who obeys the laws set down by society is at which level of
moral reasoning?
a. Pre-conventional Stage One
b. Pre-conventional Stage Two
c. Conventional
d. Post-Conventional

20. Joy, who is low-achieving, shy, and withdrawn, is rejected by most of her peers. Her teacher wants to
help Joy increase her self-esteem and social acceptance. What can Joy’s teacher suggest to her parents?
a. Transfer her to a different school
b. Help their daughter improve her motor skills
c. Help their daughter learn to accept more responsibility for her academic failures
d. Help their daughter improve her skills in relating to peers.

21. What is the most accurate definition of the puberty stage?

a. Rapid physical growth that occurs during adolescence
b. Stage when sexual maturation is attained
c. Rapid physical growth and sexual maturation that ends childhood
d. Stage when adolescents establish identities separate from their parents

22. Fifteen year old Marie is preoccupied with her “disgusting appearance” and seems depressed most of
the time. What is the best thing her parents can do to help her get through this difficult time?
a. Ignore her self-preoccupation because their attention would only reinforce it
b. Encourage to “shape up” and not give in to self-pity
c. Kid her about her appearance in the hope that she will see how silly she is acting
d. Offer practical advice, such as clothing suggestions, to improve her body image

23. What can be the best comparison of the behaviour of a 17-year-old girl to that of her 13-year-old
brother?
a. She is more likely critical about herself
b. She tends to be more egocentric
c. She had less confidence in her abilities
d. She is more capable of reasoning hypothetically

24. According to Erikson, what is the primary task of adolescent?

 a. To establish trust c. To be more intimate with others
b. To search for his identity d. To establish integrity

25. What is the main source of emotional support for most young people who are establishing
independence from their parents?
a. Older adolescents of the opposite sex
b. Older sibling
c. Teachers
d. Peer groups