MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

Other related titles

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MANUFACTURING
TECHNOLOGY

G. BRAM
C. DOWNS

M
 ©G. Bram and C. Downs 1975

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, without permission

First published 1975 by

THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
London and Basingstoke
Associated companies in New York Dublin
Melbourne Johannesburg and Madras

SBN 333 15705 2

ISBN 978-1-349-02156-7 ISBN 978-1-349-02154-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-02154-3

Typeset by
PREFACE LIMITED
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The paperback edition of this book is sold subject to the condition that it shall
not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out, or otherwise
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 Contents

Preface ix

INSPECTION AND MEASUREMENT 1

Gauge Design 3
general design
Limit Gauges 3
'go' gauge- 'not go' gauge
Plug-gauge Design 3
'go' gauge- 'not go' gauge
Gap-gauge Design 5
Gauge Materials 6
mild steel- hardened steel- cast iron - electroplating-
surface finish of gauge
Standard of Length 7
Line and End Standards 7
Application and Use of Gauge Blocks as Working Standards 7
Gauge-block Sets 7
wringing of gauge blocks - accumulative error of gauge blocks -
protector blocks - ideal care of gauge blocks- gauge-block
accessories - building-up a size
Limits and Fits 13
tolerance- fits- interchangeability- limits of size-
component manufacture - the development of a limit
system- limit systems
BS 4500: 1969 (I.S.O. Limits and Fits) 17
tolerance grades - fundamental deviations -applications of
BS4500
Linear and Angular Measurement 19
sine bar - sine centres - rotary table - dividing head -
receiver gauges - multi-gauges - length bars -precision
spirit-/eve/ - level comparator- roundness, /obing and
ovality - testing a lobed surface - roundness testing -
optical microscopes
Experimentation 31
comparators - mechanical magnification - electrical
magnification -pneumatic magnification
Questions 37

v
2 WELDING 39

Welding Technique 39
Metallurgical Aspects of Welding 39
Gas Welding 40
oxy-acetylene welding - welding flames
Weld Terminology 47
Weld Techniques 47
leftward technique - rightward technique - further
oxy-acetylene processes
Arc Welding 54
manual metal-arc welding- metal-inert-gas welding-
tungsten-inert-gas welding- submerged-arc welding-
electro-slag welding - stud welding - electrode selection -
safety
Process Selection 60
Resistance Welding 61
spot welding - seam welding -projection welding - flash
welding - butt welding - friction welding
Weld Testing 65
mechanical or destructive testing- non-destructive testing
Questions 71

3 CUTTING TOOLS 73
Cutting Tools 73
too/life- machinability- tool erosion
Cutting-tool Materials 76
carbon tool steel - high-speed steel - ste/lite - sintered
tungsten carbides- titanium-carbide coatings
Production-tool Design 81
Cemented-carbide Cutting-tools 82
brazed tungsten-carbide-tipped tools - indexable throw-away
insert tools - ceramic-tipped cutting-tools
Cutter-tool Grinding 87
Tool Geometry 88
Mechanics of Metal Machining 89
chip formation - cutting condition (speed, feed and depth of
cut) - relationship between cutting speed and too/life -
negative-rake machining
Measurement of Cutting Forces 96
lathe-tool dynamometer
Radial and Tangential Cutting 99
Cutting Fluids 100
Questions 101

vi
4 ADVANCED LATHE-OPERATIONS 103
Turning 103
Turning Between Centres 103
lathe centres - use of centres in components - centre
protection - centre-hole measurement - mandrels -
work driver- work holding (special applications) -
chucks - power chucks
Machining Operations 115
machining long shafts and bores - trepanning- screw
cutting- multi-start threads - setting-up using simple
and multiple tool-layouts
Questions 124

5 CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHES 126

Capstan Lathes 126

Turret Lathes 129
Standard Tooling-equipment 129
knee-turning tool-holder- boring bars and attachments -
retracting recessing-tool - drill centring- equipment designed
for bar work
Screw-thread Production 137
self-releasing tap-holders - collapsible taps - tooling for the
cross-slide- knurling head- form-turning attachments
Examples of Capstan- and Turret-lathe Work 141
example 1 - example 2
Questions 144

6 MILLING 146
Types of Machine 146
column and knee-type milling-machines - bed-type or
manufacturing milling-machines - special-type milling-machines
Machine Power 149
speeds and feeds
Machine Condition 150
Cutter Selection 150
component structure -component material- amount of
material removed- surface finish
Quantity and Production rate 152
cutter resources available
Milling Cutters 153
straight-tooth cutters -helix angle - forces produced on
plain or slab milling-cutters - cutting action - essential
requirements - formed milling-cutters - throw-away
inserts or inserted blades

vii
 Cutter Types 163
double negative cutter - double positive cutter -
positive-negative combination - neutral-rake cutters -
direction of rotation - lead angle - feed-rate effect on
corner radius - cutter diameter
Milling Accessories 168
rotary table- special-purpose features- arbor mounting-
straddle or gang milling- universal dividing-head- indexing-
milling helical grooves - cam milling
Questions 190

7 HOLE PRODUCTION 192

Drilling 192
deep-hole drilling - gun drilling - multiple-flute drills -
dual-diameter drills - drill reamers
Drilling Machines 198
sensitive drilling-machines -pillar drilling-machines -
radial-arm drilling-machines- turret drilling-machines-
multiple-spindle drilling-machines - drilling jigs
Broaching 201
pull-down broaching - horizontal broaching
Boring 207
boring-machine operations
Questions 218

8 EXAMINATION TECHNIQUE 220

the social need for examinations - the personal need for
examinations - what is the examiner looking for? - how to
prepare for an examination - the first five minutes of an
examination - preparing to answer the question - writing
the answer - a last word

Index 227

viii
 Preface

The aim of this book is to help the student to relate theoretical

considerations to actual practice. While many well-written Workshop
Technology books are available, they emphasise the craft aspect in toolrooms
and machine shops, often where there is no production requirement, no
constant output of a given product, and no relationship between craft and a
mass-production environment.
Although there is no substitute for knowing how to perform a particular
task, one must consider if there is another method that is more economical in
the use of all the company's resources. Escalating costs should provide a
challenge to thinking technicians to question the 'what was good enough for
my father is good enough for me' dogma. As circumstances change it is the
ability to modify, adjust and re-assess that will be the mark of the good
technician, and will give him the greatest satisfaction in his work.
Manufacturers who supply tools and services to the Engineering Industry
are sometimes the very key to success. It is to some of these manufacturers
that we wish to extend our thanks for the help and encouragement received
during the writing of this book: Catnic Components Ltd, Sanvik, Kennametal,
Cincinnati and Mohr companies.

G. BRAM
C. DOWNS

ix
 1 Inspection and Measurement

One factor influencing economic component production is the degree of

precision required for a component. As the need for precision increases, so
do the costs. The adage 'Accuracy is expensive' is best understood by
studying the graph below.

decrease in the degree of accuracy

Figure 1. 1 Graph indicating a general relationship between cost and

dimensional requirements of components

Manufacturers are aware that it is very difficult to produce components to

an absolute size, except by chance. Therefore, to maintain economic
production and facilitate the assembly of components, it is necessary to allow
a limited deviation from the designed size. Such a deviation must permit the
assembly to function correctly for its designed life.
This chapter deals with some of the items that the manufacturers use to
check the acceptability of component size before assembly. There 11re of
course an infinite number of instruments, gauges and combinations of both
used within a production or measurement area. Some are so widely used that
only a brief mention is necessary. Others are a modification of a single
instrument which provide a wide variety of applications. Indicated below are
some of the more common types used in engineering.

1
Micrometers

Outside micrometers
Inside micrometers
Depth micrometers
Screw-thread micrometers
Gear-tooth micrometers
Height micrometers, etc.

Height Gauges

Vernier height gauges with depth gauge attachments

Dial indicator hei!Jht gauges

Vernier Caliper Gauges

Inside and outside together with depth gauge

Verniers with dial indicators

Protractors

Vernier and bevel protractors

Clinometers

Dial Indicators

Plunger and finger-type dial indicators with attachments

Spirit Levels

Block levels
Frame levels
Inclinable levels
Electronic levels

Also

Microscopes
Projectors
Air comparators
Mechanical comparators
Electrical comparators
Surface-finish comparators
Roundness comparators, etc.

2
 This measuring equipment can be used separately or in combinations with
one or more of the items indicated. To restrict the volume of information
describing the construction and use of all these gauges only a few have been
selected accompanied by brief comments.
These precision instruments are very expensive, and their use is limited to
trained people in controlled areas. Their use by unskilled people would entail
frequent recalibration, so whenever possible substitute methods are provided,
examples being the gap gauges and air-plug gauges.

GAUGE DESIGN

General Design

Gauge design calls for ingenuity and a considerable knowledge of practical

usage. Simplicity is the aim of design. Relatively simple equipment can take
measurements continuously and accurately, as the gauges in figure 1.2 show.
Gauging invariably involves comparison of the size or form of a
component with a known standard. This standard can be indicated by one of
the above gauges, which will show if the size of the component is within the
specified design limits.

LIMIT GAUGES

'Go'Gauge

The form of the 'Go' gauge should be such that one feature of the component
can be checked in one pass of the gauge. The size of the gauge must
correspond to the maximum-metal condition of the component, and each
dimension that requires inspection.

'Not Go' Gauge

'Not Go' gauges should check only one part or feature of the component at a
time, so that specific discrepancies in shape or size can be discovered. Thus, a
separate 'Not Go' gauge is required for each different individual dimension
and its size corresponds to the minimum-metal condition in each application.

PLUG-GAUGE DESIGN

'Go' Gauge

The 'Go' plug-gauge must be of corresponding section and could to advantage

be the full length of the hole it has to check. It controls the diameter in any

3
 (t)

(c)

Figure 1.2 (a) gauge blocks; (b) gap gauges; (c) angle gauges; (d) plug
gauges; (e) full-form gauges; (f) taper gauges

given section also ensuring bore alignability. The degree of ovality cannot be
checked with this gauge.

'Not Go' Gauge

The 'Not Go' gauge is relatively short and follows standard design principles.
Its function is dependent not only on the diameter but on the circularity of
the hole - so that two features are involved. Variation of hole shape can be
measured to a degree, but requires a different method of gauging for accurate
results.

4
Figure 1.3 The gauge is prevented from entering a non-straight hole and
shotNS the importance of gauge length

GAP·GAU GE DESIGN (Checking parallel dimensions)

Gauging faces of a normal gap-gauge must be parallel and square to each other
and the gauging points of contact with the work should be in the same plane.
Examples are indicated in figure 1.4 below.

gauge

component
d

component

x-x
X
d
normal gap-gouge- contoct ~I
points in the some plane unfavourable design-
contact points not in
the some plane

Figure 1.4 Gap-gauge design

If gauges are to function adequately and maintain size, rigidity and

robustness are important features of their design. Gauging diameters of
components that are slightly larger than the gap setting of the gauge can
produce high wedging-forces which may lead to gauge distortion and
misunderstanding of true dimensions. Preferably the larger gap-gauges should
be forged in a deep '!'-section, ensuring maximum .rigidity in the plane of the
gauge and sufficient rigidity in the lateral direction.

5
GAUGE MATERIALS

Designers must be aware of the nature and structure of the material used in
gauge design. Different methods of forming, of heat treatment and the many
suitable materials available to the designer make his choice of combinations
very difficult. Some of the more common materials used are listed below.

Mild Steel

Gauges are frequently made of case-hardened mild steel. Mild steel has the
advantage of being easily machined, stable and inexpensive. It is used for
gauges of shapes which might cause cracking during hardening, if made of
other steels, and also where machining resources are limited (form grinding,
etc.).

Hardened Steel

Where production runs justify the use of oil-hardened gauge steels these are
preferred. Contact faces can be surfaced with carbide to prolong gauge life.

Cast Iron

Cast iron, either plain or alloy, is often employed for the bodies or frames of
large gauges, whose working faces are hard inserts of tool steel or cemented
carbide. The bodies are made of good-quality iron, of a close grain-structure
and free from blow holes. The iron is often 'weathered' before final
machining, which permits the releasing of casting stresses. The 'stabilising'
process is an alternative to 'weathering'.

Electroplating

Larger gauges are sometimes made from grey cast-iron, or steel that is
electroplated with chromium or other hard metals. These plated surfaces have
a high resistance to abrasion and corrosion and when used on measuring
instruments greatly assist the measurement readings since the surface can be
non-reflective. When the gauge surface becomes worn, it can be replated and
ground to size.

Surface Finish of Gauge

A high-grade finish reduces the initial wear on the working surface of gap
gauges. This finish can be within 0.10 Jlm- C. L.A.

6
STANDARD OF LENGTH

All measurements of length are fundamentally comparisons with a standard

of length. The metre is the standardised unit of length, and is defined in terms
of the wavelength of light radiation, because the error of reproduction, in the
order of 1 part in 100 million, does not vary; consequently material copies of
the standard do not have to be made for distribution.
The metre is defined as 1 650 763.73 wavelengths of orange radiation in
vacuum with Krypton 86 isotope. This substance was chosen because it
produces sharply defined interference-lines. The radiation can be produced by
discharge lamp, and so the fundamental standard can be produced as
required; the number of wavelengths are counted by using an interferometric
process.

LINE AND END STANDARDS

A length can be defined as the distance between two reference lines, called a
line standard; or as the distance between two parallel plane surfaces: such a
definition is called an end standard. With few exceptions to the rule, most
engineering devices depend upon end standards.
End standards have developed into two basic forms. For relatively short
lengths, say up to 125 mm, gauge blocks (or slips) are used. For larger
lengths, bars of circular cross-section have proved suitable.

THE APPLICATION AND USE OF GAUGE BLOCKS AS WORKING

STANDARDS

Gauge blocks are used as standards of measurement or reference in most

precision-engineering works. The gauges are made from high-grade cast steel,
and after hardening throughout the blocks are heat treated in order to
stabilise their length. The working surfaces of the gauges are finally lapped
and their accuracy of size, flatness and parallelism together with other details
are given in BS 4311. The non-measuring faces are ground square to the
measuring faces to within 25p.m over the length of the gauge. All the edges
are chamfered or rounded to avoid unnecessary damage. When the highest
accuracy is required, a test room thermostatically controlled at the standard
temperature of 20 °C becomes necessary.

GAUGE-BLOCK SETS

BS 4311 was issued in 1968 solely for metric gauges, and provides for five
grades of gauge blocks: II grade, I grade, 0 grade, 00 grade, calibration grade.

7
These sets of grades should not be confused with those of the old British
system as published in BS 888.
II Grade -these gauges are intended for general use. They are ideally suited
when setting up a measurement in the workshop. Sometimes, accompanying
gauge sets that have had considerable use is a chart giving the gauge block's
size and errors of measurement.

I Grade -this grade is suited to the production of tools and reference gauges.

0 Grade - used for gauge inspection and precision work.

00 Grade,- these are the most accurate of the gauge sets as regards both size
and the flatness and parallelism of the gauge faces used.
The above four grades of gauge blocks should be calibrated against a
master set of calibration or 00 grade.
Calibration-gauge blocks are intended to be used for comparisons of high
sensitivity where correction should be made for even the smallest error
appearing in slips of 00 grade. The calibration grade of blocks have a
relatively wide tolerance in length but have the same tolerances as grade 00
on flatness and parallelism.
One important feature of this grade is that with each set of gauge blocks a
certificate of sizes for every block is present in the box. The base for the
calibration set of gauge blocks is that it is far easier to stipulate the machined
size, than to machine to a stipulated size. After lapping, the gauges are sized
by the process of interferometry, this measurement is recorded on a
calibration chart which is a form of certificate of size.

Wringing of Gauge Blocks

When several gauge blocks are to be used in a combination, it is necessary that

they combine in such a way that they can be handled as a unit, without the
need for clamping all the pieces together. Wringing of gauge blocks is such a
way of combining several pieces. The action of wringing is quite simple but
needs care, attention and the highest degree of cleanliness. The wringing
action is a combination of sliding and twisting as shown in figure 1.5; this
motion expel Is the air from between the gauge faces causing the two blocks
to adhere. This adherence is caused partly by molecular attraction and partly
by atmospheric pressure. The overall thickness of the wrung gauges, for most
practical purposes, is the sum of the individual sizes in combination. If there
is the slightest feeling of roughness during wringing, the process should be
stopped and the surfaces examined for contamination. The gauges must be
separated by a wringing-apart action, to prevent damage.

8
 (A) (B) (C) (D)

Figure 1.5 Four steps in wringing two gauge blocks together. A -oscillate
slightly with very light pressure; this technique will detect any foreign
particles between the surfaces. Position as in 8 using a standard gauging-
pressure; the blocks will begin to take hold; apply a rotary motion (C) and
maintain until the blocks are lined up as in D

Accumulative Error of Gauge Blocks

The amount by which the thickness of the combination of two gauges, due to
the separation of the gauges, is increased, is negligible for most practical
purposes - being of the order of 6.35 x 10-9 m. However it is advisable,
when combining gauge blocks, to select the least number for a given size.

Protector Blocks (Slips)

The high-grade sets of gauge blocks contain two additional 2 mm blocks,

marked with a letter P on one measuring face. These are known as protector
blocks (or slips) which are accommodated at each end of a combination so
that they incur all the wear. The wear due to rubbing on surface plates and
other forms of contact can be very severe; this can be minimised by a special
protector block made from tungsten carbide or other suitable material.

Ideal Care of Gauge Blocks

( 1) Protect gauges from dust and dirt at all times and keep in a closed
case.
(2) Do not permit the gauges to become magnetic or they will attract
metallic dust.
(3) Do not handle gauge surfaces, or heat will be transferred into
subsequent expansion, and the high finish will corrode due to the natural acid
in the skin. If such handling is unavoidable the hands should be washed and
then coated with a film of pure petroleum jelly.
(4) The gauges should never be left wrung together for an
unnecessary length of time. This may lead to micro cold-welding and slight
pitting of the surface when they are separated.

9
 (5) Gauge blocks should be handled using a piece of chamois leather
or perspex tongs. It is possible to purchase chamois-leather gloves for such
purposes.
(6) Gauge blocks should have a final cleaning with a chamois leather
and be coated with a thin film of petroleum jelly before returning to the box.
These are 'ideal' conditions of treatment; frequently the circumstances
within industry will permit evasion of some or most of these
recommendations.

Gauge-block Accessories

There are many measurements that can be made with gauge blocks, either
alone or in conjunction with other items such as sine bars, end bars, straight
edges, rollers and balls (figure 1.6), without the assistance of any indicating
device - just by manipulation of trigometrical functions.
A set of gauge-block accessories (figure 1.7) can add considerably to the
usefulness of blocks for direct measurement. These accessories other than the
holders, are made of high-grade heat-treated cast steel. Such a set consists of
several cages in which combinations of gauge blocks can be clamped together
with either fingers, pointers and scribers (figure 1.8) which make up the
set.

Measurement of ch<Ydol
dimensions ocross serrations
usirl(l precision rollers and
gouge blocks

check ing t he diameter of a r ing

gouge using precision bo lls ond
gouge blocks
(b)

Figure 1.6 Accurate measuring or setting of angles by means of gauge

blocks

10
 ,.........
\,......

......
(

accessories
Figure 1. 7 Blo ck - or slip-gauge

"'~

cessories (a)
gauges an d the ir ac
1.8 So me co mb ina tio ns of blo ck a ga uge fo r
Figure ight-gauge; (b)
to for m an ex tre me ly accurate he po int s; {d)
assemb led urement of ex ior ter
int er na l dia me ter s; {c) precise meas rib ing accurate
measuring d sc rib er fo r de sc
cri be r as se mb ly; {e) ce ntr e po int an
height-s ra dii ; (f) straight-edge
circles an d

11
Building up a Size

Gauge blocks are built-up systematically as shown in the following example.

Example Build-up 68.456 mm.

Commence by eliminationg the last digit of the size, and proceed by

cancelling out the smallest increment until the required combination of
blocks are constructed.

68.456 mm
to cancel the last digit 1.006mm
to cancel the second digit 2.050mm
to cancel the first digit 2.400mm
to cancel the remaining unit of ten 3.000 mm
Remainder 60mm
Total 68.456 mm

Check a Grade II Gauge Block for Accuracy Using an Optical Flat

A production grade II gauge block is compared with a reference grade block

of the same nominal size. The two gauge blocks are wrung to a lapped surface
plate and an optical flat is positioned on the gauges as shown in figure 1.9.

grade n
gauge block optical flat

reference gauge
block

these optical fringes

are formed because
an air- wedge exists
between the optical
flat and gauge blocks

this figure illustrates

the air-wedge 1n
exaggerated form

Figure 1.9 Checking for accuracy using an optical flat

12
The monochromatic light is projected through the optical flat, setting up
visible fringes or dark bands on its face. The amount by which the size,
flatness or parallelism of the grade II gauge block differs from that of the
reference block can be determined by an accurate interpretation of the fringes.
This interpretation requires an understanding of interferometry which is
beyond the scope of this book, but will be found in a metrology textbook.

Check a Grade II Gauge Block for Accuracy Using a Precision Comparison

A production grade II gauge block is compared with a reference grade block

of the same nominal size. The reference gauge block is positioned on the anvil
of the comparator. The head of the instrument is adjusted to bring the tip of
the plunger into contact with the top of the block and the fine adjustment of
the anvil used to bring the pointer near to the zero mark on the scale. The
reading is noted and the gauge block removed. The grade II gauge block is
then placed on the anvil and positioned under the plunger, the reading being
noted; the difference of the two readings will give the error in size of the
grade II gauge block.

LIMITS AND FITS

Tolerance

Since exact repetitive manufacture to size is yet to be accomplished by the

production department, it is necessary for designers not only to specify the
required size but also to indicate the maximum error that can be tolerated by
the mating parts. The designer will indicate the largest and smallest size that
can be permitted without the part functioning incorrectly. The extreme
dimensions are called the limits of size, and the difference between them is
the tolerance.
The tolerance will vary from one dimension to the next depending on the
function that each part has to perform. To be economical tolerances must not
be used indiscriminately- too often they are quoted to finer limits than is
necessary. Although this practice will not be detrimental to the function of the
component, it may well increase the cost considerably.
Tolerances may be either unilateral or bilateral.

Unilateral Tolerance Example: diameter (j) of shaft

(j) 25.016 mm
25.000 mm
This form of tolerance is usually indicated by the designer when the machining
of mating parts is called for; this greatly assists the operator. The operator
machines to the upper limit of a shaft (lower limit for a hole), knowing full

13
well that he still has the whole tolerance left for machining before the parts
are rejected.

Bilateral Tolerance Example: position of hole centre from base

83 ± 0.16 mm
This form of tolerance permits machine operators to take full advantage of
the limit system especially in positioning a hole. On commencing machining,
the position may be over an area of acceptance, the boundaries of which are
governed by the limits.

Fits

The fit between two mating parts is the relationship which results from the
clearance or interference obtained. There are three classes of fit, namely,
clearance, transition and interference; these conditions are shown in figure
1.10.

Interchangeability

An interchangeable part is one which can be substituted for a similar part

manufactured to the same drawing. The interchangeability of component parts
is based upon these two functions.

(a) clearance f i I ( no le I hal the shall

Hole Shall is always smaller than the hole)

max clearance

(b) transi tion l i t (note tha t the lim its

are such that the condition may be
of clearance or interference f i t )
tolerance
on ho le

( c) inte r terence fit (note that the shaft

is a lways forger than the hole l

Figure 1. 10 Conditions of fit between a hole and a shaft

14
 (i) It is necessary for the relevant mating parts to be designed
incorporating limits of size.
(ii) The parts must be manufactured within the specified limits.

Limits of Size

In deciding the limits necessary for a particular dimension, there are three
considerations -functional importance, interchangeability and economics.
The first necessitates a knowledge of what the component is required to do,
the second its replacement in the event of failure, and the third the avoidance
of unnecessary time and money being spent in production. The decision as to
the degree of tolerance that can be utilised calls for discretion in the
compromise between accuracy and economy. To assist the designer in his
choice of limits and fits and to encourage uniformity throughout industry
(home and abroad) a number of limit-and-fit systems have been published.

Component Manufacture

The evolution of consumer durables created a necessity for technological

advancement in all fields of engineering. A direct result of this demand was
the development of mass production.
Earlier, mating components were machined to suit each other: this
required time and craftsmanship. When it became necessary to increase
production rates this method of manufacture proved very costly especially
for large batches. The need for competitive prices brought about the
technique of mass production, thereby speeding up the production rates and
cutting costs.
Occasionally circumstances demand that components are assembled so as
to give a very accurate fit. This technique is known as selective assembly. The
process of selective assembly can be arranged with no restriction on the speed of
assembly. Each type of component is measured and graded into a number of
suitable batches, according to size. In this way, components in each batch
would have dimensions which will not vary appreciably from the mean size
of that batch.
The production of ball-bearings is a common application of selective
assembly. The balls in a race must have identical diameters; the appropriate
selection by size helps achieve this, while allowing relatively coarse tolerances
to be used during manufacture.

The Development of a Limit System

A limit system consists of a series of tolerances arranged to suit a specific

range of sizes and functions, so that limits of size may be selected and given
to mating components to ensure specific classes of fit. Limit systems may be

15
 hole-basis system shaft -basis system

Figure 1. 11 Hole- and shaft-basis systems

arranged either on a hole basis or a shaft basis, as shown in figure 1.11.

A hole-basis system is one in which the limits on the hole are kept
constant and the variations necessary to obtain the classes of fit are arranged
by varying those on the shaft.
+0.03 mm
Example hole dimensions ¢28
-o.OOmm
shaft dimensions
+0.09 mm
interference fit (i) ¢28
+0.06 mm
+0.03 mm
transition fit (ii) ¢28
-o.oo mm
-o.03 mm
clearance fit (iii) ¢28
-o.05 mm
These fits are obtained using the common hole.
The shaft-basis system is one in which the limits on the shaft are kept
constant and the variations necessary to obtain the classes of fit are arranged
by varying the limits on the holes.
From a manufacturing point of view it is preferable to use a hole-basis
system. This is because a great many holes are produced by standard tooling,
for example, reamers, drills, etc., whose size is not adjustable. Subsequently
the shaft sizes are more readily variable about the nominal size by means of
turning or grinding operations.

Limit Systems

Since 1902, when it was believed that the first limit system was devised by J.
Newall, a considerable number have evolved. The Newall, British Standards:
1916, and the I.S.A. system all had limitations in their range of requirement.
Because of this they became inadequate and have now all been superseded by

16
BS 4500: 1969 which is based on the recommendations of the International
Organisation for Standards (I.S.O.). The BS 4500 system gives a very
comprehensive range of tolerances, and has been widely accepted throughout
industry, at home and abroad.

BS 4500: 1969 (I.S.O. LIMITS AND FITS) (figure 1.12)

Tolerance Grades

This standard on limits and fits covers a wide range of basic sizes, up to
3150 mm diameter. The system contains eighteen grades of tolerance, which
cover all but the most exceptional engineering requirements. Each grade is
designated by the symbols

IT01, ITO, IT1, ... IT16

The IT is an abbreviation for the I.S.O. system of tolerances, and as the

numbers increase so the tolerance for a given size range gets greater (figure
1.13b). The tolerance needs to increase with size because of difficulties
encountered during manufacture and measuring. The rate at which tolerances
increase is indicated by the curve shown in figure 1.13a.

Fundamental Deviations (Position of Tolerance Zone)

The position of the tolerance zone for either a hole or shaft relative to the
zero line, (figure 1.14), is determined by the choice of fundamental deviation.
The BS 4500 system caters for twenty-seven such deviations. For any mating

c
.Q
-oc c c
·-> ·-
0 .2 .2
g~ .2 .<:! ·;0
o .... ~ > .,
.,
4i ~'0 u u
o- a..
: > .,....
3r:
0

Figure 1. 12 Terms used in BS 4500 (J.S. 0 . Limits and Fits)

17
 tolerance

tolerance
(mm)

increasing diameter

grades of tolerance
(a ) (b)

Figure 1.13 Relationship between tolerance and diameter

pair the fundamental deviation of the hole is designated by a capital letter

and that of the shaft by a small letter chosen from the list given below.
hole: A,B,C,CD,D,E,EF,F,FG,G,H,JS,J,K,M,N,P,R,S,T,U,V,X,Y,Z,ZA,ZB,ZC

shafts: a,b,c,cd,d,e,ef,f, fg,g,h,js,j,k,m,n,r ,s,t,u, v,x, y ,z,za,zb,zc

The letter H is used for holes whose fundamental deviation is zero. As the
letters begin to get further away from H, so the deviations become
progressively greater. The principle is illustrated in figure 1.14a.
A similar system to that employed for the holes is used for the shafts,
except that the beginning of the range denotes shafts that are considerably
undersize. Here again the letter h represents the condition of zero deviation.
This principle is illustrated in figure 1.14b.

(a) (b)

Figure 1. 14 Fundamental deviations (a) on holes; (b) on shafts

18
Applications of BS 4500 (I.S.O) System

The designer is continually confronted with the problem of choosing the

correct class of fit for specific functional relationships of mating parts. It is
necessary for him to choose an acceptable tolerance grade and deviation. With
27 sizes of shaft and 27 sizes of hole, each having 18 grades of tolerance,
there are an enormous number of combinations, each one representing a
different fit. In general, engineering practice makes use of only a small
proportion of all the possible number of fits. Because of this designers,
draughtsmen and engineers have become familiar with particular classes of fit
and the associated tolerance grade and deviation. Such familiar fits are
Loose-running H9/d10 for example large bearings
Easy-running H9/e9 for example cam·shaft bearings
Normal-running H8/f7 for example small-shaft bearings
Precision-running
or location H7/g6 for example precision slideways and bearings
Average-location H7/h6 for example location purposes
Push-fit H7/n6 for example transition fit
Press-fit H7p6 for example small amounts of interference
Heavy press-fit H7/s6 for example permanent assemblies

LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

Sine Bar

The sine bar is commonly used for marking off and checking the angle of a
workpiece. The method is to set up the nominal angle with the sine bar and
gauge blocks, as shown in figure 1.15, and test for variations by means of a

sinll =!:!..
L

Figure 1.15 Sine bar set-up for checking angle of workpiece

19
dial gauge. Any variation recorded may be eliminated by adjusting the height
of the gauge blocks. When the readings of the dial gauges are constant the
angle of the workpiece can be calculated as shown in figure 1.15.
As a measuring device the sine bar has limitations, and it can only function
accurately if the following precautions are taken
(i) The sine bar should not be used for angles greater than 60 degrees.
This is due to possible error in the construction being accentuated at this limit
and also to slight error in the stack of block gauges.
(ii) Care must be taken not to form a compound angle by having the
workpiece misaligned with the sine bar. This may be avoided by attaching the
bar and work against an angle plate.
(iii) The accuracy of the sine bar depends on its constructional
features and on maintaining these. Such features are
(a) The two rollers must have equal diameter and be true
cylinders.
(b) The rollers must be set parallel to each other and to the upper
face.
(c) The precise centre distance between the rollers must be
known.
(d) The upper face must have a high degree of flatness.

Sine Centres

Sine centres are extremely useful for the testing of conical work since the
centres ensure correct alignment of the workpiece. A sine bar incorporating
centres is shown in figure 1.16. The principles of setting are the same as in the
use of the sine bar.

( 1;2 angle of gouge)

sin&=!!_
L

Figure 1.16 Angle or taper plug-gauge checked on sine centres

20
 The sine block is set to half the nominal angle of the taper plug being
checked. When parallelism has been established after u~ing a dial test
indicator and adjusting the height of the gauge blocks, the angle f) may be
calculated as shown in figure 1.16, and the inclusive angle of the plug gauge
can be determined.

Rotary Table

Whenever accurate circular indexing is required the rotary table can be used.
There are various designs of rotary tables; mechanical and optical features are
available to meet inspection and production requirements.
Rotary tables are designed to rotate in one plane and some incorporate a
tilting action. Great strides have been made to assist the operator in reading
angular divisions, which range from the common-line measurement at the
periphery of the table to the optical display units (figure 1.17), and even
digital readout. Other tables that incorporate optical features have provision
for readouts of both rotary and inclining movements.

vo lue shown
• 224°30' 26"

Figure 1. 17 Measurement of rotary movement

Dividing Head

Mechanical and optical dividing-heads are used for angular and linear
measurement, also for indexing when machining is a feature. They are to be
seen in most engineering establishments. The measurement of angular and
linear dimensions on a component may be accurately made if it is suitably
positioned on the face plate of the dividing head or set between centres. The
most common practical use is indexing for machining operations such as
grooves or flats on the periphery of a disc and the accurate spacing of holes
on a pitch circle.
Mechanical dividing-heads generally have the construction of a single-start
worm mating with a forty-tooth worm wheel, used in conjunction with a
series of index plates for the worm, see page 173. Optical dividing-heads
possess an important advantage over the mechanical type, in that possible
inaccuracies due to wear of the worm and worm-wheel mechanism are
eliminated.

21
 The principle of the optical dividing-head is the use of a graduated glass
circle mounted on the main spindle, the scale being viewed through the
eyepiece of an attached microscope, as shown in figure 1.18. The head is
robustly constructed and designed to prevent the entry of dirt, oil and
coolant, so that it may be used not only under inspection conditions but also
in the workshop.

Figure 1.18 Optical dividing-head

Receiver Gauges

Receiver gauges are designed so that they check features of a component that
are related. If the component is accepted by the gauge it will assemble
correctly with its mating parts. These gauges are ideal for checking fabricated
assemblies, cylinder heads, flanges, etc. Such a gauge is shown in figure 1.19.

Multi-gauges

These gauges combine some of the features of a limit gauge and a comparator.
Multiple gauging machines have been designed so that they are capable of
gauging simultaneously many different dimensions on a single component.

22
 the part is located by block A, the flush pins B,C, D
and E, check the various faces on the work piece

datum location

Figure 1. 19 Receiver gauge which checks contour of work with flush pins

The instrument gauge may be equipped with high-sensitivity light indicators,

pneumatic indicators and dial test indicators.
A most effective multi-gauge system is that using high-sensitivity light
indicators; these show undersize, acceptable and oversize components by red,
green and white lights respectively, as shown in figure 1.20. The high-grade
precision relays for operating the light signals can attain switching accuracies
in the order of ± 0.3 pm. The choice of electric, pneumatic or mechanical,
must be based on economic factors together with the acceptable
measuring-accuracy.
Length Bars

Length bars provide a completely reliable means of length measurement.

Their purpose is the measurement of sizes that are beyond the range of gauge
blocks. The bars are manufactured from high-quality steel, hardened at each
end and processed to give stability. Length bars are obtainable in four grades

red light indicates undersize

green light indicates good
White light indicates oversize

Figure 1.20 Multi-gauge with high-sensitivity light-indicators

23
of accuracy, workshop, inspection, reference and calibration. The full
specification for length bars is published in BS 1790:1961. The four grades are
cylindrical in form and are 22.22 mm diameter. The body of each bar has a
ground finish and the end faces lapped to provide wringing properties. On
bars of length 152 mm and over, some manufacturers provide raised portions
based at strategic positions for support when used horizontally. These
positions, shown in figure 1.21 a are called Airy points. Supporting at the Airy
points will reduce the deflection and out of plane of bar ends. Selecting which
set of points to choose will need careful consideration.
Workshop-grade length bars have tapped holes at each end which enable
various length combinations to be assembled by the use of special screwed
studs. This method of coupling is illustrated in figure 1.21 b. Normally any
combination of the bars will have the 25 mm bars attached to each end
providing a flat defining-surface. Inspection-grade bars are also provided with
tapped holes at one or both ends, and incorporate an improved method of
connection which enables combinations to be built-up without any
appreciable loss of overall accuracy. This method of coupling is illustrated in
figure 1.21c. Reference- and calibration-grade bars have completely plain ends
and faces; these are used as reference standards only.
Various accessories are provided to increase the scope of workshop- and
inspection-grade bars. With the use of special jaws and spherical ends (figure
1.22) more complicated measurements, both internal and external, can be
efficiently carried out.

Figure 1.21 Airy points

24
Figure 1.22 Set of combination length-bars complete with accessories

Precision Spirit-level

The spirit level is essentially an angular-measuring device in which a bubble

always moves to the highest point of a glass tube, the bore of which is ground
to a large radius. The sensitivity of a spirit level is governed by the radius of
the tube or vial, and the base length of its mount. An increase in tube radius
will give greater bubble movement for the same angular displacement. The
sensitivity of a level may be expressed as so many seconds per division on the
vial; for example, a sensitivity of 10 seconds means that if a level has an
angular displacement of 10 seconds, the bubble moves 1 division on the vial,
which is usually about 2.5 mm.
Spirit levels may be calibrated using a precision sine-bar and a reference set
of block gauges.

Level Comparator

The principle of the level when used as a comparator is best understood by

the detailed drawing in figure 1.23d. It will be seen that taking the left-hand
gauge as the 'master' of known size, the difference in the level readings
corresponds to a tilt of 20°, or twice the error of the gauge. In the case shown
the test gauge would be ( 11.6 - 9.2)/2 = 1.2 divisions smaller than the
master. The scale would be published by the manufacturers. In this case
assume that one division corresponds to a tilt of 0.00025 mm over the
spacing of the balls. Therefore in the case shown in figure 1.23d, the test piece
is 0.0003 mm smaller than the master.

25
 (o)
precision- ong le precision block
gauge level level

ad ju stable
precision-level

=n-rr.-:. test master

(d)
principle of the
level comparator

Figure 1.23 Level comparator

Roundness, Lobing and Ovality

During certain machining operations, especially all forms of grinding and

occasionally turning, all too frequently it is possible to produce a deviation
from the geometric form of a component. Two common imperfections are
lobed and oval surfaces. Both are shown in detail in figure 1.24. The error in
form may often be attributed to the possible irregular conditions of the
original stock, or to the component holding-mechanism during machining,
cooling, machine condition and suitability.

0 is the smallest-diameter hole which the

lobed or oval form will enter

three -lobed form oval form

Figure 1.24 Lobed and oval surfaces

26
 p

when securing work in a 3- jaw chuck

•
the force P may cause slight elastic
deformation of the surface; this will
affect the machined form on release
of jaw pressure

Figure 1.25 Lobing wWich may be attributed to machining a bar held in a

3-jawchuck

It is very difficult under production rates to achieve a perfect cylinder

from imperfectly formed stock. One way to reduce the possibility of error is
by preliminary machining of the component. Sometimes the production of an
error of form can be attributed to the component holding-device and is best
described by the diagrams in figure 1.25. When securing work in a 3-jaw
chuck the force P may cause slight elastic-deformation of the surface. This
will affect the machined form on release of the pressure.

Testing a Lobed Surface

If a component with a tri-lobed surface were to be rotated on a plane surface

underneath a dial test indicator, the relative recordings would show no
variation. This test is therefore unsuitable. The following tests are suggested
to confirm any lobing effect.
Place the component in a suitable vee-block and slowly rotate it about the
diameter to be checked using a dial test indicator to record any variations in
dimensions due to its possible mis-shape (figure 1.26). This method can be
used when mandrels are unavailable or when their use would induce a return
to roundness. If centres are provided in the component, then a rotary check
with a dial test indicator would show any errors. Care must be taken when
shafts or components of length are checked, that any deflection due to
bending is not interpreted as an out-of-roundness feature.

Testing an Oval Surface

External surfaces should be examined in a similar manner as with the lobed

condition. It is also of interest to note that if an oval surface were to be

27
Figure 1.26 Dial test indicator (a) vee-block method to determine
variations in shape,· (b) rotary check for ovality

rotated on a plane surface underneath a dial test indicator the measurement

recording would vary symmetrically about the major and minor axes. An oval
bore would indicate variation on a true diameter measuring instrument but
the gauge shown in figure 1.27 would be unsuitable.

Figure 1.27 Adjustable bore-gauges (note gauge has three probes)

28
Roundness Testing

When specifications demand roundness, it is important to measure the true

geometric form of the external and internal surfaces of a cylinder, as distinct
from the uniformity of diameter. To measure roundness accurately Optical
Measuring Tools Ltd, and Rank Taylor Hobson Ltd, have manufactured
specialised equipment for checking this requirement. Each company uses
similar operating principles. Firstly the measuring stylus is carried on a
rotating spindle which is centred about the work to be measured; it then

Figure 1.28 Roundness-measuring machine

circumscribes or inscribes the diameter in question. Secondly the machines

incorporate an electronic magnification (x 100- 5000) system so that any
variation in roundness is detected, and a polar chart traced(figure 1.28). It is
important that the chart recordings should be in the same angular phase as
the component. The variations are magnified so the actual trace on the chart
may be either larger or smaller than the component.

29
Optical Microscopes

Optical microscopes are designed to carry out numerous measuring functions.

(1) Linear and angular measurement with a measuring microscope
(2) Alignment and direction testing
(3) Measuring and contour projection
(4) Surface and roughness testing
(5) Hardness testing (Brinell magnifiers)
By magnifying a workpiece or a part of it and by using cross-hairs,
graduations and scales on a graticule, methods of measuring have been
developed by using a microscope. One instrument is the toolmaker's
microscope as shown in figure 1.29.
Optical measuring- and testing-methods are ideal for components that are
unable to resist measuring forces (or contact pressures)- common when
using comparators, gauges, etc; also for the examination of small components
that have complicated profiles that can be evaluated to a high degree. By

Figure 1.29 Optical microscope

30
greatly enlarging an image of the component the smallest deviation from its
dimensions and profile may be compared with the design specifications
printed to scale on the graticule. General measuring microscopes are suitable
for profile pieces such as threading tools, gauges, profile cutters, etc.
Microscopes are incorporated in suitable machine tools such as profile
grinders, etc., to allow comparison of the workpiece with a profile drawing
inserted in the microscope, as shown in figure 1.30; additionally, with built-in
graticules they simplify the setting of tools in relation to workpieces, or
workpiece data in relation to machining axis.

EXPERIMENTATION

The purpose of this section is to suggest exercises that will make one familiar
with the types of measuring equipment used in an inspection department.
There are no hard rules as to which measuring equipment should be used for a
particular exercise. The equipment is dictated by the particular
circumstances, such as the size of component or gauges to be checked, the
tolerances involved, and the availability of requisite instruments. The items

v
f\ 15 I'

~ m r
v
v

Figure 1.30 Profile-drawing inserts for checking component form

31
determine the angle of taper (6') using determine the angle of a taper ring- gauge using
precision rollers and gauge blocks precision balls
tan"'/2 = m2-m,
2h

(c) b=m+D(I+cot"'IZ) c' =m'- D (I+ cot"'/2) + (2 h cot"'l2)

c = b- ( 2 x h x cot6') b'=m'-o (l+cot"'/2)

Figure 1.31 Measurement of internal and external dovetail using precision

rollers

selected are such that they portray the best features of that particular
equipment.

(i) To calculate the taper of a small taper ring gauge using precision
balls (figure 1.31 a).
(ii) To calculate the taper of a taper plug gauge using precision rollers
and gauge blocks (figure 1.31 b).
(iii) To check the dimensional features of the two mating dovetail
components (figure 1.31 c).

Comparators

In general all measuring instruments are comparators; they compare their

possible analogue scale to that of an unknown dimension. In engineering
there is a tendency to classify particular instruments as comparators, and it is
these that will be analysed in this section.
The essential function of the comparator (or instrument) is to indicate
differences in size between standard and measured dimensions and then to
magnify this difference so that it is represented by an observable displacement
sufficiently large to be read to the accuracy required. For a comparator to
provide suitable magnification the principal features of construction are based
on one of the following systems (a) mechanical, (b) optical, (c) electrical, (d)

32
pneumatic. There are other systems, but these four are the most common.
Each one will now be discussed in detail.

Mechanical Magnification

The normal methods of obtaining high magnification by mechanical means are

by the use of levers and gears as shown in figure 1.32. These methods are not

compound gear train and rack

100: 1 rat io

~. lbl

doubl ing lhe indicator-hand

length doubles lhe ampl i fication

4::"'""'"' '"',; .
L

____;J
~
support bar (c)

prin ci ple of a lever comparator

(d )

rock sleeve

equalising lever

lopped geo r rock

setting of
measuring pressure

steel housing
one piece with
mounting shaft

Figure 1.32 Mechanical magnification

33
 scale o very l ighl gloss- tube pointer

thin me l al lwisted-slr ip

bell crank
F=r~~=r=!f lever

plunger

spindle

cross- strip
hinge

(b)

Figure 1.33 (a) and (b) movement of Johansson Mikrokator (twisted-coil

comparator) (c) movement of Sigma mechanical comparator

34
always suitable in their conventional form for use in a comparator*. A
number of ingenious mechanical linkage systems are available but a detailed
description is beyond the scope of this text; reference may be made to more
advanced texts on metrology.
Two simple designs suitable for a comparator magnification system are
shown in detail in figure 1.33. Also shown in this figure is an example of a
most common mechanical comparator made by the Sigma Instrument Co.
Ltd. The latter is available with a series of measuring heads designed to provide
the appropriate measurement range which satisfies the requirements of
inspection and calibration applications. A linear displacement of the
measuring contact is indicated on a large easily read scale, calibrated in inches
and millimetres, or alternatively in millimetres only. In terms of pointer
movement the contact displacement is magnified 300 to 5000 times
depending on the model selected. The initial setting is achieved by use of
coarse and fine vertical adjustments.

Optical Magnification

The instruments covered here are basically mechanical-optical comparators.

Small displacements of the measuring plunger are amplified by a mechanical
system, followed by further amplification by a simple optical system,
involving the projection of an image (figure 1.34). The mechanical system
causes a plane reflector (mirror) to tilt about an axis. The image of an index is
then projected to a position relative to a scale, and on to the inner face of a
ground-glass screen, as shown in figure 1.34b.

Electrical Magnification

The operating principle of the electrical comparator is the conversion of

mechanical movement of the measuring tip to a proportional electrical
current, which is monitored by a sensitive moving-coil meter calibrated
directly in millimetres. This is achieved by an electrical transducer (which
converts one form of energy into another) and a suitable electronic circuit.
Electrical comparators are designed so that magnifications of 10 000 to
50 000 in prescribed steps, are available. One such testing unit is shown in
figure 1.35; this instrument is most suitable for testing gauge blocks or other
precision work rapidly and with the highest degree of accuracy.

Pneumatic Magnification

Pneumatic comparators are used for measuring small variations in the

*The workshop dial indicator, which is basically a plunger-operated magnifying gear

train (1500:1 magnification is possible) is sometimes used as a simple comparator.

35
 (a)

scale and index

measur ing
plunger

( b)
Scale image :
Light spot at ± 16~J.m

Figure 1.34 Optical magnification (a) relationship between tilting mirror

and projector scale; (b) Optical-mech anical comparator

electro- magnetic
coils (P,l

fle~i ble steel strip

I measuring
...
..t. i '

plunger

(a) (b )

Figure 1.35 Electrical magnification (a) operating principle of electrical

comparator; (b) digital read-out for electrical-com parator gauge

36
dimensions of components with respect to a reference dimension operated on
either of two principles
( 1) variation in air pressure (figure 1.36a)
(2) variation in the velocity of air flow (figure 1.36b)
The basis of the comparator is the sensitive non-electrical displacement
transducer which measures variations. It is very important that a supply of
clean dry compressed air is available if the comparator is to function correctly.

schematic diagram of
pneumatic comparator
~=J===~ia;iuging
wi th electrical limit head
switch system
tapered
glass-tube

float--wu
(vanes cause scale
f loat to rotate
for stability l

~ measuring branch
regula! ing branch

(a) ( b)

Figure 1.36 Pneumatic magnification (a) pressure-variation type; (b)

air-flow velocity-variation type

QUESTIONS

1. What is a master gauge? What is the use of a master gauge? What is a

work gauge? What is an inspection gauge?

2. Specify the material and necessary heat treatment suitable for gauge
blocks. Also, indicate the standard of surface texture suitable for each
of the different gauge-block grades.

3. Discuss three types of geometrical error and indicate how each one can
be measured accurately.

4. Explain what is meant by 'accumulation of tolerances'.

37
 5. Draw a diagram to illustrate each of the following (i) Clearance fit,
(ii) Transition fit, (iii) Interference fit.

6. Sketch the end of a typical length bar to show the form of the wringing
surface. Explain why the wringing action is less reliable than in slip
gauges.

7. Give three reasons why interchangeability is desirable in manufacturing.

8. What is the chief purpose of manufacturing by selective assembly?

9. Explain how grade II gauge blocks may be checked for accuracy using a
grade 0 set, a precision comparator and an optical flat.

10. Indicate the precautions necessary during checking, and the kind of
errors to be expected in a grade II gauge block after considerable use.

11. (a) What are the fundamental features on which the accuracy of a
precision spirit-level depend?
(b) Explain how a precision spirit-level may be calibrated.

12. Explain briefly the principle of the optical lever as applied to a

comparator. Outline the essential features of an optical comparator.

13. Explain briefly the working principles of the following (i) Sigma
comparator, (ii) Dial test indicator, (iii) Electrical moving-coil
comparator, (iv) Pneumatic comparator.

14. With such a broad selection of comparators, what features in

production would one consider when making a decision about the type
of instrument used, that is, optical, electrical, mechanical or pneumatic?

38
 2 Welding

The role of welding in industry has become increasingly important, proving to

be a most efficient, dependable and economical means of joining metal. It has
become one of the principal means of fabrication and repairing metal
products, and now most manufacturing is dependent at least to some extent
on successful welding. It should be noted that there are many aspects of
successful welding, the metallurgy, the engineering performance of the
welded structure and the process itself. These few topics indicate that it is
a very wide and complex subject.

WELDING TECHNIQUE

Because welding is the most common method of joining and repairing metal
products, many different welding techniques have been developed to meet
the requirements of industry. The obvious welding subdivision into (i) fusion
process, (ii) deformation process, now encompasses upwards of fifty
variations in regular use and the significant groups will be discussed later.
The characteristic of a fusion weld is that the metal being joined is actually
melted and the union is produced on subsequent solidification, often with the
addition of a third metal to make up the joint. The majority of those
processes that involve the use of filler material are prone to defects
reminiscent of casting methods; porosity, grain growth and segregation are
typical. In this group are gas welding and electric-arc welding.
The characteristic of the deformation process (often termed pressure
welding) is that the metal being joined is never brought to a molten state,
hence the absence of flux or filler; it is brought to the temperature necessary
to create a pasty state and the actual union is then brought about by the
application of pressure. In this group are forge welding and resistance electric
welding.

METALLURGICAL ASPECTS OF WELDING

A skillful welder would be familiar with the effects of heat on the grain
structure of metal and the safeguards that must follow any welding operation,

39
to ensure that its process does not destroy the very elements that were
originally added to improve the structure. For example, incorrect welding of
stainless steel may result in complete loss of its corrosion-resistance qualities,
and welding high-carbon steel in the same manner as low-carbon steel may
produce such a brittle weld as to make the welded piece unusable. Local
expansion around the fusion zone, and the dual effect of cooling is reflected
first in the creation of residual stress and subsequently as distortion due to
induced stress.

GAS WELDING

Gas welding is a process of melting and fusing together the edges of the parts
to be welded; additional metal is usually provided by simultaneously melting
a 'filler' rod and the union between the plates is completed when the molten
metal solidifies. The heat necessary for melting and fusing comes from the
combustion of a mixture of oxygen and some fuel gas. The most commonly
used fuel gas is acetylene, although propane, natural gas, coal gas and
hydrogen can be used. Cost and availability, together with the type of
material to be welded, and the required welding-temperature, all have to be
taken into consideration when selecting a suitable fuel-gas.
The approximate flame-temperatures that can be attained with the various
fuel-gases are
oxy-acetylene 3200 °C
oxy-propane 2500 °C
oxy-hydrogen 2200 °C
oxy-coal 2000 °C

Oxy-acetylene Welding

The oxy-acetylene welding process is by far the most widely used. Apart from
welding the oxy-acetylene flame may be used for cutting metals, case
hardening, and annealing. The temperature attained with the correct mixture
of oxygen and acetylene is sufficient to melt all commercial metals such as
iron, steel, cast iron, copper and aluminium. In many instances the flame is
suitable for joining dissimilar metals, such as brass and steel, copper and iron,
brass and cast iron.

Oxy-acetylene Welding Equipment Apart from accessories, a standard

welding set (figure 2.1) will comprise

(i) The oxygen cylinder together with its regulator valve and BLACK
(or BLUE) hose.
(ii) An acetylene supply, either a medium-pressure generator or the

40
 cylinder-contents gouge _ _ _- , . - - - - o utlet-pressure gouge

cylinder- contents gouge

pressure- regulating screw pressure-regulating screw

acetylene oxygen
(cylinder pointed maroon) (cylinder pointed block)

Figure 2. 1 High-pressure oxy-acetylene equipment

common maroon cylinder. The supply will have its regulator valve and RED
hose.
(iii) A high- and low-pressure blowpipe, together with their respective
sets of nozzles.
(iv) Trolley, keys, spanners and a spark lighter.
(v) Protective clothing, goggles, gloves, etc.

Oxygen Cylinder Oxygen cylinders are made from seamless drawn-steel

tube and tested to pressures well in excess of that at which the gas is stored.
The usual sizes of these cylinders are 3400, 5200 and 6800 litres in which the
gas is stored at pressures of up to 17.3 MN/m 2 (170 bar). The cylinders are
equipped with a pressure valve that can be opened by turning the hand wheel
(figure 2.2). The hand wheel must be turned slowly to permit a gradual
pressure load, and then opened as far as possible to avoid any high-pressure

41
 outlet --<-E"':l
nozzle safety
valve

Figure 2.2 Oxygen-cylinder valves

oxygen leaking around the valve which would result in considerable waste.
The outlet valve is screwed right-handed to take the oxygen regulator.

Acetylene Generation When large quantities of acetylene are to be used it

is much cheaper to generate the gas on the premises. Acetylene generators are
generally classified into medium- and low-pressure systems. The
medium-pressure system delivers gas at pressures up to 6.1 x 104 N/m 2 (0.6
bar) and low-pressure systems deliver gas at pressures less than
1.01 x 104 N/m 2 (0.1 bar). The welding torch used with these systems must
be designed to aspirate the acetylene.
Acetylene is a gas formed by the mixture of calcium carbide and water.
When the carbide comes in contact with water, bubbles of gas are given off.
The gas is collected and purified and can then be used directly or slowly
compressed into cylinders. Acetylene is colourless, with a very distinctive
nauseating odour. It is highly combustible when mixed with oxygen or air.
Although it is stable under low pressures it becomes very unstable if
compressed to more than 1.01 x 10 5 N/m 2 (1 bar).

Acetylene Cylinder Rigid safety regulations are laid down in the storage
and use of acetylene. To ensure safety in storing acetylene the cylinder is
packed with a porous material (figure 2.3). This material is saturated with
acetone, which is a liquid that dissolves or absorbs large quantities of acetylene
under pressure. The acetylene cylinder is equipped with a fusible plug to
relieve any excess pressure if the cylinder should be subjected to undue heat.
The outlet valve is screwed left-handed to take the acetylene regulator. The
cylinder's valve is operated by means of aT-wrench and should never be
opened more than one-and-a-half turns - in an emergency the valve may then
be closed rapidly.

42
 seamless
drawn- steel
shell

......__ _ _ safety fusible

plug

Figure 2.3 Typical acetylene-cylinder

The usual sizes of acetylene cylinders are 2800 and 5600 litres, in which
the gas is stored at a pressure of 15.2 x 105 N/m 2 ( 15 bar).

Regulators The oxygen and acetylene pressure-regulators perform two

functions; to reduce the cylinder pressures to a suitable level for welding, and
produce a steady flow of gas under varying cylinder pressures.
There are two types of regulator - the single-stage and the two-stage. The
single-stage is not as expensive as the two-stage and is used when precise
pressure-regulation is not required. The reduction in pressure is brought about
by means of an adjusting screw. The disadvantage of this design is that as the
cylinder pressure falls, the regulator pressure also falls thereby calling for the
occasional readjustment of the pressure.
With the two-stage regulator the pressure remains constant until the gas in
the cylinder is exhausted; this ensures that the flame set is maintained
constant throughout the period of welding. This regulator reduces the
cylinder pressure to that required by the torch in two stages. First, the gas
flows into a chamber that reduces the cylinder pressure to a fairly low
intermediate level. A spring and diaphragm keep the pre-determined gas
pressure in the chamber. Second the gas is passed into another reducing

43
 (a) (b)

Figure 2.4 Pressure regulators (a) oxygen; (b) acetylene

chamber, where the pressure is lowered by means of an adjusting screw to the

required working-pressure.
The regulator (figure 2.4), has two pressure gauges, a high-level gauge
which indicates the cylinder pressure, and a low-level gauge which indicates
the working pressure. The oxygen and acetylene regulators are similar in
construction, but they do have observable differences, as shown in the figure -
these are essentially for safety reasons.

Welding Torches The torch, or blowpipe as it is sometimes called, is a tool

that is provided with control valves to regulate the flow of gases and to enable
the desired type of flame to be obtained. There are two basic types, the
common high-pressure blow pipe which is used with the acetylene stored in
cylinders, and the low-pressure blowpipe for generated acetylene at pressures
in the region of 0.02 bar. The high-pressure blowpipe operates by allowing
the two gases to enter the mixing chamber at similar pressures, and then
feeding the mixture to the nozzle (figure 2.5a). The low-pressure blowpipe
operates differently; since the acetylene used is at low pressure it is necessary
to induce its flow by using oxygen at high pressure. This is achieved by
providing the blowpipe with an injector; as the oxygen passes through a small
opening in the injector nozzle the acetylene is drawn into the stream (figure
2.5b).
On the rear end of the torch there is provision for fitting the hoses; in
order to eliminate any danger of interchanging the hoses, the oxygen fitting is
provided with a right-hand thread and the acetylene fitting is threaded
left-handed. Also, it is important to note that at the blowpipe end of the

44
 welding head acety lene-control
va lve
acet ylene
oxygen

high - pressure
oxygen

low- pressure
acetylene

Figure 2.5 Blow pipes (a) high-pressure; (b) low-pressure

hoses an anti-flashback device is fitted to arrest any flame caused by backfire

at the inlet connection of the blowpipe (figure 2.6).
The blowpipes are provided with interchangeable nozzles or t ips of
different sizes so that small and large flames may be obtained. This facilitates
the welding of different thicknesses of metal. The size or 'power' of a nozzle
is frequently designated by its normal consumption rate; but this will depend
largely on the manufacturer of the welding equipment. An alternative system
consists of numbers which range from 0 to 15; the larger the number the
greater the t ip diameter.

Operation of Torch When lighting up the acetylene is turned on first and

the gas is ignited; the oxygen valve is then opened gradually until the desired
flame is obtained. The flame alters slightly as the nozzle heats up so the final
adjustment cannot be made until a minute or two after lighting.
Ext inguishing the flame is the reverse procedure - turn off the acetylene
control valve first then turn off the oxygen.

right - handed

-
t hread oxygen

let t - handed gas f low

thread acetylene

stainless- steel disc val ve seats

instantaneously when any flame
back fi res ( non - re turn va lve)

Figure 2.6 Anti-flashback hose-protector

45
Welding Flames

Successful welding operations depend upon the selection and use of the
correct type of flame. There are three basic types of flame used by welders
(figure 2.7)
(1) carburising or reducing flame
(2) neutral flame
(3) oxidising flame
( 1) The carburising or reducing flame occurs when an excess of
acetylene is burnt. This flame can be identified by the existence of three
flame zones (figure 2.7c). If difficulty arises in making the correct flame
adjustment a simple test on a piece of scrap metal will reveal if the flame is
carburising. The test is carried out by playing the flame on the scrap metal
until a molten pool occurs. If the flame is carburising the molten metal will
have a tendency to boil, indicating that carbon is entering the molten metal.
Also, on cooling the surface of the scrap material will be pitted and very
brittle.
(2) A correctly adjusted neutral flame has a well defined white cone
appearing near the nozzle (figure 2.7a). The neutral flame is so called because
it is chemically neutral. The reaction of this flame with metals is also neutral;
because of this it is the one used for most welding operations. In the
scrap-metal test described above, the effect of a neutral flame on a molten
pool will be that it allows the metal to flow smoothly.
(3) When an excess amount of oxygen is forced into the mixture the
resulting flame is said to be oxidising. This flame is similar to the neutral
flame but it has a shorter and more pointed inner cone (figure 2.7b). This

,.:"'[(§ 3> "'"''""'"~

;,"'~'" ''~"' '""" {ol
(b) OXId iSIOQ flame

Figure 2.7 Types of oxy-acetylene welding flame

46
flame is sometimes used for brazing. In the scrap-metal test described above
the molten pool will give off numerous sparks and a white foam or scum
forms on the surface. On cooling the surface will appear shiny.

WELD TERMINOLOGY

A detailed diagram of the common terms used in weld practice is given in

figure 2.8. For more precise definitions and drawing-symbols reference should
be made to BS 499: 1965.

zone of thermal
disturbance

Figure 2.8 Weld nomenclature

WELD TECHNIQUES

This section deals only with the salient points of welding techniques. It must
be appreciated that correct techniques can only be learnt satisfactorily by
practical instruction and experience.
When welding two pieces of metal together their thicknesses will
determine whether there is need for a filler metal. Often thin metal sections
can be joined without a filler rod, but in most instances the use of a filler rod
is advisable because it builds up the weld, thereby adding strength to the
joint. The strength of a weld depends largely on the skill with which the rod
is blended, or interfused, with the edges of the parent metals.
The use of a filler rod requires co-ordination of the two hands. While one
hand manipulates the torch to carry a puddle across the plate, the other adds
the correct amount of filler rod. There are two techniques of traversing the
weld joint with the blow pipe and filler rod -the leftward welding technique
and the rightward welding technique.

47
 Figure 2.9 Welding techniques

The Leftward Technique

In this method of welding the weld is commenced on the right-hand side of

the joint, working towards the left-hand side (figure 2.9). The blowpipe is
moved forward with the flame pointing in the direction of the welding with
the filler rod being held in front of the flame (figure 2.1 0). With this
technique it is important to note that if the flame is to melt the bottom edges
of the plates, the filler rod must not be held continuously in contact with the
weld joint.

The Rightward Technique

In rightward welding the flame is directed towards the completed part of the
joint and welding proceeds from left to right (figure 2.9). The welding rod is
directed away from the completed weld and is given a roughly circular
progressive movement. The cone of the oxy-acetylene flame is directed
towards the bottom of the seam in order that the maximum amount of heat
may be utilised (figure 2.10).

Figure 2.10 Position of filler rod relative to blowpipe

48
 Q)
a.
v;
0
<.>

0
plate thickness (mm)

Figure 2. 11 Welding cost - oxy-acetylene butt-welds relative cost per

metre -leftward and rightward welding

The chief advantages of the rightward method as opposed to the leftward

are
(a) Increased welding speed; this is because in the leftward method
the view of the joint edges is interrupted and it is necessary to remove the
end of the rod to inspect the progress. This action results in a slowing down
of the process and also the rod tip becomes oxidised and may produce an
unfavourable weld structure.
(b) Plates and pipes up to 9 mm thickness can be welded with square
edge preparation. With the leftward method plates over 3 mm thick will have
to have their edges bevelled; for this reason this method is often limited to
material less than 5 mm thick.
(c) Economy of gas and welding rod (figure 2.11 ). Compared to the
leftward method, on large-thickness plate the rightward technique has little or
no bevelled edges, and therefore less filler metal is required (figure 2.12)
resulting in corresponding savings in gas and time.

leftward rightward

r--yz------.,
greater volume of
deposited metal than rightward
------~------"'~

J
t' - - - - - - -(' I

jd __ ~-l--
-- --- - I

~--- l~
/ I ~------ I I
I 80o I I
I 60° 1 I

l_
Figure 2.12 Comparative amount of deposited metal

49
 temperature (°C)

distance from weld (mm)

Figure 2.13 Maximum temperature attained at various distances from weld

(d) Sound, efficient welds result from proper execution. The

mechanical properties of the weld are better in the rightward technique due
to the annealing effect of the flame which is directed on the completed weld.
(e) The amount of distortion is a minimum. Distortion depends on
the amount of heat put into the work and naturally this heat should be
confined, as far as possible, to the weld seam itself. A typical temperature
distortion around the weld using both techniques, is given in figure 2.13. It
can be seen that a lower spread of heat takes place in the rightward method.

Further Oxy-acetylene Processes

Flame Cutting The oxy-acetylene process of cutting metals is used

throughout industry. The basis for this cutting action is the extremely rapid
oxidation of red-hot ferrous metals. Ferrous metals when oxidised are
reduced to iron oxide commonly known as slag.
To achieve rapid cutting of metal a specially designed blow torch is
required, commonly termed a cutting torch. The cutting torch is similar to
the welding torch except for an additional lever that controls the excess
oxygen required to oxidise the metal. The nozzle or tip of the cutting torch
varies slightly from those used for welding; usually four different sizes are

50
 --1~-+~f--- preheat oxygen
chamber

holes for
preheat gas
cutting end of nozzle

holes for
cutting
oxygen

Figure 2. 14 Sectional view of cutting nozzle

available and provide for cutting metals of varying thicknesses. The cutting
nozzle (figure 2.14), is made with a centre-orifice surrounded by several
smaller ones. The large centre-opening permits the flow of oxygen for cutting
and the smaller holes are for the heating flame (figure 2.14).
The procedure of lighting the cutting torch is the same as for welding, that
is, lighting the acetylene and adjusting the oxygen to attain a neutral flame
(figure 2.15). The procedure for cutting is to hold the nozzle 3-5 mm above
the metal surface and preheat until a bright red spot develops at the metal
edge. Having decided that the metal is at a high-enough temperature,
gradually press the oxygen pressure lever and move the torch forward along a
predetermined chalked path (figure 2.16). The movement of the torch should
be just rapid enough to ensure a fast but continuous cut. Too slow a movement
will result in the metal having ragged edges.

Gouging The gouging process is very similar to cutting except that a groove
is produced in the component surface as opposed to a cut. The difference in

51
 too much oxygen
(pressure too high )

correct
too much fuel gas (for steel)
(correct for cost iron)

Figure 2.15 Flame adjusting for oxy-acetylene cutting

tube carry ing the A

cutting oxygen

rubes carrying
the fuel gas
c

pre- heating f lame

stage I

~~!~~L-cutting
oxygen
jet

stage 2

Figure 2.16 Oxy-acetylene cutting: to light blow pipe (a) open acetylene
valve 8 slowly and ignite the gas; (b) open the heating-oxygen valve C slowly
and adjust the flame to neutral; (c) open the cutting-oxygen valve A and
readjust the flame to neutral; (d) close cutting-oxygen valve and cutter is
ready for use; (e) preheat edge; (f) when edge is at correct temperature open
cutting-oxygen valve

52
 preheated zone at
ig nition temperature

(a) ( b) angle right for pressing oxygen

control lever slowly

iron oxide
(c) torch progresses as soon as the cutting reaction commences

Figure 2. 17 Principle of gouging

processes lies with the relatively short angle between the torch and workpiece
(figure 2.17).

Hard Surfacing Surfaces that are required to be extremely hard, corrosive

and wear resistant, can be welded to new and worn components at relatively
low cost using the oxy-acetylene welding equipment with a suitably alloyed
filler rod. There are two common methods of hard surfacing

(a) Depositing a filler metal that is similar to the parent metal being
worked on.
(b) Depositing a filler metal of selected alloyed metals, containing
elements such as chromium, silicon and manganese, on the component
surface, see figure 2.18 for detai Is.

A common filler-rod material for hard surfacing is the alloy stellite - an

alloy of cobalt, chromium, carbon and tungsten. Although it is a brittle

fus ion takes place

Figure 2. 18 Procedure for depositing stel/ite

53
material it is used for its excellent resistance to wear and corrosion even at
high temperatures. When surfacing a component using a stellite filler-rod
consideration must be given to its expansion and contraction rates. Excessive
rates of expansion and contraction may result in cracking of the applied
stellite-coating. To avoid this unfortunate circumstance preheating of the
component and slow cooling are required.

ARC WELDING

Manual Metal-arc Welding

Manual metal-arc welding is the most widely used single welding process
because of its great flexibility and relatively low initial cost. The equipment
can be a.c. or d.c., with a.c. being most commonly used since this has lower
initial and running costs. For welding non-ferrous materials, alloy steels and
cast iron, d.c. equipment should be used since it gives a more stable arc. For
critical applications such as high-pressure pipe work the inherently greater
penetration of d.c. is also an advantage. Where a wide range of materials are
to be welded dual purpose a.c./d.c. sets are useful.
In this process an arc is struck between a flux-coated rod-electrode and the
workpiece at the starting of a weld, and maintained to melt both the
electrode and the area of the workpiece on to which it impinges. The molten
metal from the tip of the electrode is deposited in the joint and together with
the molten metal of the edges, solidifies and forms a sound and uniform
connection (figure 2.19). The flux coating on the electrode also melts but
more slowly than the rod thus forming a protruding sheath around the end of

electrode travel

gaseous shield

slog
gaseous
sh ield

molten metal ore force digs

into plate

Figure 2.19 Arc welding using a flux-coated electrode

54
the rod. The coating may vaporise and form a blanket of gas around the arc
and over the deposit. On cooling the flux coating forms a slag on top of the
deposit. All these actions are to prevent or reduce the oxidation of the weld
metal; reduce the rate of cooling of the deposit, helping to eliminate
brittleness and cracking; stabilise the arc.
After coming out of a weld run the joint metal will be covered with a layer
of slag. This layer must be removed by a convenient tool such as a pick or a wire
brush before further work on the joint is done. The welder trainee may often
be faced with the condition of blow holes and inclusions in the weld; these
are forms of trapped impurities and they are caused by improper
manipulation of the electrode and failure to maintain the molten pool long
enough to 'float' the entrapped gas, slag and other foreign matter. These
impurities tend to weaken a weld.
In arc welding, more welding is carried out using the process of manual
metal-arc and although it is now becoming superseded by metal-inert-gas
welding (M.I.G.), it still retains the advantages of versatility, portability and
cheapness of equipment. A limitation of the process is the length of weld run
that can be deposited when using a standard-length electrode. Every stop in a
weld run not only leads to unnecessary expense but it also increases the
danger of weld defects.

Metal-Inert-gas (M.I.G.) Welding

In terms of economics, reliability and scope of application M.I.G. welding has

made one of the most significant advances in welding since the introduction
of the welding arc. The M.I.G. welding process embraces a group in which
consumable-wire electrodes are fed at a predetermined speed into the area of
weld; usually by powered rolls. An arc between the tip of the wire electrode
and the weld pool is maintained while the wire is progressively melted and the
head is advanced along the path to be welded (figure 2.20). The arc and the
weld pool are protected from atmospheric contamination by a shield of
non-reactive gas; argon, helium and carbon dioxide are typical. This gas is
delivered through a broad nozzle concentric with the welding wire guide tube
(figure 2.20). The choice of shielding gas will depend upon the application,
for each has characteristic advantages and disadvantages. It is important to
note that when using a non-reactive gas as opposed to a flux coating, the
finished weld is slag free, and further cleaning is unnecessary.

Tungsten-Inert-gas (T.I.G.) Welding

The tungsten-inert-gas (T.I.G.) welding process was introduced for light

alloys, but it is finding general application in quality welding fields. The
T.I.G. process differs from the manual metal-arc technique in as much as the
electrode is virtually non-consumable. A non-consumable tungsten electrodE!

55
 automatically
A ---advancing consumable-
wire electrode

Figure 2.20 Metal-inert-gas itvelding (M.I. G.)

is used to provide the arc for welding and a filler rod is fed into the puddle in
a manner similar to welding with the oxy-acetylene flame process
(figure 2.21 ). During the welding cycle a shield of inert gas expels the air
from the welding area preventing oxidation of the electrode and weld puddle.
Manual T.I.G. is essentially a high-quality process used where reliabil ity and
freedom from defects are more important than speed of welding. It is
primarily a process for welding sheet metal or small parts, particularly
stainless steel and aluminium. The T.I.G . process can easily be automated,
where justified by production quantity.

iner t - gas shield welds mode with or

(argon or helium) without addi tion
of f il ler metal

no flux required
weld surface is
smooth and clean

argon
(or helium)
gas

single - pass welds in

thickness up to 12 mm
multi- pass welds in;
many joint designs heavy thicknesses
in all positions con
be welded easily

Figure 2.21 Manual tungsten-inert-gas welding (T.I.G.)

56
 hidden arc

Figure 2.22 Submerged-arc welding

Submerged-arc Welding

The submerged-arc welding process must be automatic. This technique of

welding uses a unit consisting of a welding head, a powdered-flux hopper and
a flux reclamation system (figure 2.22). The welding head moves at a
controlled speed over the weld area maintaining an arc which is employed to
melt off a continuously fed wi re electrode, forming the weld deposit. The arc
and weld pool are shielded from atmospheric contamination by completely
submerging them beneath a layer of powdered flux. The portion of powdered
flux around the arc fuses and covers the molten metal. Usually a suction tube
is attached to the welding head to reclaim the unused flux.
An advantage of this process, as opposed to the non-reactive gas processes,
is that there is no visible arc flash, neither is there any spatter.

Electro-slag Welding

Electro-slag welding is virtually a continuous-casting process which requires

the joint to be welded when in a vertical position. When welding vertical
joints with plates over 8 mm thick, the electro-slag technique may well be an
economical proposition. Welds are made in a single pass at high speed. The
mechanical properties of the welded joint may be inferior to the multi-pass
submerged-arc technique (figure 2.23).

Stud Welding

This process allows studs to be fixed in position rapidly and accurately,

eliminating the time taken to drill and tap holes. Stud welding is a form of

!i7
 tlif t to
roise dams

1 - - - - - - - - - - consumable-
wire electrode

m--- - - - power feed - rolls

--:..---- water supply
~~~~~~ todam
weldment
consumable - - - + - - - - - - - t--f--
w~re guide

.~~~----\-+--slog earth
-----H--mo l ten
~!ltt- weld - meta l
<:::."1:!'::--
----1'+--~completed weld

water-cooled - - - + - ---+•
dam

Figure 2.23 Electro-slag vvelding

electric-arc welding. A stud is loaded into a specially designed electric gun. At

a prescribed time the stud is retracted from the plate, and this causes an arc.
The end of the stud and the area on the plate are melted. A spring-loading
action in the gun automatically plunges the stud into the molten pool and
the weld is made (figure 2.24).

com pleted weld

Figure 2.24 Stud welding - the arc results in melting the full diameter of
the stud; a sharp blow fuses the plate and stud together, completing the vveld

58
Electrode Selection

An electrode is a metal rod having approximately the same composition as

the metal to be welded. There are so many different kinds and sizes of
electrodes that unless the correct one is selected, difficulty may arise in
fulfilling a good weld requirement. In general, all electrodes are classified into
five main groups: mild-steel, high-carbon steel, special-alloy steel, cast-iron,
and non-ferrous. The greatest range of arc welding is done with electrodes in
the mild-steel group. For fabrication in mild steel four types of electrodes
should suffice
( 1) Electrodes for welding in the flat position
(2) A positional electrode
(3) Hydrogen-controlled electrode for heavy or highly restrained
joints
(4) Iron-powder electrodes for high deposition rates.
When selecting an electrode three main points should be considered
( 1) Always use the correct type of electrode for the welding to be
done
(2) Select an electrode with a diameter that is about the same as the
thickness of the plate to be welded
(3) Store the electrodes in a dry place where the coating cannot be
damaged.

Safety During Arc Welding

Welding is a safe occupation, but while arc radiation presents potential

hazards to the health of welding personnel and causes discomfort, the
technology to overcome these problems is available. The intensity of
radiation produced by a welding arc is a function of the welding process
itself, that is, arc current, arc voltage, arc length, sheilding of gas type and
flow rate. It is known that less ultraviolet and visible energy is radiated at
comparable current levels during shielded metal-arc and flux-cored arc
welding than during gas-metal-arc welding, because the dense smoke and
fumes that are produced by the decomposition of the electrode covering or
flux tend to shield the arc. Under proper conditions little or no ultraviolet or
visible radiation will be produced during submerged-arc welding unless the flux
is broken momentarily.
To protect the health of welders and other workmen and to decrease the
discomfort associated with the ultraviolet, visible and infrared radiation that
is produced during all arc-welding and cutting processes, it is necessary to
(1) Consider the clothing worn by welders because this has a
significant bearing on their safety, comfort and performance. It has been

59
found that (a) thick heavy fabrics provide excellent protection from heat,
since there is more fabric to absorb heat and prevent its transmission; (b)
light-coloured fabrics reflect more heat than dark-coloured fabrics, and are
cooler as a result; (c) fabrics with a reflective coating on the surface facing the
heat source provide the best protection from heat.
(2) Due to the fact that ultraviolet energy can be reflected from
metal surfaces, walls and ceilings, important consideration must be given
when selecting paints to finish these surfaces. A paint with a high absorption
factor should be used; this will reduce the reflection of ultraviolet radiation.
(3) The most common eye ailment among welders is 'arc-eye'.
Prescribed eye protection should be available at all times and efforts should
be made to avoid striking the arc carelessly before the welder's helmet is in
position for welding. Manufacturers of eye-protection equipment have
published literature recommending a selective filter lens appropriate to the
welding current to be used. It will be noted that as the current increases the
lens tint will darken.

PROCESS SELECTION

After deciding that a welded joint is required the production engineer has to
select the best process for the application in question. The prime requirement
is to produce a technically acceptable component at minimum cost. There is
no point in producing joints totally free from defects with optimum
mechanical strength if the product is wire mesh for the garden. On the other
hand, if the product is a pressure vessel, very high-integrity welds are
essential.
The welding process to use can best be chosen by a process of elimination.
The first group of factors to be considered are technical
(a) materials being joined (b) metallurgical and design requirements of
the joint (c) correct penetration (d) meeting the distortional limits of the
design.
The second group of factors are the physical ones
(a) which process can be used for the particular size and shape of parts
to be welded (b) accessibility of the joint to the welding process.
After considering the above factors it will be found that in most cases the
majority of the standard welding-processes can be eliminated as being
unsuitable. If further elimination is necessary an economic assessment of the
possible processes can be made (figure 2.25). The factors to consider are, (a)
for batch consignments -cost per component; (b) deposition rates of

60
 ""
.!?

weld-metal "'
0
I
deposition
".,2'
rates kg/h
u;., .,
60 E no established
"2 "'Q) .0
'<il upper limit
uQ) "2 ":!2Q) ~
uQ) Q)
.,
:c
Q)
48 Q)
"'
0
Oi
"'I
"'0 "'
0
I

.,""
a. -o -o
Q)
:J
a.
Jl:
0 ""
:!'
.,
a.
-'0- I
c
Jl: E
.0
I :J
Q)
c
Q)
.~ 0 "'Q) typical capital cost
"" D

"' .,"'
·~ of equipment
""
0
0 I c

.,
I 0 -o
0 Q)
E Jl:
E
"'
cost
£:2000

£:1000

relative deposition rates and capital costs of equipment

Figure 2.25 Process selection - economic assessment

weld- welding speed; (c) capital cost of equipment; (d) cost of

consumables - electrodes, gas, etc.

RESISTANCE WELDING

Industries involved in the fabrication of items on a mass-production basis

must rely on a welding process where hand manipulation is kept to a
minimum and the joining of metal is performed rapidly and automatically.
Such processes are the 'resistance' branch of fusion welding.
Resistance-welding techniques are characterised by the absence of flux or
filler and have found wide application in the sheet-metal fabrication field.
Spot and projection welding are the best known, with the division to seam
welding.
The fundamental principles upon which all resistance welding is based are
( 1) Heat is generated in each part to be joined by resistance to the
passage of an electrical current.
(2) This heat generated at the juncture of the two parts changes the
metal to a plastic state.
(3) The plastic state when combined with the correct amount of
pressure allows fusion to take place.

61
Spot Welding

Spot welding is probably the most commonly used type of resistance welding.
The materials to be joined are placed between two electrodes, pressure is
applied, and a pulse of electricity is sent from one electrode through the
material to the other electrode (figure 2.26). This current produces sufficient
heat to plasticise the metal, which unites under the applied pressure. Spot
welding is limited to producing lap joints in sheets of the same order of
thickness, which is not usually greater than 6 mm. Spot welding usually leaves
slight depressions on the metal which are often undesirable on the 'show side'
of the finished product. This undesirable feature can be minimised by the use
of larger electrode tips on the show side.

Seam Welding

Seam welding is similar to spot welding, the difference being that the spots
overlap each other, making a continuous weld seam. In this process the metal
parts pass between rollers, which are the electrodes. While the lapped metal
parts are passing between the roller electrodes, an electric current is
automatically turned on and off at intervals corresponding to the speed at
which the parts are travelling (figure 2.27). This control of the electric-pulse
rate to the electrodes enables pressure-tight seams - such as those required in
the fabrication of fuel tanks, domestic radiators, etc. - to be achieved. If the
pulse rate is such that the spots do not overlap long enough to produce a
continuous weld, the process becomes what is referred to as roller spot
welding.

welding
currenf ~

Figure 2.26 Resistance spot-11118/ding

62
 electrode
force
powered [1,
rotatio['l V
welding
current~

Figure 2.27 Resistance seam-welding

Projection Welding

This type of welding is widely used in attaching small components and

fasteners to structural members, forgings or machined parts. In projection
welding the component is shaped to provide localised current flow,
concentrating the welding heat at the areas of projection. This facilitates
fusion without the necessity of employing a large current (figure 2.28).

I Iex i bI e --t--t--...-.
conductor

•"d
nugget
/~
1 \

Figure 2.28 Projection welding

63
Flash Welding

Flash welding is a process of joining two pieces of metal together using the
heat generated by an electric arc for plasticising the mate rial before pressure
is applied. The two pieces of metal to be joined are clamped in dies which
conduct the electric current to the work. The ends of the two parts are
brought together until an arc is established. The flashing action across the gap
melts the metal and as the two molten ends are forced together fusion takes
place (figure 2.29). Flash welding is used for butting bar, rod, tubing and
extruded sections together. Often an undesirable feature of flash welding is
the resultant bulge or increase in size left at the point of weld; it may be
found necessary to machine the joint to size.

Butt Welding

Butt welding differs from flash welding in that constant pressure is applied
during the heating process which eliminates flashing. The electric current
softens the edges and the pressure assists in fusing the parts together. An
advantage of the butt-welding process is that it uses less current and allows
more time for the weld to be completed (figure 2.29).

Friction Welding

The most popular form of friction welding is when two work pieces are
axially aligned and one of them is rotated at a pre-determined speed while

electrode force
welding II
current '()

Figure 2.29 Flash butt-welding - resistance butt-welding is similar, the

difference being that the joint is brought to plastic heat using the 'constant
resistance' instead of an arc

64
 weld1ng sequence

o©,. rotat1ng

light pressure for ~b

(~ Yrotatmg rotating chuck

1
l workpieces
frictional heating
/
heavy pressure __ ri11------D
to form upset ~p ?:::J

force

Figure 2.30 Friction welding

the other is advanced into contact with it (figure 2.30). Pressure is applied
between the parts for a specific period while the rotation is maintained so
that frictional heat is developed to raise the interfacial temperature until the
metal is adequately plastic for welding, permitting the bars to be forged
together. At this point the relative motion is arrested while the original
pressure is maintained to consolidate the solid-state weld.
This high-production process has the limitation that one part at least
should be of circular cross-section, as the relative annular position of the parts
cannot be guaranteed.

WELD TESTING

In the fabrication of any welded components, some tests are generally

employed to determine the strength of the weld. In some instances a visual
examination of the weld is sufficient, but it has limitations. There is no way of
knowing if internal defects exist in the welded area. The outer appearance of
the weld may be satisfactory yet porosity, cracking, lack of fusion, or
excessive grain growth may be present in the weld. Weld testing falls into two
basic categories (a) mechanical or destructive testing, (b) non-destuctive
testing.

65
Mechanical or Destructive Testing

Mechanical or destructive testing is probably the most widely used means of

checking the quality of welds because it is the least expensive and the most
reliable. This method of testing requires a test piece or specimen which is
representative of the weld joint. The test piece or specimen is destroyed, in
most cases by fracturing. To ensure some degree of uniformity in carrying out
destructive testing procedures certain requirements and procedures are set out
in British Standard publications. Some of the more common mechanical- or
destructive-testing practices are tensile tests, impact tests, and bend tests.
Note The test data is only representative for other similar components.
There will be differences due to the many variable factors that govern the
quality of the weld- weld temperature, time, process and filler material if
used.

Tensile Testing Tensile testing involves placing a weld specimen in a

tensile-testing machine and pulling the piece until it breaks. The information
derived from this test includes (a) the limit of elastic deformation, beyond
which the test specimen experiences permanent deformation on unloading;
(b) the yield point; (c) the ultimate tensile load that the specimen can
withstand; (d) the fracture load.

Impact Tests These tests are carried out using the lzod impact-testing
equipment. Usually a number of test specimens are prepared, ensuring that all
the dimensions, particularly the notch, are carefully reproduced. The test
data tends to give variable results but an average representative value of weld
toughness can be allocated to the component.

Bend Tests The bend test assists in determining the soundness and level of
ductility of the welded zone. The specimen is prepared so that the throat
thickness is less than the plate thickness, this ensures that the fracture runs
along the weld. After the specimen is given a permanent set a backwards and
forwards motion is then carried out until the specimen fractures. The number
of bending actions used will give an indication of the weld's ductility.

Non-destructive Testing

Research and development of methods of non-destructive testing has increased

considerably over the past thirty years. Such methods enable an assessment to
be made of the quality of the weld run without any damage to the
component. If satisfactory the component is passed on for service. Often, if
defects are found using these methods, they can be rectified and the
component subsequently used.
Non-destructive testing may be classified as follows (a) detection of cracks
at or near the surface by (i) penetration methods, (ii) magnetic

66
crack-detection. (b) Detection of submerged defects by (i)
radiography - X-ray examinations; (ii) acoustical methods- sonic and
ultrasonic.

Penetration Methods Inspection with penetrant is probably the oldest of

the major non-destructive testing methods in use today. Penetrant inspection
as it is currently employed consists of a few simple steps (figure 2.31 ).
( 1) A coloured penetrating-liquid is applied to the surface of the test
piece by dipping, brushing or spraying.
A period is allowed for the liquid to seep into any openings or
discontinuities in the test piece.
(3) The liquid remaining on the surface is removed using water or a
solvent and wiping, ensuring that the surface is cleaned but not appreciably
removing any of the liquid from the surface openings.
(4) A developer agent is applied to the clean surface. This may be a
dry powder or a suspension of the powder in a liquid vehicle which is applied
on the surface. Generally the liquid vehicle would evaporate leaving the
powder film on the surface (maybe white in colour). The developer aids in
drawing the penetrant liquid in the surface openings out to the surface and
spreading it into the developer coating over an area much wider then the
opening itself. The reaction between the powder and developer may give a
black surface. Note This gives a black opening on a white background.
(5) The surface of the component is examined in order to locate the
penetrant indications which have been formed in the developer coating. An
experienced inspector may judge the general size and type of opening.
(6) Finally the developer coating, and the minute amounts of
penetrating liquid remaining, is removed from the surface permitting the

penetront

(ol
deve lopmen I .. '\. :~:.~,
1... zone -- 1 (b)

'\~\\\1///~
inspection
developer ~~~~~-~:,;;;;;;,

-:~i~· .~ ~~1${:~' '

>·
(c)

(d)

Figure 2.11 Steps in penetrant inspection

67
component to be passed along the normal production flow unaffected by the
testing procedure.

When selecting suitable penetrants for a testing operation it is important to

consider the following three factors (i) the possible geometry of the opening
(ii) the cleanliness of the opening (iii) the physical size of the opening.
Improvement in contrast between penetrant and component surface can be
brought about with the use of suitable dyes, usually red. Fluorescent
penetrants are also available which indicate the presence of an opening by
fluorescence when examined under ultraviolet light.
A limitation of penetrant inspection is that it is only capable of locating
discontinuities that are open to the surface. Compared with radiography and
ultrasonics the penetrant inspection-method is appreciably less expensive, and
unlike them is able to detect small surface openings readily.

Magnetic Crack-detection This technique consists basically of the

inducement of a magnetic field into the component to be examined. Magnetic
fields may be set up in a ferro-magnetic material by application of permanent
or electro-magnets and by current-flow or induction tech,niques. Figure 2.32a
shows in detail the creation of a magnetic field using these techniques.
When a magnetic material is magnetised the lines of magnetic force will
pass from the north pole to the south pole. Defects such as cracks and holes
occurring on or just under the surface of a component will sever these lines of
magnetic flux and create a series of small poles in the area of the crack (figure
2.32b).
'Magnetic inks', which are usually fine magnetic-oxide powder suspended in
a liquid vehicle, are applied to the component surface; the oxide particles are

induced lines of
magnetic f ield magnetic flux (a )

sectional view
of crack in (o)

(b )

Figure 2.32 Magnetic crack-detection

68
attracted to the area of created magnetic poles and rest there. The
disadvantages of magnetic crack-detection are
( 1) The material to be tested must be capable of being magnetised
(2) Rough surfaces can give confusing results, and very often the
area under test must first be machined or polished
(3) Often de-magnetization is necessary after testing because the
component can retain abrasive particles, which can lead to excessive service
wear.

Radiography Radiographic inspection of welds has become an established

and accepted inspection procedure for assessing the quality of the welded
joint. The detection of weld defects such as blow holes, cracks, and
inclusions, by radiography depends on differences in absorption of the X-ray
or gamma-ray beam which has traversed the weld; any defects and lack of
uniformity wi II be indicated by a variation in the density of the processed
film. Faults such as holes, porosity and cracks will be indicated on the film as
darker, more dense markings.
Figure 2.33 illustrates a typical modern X-ray tube together with the
specimen under test and the necessary photographic film or plate. The tube is
basically two electrodes (cathode and anode) sealed in an evacuated glass
vessel. A stream of electrons is drawn from the cathode through the

test
specimen

photographic plate ( a)

C> c:::::::::::::r (b)

photographic plate showing local darkening

due t o defects

Figure 2.33 X-ray examination (a) non-destructive examination using a

modern X-ray tube; (b) the developed photographic plate in (a)

69
intervening space at high velocity to bombard the anode target. On
bombardment, the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into another
form and reappears as electromagnetic radiation, that is, light, heat, and most
important, X-rays. By varying the tube voltage, the electron current changes
and the quality of emitted radiation can be controlled. Increasing the voltage
steps up the penetrative power of the radiation and deeper faults in the
structure can be detected.
The equipment used in industry is portable, often expensive, but can
usually be operated by relatively unskilled employees. Strict adherance to the
fairly rigid regulations governing the operation and maintenance of
radiographic equipment must be carried out. Very little is known about
long-term radiation effects on operators; however, modern equipment has
adequate built-in safety factors. Interpretation of any radiographic results is an
acquired art; since the basic training can only give a limited number of
problems these are usually restricted to classical examples.

Sonic and Ultrasonic Testing Sonic waves, in the audible range, are
conveniently used to detect gross internal defects in a component. Such
defects increase the damping capacity of a metal component. When the metal
is struck with a hammer it will ring, the tone being dependent on the
structure of the component. This method is limited to gross defects and
considerable skill and experience are necessary if the results are to be reliable.
Ultrasonic non-destructive testing methods use the transmission or
reflection technique; both rely on the fact that discontinuities, such as cracks,
blow holes and slag inclusions will have a different acoustic impedance from
the surrounding media. These techniques employ ultra high-frequency sound
waves, far in excess of the audible range. These sound waves can be converted
into mechanical vibrations in a probe, by using a quartz crystal inserted in the

recording
indicating detect----..,:::::--::===:::::::---,

oscilloscope

ultro-sonic-+---
waves
parent
metal

back1ng plate

Figure 2.34 Ultrasonic weld-testing

70
material being tested. Often sound waves of ultra high-frequency are
transmitted via a couplant, usually a liquid. This is necessary since minute air
gaps will prevent the transmission of ultra-sound.
In the transmission technique ultrasonic energy is transmitted through the
media being examined. Discontinuities in the path of this energy causes some
of it to be reflected or absorbed, and the presence of such a fault may be seen
as a reduction in the total amount of energy received at the surface of the
medium remote from the energy source. The reflection technique, commonly
adopted for weld testing, depends upon the detection of the energy reflected
back towards the source by a discontinuity in a medium when it is subjected
to ultrasonic energy.
Using a suitably calibrated oscilloscope a comparison can be made between
the initial level of ultrasonic energy and the final reflected or transmitted
level (figure 2.34). It is also possible to obtain an electronic trace of the
ultrasonic wave path. The results obtained by both techniques accurately
locate the position, magnitude and character of any discontinuity.

QUESTIONS

1. Why has the role of welding in industry become increasingly important,

especially with reference to fabrication and repairing?

2. List as many different welding techniques as possible, indicating their

main characteristic features.

3. When joining or repairing a component, what metallurgical features

have to be considered?

4. (a) Illustrate the technique of oxy-acetylene welding, emphasising the

requirement for a filler rod and the correct welding flame.
(b) Give four typical applications of gas-welding.

5. (a) What are the advantages and limitations of gas-welding, compared

to electric-arc welding?
(b) Give four applications of electric-arc welding, that may not be
carried out by oxy-acetylene welding.

6. (a) What is the purpose of a flux?

(b) List the advantages and limitations of using flux in a solid, powder
or gas form.

7. Illustrate the technique of oxy-acetylene flame cutting, emphasising the

requirement for temperature control and correct flame adjustment.

71
 8. What are the essential differences between manual-arc, M.I.G., and
T.I.G. welding techniques? Why is there the need for three such weldin~
techniques.?

9. (a) Explain briefly the basic principles of resistance welding.

(b) Explain how these principles are applied to (i) spot welding, (ii)
seam welding, (iii) projection welding, and give three typical examples
for each process.

10. Sketch typical applications of the following joining techniques: (i)

projection welding, (ii) friction welding, (iii) butt welding, (iv) spot
welding, and outline the principle underlying the fusion of the metals
to be joined.

11. Outline the conduct of any experiments designed to investigate the

properties of a welded joint. The account must include the purpose of
the experiment, the equipment used, the readings taken and the
information obtained.

12. A welded joint may fail because of various defects in the joint that are
not evident from its appearance. It is not normally practicable to test
the joint to the point of failure in order to prove it. (i) Name three
testing-procedures that can be used to ensure the reliability of the joint.
(ii) Give details of these testing procedures and explain the value of the
results obtained.

72
 3 Cutting Tools

CUTTING TOOLS

The current problems of. inflation in both labour and material costs are
forcing industry to increase its production rates with a view to greater
economy. Therefore economic consideration must be given to machining
costs, the expense of cutting tools, and their refurbishing. The key to greater
economy lies in the cutting life of a tool which is influenced by a considerable
number of variables that will be discussed in this chapter.
Major factors influencing the cutting life of a tool can be divided into two
groups (a) the progressive wearing away of the cutting edge and faces; (b)
premature failure. Initially it is necessary to define the terms tool life and
machinability.

Tool life

Tool life is the useful cutting life of a tool expressed in time or some other
unit. This period is measured from the start of a cut until such time when the
tool no longer performs the desired function defined by failure criteria. There
are many ways of judging when the effective cutting life of a tool is over

(i) A fixed cutting time to failure

(ii) The removal of a set volume of metal
(iii) The production of a prescribed number of components
(iv) Machining until total destruction of the cutting tool occurs
(v) The use of a limiting value of surface finish produced on the
component
(vi) The limiting change in component size
(vii) Fixed increase in cutting forces or power required to sustain the
cutting action
(vii) Observation of the wear land pattern

These eight failure criteria are just a few of the many that may be used.
The choice of a failure criterion will depend on the requirements of the

73
component being produced. In a roughing operation surface finish and
dimensional accuracy will be of little importance, while excessive rise in
cutting forces and power requirements may be taken as the failure criteria. In
finishing operations the surface finish and dimensional accuracy will be of
major importance and the tool will fail when the specified finish can no
longer be achieved. When discussing tool life it is essential that time and the
particular operational requirements be stated.

Machinability

The term machinability is often applied to the machining properties of the

material from which the component is made. It can be crudely described as
the ease with which a material can be machined, while satisfying the
functional requirements of the component being produced. To assess the
machinability of a selection of materials a qualitative comparison of similar
newly machined surfaces on all the samples is necessary. The criterion for
assessing machinability may be one of the following

(i) Surface finish

(ii) Cutting forces
(iii) Power consumption
(iv) Tool life

Naturally when carrying out machinability tests the conclusions will only
apply to the particular set of circumstances existing when the observations
were made. This is because of the many factors influencing the assessment,
which are
(a) machine cutting-speed, feed-rate and depth of cut
(b) Cutting-tool material and its geometry
(c) The workpiece, hardness or strength. ductility; chemical
composition; thermal properties; microstructure; manufacturing process of
raw material.
This quantitative assessment of machinability as an index or number is
desirable, and considerable research is being carried out to evolve just such an
assessment. It will however, be some time yet before the engineer will have
such a unit, based on quantitative measurement. Some engineering manuals
and handbooks contain data on relative machinability. The materials selected
are generally rank materials, such as copper, steel, aluminium, etc., with a
common material taken as a reference or standard.

Tool Erosion

Progressive wearing-away of the tool The term wear, as customarily used in

relation to tools means any process by which material is removed from the

74
tool surface in the form of particles too small to be visible under a hand lens.
Researchers have shown that a large number of different wear processes can
operate, including abrasion, adhesion with material transfer at asperities,
corrosion with removal of the product by chemical action, etc. Which process
operates depends on the environmental conditions. Too often it as been
assumed that wear must be due to abrasion by hard particles in the work
material. Since metallic wear is, in general, a complex of phenomena,
involving chemical, physical and mechanical processes, often in combination,
it is clear that only a brief examination of the mechanics of wear can be
discussed.
Two phenomena that occur during machine-tool cutting are edge wear and
crater wear (figure 3.1 ).

Edge Wear (figure 3.1 a) This occurs along the clearance faces of the tool
and is mainly the result of friction and abrasion. Adhesion is also a factor
because welding of the tool to the work material causes a built-up edge wh ich
is torn away, taking particles of the tool material with it (figure 3.1d).
Thermal cracking, due to thermal shock, is also a cause of breakaway of small
particles, leading to edge wear (figure 3.1c).

Crater Wear (figure 3.1 b) This occurs on the rake face of the tool at the
point of impingement of the chip with the tool and is mainly the result of
high temperatures and high pressures. These temperatures and pressures cause

( c)

(a)

<cl

Figure 3.1 Tool erosion (a) edge or flank wear; (b) cratering; (c) thermal
cracking; (d) edge build-up

75
microscopic portions of the tool to become welded to the chip, torn out and
washed away.
Edge wear is a prime concern when machining material which has a brittle,
flakey chip, or any material which machines with a discontinuous chip.
Strong wear-resistant cutting-tool materials must be used under these
conditions.
Crater wear is a problem in cutting most steels and high-alloy irons,
although a combination of both edge wear and crater wear occurs. To combat
crater wear, titanium carbide can be added to the tool material. This lowers
the adhesion tendency because the welding temperature of steel and titanium
carbide is higher than that of steel and tungsten carbide, as found in most
cutting-tool materials. The addition of titanium lowers edge-wear resistance,
however. Better crater resistance is obtained from addition of titanium and
tantalum carbides.

Premature Failure of the Tool If worn tools are examined under a

microscope, a factor other than flank wear can be seen to have contributed to
the loss of shape of the tool cutting-edge. This is the chipping and minute
fracturing of the cutting edge and is the most common cause of tool failure.
While a single impact or stressing is probably the most common cause of
chipping, it is not the only one. Fracture may be caused by the mechanical
~tress involved in interrupted cutting, particularly in milling, which is more
the result of fatigue action at stresses considerably lower than where simple
chipping is the result of a single impact.
In interrupted cutting, the action is complicated by the occurrence of
thermal cracking (figure 3.1c), these cracks are formed as the result of stresses
originating in the local expansion and contraction due to rapidly fluctuating
temperatures and steep temperature gradients. They take the form of a series
of cracks usually developing ftom a position on the rake face at a short
distance from the edge, that is, at the position where the maximum
temperatures occur.

CUTTING-TOOL MATERIALS

Cutting tools are required to have a high degree of hardness and toughness,
good wear resistance, mechanical and thermal-shock resistance and an ability
to maintain these properties at the temperatures occurring during cutting.
High hardness usually gives the tool good wear resistance, but may be
associated with low toughness and poor mechanical-shock resistance. Lack of
chemical affinity between the tool and work material will also improve wear
resistance. From a production point of view the tool material should be
readily obtainable and easy to manufacture.
In view of the fact that the temperature in cutting is considerably higher
than room tempe'rature and varies with cutting speed, feed and depth of cut,

76
the changes in tool requirements with temperature are of considerable
importance to tool life. The property of the tool material which reflects the
ability to withstand deformation in cutting, is 'hot hardness'. As between
groups of tool materials room-temperature hardness is not a very good
measure of this factor in tool life. Carbon-tool steels may have higher
hardness at room temperature than high-speed steels (figure 3.2). Among
carbide-tool materials hardness at room temperature is a better guide since
tools lower in cobalt content generally have superior resistance to hot
deformation. There are various cutting-tool materials available each one
having advantages and limitations in machining operations. A brief review of
the more common cutting-tool materials used in industry today follows.

Carbon-tool Steel

An alloy steel containing about 1 per cent carbon, together with alloying
elements has been used as a cutting tool for many years: it is classed as a
carbon-tool steel'. Some alloying elements such as chromium and manganese
improve the hardenability and the addition of tungsten increases the
wear resistance. Tungsten forms hard tungsten-carbide particles which are
dispersed in the tool material.
It can be see in figure 3.2 that any appreciable rise in cutting temperature
will affect the hardness of the carbon-tool steel, and this sets a serious
limitation on the use of such a cutting-tool material. Carbon-tool steel can only
be used at slow cutting speeds and where the material being cut develops low
cutting temperatures, otherwise it will temper itself and soften. The use of
such steels in industry is generally limited to the tool room for the

1500

<f>
<f>
Q)
c
"0
0
.I::
"0
E
2
;>,
Q

~
u
c
0
E 500
.'2
"0

I
high-speed
steel

I
250 500 750 1000
temperature (°C)

Figure 3.2 Effect of temperature on hardness of various tool-materials

77
manufacture of special-purpose form tools. The profile on the cutting tool
may be plunge ground. If the necessary grinding equipment is not available
the tool form can be produced while in an annealed state; after this forming
operation the required hardness for machining is obtained by suitable heat
treatment.

High-speed Steel

High-speed steel {H.S.S.) is an alloy with a high percentage of tungsten (or

molybdenum). chromium together with vanadium in addition to iron and
carbon. It can be seen in figure 3.2 that this tool material is not appreciably
affected by cutting temperatures below 600° C. High-speed steel is said to
possess a high hot (red) hardness value, that is, the ability to retain its hardness
value even when the swart is leaving the workpiece at red heat. This is attributed to
the metallurgical phenomenon known as secondary hardness, (figure 3.3).
This steel is also tough and shock resistant.
High-speed steel cutting-tools are used exte'lsively in machine shops in the
form of drills, reamers, broaches, milling cutters, gear hobs and for many
machining operations on lathes and other machine tools.
It is interesting to note that carbon-tool steel is harder than high-speed
steel at temperatures below 250°C. From an economic point of view
carbon-tool steel should be used for slow cutting processes where the cutting
temperatures are relatively small.

Stellite

Stellite is the trade name for an alloy very s~milar in composition to high
speed steel, but with the addition of cobalt. With reference to figure 3.2 it

------'secondary hardness'
z phenomenon associated
n: 700 with the presence of
:> vanadium in high-
V> speed steel
V>
"'
c
"2
0
L

tempering temperature (°C)

Figure 3.3 Relationship between hardness and tempering temperature for

high-speed steels

78
can be seen that stellite is harder than high-speed steel at temperatures above
500°C; it maintains this hardness and cutting edge even at red heat. Stellite
tools are ideal for rapid machining of hard metals.
Liquid stellite is self hardening on cooling; this characteristic is fully
appreciated when manufacturing stellite cutting-tools. Stellite can be
purchased in bars of round or square section for manufacturing cutting tools;
also stellite inserts are available to attach to tough steel milling-cutter bodies.
When these inserts become worn or damaged they may be refurbished using a
stellite electrode of the arc-welding equipment as described in chapter 2. The
stellite, having been welded to the insert, becomes extremely hard on cooling;
it is then necessary to grind the required cutting angles back on the blade.

Sintered Tungsten Carbides

Sintered tungsten carbides are used extensively today in high-volume

production applications. This is due principally to the economic advantages
that the carbide tool-material provides. Tungsten and its alloys have
extremely high melting temperatures and since tungsten itself melts at just
above 3400°C, simple melting is impractical; fortunately powder metallurgy
presents a ready solution. Cemented carbides are a typical powder
metallurgical product. The powders of several carbide compounds are pressed
and bonded together in a matrix, then sintered to form a cemented material
of a maximum hardness and minimum porosity. The metal-cutting carbides
are a fine dispersion of a mixture of carbides, and/or a carbide solution, with
cobalt as a matrix or binder.
Sintered carbides can be classified into two types: the 'straight carbides'
consisting of tungsten carbide with a cobalt binder, and the 'steel-cutting
carbides' with additions of titanium carbide or tantalum carbide. The straight
carbides, namely tungsten carbide, have had a tremendous growth over the
past thirty years to their present position in the metal-cutting field. During
this period, carbide technology has advanced to the point where today there
are very many different grades of material available. Usually these grades are
formulated and the finished product engineered with the cutting of a certain
range of materials in mind. For example, the wear characteristics of cast-iron
machining are quite different from those of steel, hence a carbide grade with
different properties is required. During the metal-removal process, we are
concerned with certain desirable properties in the cutting-tool material; the
three main ones are edge-wear resistance, crater resistance and shock
resistance. Since no grade has been developed which has all three properties in
equal proportions at maximum values, a compromise selection must be made.
For example increase in the edge-wear resistance implies a harder material less
able to withstand shock loading.
The properties of these carbides are governed by the tungsten-carbide
grain-size and percentage of cobalt binder. The larger the carbide grain size

79
and the greater the cobalt content, the lower the hardness and impact
resistance. For longest tool life, the tool with the finest grain size and the
lowest cobalt content, which just prevents chipping and fracture, should be
used. Tungsten carbide, if used to cut steel, will fail rapidly due to excessive
crater-wear followed by complete tool-failure. This low resistance to crater
wear is thought to be due to the chip welding to the tungsten carbide and to
erosion of these grains out of the cobalt binder. As the speed and temperature
of cutting are increased the loss of tungsten carbide increases. Addition of
titanium carbide improves the crater-wear resistance, but reduces the
abrasive-wear resistance. This addition brings the compound into the class of
the steel-cutting grades.
The steel-cutting grades contain tungsten and titanium carbide with a
cobalt binder. The percentage of titanium is increased for tools to be used at
high speeds, such as finishing tools. Tantalum carbide may also be used instead
of titanium, and although it is not as effective in reducing crater wear, the
abrasion-wear resistance is as good as the straight carbides. Tantalum
tungsten-carbide tools are expensive but are useful when crater and abrasion
resistance is required.

Titanium-carbide Coatings

Coated inserts consist of the metallugical bonding of a thin coating of

titanium carbide to a tough carbide core. This produces an even tougher,
longer lasting metal-cutting insert for machining steels at higher speeds and
chip loads (figure 3.4a). The difference between conventional carbide and
coated inserts is that the latter will permit an accelerated metal-removal rate
with no loss in tool life. A thin titanium-carbide coating covers a tough core
material which is a compounded material designed to resist high cutting-loads
with related heat; the titanium-carbide coating provides a diffusion barrier.
The result is a lowering of the coefficient of friction between tool and chip
with consequent reduction of cutting forces of as much as 25 per cent and a
temperature reduction up to 70 °C.
Figure 3.4b shows two tungsten-carbide inserts; the one on the top has a
titanium-carbide coating. It can be seen that there is little sign of crater wear
as compared to the uncoated tip. This coating, 0.005 mm thick, is not
permanent but is liable to be worn away through use, and it is for this reason
it is sometimes called an ablative coating.

Ceramics Ceramics and oxides had been considered as possible cutting-tool

materials for many years but only in the last two decades have they become
commercially available. Various oxides have been investigated, but aluminium
oxide proved to be the most successful material for cutting tools. Alumina
ceramics are presently available with properties that enable them to perform
very acceptably in many metal-removal operations. These ceramic cutting
tools consist of almost pure aluminium oxide (approx. 97 per cent), or they
may contain 80 per cent aluminium oxide with titanium, magnesium and

80
 100 , v = 175 m/min
/

/
/ v= 140m/min

/
/ - - - - - t i on ium- carbide-
/
/
coa ted 1nserts
edge wear - - - c onvent ional
( mm) carbide- inserts

v =l 75 m/min
v =1 40m / min

metal removed (mm 3 x 10 6 )

top-
coated in sert

bott om-
conventional inser t

(b)

Figure 3.4 (a) Influence of titanium-carbide-coated inserts on edge wear; (b)

tungsten-carbide inserts - the top insert shows little sign of crater wear

tungsten oxides and carbides, making the percentage difference. Cemented

oxides have most of the desirable qualities for good cutting tools, for
example, high hot-hardness and wear resistance, but they are brittle and have
poor shock-resistance.

PRODUCTION-TOOL DESIGN

As far as tool design is concerned the principle factors in change of

cutting-tool design are for an improved performance, a reduced down-time of
the machine and lower maintenance costs. The trend for many years was

81
higher and higher rates of metal removal on the production line, with an ever
increasing overhead factor of tool maintenance, finally reaching the point on
many jobs where five or six men were required in the tool-supply stores to
keep one man on the production line supplied with cutting tools. Automation
and metal-cutting production emphasise two requirements in cutting tools.
First, the tools must deliver consistent results so that a regular schedule
of replacement with sharp tools can be laid out and maintained with a
minimum of unscheduled shutdown. Second, tools must be designed so that
the down-time for changing the cutting edges and the maintenance or
overheads for maintaining a supply of sharp edges will be kept to a minimum.
This requirement emphasises the need for precise mechanically held tools, for
consistency of performance and indexable tools wherever possible to
accomplish this short down-time and economic maintenance.

CEMENTED-CARBIDE CUTTING TOOLS

Four basic kinds of carbide tools are available - solid carbide, regrindable
mechanically held, brazed, and indexable throw-away insert tools.
Solid-carbide tools are used on the more specialised machining operations.
They are high in initial cost and maintenance, and are usually applicable to
boring, grooving, threading and forming operations. Regrindable mechanically
held tools are available for heavy-duty turning or planing operations. Such
tools are again rather high in initial cost and maintenance. Brazed and
indexable throw-away insert tools are more common in production machining
than the solid carbide and regrindable mechanically held tools; because of this
they will be discussed in more detail.

Brazed Tungsten-carbide-tipped Tools

Brazed tungsten-carbide-tipped tools are the most useful cutting tools.

They are low in initial cost but high in maintenance per edge, and provide
only limited carbide-grade selection. Although brazed tools are being
superseded by indexable throw-away insert tools on many production
operations, there are numerous machining jobs which can be done
economically with brazed tools. The general principles for the care of
brazed-tip tools are

( 1) Select the most suitable tool

(2) Mount it rigidly with minimum overhang
(3) Do not permit excessive wear to develop
(4) Exercise good grinding practice when reconditioning
(5) When brazing follow the recommended procedure given below.
In general several brazing techniques are available, such as gas-air blowpipe,
electric furnace, gas furnace and high-frequency heating coils. The best results

82
are obtained when using high-frequency heating coils - a process better known
as induction brazing. This is generally accepted as the most rapid and efficient
means of brazing carbide tips to shanks, where time is a factor and quantity
justifies the investment. The equipment and materials required are (a) suitable
induction-heating apparatus; (b) silver solder; (c) suitable flux. The brazing
procedure is as follows
( 1) Lightly grind the bottom and side or sides of the carbide tip that
make contact with the recess walls of the shank.
(2) Remove any grease or oil that may contaminate the joint.
(3) Apply suitable flux and place a shim of brazing material in the
flux-coated recess, and put the flux-coated tip in position (figure 3.5).
(4) Insert the assembled tool and tip in the proper size induction coil
and apply heat. This heat is maintained until, due to capillary action, the
brazing material creeps up between the walls of the recess and the tip, which
can be kept in position during the heating period with a piece of ceramic rod.
Once heating is completed a constant pressure is applied to the tip so that it
fits tightly back into the recess and is helj( down momentarily until the
brazing material solidifies. r
The recess for the carbide tip may be formed in the steel shank with a side or
end mill. The surface should be flat and smooth as any roughness under the
tip may cause it to crack in service.

lndexable Throw-away Insert Tools

Throw-away indexable insert tools were claimed to be first introduced by the

Kennametal Company in 1954, and since then have changed the outlook on

ceramic rod to
assist insert location

tool body

'0--
o----
\
copper shim

carbide insert

Figure 3.5 Induction-heating brazing-technique for tipped tools

83
production tooling. Although indexable inserts are moderately high in initial
cost, they are very low in maintenance. This technique of carbide-tip inserts
gives an unlimited number of carbide shapes and grades, providing a selection
to suit most metal-cutting operations. Indexable inserts represent the largest
percentage of single-point carbide cutting-edges in use today. Throw-away
insert tools are economical for practically all types of metal-cutting
operations for two reasons

( 1) The inserts provide a number of low cost, indexable cutting edges

(figure 3.6a).
(2) After all edges are used it is more economical to replace the insert
than it is to regrind a brazed tool.
There are three common techniques of mechanically clamping and supporting
indexable inserts. These are shown in figure 3.6.
( 1) The top clamp throw-away insert tool is designed to permit use
of utility or precision inserts with or without chip-breaker plates, as well as
inserts with pin-lock centre-holes (see section 3 below). Application of
effective chip control is provided by a chip-breaker plate made of tungsten
carbide having exceptional strength and resistance to pick-up. Adjustment for
best chip control can be obtained by using different sizes of chip-breaker
plates (figure 3.6b).
(2) The screw-on insert tools provide indexable inserts for jobs where
design or size of holder does not permit the use of clamped insert tools. On
large tools the heavy duty screw-on insert may be indexed once around and
then replaced; or it may be reground a limited number of times -depending
on the size of the insert and operation. (figure 3.6c).
(3) The most recent introduction in tools of this type are those using
an insert with a moulded hole in the centre. These inserts are locked in the
holder by means of a lever pin and have preformed groove-type chip breakers
that eliminate the need for a separate chip-breaker plate. Inserts can be either
positive or negative rake, usable on top and bottom faces to provide up to
eight indexable cutting edges. These tools are ideal for general-purpose
machining and are available with triangular, square, round or diamond shapes
to suit most machining operations (figure 3.6d).

Ceramic-tipped Cutting Tools

Ceramic-tipped cutting tools can be used as an alternative to or replacement

for tungsten-tipped carbide. It is important to note that ceramic tips must not
be tried as an indiscriminate substitute for carbides, otherwise disastrous
results may occur. Ceramic-tipped tools are based on a different technology
and to maintain a consistent machining-performance their advantages,
limitations and properties must be understood. Compared with carbide-tipped
tools, ceramics have the following advantages and limitations

84
 insert
(b) shim wi th
screw

(c)

(d}

Figure 3.6 Throw-away insert tools (a) up to eight cutting-edges; (to change
the rake merely change the insert); (b) clamp locking-system; (c) screw
locking-system; (d) pin or lever locking-system

85
Advantages
( 1 ) Superior wear resistance
(2) Equal or better resistance to abrasion and corrosion
(3) Ability to withstand higher temperatures at the tool tip, without
coolant, therefore it can run at higher speeds
(4) A tendency to give better surface finish because of reduced
friction and abrasion
(5) Excellent resistance to crater wear
(6) Better size-control due to slower wear rate

Limitations
(1) Low resistance to mechanical shock
(2) High cost from friability of the cutting edge and the care needed
in pressing and grinding, plus high raw-material cost
(3) Inability to take interrupted cuts of any severity
(4) Liability to failure from sudden breakage, making analysis of
causes more difficult
(5) Greatly limited number of geometric configurations available for
mechanical reasons
The transverse rupture strength of ceramics is only about one-half to
two-thirds that of carbide. This results in low edge-strength and limits their
resistance to impact or impingement of chips. The importance of solid support
and good clamping and pocketing of the insert cannot be over emphasised.
Ceramic inserts maintain their strength and hardness at high temperatures
(in excess of 1100°C), and cutting speeds can range from 50 per cent to
several hundred per cent higher than with carbides. This makes them very
advantageous in machining multiple diameter parts or facing operations where
the surface speed is constantly changing. The low coefficient of thermal
conductivity keeps the inserts cool even at the high cutting speeds. Chemical
inertness tends to eliminate, or reduce to an absolute minimum, edge build-up
and crater wear. Any crater wear evident could be the result of mechanical
abrasion.
It is important to consider the machine tool on which ceramic
cutting-tools are employed. It must have ample power and speed together
with a high degree of rigidity. There are of course huge numbers of machine
tools in use which do not fulfill these basic requirements for good ceramic
usage. Because of the low transverse rupture-strength of ceramics, tools until
now have had to utilise negative cutting geometry. This imposes greater
cutting forces on the part being machined and requires greater power in the
machine tool.
The most advantageous application of ceramic-tipped tools has been in
single-point turning, boring and facing operations where there is a continuous
cutting action. Ceramics are not by any means limited to light cuts, and cuts
up to 12.5 mm have been taken. Milling and interrupted cuts have been
generally unsuccessful, although there are limited examples of applications

86
which appear to be successful. The best results have been in cast iron, such as
brake-drum production, as well as heat-treated steels and high-strength
materials. Most applications have been with mechanically clamped inserts,
since the problem of satisfactory bonding of ceramics to the tool shank is still
troublesome.

CUTTER-TOOL GRINDING

No difficulty need be experienced in grinding single-point tools when grinding

procedures are followed. The essential requirement of any grinding operation
is to avoid thermal shock caused by a sudden change in temperature. The
greatest possibility of thermal shock is in brazed tools due to the difference in
expansion rates of carbide and steel. Depending on the grade of the carbide
some tip compounds expand one-third as much as steel. Therefore a brazed
tool is already strained and grinding-heat may cause failure.
A considerable saving in cutting-tool material, as well as in grinding wheels,
can be made by regrinding tools frequently. Do not put off regrinding until
the cutting edge is chipped or broken since extensive grinding of the tool
would then be necessary and perhaps incur further damage due to thermal
shock.
A tool may be damaged in one of two ways

( 1) If the surface of the cutting tool is overheated while the interior

remains comparatively cool, unequal expansion will cause crazing -a
network of hairline cracks or checks on the surface (see figure 3.1c).
(2) When grinding brazed carbide-tipped tools the steel may be over
heated while the carbide remains comparatively cool, as when grinding away
the shank below the tip, heat cracks will develop.

Diamond cup-wheels of 100 to 200 grit, resinoid or vitrified bonds, are

generally used for off-hand finish grinding of carbide-tipped tools.
Medium-bond silicon-carbide wheels, 46 to 60 grit for roughing and 90 to 120
grit for finishing, can be used for refurbishing the carbide tips.
Aluminium-oxide wheels are suitable for rough grinding the steel shank below
the tip but care must be taken to avoid grinding the tip or overheating the
steel.
Wet grinding of carbide tips will minimise the possibility of overheating
and reduce the abrasive dust condition but a fluid specially compounded for
carbide grinding is generally satisfactory. The coolant should flow liberally
onto the wheel and cover the entire working surface of the tool. Intermittent
or insufficient flow may produce alternate heating and quenching of the tool,
and cause the tip to crack due to temperature changes.

87
TOOL GEOMETRY

The general shape of cutting tools was developed in the workshops. The
craftsman had to choose the tool geometry and sharpen it to the required
form. It is therefore assumed that the angles specified were primarily defined
for ease of grinding, and through practical experience the general shape of a
cutting tool became universally accepted. It is interesting to consider the
general shape of a common lathe-tool shown in figure 3. 7, and then the
influence of the geometry on tool life and the mechanics of cutting.
Increasing the normal rake-angle reduces the cutting forces and the heat
generated in cutting. But an adverse effect of this is that by increasing the rake
angle the path for heat transfer is reduced, which can lead to an increase in
the cutting temperature; (figure 3.8a). It can be seen in figure 3.8b that there
exists an optimum rake-angle which gives a maximum tool-life. Large
rake-angles will also reduce the mechanical strength of the cutting tool so
that, although the forces are lowered, tool failure by chipping of the cutting
edge or fracture can occur. The influence of the front clearance-angle on tool
life can be best discussed with reference to figure 3.9. It will be apparent that
any increase in the clearance angle will reduce the mechanical strength; but a
more serious effect on tool life is the change in magnitude of the wear land
that develops during a machining operation. It can be seen in figure 3.9 that
the larger the wear land the greater the volume of tool wear, and the shorter
the time required to reach this wear-land value.
Increasing the side cutting-edge angle can slightly increase the normal
rake-angle, which results in some improvement in tool life. As may be seen in

side cutting-edge
clearance angle

section yy

front cutting-edge
clearance angle

Figure 3.7 British maximum-rake lathe-tool specification

88
 a_
£ ·'=E
u-
IU
0~
0 "'

j~
E a>
450
0
.2
2 E 35o
0 "'
u - 2 5oo'-------'--c---L-,----'~_j_.,--,J
0
rake-angle normal rake-angle
(a) (b)

Figure 3.8 (a) Effect of rake on tool-tip temperature; (b) effect of rake
angle on too/life

figure 3.1 0, the effect of having a large side cutting-edge angle, or a large
nose-radius, will increase the tool life but this large nose-radius is prone to
produce chatter. When machining, it is necessary to select a suitable
combination of side cutting-edge angle and nose radius to reduce the
possibility of chatter occurring during machining.

THE MECHANICS OF METAL MACHINING

The precise action of a tool when cutting has not yet been fully investigated,
but a considerable amount of research has been carried out in order to try to
elucidate the problem. Metal cutting is a complex process involving friction,
plastic flow and fracture of materials under conditions more extreme than
those normally found in material testing or in other production processes.

machining mild steel

L H
W
~
front
clearance
(90)

equal wear -land (W)

(a)

Figure 3.9 Effect of clearance angle on wear land

89
 _ _____ L
feed per feed per
/ r evol ution revolution

depth r- --0-::
;---
of cu.!.l_____, ~~~~Ln
L:J
tool

(a)

depth f -- -;Q
0 f cu.!..1._____{

tool
feed per
/....revolution
feed per
/revolution

deptiil- - - ~CJ-
of c~

too l

( b)

Figure 3. 10 Effect of plan approach-angle and nose radius on too/life (a) a

large approach-angle and large nose-radius give a long engagement of the
cutting edge and long tool-life but tend to cause chatter; (b) a small
approach-angle and small nose-radius give short engagement of the cutting
edge and short tool-life but tend to avoid temperatur-e problems

Since the cutting process involves a separation of metal it might be expected

to be a fracture process, involving crack formation and propagation. It has
been claimed that under certain conditions a crack exists ahead of the tool,
(figure 3.11 a), but usually there is no evidence to support this, which is an
indication that metal cutting is basically a shearing and plastic-flow process
(figure 3.11b). Although since most practical cutting operations such as
turning, milling or hobbing involve two or more cutting edges inclined at
various angles to the direction of cut, the basic mechanism of cutting can be
explained by analysing cutting with a single cutting-edge. There are two

(a) ( b)

Figure 3. 11 Metal cutting (a) tearing; (b) shearing (circles will help to
appreciate the shearing action)

90
cutting-techniques used in metal machining- orthogonal and oblique. One of
these two types occurs in some form with all tools, including drills, taps and
milling cutters.
The simplest of the two cutting techniques is orthogonal (figure 3.12a).
The cutting edge can be seen to be perpendicular to the direction of cutting,
and the tool edge is longer than the width of cut. A modification of
orthogonal cutting is the oblique cut, as shown in figure 3.12b. Here it can be
seen that the cutting edge is inclined to the cutting direction, giving oblique
cutting, which leads the swart away from the tool. Nearly all practical
cutting-processes are obi ique.

chip- flow
angle

(a l orthogonal cutting ( b l oblique cutting

Figure 3. 12 'Orthogonal' and 'oblique' cutting-techniques

Chip Formation

Researchers have distinguished three types of chip which have been called (a)
discontinuous, (b) continuous, (c) continuous with built-up edge. These three
types of chip are illustrated in figure 3.13. The type of chip produced in a
given cutting operation depends on many variables, some of which are given
below.

(i) Properties of the material cut - brittle, ductile

(ii) Effective rake-angle
(iii) Cutting speed
(iv) Depth of cut
(v) Feed rate
(vi) Type and quantity of cutting fluid employed.

In addition to these six, surface finish of the tool face, coefficent of friction
between the chip and tool and the temperature reached in the region of
cutting should also be considered.
Figure 3.13a shows a discontinuous chip. The formation of this type of
chip is brought about by periodic ruptures of the.chip producing small
separate segments. The conditions that give rise to this type of chip are (i)

91
 chip fragment fragments of
built-up edge adhering
to chip and workpiece

workpiece workpiece
plastic
zone
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.13 Types of chip formation (a) discontinuous chip-formation; (b)

continuous chip without built-up edge; (c) continuous chip with built-up edge

brittle work-material, (ii) low or negative rake-angles, (iii) low cutting-speed

with large depth of cut and feed rate, (iv) no cutting lubrication. This type of
chip is formed when machining cast iron and leaded brasses. From a
maintenance point of view swart collection is simplified with this chip since
no entangled masses of swart remain. This form of chip is so convenient that
when cutting a possible continuous type of chip, it is deliberately broken up
with a 'chip breaker', providing a safety factor as a bonus since a revolving
continuous chip can be an operator hazard; increasing cycle time with the
need for disentanglement.
Figure 3.13b shows a continuous chip. The formation of this type of chip
is brought about by plastic metal-flow or shear. One theory supports plastic
flow, the other simple shear on a plane running from the tool point to a point
on the free work-surface (figure 3.11 ). The conditions that give rise to this
type of chip are (i) moderately ductile material, (ii) large rake-angles, (iii)
high cutting-speeds with small depth of cut and feed rate, (iv) efficient
cutting lubricant. In production this chip form is unfavourable because of its
long stringy nature; as already stated it is often broken up by means of a chip
breaker.
Figure 3.13c shows a continuous chip with build-up. The formation of a
built-up edge on the tool is brought about by the high normal-loads on the
tool rake-face, leading to adhesion between the chip and tool. A strain-
hardened nose of material periodically builds up and breaks away from the
cutting edge of the tool several times a second, leading to cratering. The
conditions that give rise to this type of chip are similar to those for
continuous chips, but with a bias towards higher values of depth of cut and
feed rates, lower values of chip velocity and rake angle. Poor
lubricating-properties of the coolant will not prevent the work material
adhering to the tool cutting-face. To delay the formation of a built-up edge
the following factors must be considered: (i) efficient cutting-fluid, (ii) low
coefficient of friction between tool and chip, (iii) smooth surface on breast of
tool, (iv) sharp cutting-edge, (v) high cutting-speed and fine feed, (vi) large
rake-angle.

92
Cutting Condition - Speed, Feed and Depth of Cut

To appreciate the total effect that cutting speed, feed and depth of cut have
on a machining operation, their influence on tool life together with an
economic assessment must be studied.
Any increase in cutting speed, feed and depth of cut, will cause the
temperatures and sometimes the stresses near the cutting edge to increase. A
tool which is only elastically deformed under low cutting-speeds will be
plastically strained under more severe conditions. With carbon-steel tools this
deformation occurs at low cutting-speeds with ferrous work-materials.
High-speed steel tools are superior largely because they are capable of
withstanding high stresses at much higher temperatures. Each succeeding class
of tool material-cobalt-based alloys and carbides - has been capable of
supporting high compressive stresses at still higher temperatures. This is a
major reason for their success in increasing rates of metal removal. Metal
cutting is primarily an economic activity. When roughing, the aim is to
remove a particular volume of metal in minimum time or at minimum cost;
when finishing, the area of finished surface produced is the criterion. The
metal-removal rate can be expressed by the equation
u=dxfx 12vmm 2 /min
Where
u = metal-removal rate (mm 3 /min)
d =depth of cut (mm)
f= cutting feed (mm)
v =cutting speed (mm/min)

It can be seen that any increase in cutting speed, feed or depth of cut will
give a directly proportional increase in the metal-removal rate. There are
limiting values placed upon the cutting speed for each particular combination
of depth of cut and feed employed; this is to maintain a specified tool life
together with an acceptable surface finish.

Relationship Between Cutting Speed and Tool Life

Within the range of cutting speeds normally employed in machine shops,

there is a relationship between cutting speed and tool life. This relationship
may be represented by the empirical law
vT" = C
better known as Taylor's equation. This equation can be represented by a
curve such as the one shown in figure 3.14a. C and n are two constants
and can be determined graphically using log scales (figure 3.14b).
Any increase in cutting speed has two main effects upon the economics of
cutting (i) the metal-removal rate is increased, (ii) the tool life is decreased.

93
 cutting speed I og v
v m/min vT"=C
log v +n log T= log C
log v =-nlog T+log C

min tool life (T) log T

(a) (b)

Figure 3. 14 Graphs of relationship between cutting speed and too/life

An increase in the rate of metal removal will lower the cost of metal removal;
a reduction in the tool life will bring about an increase in tooling costs. The
two effects have a combined influence on machining costs; this is best
illustrated graphically as shown in figure 3.15. It can be observed that there
exists an optimum cutting-speed; note that experimentation is required to
predict such a cutting-speed value.

Negative-rake Machining

The advancement of negative-rake machining in recent years must be

attributed to the manufacture of cemented-carbide and ceramic-tipped tools.
It has been shown in earlier sections of this chapter that a condition for

cost per rate of

piece production

\
\
\
\ q

------------~~~------------cf
Cm

v
em= machine costs q =rate of production
c, = tool costs Cp =production costs
cf = fixed overheads v =cutting speed

Figure 3.15 Machining cost and rate of production as a function of cutting

speed

94
effective machining with tipped tools is extremely high cutting-speeds. This
cutting condition is limited, especially when machining ductile steels using a
positive-rake tool, since the carbide is susceptible to metallic adhesion
resulting in cratering. Fracture of the tool edge is imminent and accelerated
by the nature of the cutting force, which is tending to rupture the carbide tip
by inducing surface tension (figure 3.16a). To acquire the full potential of
carbide- and ceramic-tipped tools when machining ductile steels the cutting
forces should be compressive. Negative-rake machining imposes a force
condition that is compressive, thrusting extremely high pressures on the tip
well within its capability (figure 3.16b).
It is well known that high cutting-speeds promote good chip formation
and consequent good surface finish. Negative-rake cutting-tools achieve these
conditions, operating efficiently at higher speeds and permitting heavier feeds
and depth of cut than positive rakes, while providing excellent tool-life.
It would be expected when machining with negative-rake cutting-tools that
the cutting force would continue to increase as the rake angle became more
negative. It has been shown by researchers that the cutting force could
actually be reduced in changing from+ 10 to- 10 degree rake angle. This can
be attributed to a reduction in friction at the chip-tool interface together
with the heat softening of the chip, assisting its removal. However, it must be
appreciated that to attain this condition of lower cutting-force the machine
tool must have a high cutting-speed range, maximum rigidity and an adequate
power-supply.
Negative-rake cutting is an impressive sight compared with positive-rake
cutting. The observer will notice the extremely high cutting-speeds used and
the red-hot condition of the swart. On completion, the immaculate
surface-finish and coolness of the cutting tool and workpiece are sure to
impress. Some of these factors can be attributed to the very low heat-
conductivity rate, which is due to the high speeds and the thermal resistance
at the chip-tool interface; the heat stays in the chip. The heat that is

tip tending
to break off
due to tensile
bending- stress
~
thrust -
~~~;;,'"""''"'

(a l positive-rake cutting (b) negative-rake cutting

Figure 3. 16 Comparison between negative- and positive-rake cutting

95
conducted is absorbed into the tool, recording little temperature rise. This is
due to the relatively high mass-content, as compared to the positive-rake
cutting-tool, and therefore higher thermal capacity (figure 3.16).
Negative-rake tools are not the best for every machining operation; there
are many applications where positive-rake cutting is more advantageous such
as
(a) When machining small-diameter work where the turning speed is
low, affecting the possible cutting speed.
(b) The machining of thin-walled components and relatively long,
small-diameter shafts which are susceptible to deflection. The slight reduction
of cutting forces, and slower speeds achieved with positive rake may provide
noticeable decrease in component deflection
(c) When machining components that require a significant length of
tool-shank overhang, for example boring, the slight reduction in cutting
forces achieved with positive rake may provide noticeable decrease in shank
deflection.

MEASUREMENT OF CUTTING FORCES

It is important that designers and production engineers have an understanding

of the possible forces that can act on a cutting tool during a machining
operation. Machine tools, cutters and jigs and fixtures are designed so that
they have the necessary structural rigidity and strength to withstand the
effect of cutting forces generated during a machining operation. The
production engineer is concerned with determining the working conditions
that give the minimum manufacturing cost per component. Because of this,
full information must be made available on the manner in which the cutting
forces vary with cutting conditions.
Cutting-tool dynamometers are designed to investigate the cutting action of
lathe tools and twist drills, and can be used in most production machine-
shops. The cutting forces acting on a lathe tool or twist drill can be measured
directly; the magnitude and direction of these forces depends on a
considerable number of factors such as

(a) Cutting tool angles- rakes, clearances, and other necessary cutting
angles
(b) Type and condition of component material
(c) Type of coolant
(d) Condition and power of the machine tool
The production engineer may well investigate the effect on metal cutting by
varying a, band c above, to find the optimum cutting angles, coolants, etc.
The fundamental principles of measurement and calculating cutting forces
using a turning tool and drill dynamometer are common. Briefly therefore the

96
drill dynamometer is designed to measure, proportionally, the torque and
thrust required to maintain a drill cutting-action. The lathe-tool
dynamometer is discussed in more detail.

Lathe-tool Dynamometer

There are many forms of lathe-tool dynamometer; they are classified

according to their force-measuring principle, that is, mechanical or electrical.
The basis of the electrical measuring-units is the accurate measurement of any
small elastic deformation or deflection of a flat steel circular diaphragm
caused by the cutting force. This accurate measurement is made using a
strain-sensing device and the necessary electronic equipment. The mechanical
measuring system is by far the most common used in machine shops- its
construction is described below.
It is more convenient to measure the cutting force acting at a point on the
turning tool in three mutually perpendicular components, in planes related to
the axes of work rotation and direction of feed (figure 3.17). The
dynamometer is designed to measure the three components in their respective
planes: (a) the feed force, (b) the radial force, (c) the tangential force. The
cutting tool is held in the central tool-holder, and is allowed to move by
minute amounts in any direction under the influence of the force applied to
it.

Figure 3.17 Three mutually perpendicular cutting-force components

During a cutting operation the tool will be subjected to a cutting force.

This force influences the radial-, tangential- and feed-force gauges which
are simply calibrated dial test indicators (D.T.I.). The reaction of the
cutting force is transmitted through a system of metal-strip levers which
are pivoted so that any deflection can be recorded by the respective D.T.I.
During the cutting action the radial, tangential and feed D.T.I. deflections are
noted, and by means of their respective calibration charts the three
component-forces can be determined.
The magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on the cutting
tool may either be calculated or constructed using a suitable scaled drawing.
It will be found necessary to find the resultant of any two component-forces
and then add the third force to it in a similar manner (figure 3.18). The
largest of these three component-forces will be the tangential force. This
force may be considered approximately equivalent to the force present in the

97
 Figure 3. 18 Resultant cutting-force

turning moment of the workpiece, and can be used to estimate the power
necessary for a particular cutting-operation.

The turning moment is given by

torque= tangential force x radius of work
T= Ft x r Nm
power= (2rrN) T W
where
2rrN = cutting speed (sec -l)
Note Power = Nm/s, 1 Watt = 1 Nm/s.

The cutting tool used in the dynamometer will invariably belong to a set of
similar turning tools, each having some specific design feature; for
convenience consider that each tool has a different top rake, that is,
6,1 0, 15,18,22 and 28 degrees. These tools may be used to investigate the
effect that top rake has on the machining force (figure 3.19).
Machinability of different metals is a test often carried out using the
cutting-tool dynamometer. Here the cutting force is the criterion for
machinability with all other cutting conditions and metal-sample sizes kept
constant. It should be noted that whatever tests are carried out using a
dynamometer, for the tests to have any comparative value the machining
conditions must be constant allowing only one variable (a) side rake, (b)top
rake, (c) approach angle, (d) cutting fluid, (e) machinCJbility..

98
 cutting
force

negative positive
top-rake angle

Figure 3.19 Effect of rake angle on cutting force

RADIAL AND TANGENTIAL CUTTING

Radial cutting is a common sight in all machine shops; here the cutting tool is
presented to the workpiece in a radial direction as shown in figure 3.20a.
Tangential cutting is a technique whereby the tool is presented to the
workpiece in a plane tangential to its surface as shown in figure 3.20b. These
two cutting techniques are used extensively in production. It may be seen
from the detailed illustrations in figure 3.20 that the tangential cutting-tool
has a greater ability to absorb cutting forces than the radial tool. This rigidity
counteracts any possibility of deflection and vibration taking place. The
popular application of tangential turning is in form tools where there exists a
relatively large work-tool contact-area, which with a radial cutter would
result in excessive chatter.

cutting
farce

susceptible
to vibration

(a) radial cutting (b) tangential cutting

Figure 3.20 Radial and tangential cutting

99
CUTTING FLUIDS

The primary objective of a machining operation is to produce a component

within some tolerance for dimensional accuracy, surface finish and approach
some economic optimum. To be useful, a cutting fluid must assist in
achieving this objective. There is a large range of cutting fluids and therefore
selection should be a rational operation. The full characteristics of a selected
cutting fluid must be understood before it is used. Some of the properties
that a cutting fluid should possess are
(1) to cool the tool, chip and workpiece
(2) to lubricate the tool and chip
(3) to wash away swarf
(4) to increase the life of the tool, or permit increased cutting speed
(5) to improve the surface finish of the workpiece
(6) to reduce the cutting forces and power consumption
(7) to protect the machine tool and workpiece from rust and corrosion
Experiments have shown that the heat produced in the cut is a prime cause of
tool wear and that 75 per cent of the heat is due to metal deformation and 25
per cent to friction at the chip-tool interface. The ideal cutting-fluid would
be an oil or compound combining excellent lubricating qualities with equally
good cooling properties. This is not always possible because many of the best
cutting lubricants do not possess good cooling-properties or vice versa. For
example pure water, with a specific heat twice that of oil and thermal
conductivity four times greater than oil, is one of the best coolants available,
but its lubricating values are negligible. In some production machine-work
cooling of tool and work becomes more important than lubricating, and
therefore coolants containing a large proportion of water should be used.
Soluble oils are by far the most common of all cutting fluids; they are
compounds of soaps and oils in the form of pastes or liquids, that emulsify
readily when mixed with water. Wetting agents, detergents, and synthetic
esters and waxes are added in some soluble oils. Combinations of oil and
water must be converted to emulsions, where the oil takes the form of small
globules and functions mainly as a rust preventative. The efficiency of the
fluid as a coolant, depends on the dispersion and size of the globules. Often
the user of soluble oils makes his own emulsion, using cold water. This action
normally produces very 'coarse' emulsions which are often unstable, resulting
in frequent breakdown of the cutting compound with oil layers forming on
the fluid surface. This breakdown can be overcome with the use of
semi-synthetic cutting-fluids. These fluids are manufactured under controlled
conditions producing stable emulsions and all the user has to do is dilute with
water.
It is known that when machining steel, temperatures and pressures at the
tool point approach 700°C and 1 400 000 kN/m 2 • Ordinary lubricants could
not be fully effective under such conditions, for oil and other liquids would

100
vaporise or be squeezed out where the chip metal touched the tool face.
'Extreme pressure' (E.P.) chemical lubricants have been developed to
overcome vaporisation and squeezing out from chip-tool interface. E.P.
chemicals react with the actual chip and tool apart. The low shear-strength of
these compounds permits the chip to slide more easily over the tool face
thereby reducing friction. The water dissipates the remaining heat. Additives
such as phosphorous, chlorine or sulphur provide the required lubricant for
E.P. cutting fluids. E.P. fluids are ideal for low-speed machining.
The rate of flow of cutting fluid should be as high as possible. For the
majority of operations a large volume of fluid at low pressure is required. The
jet should not be at high pressure, which would cause splashing and in some
cases lead to most of the fluid by-passing the working zone.
The majority of machine tools have their own cutting-fluid system,
whether built-in or attached, but in large production shops it is sometimes
the practice to have a central supply system, which pipes the fluid to various
machines. Whichever system is used, each should have an effective filtering-
network and settling tanks to remove any contaminants from the cutting
fluid.

OU ESTIONS

1. Discuss the effect on tool life of the following factors: (a) cutting-tool
material; (b) the effective rake-angle; (c) friction at the tool-face; (d)the
built-up edge; (e) the use of a suitable cutting fluid.

2. Explain why it is important to know the approximate length of life

which can be expected from a cutting tool.

3. List the factors that can lead to premature failure of the cutting tool.

4. Sketch three common techniques of mechanically clamping and

supporting indexable inserts.

5. Explain why it is necessary to maintain a very high-quality cutting-edge

on cemented-carbide tools, and the methods by which such edges are
maintained.

6. Describe two different methods by which continuous chips can be

broken, explaining the action of the chip breaker and how it helps to
reduce machining problems.

7. Sketch the conditions of chip formation and discuss the production of

continuous type chips (i) without built-up edge, (ii) with built-up edge.

101
 8. Sketch the shape of the working portion of a standard straight-edged
lathe tool, inserting names for the various tool-angles.

9. Describe any simple cutting-force dynamometer. Explain how the

readings are obtained, and to what use they are put. What is meant by
calibrating the dynamometer?

10. A new type of steel is to be machined on a lathe. (i) Outline briefly the
tests required to determine optimum top-rake and cutting speed for the
material. (ii) How would you judge when the tool under test had
failed?

102
 4 Advanced Lathe-operations

TURNING

This description of a machining process covers a very wide range of machine

tools, the actions of different cutting tools, coolants and their application to
the sequence of operations necessary to produce a component to the required
specification.
The term 'turning' usually refers to the machining of the external surfaces,
while machining internal surfaces is termed 'boring'. It is confusing that
machine tools specified as 'borers' whether vertical or horizontal can also
turn, while machines used for turning can bore. It can be an advantage to
separate the work carried out under the blanket term of turning into two
groups

( 1) The component rotates while the cutting tools are stationary.

(2) The component is stationary while the cutting tool rotates.
The former process is in general use in a greater number of applications
throughout industry, while the latter is more suited to the machining of very
large, irregular and heavy components.

TURNING BETWEEN CENTRES

Lathe Centres

Mile Centres Lathe centres are standardised with an included angle of 60°
(figure 4.1a). One is used in the tailstock of the machine to provide a bearing
point for long and heavy components. The Morse-taper section is of a variety
of sizes to accommodate the machine in which it is being used. The 60° point
normally wears with use and since the centre is made of hardened steel it has
to be reground periodically. Normal life between regrinds can be greatly
extended with the use of a carbide insert, which can be replaced after very
prolonged use (figure 4.1b). This material with a curved form of centre
drilling greatly reduces the frictional contact between the lathe centre and the
form produced by the centre drill (figure 4.2).

103
 ---~ !-

(c)

(d) ~
Figure 4. 1 (a) Male centre 60° (sometimes 75-90° for heavy work); (b)
male centre - carbide insert; (c) live centre; (d) combination centre-drill

A male centre can be 'dead', that is, of solid construction to provide the
pivot around which the work revolves- 'live' centres are centres that are
specially made, housing a series of ball and thrust races. The male point of
this centre rotates on engagement with the item being turned, and eliminates
the frictional disadvantage and the inability of the dead centre to be used at
high speeds (figure 4.1c).

(a) (b) (c) ( d) (e)

Figure 4.2 Conventional centre-drill holes (a) correct centring; (b) incorrect
angle of centre; (c) causes uneven wear; (d) recessed centre-hole protects hole;
(e) curved centre-drilled hole

104
Female Centres A morse-taper body with a female (concave) 60° included
angle bearing area is shown in figure 4.3. A centre of this type can
accommodate pointed or ball-ended items which cannot be centre drilled.
Again, the lathe centre can be obtained either 'live' or 'dead'. Both male and
female lathe-centres can be supplied with detachable 60° bearing points, to
accommodate large bores, pipes, tubes, etc. or ·balls and points.

- ---£)1-1- l
Figure 4.3 Female lathe-centre

The Use of Centres in Components

Centres or centre-drilled holes are normally machined in components to

facilitate manufacture. They also provide a safeguard when machining
difficult items, in that they provide an additional bearing point supporting
the work, usually at the extremeties. The depth and diameter of the centre
drill depend upon the purpose for which it is needed. Obviously heavy
components need a bigger centre-drill pivot-point than others.

Centre Protection

When a number of machining operations are to be carried out a protected

form of centre-drilled hole is advantageous. Shown in figure 4.2 are five types
of centre hole. In figure 4.2d the 60° included angle of the bearing surface
has a measure of protection against accidental damage. In figure 4 .2e the
bearing surface is curved, the angle of the tailstock centre being in point
contact with the arc at a position tangential to its radius. From the illustration
it can be seen that it is very difficult to damage the point of contact
accidentally.

Centre-hole Measurement

Measurement of manufacturing centres is considered essential since variations

can affect the datum position in subsequent machining operations.
Figure 4.4a illustrates that a simple 'free-hand' measurement can be taken
without the use of a sophisticated gauge. When quantities of components
need a constant quick check of the depth of centre drilling a simple gauge as
illustrated in figure 4.4b should cater for this requirement, maintaining the
position of the centre relative to the datum face within the limits of the
planned tolerance.

105
 x"

T l._ •
''~-'I
\ I
\'
I

II

(ol

l _ __ __
toleronce -
t . I
I

~1--====
lo-1.- - - -
1 r----
~~
I
I

\,'... ....,J

I
\ I

(b)

Figure 4.4 Centre-hole measurement

Mandrels

For work that has a constant close-tolerance internal-bore such as is produced

by broaching, reaming or grinding and where the variation is controlled by
plug or air gauge, mandrels can provide an accurate means of production.
These can be splined, tapered or parallel shouldered and can effectively permit
machining to take place when both faces and outside diameter must be square
to each other within the specified tolerance at a given diameter; figure 4.5
illustrates two different sectional mandrels. Since the position of each
component on the mandrel must always be constant to allow preset tooling
to machine to the planned requirement, it is essential that the loading of the
component on to the mandrel is controlled. The method illustrated in
figure 4.6 is in common use. The effort to assemble and remove the
components is supplied by a press of some kind.

106
 (o)

(b)

Figure 4.5 (a) Plain mandrel; (b) expanding mandrel

ml- • - - press rom

press bose

Figure 4.6 Loading a component in a mandrel

107
 Slight variations on bore diameter can be accommodated by a range of
mandrels, usually 2 off for a range of 0.05 mm tolerance. If the production
rate is high then more than one set is necessary, each set being us.ed
alternately, loading being carried out during the machine cycle. The drive is
by a special face-plate with each mandrel located between centres. Flats
machined on one end of the mandrel provide the drive, being located in a
pocket or slot in the special face-plate. In figure 4.6 the mandrel can be either
plain or splined, the datum position being controlled by a flange on the
mandrel. Squareness and cleanliness are of paramount importance for the
high degree of accuracy needed.

Work Driver

When work is driven between centres, and where the marking of the surface is
not critical, an automatic gripping work-driver can be used. It has the
advantage of being very rapid to load and unload, can be arranged to drive in
either direction, can accommodate out-of-round blanks in a range of
diameters and is projection-free.

Work Holding -Special Applications

This heading covers such a wide variety of methods that total coverage is.
virtually impossible. Before a decision of the type of work-holding fixture is
made the following points need consideration

(i) The number of components to be produced

(ii) The accuracy of dimensions to be maintained throughout the
batch
(iii) It must be safe and convenient to-use
(iv) Whether power or manually operated
(v) The cost of manufacture
(vi) The cost of maintenance.

When quantities are small, say to a maximum of 6 off, the ability and skill of
the operator often eliminates the need for special equipment. The problem is
usually resolved with job knowledge and imagination. If quantities are large to
very large, then special work-holding equipment may be necessary. This can
range from modified jaws on standard chucks to hydraulically operated
clamping fixtures on special face-plates.
Obviously when the component is being machined it must be held safely
and securely during the process. It must not flex or move in any way to
prevent the size being achieved within the specified tolerance. For this reason
the method of holding is of major importance. The following descriptions of
work-holding equipment and the type of applications will give a guide to
some of the methods which are in use throughout industry.

108
Collets Collets are used in industry where repetition of the required
accuracy is essential. They can be used when the component or material to be
machined has a suitable configuration by which it can be held (figure 4.7a).
Normally the suraces should have a good finish since any projections or
irregularities will alter the centre of revolution, affecting the required
dimensions. The action of securing the collet on the machine can be by hand,
via a screw thread, or pneumatic or hydraulic with piston and cylinder. The
action of the collet is based on the accuracy of two mating tapers and the
action of the female taper is to compress the male taper as it moves into it
along the axis (figure 4.7b). This compression action is facilitated by the slots
that are machined axially in the collet permitting the radial movement
necessary to grip and hold the work piece. A disadvantage in collet use is the
limited movement of the collet jaws; variations in diameter do not allow the
maximum length of contact necessary during the machining process.

Collet Arbors Collet arbors provide location for parallel or taper bored
components on a true centre-line with very accurate repetitive results. Details
of their adjustment and action are illustrated in figure 4.8. A taper-headed
screw A has a hexagon form machined on its taper section identical to the
form on item C. The adjustment screw A engages in a draw bar which moves
axially through item C. 8 is a plain-diameter collet that has internal taper-flats
machined to mate items A and C. The gripping action is obtained by drawbar
movement expanding the split collet. Release of the component is obtained
by the opposite movement relaxing the collet.
Adjustment of screw A will expand the collet keeping it within the
working range of the draw bar. This design provides a wedging action with the
mating flats giving the maximum area of contact within the bore. Axiill
movement is provided pneumatically, hydraulically, electrically or
mechanically. Concentricity is maintained to 0.02 mm total indicator reading
(T.I.R.).

p;lq
circle

(o )

(b )

Figure 4.7 (a) Collect sections; (b) collect closing-action

109
 A

precision mated f lat s on both

expander and arbor body

Figure 4.8 Expanding collet-arbor

Chucks

Self-Centring Chucks -Manually Operated; Scroll Type Self-centring

chucks can be supplied with 2, 3, 4, or 6 jaws. These jaws can be outside- or
inside-gripping and are usually hardened, but jaw blanks can be obtained in a
soft state for special applications. These chucks are chosen to suit the
component requirement, greater accuracy being obtained by using a greater
number of jaws. The construction of a self-centring chuck is illustrated in
figure 4.9b. Disadvantages of self-centring chucks are that they cannot clamp
blank or out-of-round items to maintain accuracy. The scroll is liable to
distort through repeated use on a set diameter. One advantage is that they are
very easy to clamp concentrically on round, triangular or hexagonal material,
the number of jaws on the chuck deciding the suitability to clamp square or
triangular combinations. Scrolls can be lever or gear operated, and clamping
the component using all the chuck key positions is an advantage.

{a l (b)

Figure 4.9 Lathe chucks (a) independent 4-jaw chuck; (b) 3-jaw
self-centring chuck (cut-away shows scroll)

110
Use of Soft Jaws To ensure that any machining carried out after clamping is
concentric, it is essential that the soft jaws are first bored to the diameter of
the component to be machined. This initial preparation is done in situ; a
kno'!Vn round blank or disc is held firmly in the chuck; the position at which
it is held must obviously be adjacent to the gripping areas. The diameter of the
disc is important since the smaller the diameter relative to the item to be
machined, the greater the amount that must be machined from each chuck
jaw to give the requisite diameter for gripping the component, hence a reduction
in the useful life of soft jaws. Because the chuck jaws are now concentric
at that diameter any eccentricity is eliminated which could exist if the scroll
were rotated to another position, since it may have suffered distortion
through careless use. For internal gripping a similar procedure incorporating a
ring can be used. Again the relationship of diameters is important for jaw life
and to maintain an arc on each jaw giving maximum area of contact.
When soft jaws are used to accommodate special sections they must be
machined by a different method to the one described above because of the
different formation of the clamping areas. The chuck is removed from the
machine and mounted, for example, on a rotary table. It can either be spigot
mounted, or the outside diameter of the chuck can be used to obtain
concentricity to a minimum total indicator reading (T.I.R.) during the
milling, slotting or grinding process.

Soft Jaws/Hard Jaws , To provide even more versatility and economy with
chuck jaws, some chucks are constructed with a base jaw which is driven by
the scroll plate (figure 4.10a). The face of the base jaw is machined with
serrations. The top jaw is bolted to this surface. The top jaw can be standard
soft, hard or special, depending on the component that is to be held.
Variation in diameter or shape can be accommodated with this concentric
chuck since the serrations can be adjusted to provide the concentricity
required. A component once set must always be loaded in the same radial
position.

Power Chucks

Pneumatic, Hydraulic and Electric-operated Wedge-type Power-chuck - 2-, 3-

and 4-jaw models This is recommended when a powerful grip is necessary.
It is also quick in action and eliminates fatigue in operator loading. Once the
jaws have gripped the work, power is necessary to release them. The danger of
power failure would not then apply, the jaws being in effect fail-safe. The
construction is simple and very strong. A central draw-sleeve moves the base
jaws forward or in a reverse direction by means of a steep taper slide on the
draw sleeve, which engages in a tee mating-projection on the loose jaw as the
draw sleeve is actuated by a cylinder in one direction or the other, so that the
jaws are either moved to the centre of the chuck or pushed outwards in the
reverse direction.

111
 topped holes for
securing jows

jaws balled
onto serration

(a l

(b)

Figure 4.10 (a) Soft-jaw/hard-jaw chuck with base jaw; (b) face plate with
detachable multi-position jaiNS

Air-hydraulic Compensating 2·, 3- or 4-jaw Chuck Some components

require many different machining operations. These may all be done from a
common datum, for example, a centre line. For manufacturing methods it is
often beneficial to introduce centre drilling at each end or at other
convenient positions to allow the component to be turned, milled, or ground
between centres. If now the component rotates on this centre line, a method
of driving must be provided. To permit the alterations in shape to be effected
this clamping method must be able to accommodate variations in roundness
or surface finish of the item to be machined. A compensating chuck supplies
these requirements.

112
 The operational features of a compensating chuck are that a cylinder is
constructed into the headstock with a piston, and a rod with a spherical end
which actuates a wobble plate or compensating plate in the chuck body.
When power is applied the compensating plate finds the mean position due to
the spherical seat.

4-jaw Independent Chuck (figure 4.9a) As the name suggests, each jaw
operates independently; the motion towards the ch1.1ck centre and outwards is
through a captive square thread. It is widely used, since wear does not affect
its action until it becomes a safety hazard. It is able to hold a great variety of
shapes and provided protection is given to the chuck gripping-surface, finished
work can be machined without detriment.

Face Plate with Detachable Multi-position Jaws Some applications require

jaws that can be attached to a standard face-plate. These are keyed and
bolted to the face plate so as to give the safest and most adequate position.
The base of the detachable jaw holds the operating screws and the reversible
jaws (figure 4.10b).

Face-plate Operations The face plate is normally a larger-diameter cast-iron

item, (figure 4.1 0), that can be screwed. on to the spindle nose, or bolted to
the spindle driving-flange. It has numerous slots and bolt holes in its surface.
Each item attached to the face plate must be 'set up' individually. If the
component is of unmanageable proportions the loading and rough setting must
be carried out off the machine. The face plate with the clamped work is
assembled to the machine afterwards. An exception to this is when the face
plate is attached to a vertical machine, where its axis is 90° to the horizontal
plane. On machines of this type the weight of the component greatly assists
the set-up, since concentricity can be achieved prior to final clamping and
rechecking.
In non-production machine shops, that is, in service departments, constant
use is made of the face plate. Items that have a multiplicity of bores with
close tolerance-dimensions can utilise tool-maker's buttons. These are ground
hollow cylinders with squared ends, and are of various lengths (figure 4.11 ).

locking
screw

section of button
secured to workpiece

button set
wood peg board

Figure 4.11 Toolmaker's buttons

113
The work is marked-out, drilled and tapped at each requisite centre-line. The
buttons are then attached to the work, the dimensions being checked by
micrometers, verniers, gauge blocks, and dial test indicators. When satisfied
with the achieved accuracy the button for that particular bore is checked for
concentricity after the component has been bolted to the face plate. When
completing each bore the work is reset to the next most convenient area to be
machined. The procedure of button boring is illustrated in figure 4.12. With
all face-plate work, when the component rotates care must be taken to correct
the out of balance forces that are usually present after setting up. Normally
this is done on the machine. The balance of forces is obtained by adding
bolt-on weights to counteract any bias brought about by the component and
clamps.

J---+-=3 holes bored

x mm diameter

1:
c
d
-I
(a)

~r~:~~?ons =~~~!~~ + 6f~cte-

thickness

toolmaker's
~--+--+- button
c===:J-o-+--+- sIi p gouges

(repeat process for c and d dimensions)

(b)

(c)

Figure 4.12 Button boring (a) jig plate; (b) setting toolmaker's buttons; (c)
set-up on lathe face-plate

114
 If the gear selector is placed in neutral, the heaviest point on the assembled
set-up will, due to gravity, rotate to bottom dead-centre. Weights can now be
attached to create a condition of balance so that when a point on the face
plate is placed at any of the 360° it will remain stationary.

MACHINING OPERATIONS

Machining Long Shafts and Bores

Bores When machining long bores, especially bores that do not pass through
the component, care must be taken to ensure that (i) the bore is parallel and
to size; (ii) the finish is acceptable throughout its length. Disadvantages with
this operation are the deflection of the boring bar, the difficulty of supplying
coolant to the cutting edge and the problem of swarf removal. Taking these
difficulties separately

Boring-bar Deflection The bar must be of adequate cross-sectional area and

of a suitable shape to permit the exit of swart particles. Boring bars can be
square, rectangular, round or elliptical in section. Tools can be mounted
diametrically opposite so as to aid balanced cutting. Tool approach-angles and
cutting angles must be produced to direct the swart clear of the bar and to
minimise the cutting forces. Two tool-profiles are illustrated in figure 4.13.
Whenever possible tool 1 is preferred since angle A0 can always be greater
than angle 8° while still maintaining a greater angle 0 than 0' which permits
greater strength and better heat dissipation, greater swart clearance at C
unlike that with the smaller angle at D.

Coolant Supply and Swart Removal Coolant can be supplied to the cutting
edge by a channel in the upper surface of the boring bar. Alternatives to this
are a hole drilled along its length or an attached tube with a variety of
nozzles. If the coolant pressure and flow are adequate, boring chips will be
flushed without difficulty. When swart is produced in a continuous piece, the
use of chip breakers will reduce the risk of damage to the operator and
prevent tangling within the bore, deflection of the bar and damage to the
surface finish. An alternative method for open-ended bores is by mounting
a boring bar between centres and clamping the component to a fixture
attached to the saddle, the bar passing through the roughed-out bore prior to
finishing.

Long-shaft Turning When a long shaft requires machining at one end

without the support of the tailstock a different method of machining is
available. The equipment used in this operation is a fixed steady. This consists
of a circular casting split and hinged. The base is machined to locate squarely
and centrally on the machine bed; it is then clamped in the required position.

115
 operotion :bore through - operation : bore and undercut operation : bore blind hole
hole or to o 15-degree and lor to o square

·~=,iol rn~
shoulder

"'";'~' ~~
~(I feed

<)feed
15°lead - angle zero lead - angle

CDQljofud
operation : bore end face to o square operation: trace internal contour
shoulder or to bottom ol o blind hole

~ ~Q]
k[!Qll~
m
<)teed

~~ (lteed ~
negative lead - angle
~p
( b)

tool 1 tool 2

(c)

Figure 4. 13 Boring (a) solid carbide boring-bar; (b) boring-bar application

guide -by operation; (c) two possible tool-profiles

116
With shafts that are extremely long in relation to their diameter, two such
steadies may be used.
The shaft is set to run within the minimum T.I.R. in the chuck, while the
free end is roughly set to run true i':' the fixed steady. The minimum T.I.R. is
then achieved for the free end by using the three adjustable bearing-surfaces
of the steady. Care must be taken to ensure that the axis of revolution is
straight since it is possible to obtain zero T.I.R. with the bar describing an
arc. The bearing pads of the fixed steady can be made of brass, nylon or fibre
and must be lubricated to reduce heat, pick up or seizure.

Travelling Steady This is normally attached to the saddle. It has two

adjustable pads or rollers and is used where the work runs true on the
diameter to be turned, or can be set to follow the tool which has turned the
diameter that needs supporting. The top and rear points of contact prevent
the component from climbing over the cutting edge and being pushed away
from the cutting edge due to flexing of the bar while being turned to size.
Where the bar is square or hexagonal a special support can be made to defeat
this difficulty. The flange will retain the section in position relative to the
cutting tool.
An alternative method for small quantities is to allow an extra length of
material to contain the centre hole which could be removed after the
machining was completed. This is only possible when the machining
requirement permits.

Turning and Boring Eccentric Diameters Existing criteria must determine

the method, quantities wanted, degree of accuracy, etc. Some components
are difficult to machine on the standard tool-room lathe and can only be
satisfactorily machined on special purpose machines. Examples of eccentric
diameters being machined on the standard tool-room lathe are shown in
figure 4.14.
When the throw of the crank is small and inside the diameter of the main
journal, it is possible to centre-drill the main-journal axis on a milling
machine. The amount of offset for the crank-pin axis is calculated and the
milling-machine table indexed to drill the additional centre. These holes are
necessary for the component mounting between centres when turning the
crank-pin diameter on the lathe. When the throw becomes greater than the
main journal diameter it is difficult to machine safely without special
equipment. This involves a special type of machine where an adjustable
centre-carrier is mounted at the headstock with a similar carrier at the
tailstock. Both must be driven and coupled together so that they rotate in
unison.
Eccentric bores can be machined using toolmaker's buttons. Special
fixtures attached to the chuck face or face plate are another alternative.

117
 (ol

( bl

Figure 4. 14 Eccentric machining (a) crank shaft; (b) three bores in jig plate

Trepanning

This describes the formation of a groove, form or shape which has to be

produced in a surface generally at a distance from the axis of revolution
(figure 4.15). Care must be taken to ensure that tools used in this process are
correctly ground, since clearance angles of the cutting edges vary according to
the diameter. If quantities are to be produced a tool which follows the
annular form may be an advantage. When the diameter of the workpiece is
small the tool is reduced in section, and the condition must be studied to
ensure that support has been provided for the cutting edge. When forms are
to be machined consideration must be given to the length of cut, that is, the
total length of contact with the tool, also to the amount of support necessary
to prevent the component flexing under this load. Work may be attached to a
fixture back plate or with small quantities a hard wood base. Magnetic chucks
where necessary tool clearance has been provided, can also be used
successfully for light machining.

Screw Cutting

Due to advancements in modern technology the role of the turner to produce

a screw thread is somewhat limited. Threaded components are now distributed

118
 (b)

--- --,,.. ----

r----

.,.,...."""'=== - -----.--- - +---

1

t-----

(c)

Figure 4.15 (a) and (b) Trepanning operations; (c) inserted carbide
cutting-bit trepanning-bar cutter-head

among many machining techniques which include rolling and grinding. Apart
from these advancements there is still a demand for turners to machine
threads on a lathe. In many industries maintenance repair items require
turned threads. Here it is far more convenient to produce a duplicate in the
company's workshop than attempt to get a replacement.
Screw cutting can take up a considerable amount of the turner's time. The
length of time and degree of effort depends on the complexity of the
component, thread form and its pitch, or with multi-start threads, its lead.
The basic requirements of screw-thread production using a centre lathe
with a single-point tool are first, a precise movement of the saddle at such a
rate that the distance travelled in one revolution of the work, is equal to the
lead of the screw being cut; second, that the cutting tool be of the form
comparable to that of the thread. The precise movement between the saddle
and work is controlled by a select gear-train. The selection of a suitable train
may be brought about by a quick-change gearbox, or in some cases when
operating on older lathes, one must design a gear train to l.ink the spindle and
leadscrew. Gear-train design is also necessary when an unusual thread-lead has
to be machined.

Lead and Pitch The pitch of a screw is the distance betvveen a point on one
thread and the corresponding point on the next. The lead of a screw is the

119
distance an independent thread or nut advances in one revolution parallel to
its axis.

Multi-start Threads

The depth of a single-start thread stands in a definite relationship to its pitch,

so that any increase in pitch carries with it a pro rata decrease of minor (or
core) diameter - this of course weakens the component, hence the need for
multiple-start threads. These are basically several independent threads running
along the component. Because of the design features of multi-start threads
they increase in lead without any decrease in screw-core diameter and
component strength.
It may have been concluded that if, for example, a three-start thread were
to be analysed, the lead would be equal to three times the pitch of the thread
form. In general it can be said for N starts
lead = N x pitch

When N = 1 (single start), the lead is equal to the pitch.

Thread Forms Figure 4.16 shows illustrations of the square, acme, and
buttress threads, etc.
In the square thread the sides are parallel and normal to the axis of the
screw, the actual depth being half the pitch. This thread is largely used for
power transmission since it offers less frictional resistance to motion than the
vee thread. These threads are more difficult to manufacture than the vee
thread owing to the square tool that must be used (figure 4.17). When
machining relatively large square threads the thread is formed with several
small cuts followed by a final forming-operation with a suitable tool. The
form tool must be ground with suitable relief-angles on the side, as shown in
figure 4.18, to clear the thread flank thus avoiding cutting away the sides of
the thread. The special tool-setting is such that its cutting face and side
clearances are equalised about the helix angle of the screw to be cut.
The acme thread (frequently used on brass, supplanting the square thread
in many applications) can be styled as a modification of the square thread. It
is much easier to cut than the square thread and the cutting tools are stronger. The
machining operation is similar to that of the vee thread with the preliminary
cuts usually being taken bya recessing tool and finally a form tool used to
complete the thread. The turning operation has to be rigidly supported to
avoid chatter and where possible a travelling steady should be used. Finishing
tools for the flanks may also be employed if desired.
The buttress thread combines the anti-friction advantages of the square
thread with the strength of the vee thread. It is often used in an undercut
form in quick-action vices; in designs where the pressure to be transmitted is
almost entirely in one direction, the buttress thread is used. These threads are
easily produced in thread-milling and thread-grinding machines.

120
 Whitworth form U.S.A. and met•ic Sl form

Ol02P

unified form (U) cycle-engineers form (C.E.)

Br~tish Association (B.A.) square thread

29°
acme thread knuckle thread

Figure 4.16 Standard thread-forms

Locating the Starts of a Multi-start Thread In machining a multi-start

thread it is important that the half-nut engagement to the lead screw occurs a1
a precise work-tool positional relationship. To do this with the minimum of
effort the chasing dial attached to the saddle is used. The thread dial is ideal
for an even number of threads, the desired 'clocking-in and -out' points can
be mentally conceived.
It is not possible to use the dial when cutting threads with an odd number
of starts (other than one). For an odd number of starts there are several
methods that can be adopted

(1) After the first helix has been cut, rotate the work in relation to
the leadscrew, by a prescribed amount, (a) indexing catch plates designed
for this purpose; (b) disconnect drive and rotate work.

121
 (c)

Figure 4. 17 Machine finishing a square thread (a) left-hand flank; (b)

right-hand flank; (c) thread bottom

(2) After one helix is formed, the compound micrometer is moved a

distance equivalent to the required pitch of the shaft (or the lead
divided by the number of starts).

To avoid cross-threading it is important to engage the half nut accurately: just

as important is the disengagement. The form tool must be rapidly withdrawn
from the workpiece on completion of the tool traverse. This action avoids
unnecessary breakage of the form tool - a tool that the turner has ground
with considerable care and attention, which, with today's overheads, can
prove relatively expensive. An alternative method is the drilling of a hole
slightly larger than half the pitch of the thread at the precise position at

trailing- side
clearance- angle

forward - side
clearance- angle

front elevation of tool

Figure 4.18 Tool shape for cutting square thread

122
which the thread ends. This hole drilled to the depth of the thread provides a
point where the screw cutting-tool can be withdrawn with safety.

Setting Up using Simple and Multiple Tool-Layouts

If the quantities to be produced are small then the tool cost will have a direct
bearing on the viability of the operation. In workshops where resources are
limited the normal method is to allow skilled operators to produce the
required part. Since the cost per hour of this labour is usually a premium rate
the saving is in their skill and ingenuity in utilising existing equipment to
perform a variety of tasks. This continuous process of addition and
subtraction of tools enables development of tools and methods to be
established prior to mass production should the need arise.
When it is anticipated that the demand for a product will continue well
into the future then the parameters affecting the choice must be considered
in a logical order. Below are listed some of the most important factors
influencing the choice of machine purchase and the type layout necessary.
(1) Size, weight, variety and number of components to be machined
(2) Speed and accuracy with which they are to be machined
(3) Gauging necessary to maintain quality
(4) Machine specification: (a) is it a proven machine? (b) are

reduced
top-rake

increased
dearance
(a) (b)

radial
ar~

(c)

Figure 4.19 Effect of tool setting on ground cutting-angles (a) tool above
centre; (b) tool below centre; (c) tool cutting on radius arm (rake and
clearance correct as ground)

123
manufacturers able to supply rapid-service spares? (c) has it intrinsic
advantages for example, small floor-area easy to maintain; access; safety?
(5) Cost: (a) capital cost; (b) cost of tooling replacement or
alternative operations; (c) production cost per unit (setting time, operator
loading time, cleaning time); (d) social consideration ('Buy British' or E.E.C.).

Simple Layouts - Single-point Cutting This term is meant to apply to

layouts where the number of tools used is small, say four tools in an
indexing-tool post with a tailstock utilising a drill chuck for centre drills,
parallel-shank drills, taper-shank drill and reamers.
All turning tools should be set on centre, that is the cutting edge is 90° to
the rotating axis. Figure 4.19 illustrates various, incorrect-height mountings
of turning tools. In figure 4.19a, the cutting edge is above centre, the work
rubs producing extra heat and wear below the cutting edge, and requires extra
pressure to increase feed. This pressure can bend the component causing the
eccentricity to damage the tool, scrap the component and possibly injure an
operator should the material be released by the machine. In figure 4.19b the
work has a tendency immediately to climb over the cutting edge, again with
similar results as in figure 4.19a. It also invalidates the feed increments,
although not to an impractical amount.

QUESTIONS

1. Describe with the aid of sketches typical centre-lathe workpieces that

would be held in the following work-holding devices: (a) two-, three-
and four-jaw chucks; (b) soft-jaw chucks; (c) face-plate; (d) collets.

2. Illustrate the technique of 'button poring'. State the degree of accuracy

that can be expected and where button boring is most likely to be
carried out.

3. (a) What means are available to protect the lathe centres, while in
operation and during loading?
(b) In quantity production why is it sometimes necessary to ensure
that the 'centre' dimensions are within specified limits?

4. (a) What are the advantages of machining components located on a

mandrel?
(b) Give three examples of mandrels, each having a different means of
component location.
(c) Give three typical components that may be machined using a
mandrel for support and location.

124
 5. (a) Describe with the aid of neat sketches the closing action of a collet.
(b) What are the advantages and limitations of collets, when operating
on quantity production?

6. (a) What precautions are necessary when machining components

attached to a face plate?
(b) What are the advantages of using face plates with detachable
multi-positioned jaws?

7. When boring or machining long shafts, what precautions are necessary

to ensure that machined surfaces are parallel to the centre axis, and
that the finish is acceptable throughout its length?

8. Why is 'trepanning' favourable when large holes are to be machined in

metal plate?

9. (a) What are the advantages of using square threads as opposed to vee
threads?
(b) Show the form of a cutting tool required to machine a square
thread, illustrating the necessary ground angles.
(c) Describe with the aid of neat sketches the procedure of turning a
multi-start square thread.

10. How does the correct positioning of a single-point cutting tool, with
respect to a radial arm of the workpiece, influence the turning
operation?

11. What factors influence the choice of machine purchase, and the type of
tool layout necessary?

125
 5 Capstan and Turret Lathes

Capstan and turret lathes are essentially similar in their general arrangement
and operation, and are developments of the centre lathe. These machines
came about due to the ever-increasing demand for machined components.
With regard to quantity, variety and dimensional accuracy the output from a
standard centre-lathe is sufficient in batch production, but would also be very
expensive. A large proportion of the cost may be attributed to the
considerable down-time of the machine during tool changes and settings.
The capstan and turret lathes are designed so that their application to the
machining of different components is accurate, rapid and relatively low in
cost per component. They permit the machining of components direct from
extruded, hot-rolled, cold-drawn, or ground bar; also from the many types of
shell-moulded, sand, gravity and pressure die-castings; from forged items,
sheet-metal pressings, tube, and hot-metal pressings. Both the capstan and
turret lathes have facilities for carrying eight or more tools, each of which
may be pre-set and brought into position for operating on the workpiece.
These features together with a system of trips and stops, and an elaborate
provision for rapid starting, stopping and speed changing incorporated with
each machine, enable large quantities of identical turned parts to be produced
in the minimum of time.
Although the capstan and turret lathes are similar there are very important
differences which influence one's choice as to which machine is used for a
particular machining operation. These differences are illustrated and discussed
in the following sections.

CAPSTAN LATHES

The capstan lathe is usually a manually operated machine tool, that has the
provision for a multiplicity of tools to enable diameters and forms to be
produced without constant tool-replacement, as on a centre lathe.
Figure 5.1 illustrates a typical capstan lathe used in the manufacturing
industry. The work-holding mechanism can be of any type as described in
chapter 4. Where components are produced from bar stock the need for
frequent replacement of short bar-lengths is overcome by ancillary bar
supports and feed mechanisms. The feed mechanism can be manual,

126
 work.
Figure 5. 1 Capstan lathe - long-bed machine fully equippe d for bar
A - bed; 8 - headstock; C - cross-slide; D - hexagon turret; E - turret
stops; F- capstan slide; G - capstan wheel; H - saddle; J - saddle stops;
K- auxiliary bar-equi pment

N
-....

J
mechanical or pneumatic, while the amount of travel can be controlled
manually or pre-set to advance automatically. A simpler machine, restricted
to work produced from standard bar stock, is the 'bar capstan'.
Most of the plain turning operations are done by tools held in the turret.
Generally these tools require a longitudinal feeding-motion; operations such
as turning, boring, drilling, reaming and tapping are typical examples. With
proper tools mounted in each face or station of the turret, an entire sequence
of operations can be performed by indexing the turret to bring successive
tools into working position. Each face of the turret is provided with four
tapped-holes for bolting various attachments to it (figure 5.4). Through the
centre of each face (and co-axial with the machine spindle) is a hole into
which the shanks of tools may be changed. On the smaller capstan lathes the
turret is circular and has only six holes to accommodate the tools. The tools,
when machining small components, do not need to be held on a flat surface.
In addition to the turret, the larger versions of capstan lathes have a
cross-slide mounted on the bedways as shown in figure 5.1. The cross-slide
consists of a square tool-holder at the front of the machine and a single-cutter
tool-holder at the back. Generally speaking, cutting tools that require a
transverse feeding-motion are held on the cross-slide; such tools are forming
tools, tools for operating on the backs of flanges, and parting-off tools, none
of which can be used on the turret without making special arrangements.
Parting-off tools are generally held in an inverted position in the single-cutter
holder at the rear of the cross-slide.
The tools on the cross-slide are governed in their transverse motion by
indexable stops; diameters are controlled by the normal hand-wheel.
Movement along the bed is predetermined by a system of stops which can
disengage power feed.
On the capstan lathe the turret is carried on a slide, which slides on the
sub-bed, as shown in figure 5.1; the latter may be clamped to the main bed
in any desired position, occupying the position normally held by the tailstock
centre. The action of clamping the turret-slide unit to the bed restricts the
turret movement to lengths governed by the adjustable stops on the turret
slide (figure 5.1 ). There is an adjustable stop available for every turret face or
station, so that each tooling operation may be set to the correct depth of cut
or tool traverse, prior to machining. The turret of the capstan lathe can be
round, square, pentagonal or hexagonal, and is automatically indexed from
station to station whenever the turret slide is moved to the extreme
right-hand position. The indexing action on the turret lathe is a manual
operation. Power feed is available with automatic stops for depth, but only
with manual return and index (unless constructed differently).
With all these adjustments available for speeds, feeds and indexing, the
operation of the capstan becomes a skilled or semi-skilled activity~ and its
performance directly proportional to operator control. Where production
rates are high and labour costs at a premium, conversion to semi-automatic
programme control or fully automatic control is available. This reduces

128
operator fatigue, and the non-cutting times during the machine cycle. It also
involves less capital investment on alternative machine tools.

TURRET LATHES

Turret lathes are constructed with either horizontal or vertical spindles. Those
that have horizontal spindles may be classified as ram-type machines and
saddle-type machines. The ram-type machine is designed primarily to do bar
work and light chucking-jobs and the saddle-type machine to handle large,
heavy chuck-work. The vertical turret-lathe is a chucking machine only.
The principal parts of a turret lathe (figure 5.2), are very similar to those
of the capstan lathe. The turret lathe is designed for larger work than that
machined on the capstan; this feature may be observed in the overall
construction. The essential differences between these two lathes lie with the
turret slide and its bed mounting. The turret lathe has its slide, that carries
the turret, directly fitted to the bed of the machine and can be readily moved
into any position similar to the standard lathe-saddle. The turret saddle and
the turret, are somewhat larger than those used on the capstan lathe. When
indexing the turret stations, the turret must be suitably unlocked and locked
by the mechanism provided and revolved manually about a vertical axis.

STANDARD TOOLING-EQUIPMENT

To obtain maximum production at minimum cost from capstan and turret

lathes it is essential that the machines are equipped with a comprehensive

Figure 5.2 Combination turret-lathe

129
range of turret and cross-slide tooling. The tooling equipment that is
discussed in the following sections, can be classified as standard tooling, to be
used whenever possible, thus keeping tooling costs to a minimum. The tools
that follow are just a few of those used in production. Often it becomes
necessary to design tooling attachments to suit specific workpieces, and
sometimes on large production runs, tooling built to manufacturer's
specification can be an economic proposition.

Knee-turning Tool-holder

Various designs of this attachment are illustrated in figure 5.3. Two common
features of the three knee-turning tool-holders are the pilot bush and central
bore. Each tool holder is equipped with an overhead pilot-support bush. When
engaged with the pilot support the tool holder becomes extremely rigid for
turning and boring operations. Figure 5.4 illustrates the assembly of the
overhead pilot and bush. Each tool holder has an accurately machined central
bore which is fitted with a pad bolt for holding boring bars, etc.

(c)
(b)
(a)

Figure 5.3 Knee-turning attachments (a) knee-turning tool-holder; (b)

knee-turning tool-holder having quick-withdraw slide with fine adjustment to
turning; (c) combined boring and turning tool-holder

Figure 5.3a illustrates a standard knee-turning tool-holder. The cutting

tool is locked in the steel turning-arm and can be adjusted to permit a
relatively wide range of turned diameters. The arm can be supplied with a fine
adjustment for accurate setting (figure 5.5). The slide is activated through the
medium of a screw and nut and is fitted with a graduated dial to enable the
operator to hold fine limits.
Figure 5.3b illustrates a knee-turning tool-holder having a quick-withdraw
slide and a fine adjustment to the turning arm. The lever shown operates the
quick-withdraw motion, eliminates tool chipping and prevents marking of the
work when the tool is withdrawn from the workpiece.

130
 overhead pilot support

p
pil1 ""sh

~ 0
_ .J headstock

turret

L___ _
Figure 5.4 Additional support from the overhead pilot when turning (using
knee-turning tool-holder of figure 5.5)

Figure 5.3c illustrates a combined boring and turning tool-holder. This

tool holder is designed for taking combined turning and boring cuts on
irregular-shaped forgings and castings. The figure shows two plain turning-arms
and a boring bar.
The number of turning arms located on knee tool-holders can vary;
figure 5.6 shows one with three tool-holders and a boring bar, each operation
producing a surface simultaneously. Difficulties can arise when a number of
tools are used; setting is a little tedious. Care must be taken that all tools cut
on the centre line; tool positioning errors can cause chatter, push-off and
inaccuracy when adjustment take place.

Boring Bars and Attachments

There is a wide variety of shapes and sizes of boring bar, each one depending
on the form and arrangement of the hole to be machined. Two typical

Figure 5.5 Turning arm with fine adjustment for knee-turning tool-holder
and combination boring, turning and facing tool-holder

131
Figure 5.6 Combination knee tool-holder- three single tool-holders and
boring bar

boring-bars used with capstan and turret lathes are shown in figure 5.7.
Boring bars become essential when boring to size a hole that had previously
been drilled. Figure 5.7c shows how the tools should be set to bore to the
correct diameter. The boring-bar cutter micrometer enables bar cutters to be
set to bore any size hole without taking trial cuts.
When very fine boring is required, a boring bar with a microbore unit can
be used (figure 5.8). The single-point boring-bar shown in figure 5.8 is
designed to carry a microbore unit that has rapid and precise adjustment
suitable for precision-boring operations (figure 5.8a). The microbore unit
consists of a tungsten-carbide-tip cartridge, a cone-shaped dial and lock screw.

Figure 5.7 Boring bars (a) single-cutter type carries one square-section
single-point boring-cutter at an angle of 30° with the end of the bar; (b)
piloted boring-bar - a ground two-diameter bar, each diameter having two
square-section cutters- extremely versatile as a boring tool; (c) boring-bar
cutter micrometer

132
 ti"-'='--' _ _ _______.J)
(i)

(iii )

Figure 5.8 Single-point boring-bar and microbore unit

Accurate adjustment is obtained by releasing the lock screw and rotating the
dial, which is graduated for 0.02 mm readings on diameter. A vernier scale on
the bar permits more accurate adjustment. For added rigidity of the boring
bar an extension arm is provided with a pad bolt for clamping (figure 5.9a).

Retracting Recessing-tool (stationary type)

There are two methods widely used to mount this piece of equipment to one
of the turret faces. They are
(i) shank held
(ii) flange mounted
Manually or machine-operated they overcome limitations in producing recesses
or counter bores during the machine cycle. The two types are (a) machine
operated by 'pusher' spring-return (b) manually operated through a lever with
rack and pinion.

(a ) (b)

Figure 5.9 Recessing tools (a) machine operated by 'pusher' spring-return;

(b) manually operated through a lever with rack and pinion

133
 (a) The turret slide is advanced to its full travel against the stop. The
saddle rear-slide then engages the facing or recessing tool-holder in a pushing
action wb ich perm its the tool to recess or counter bore the component to
requirements (figure 5.9a). When disengaged the spring in the facing slide
returns the tool-holder to the initial position.
(b) The second recessing-attachm ent illustrated in figure 5.9b, is
manually operated by a lever working a simple rack and pinion. Again the
turret is advanced against the stop and held or locked in position while the
lever is moved allowing the slide to traverse to the 'stop' position which
determines the depth of recess.

Illustrated in figure 5.10 are some items of equipment that are in everyday
use in engineering workshops. Their familiarity is such that discussion or
explanation of their construction and use would only cover ground that is
familiar to even the most junior apprentices. It is an impossible task to cover
all small tools used in the machine shop in this volume.

Drill Centring

Figure 5.11a illustrates a flat centring or drilling tool. This tool is used to
provide a true centre for starting a drill and also for drilling brass and cast
iron. A bush is required for each size of drill.

.. ]
(o)
(d)

(b)

(e)

(c)

Figure 5.10 (a) Adjustable head used to regulate the length of bar fed
through a chuck; (b) Morse-taper socket, one of various Morse tapers so that
twist drills or similar tools with taper shanks may be used; (c) drill chuck -
this design does not require an operating key and gives a positive grip to drills
or boring bars; (d) dead centre with Morse-taper socket- tungsten-carbide
tipped, centre ground to 60° angle, used for supporting long work when
turning, forming or chasing; (e) live centre fitted with ball- and
roller-bearings, 60° cone angle, for supporting work at high speeds when
turning or forming

134
 (o) ( b)

Figure 5.11 Drill centring (a) flat centring or drilling tool; (b) centring and
facing tools

Figure 5.11b illustrates a centring and facing tool. This tool is also used to
provide a true centre for starting a drill. The ·two flat-cutters may be arranged
for plain facing, or for irregular work such as counterboring, chamfering, etc.

Equipment Designed for Bar Work

The following equipment is used to machine standard bars, cold-rolled or

extruded.

Roller-steady Turning Tool-holder To maintain size, finish and also to

provide a safety factor when machining small diameters of some length,
support must be available while the cutting action takes place. If the item is
flexible as most steels are, the tendency to 'whip' will permit the diameter
that is undergoing deflection during cutting to climb over the tool often with
disastrous consequences. To prevent this a roller-steady turning tool-holder is
used (figure 5.12a). The roller-steady turning tool-holder has two rollers
incorporated into the design to provide an equal and opposite reaction to
the cutting forces, as shown in figure 5.12b.
Various methods are used to set up the roller box, the one chosen
depending on whether or not the work has been previously machined, and
also whether the cutting action is radial or tangential (figure 5.13). Where the
work has been previously machined the rollers are mounted in advance of the
cutting tool; they then bear on the previously turned diameter, thus ensuring
that the diameter being turned is concentric (figure 5.14a).

(o)
(b)

Figure 5. 12 Roller-steady turning tool-holder (a) open-shank type; (b) two

rollers for the roller box

135
 (a)

Figure 5. 13 Roller-steady turning tool-holder (a) radial cutting-action; (b)

tangential cutting-action

When the work has not been previously machined a centre must be
provided in the material. The turret that can accommodate a male centre is
then advanced to provide a bearing point. The diameter can then be turned
for a short length from the front tool-post. This location diameter can be
used by each roller, whose point of contact is behind the cutting tool
(figure 5.14b). The trailing characteristic of the rollers can lead to an
improved surface-finish. This is attributed to the rollers work-rolling the
newly machined surface.
Alternatively the work can be prepared by the use of a start turning-tool
(figure 5.15). This tool is mounted on the turret and a tipped tungsten-carbide
centre supports the work, while two balanced-cutters prepare a true diameter
for the roller tool holder rollers to take their bearing. The tipped centre

rol led finish

.---r- cutting
tool

(o) (b)

Figure 5.14 Rollers (a) in advance of (b) behind the cutting tool

Figure 5.15 Start-turning tool-holder

136
 (a) (b)

Figure 5.16 (a) Vee-steady turning tool-holder; (b) roller-steady turning

multiple tool-holder

recedes into the shank with the forward movement of the turret. A great
variety of roller-box designs is available; some use Vee-adjusters instead of
rollers (figure 5.16a). Others are able to machine several diameters
simultaneously as shown in figure 5.16b. To prevent tool-return marks some
roller boxes have air-actuated or lever-operated withdrawal motion on
the tool slide.

SCREW-THREAD PRODUCTION

Self-opening Dieheads

Self-opening dieheads (figure 5.17a) provide a quick method of cutting

external screw-threads accurately. They can be used to produce a wide variety

closing handle

detent p1n handle

(b)

(a)
adjusting screw

L'SV:::m::~.4-- rad ia I -set

dies

Figure 5. 17 Radial-die cutting-action on the self-opening diehead (a)

Coventry self-opening diehead; (b) dies for the self-opening diehead

137
of threads, Acme-form, Vee-form, knuckle, buttress and coach-screw thread
simply by changing the four chasers or cutting dies. To obtain maximum
accuracy in thread production the threads are generated with the workpiece
usually rotating in relation to the diehead. The thread cutting-tools usually
provide four cutting edges per revolution of the workpiece and are presented
radially or tangentially as illustrated in figures 5.17 and 5.18 respectively.
The diehead is designed to open automatically at the end of its traverse
and to allow the chaser to withdraw from the workpiece, avoiding the
problems of spindle reversal and possible lead or lag error in the withdrawal
feed. The diehead can be closed manually or automatically, presenting a
consistent size to the component without difficulty. The detachable chasers
can be ground a number of times, the adjustment to size being provided on the
diehead (figure 5.17a). Care in grinding and setting of each individual die will
reflect in the quality of each screwed component, and manufacturers
recommendations should be adhered to.

langenlia lly
sel dies

(!!/ '"
Figure 5.18 Tangential die-cutting action on the self-opening diehead (a)
setting the chasers; (b) chaser holder; (c) chaser

138
 Dieheads can be fixed or revolving. Fixed dieheads are used to machine
revolving components and have provision for a roughing and finishing cut.
Shown in figure 5.17a is the detent pin handle, which when turned slightly
adjusts the dies thus allowing for the respective roughing or finishing cut. The
relative position on the detent pin handle, for either roughing or finishing, is
clearly marked on the diehead body. Revolving dieheads are used when the
work is too big to rotate, examples being pipe-work bends, or irregular
manufactured parts. The revolving diehead replaces or is held by the chuck,
while the work is held in a fixture which can be hand or power traversed
along the bed of the machine.

Self-releasing Tap-holders

Illustrated in figure 5.19a is the self-releasing tap-holder. The tap, which may
be of the standard workshop-type, is held in its respective adaptor bush, and is
driven via a dog-clutch as shown in figure 5.19b. When the desired depth of
thread is reached the clutch disengages under the self-feed action of the tap
and rotates idly until the spindle is reversed. The tap holder shown in
figure 5.19a is so designed that the forward drive is taken by a dog clutch,
while a triple-roller clutch is provided for the reverse action which is effected
instantaneously, without shock, when the lathe spindle is reversed. The
advantages of using self-releasing tap-holders to produce threads, are that it is
simple to operate, easy to set and requires very little maintenance. A
disadvantage is that the lead or lag in feed can affect the thread quality.
There is a continuous process of development of all equipment to improve
efficiency, and it is possible to obtain air-operated releasing tap-holders,
which give closer control on blind holes or accurate control on depth if
required.

Collapsible Taps

Collapsible taps are designed to reduce tap wear and improve quality of
thread production by preventing torn threads on withdrawal. They also
shorten cycle times by removing the necessity of reversing the machine
spindle.

slipping
clutch
(a) (b)

Figure 5.19 (a) Self-releasing tap-holder; (b) slipping-clutch tap-holder

139
 Figure 5.20 Tooling for the cross-slide- parting tool-holder

Collapsible taps are not suitable for small holes; the sizes cover from about
25 mm to 600 mm. The principal action of the collapsible tap is a male taper
moving in a longitudinal direction producing radial movement of the separate
chasers by the wedging action it produces.

Tooling for the Cross-slide

Tooling for the cross-slide is similar to that used on the standard centre-lathe.
Figure 5.20 illustrates some of the attachments and tooling available. The
figure shows a parting tool-holder recommended for light work; the tool post
shown is made to fit on to the rear of the cross-slide and carries a section steel
tool, set to give a prescribed top-rake. The tool requires regrinding on the
front face only.

Knurling Head

Components which when completed become articles of everday use, must be

designed to permit ease of handling with a degree of safety and convenience.
If the article is used where the environment is oily or wet then provision must
be made to allow the object to be used without the tiring frustration of
wiping or cleaning at every application. To this end a simple but effective
attachment is used during the manufacture to produce a pattern of
deformation on the portion to be held. This 'knurl' is of a diamond pyramid
shape, and although there are variations it is the most popular. Knurling
utilises the plastic deformation of the material to provide an extremely
effective grip. Figure 5.21 shows a shank-type knurling tool-holder. The two
knurling-wheels are of small diameter and are manufactured with a straight or
helical form as shown. The pitch of the serrations can vary, giving a fine or
course pitch.

140
 helica I straight
form ~ form

l~il knurling wheels

Figure 5.21 Knurling tool-holder- adjustable double-shank type

Form-turning Attachments

Illustrated in figure 5.22a is a vertical form tool-holder. This is designed for

use on the rear of the cross-slide carrying form tools tangential to the work.
The tools have a full form along their front face and re-grinding is only
necessary on the bottom face. Figure 5.22b shows an adjustable tool-holder
for use on the rear of the cross-slide to carry wide form-tools.
Figure 5.23 shows a detailed illustration of a spherical-turning attachment.
This attachment bolts onto the rear of the cross-slide and is actuated by the
forward feed of the hexagon turret which, through rack and pinion drive
rotates a tool post about a central pivot. The tool post is designed to carry
two cutters, one for roughing, the other for finishing.

EXAMPLES OF CAPSTAN- AND TURRET-LATHE WORK

Example 1

The component shown in figure 5.24a represents a typical bar job - a shaft.
Figure 5.24b shows a complete tool-layout for manufacturing the shaft.

(o)

Figure 5.22 Form-tool attachments (a) vertical form tool-holder; (b) flat
form tool-holder

141
 Figure 5.23 Spherical-turning attachment

Operation 1 -Turret station 6- Bar stop. Advance bar stock to length of

component, plus an allowance for parting-off and facing.

Operation 2- Turret station 1 -Turning box. Turn down diameter 8, using

turning box in station 1.

Operation 3 - Turret station 2 - Turning box. Turn down diameter C, using

turning box in station 2.

A-l+ -1- * ±F --··i}- (c )

(b )

Figure 5.24 Tooling set-up for a shaft

142
Operation 4- Turret station 3- Face and chamfer. Face and chamfer stock
end.

Operation 5- Turret station 4- Centre drill. Centre-drill stock end.

Operation 6- Turret station 5- Threading turning-box. Machine threaded
portion of the component.

Operation 7- Rear tool-post. Part off and chamfer component.

turn
.J

- - - - - - -A

(a)

-t~F~r:::
reaming- tool
attachment I
I

finished component
I

knee- turning tool

and boring bar

Figure 5.25 Tooling set-up to machine a bearing insert

143
Example2

The bearing-bush insert shown in figure 5.25a is machined from blanks shown
in figure 5.25b. It is important that the reamed hole is concentric with
diameter A. Figure 5.25c shows a complete tool-layout for the requisite
machining-operation.

Operation 1 -Set bush blank in self-centring chuck.

Operation 2- Turret station 1 -Centring and facing attachment. Centre the

blank face ready for drilling.

Operation 3 -Turret station 2 - Drill attachment. Drill hole undersize ready

for boring.

Operation 4 -Turret station 3 - Knee-turning tool-attachments. Bore hole

undersize suitable for reamer, simultaneously turning diameter A to size.

Operation 5- Turret station 6 - Reaming-tool attachments. Ream hole, to

complete component.

QUESTIONS

1. Explain the principal differences between a capstan lathe and a turret

lathe.

2. What are the advantages of using a capstan or turret lathe on a

production run, as opposed to a standard centre-lathe?

3. Explain, with the aid of sketches, how dimensional control is maintained

when using the following tools: (i) roller-steady turning tool-holder; (ii)
single-point boring-bar with microbore unit; (iii) multiple-point
boring-bar.

4. Explain the most accurate method of producing holes from the solid on
capstan and turret lathes.

5. Illustrate with neat sketches typical applications of the following

tool-holding devices: (i) roller-steady multiple tool-holder; (ii)
knee-turning tool-holder.

6. Explain what precautions are necessary when producing long slender

components from bar stock on a capstan lathe. Show a neat tool layout,

144
 suitable for the production of 12 mm diameter pins 200 mm long from
bar stock 15 mm diameter.

7. Explain the difference between the two main types of roller-tool box in
common use, giving an example of the kind of work for which each is
suited.

8. Briefly explain the type of application for which each of the following
methods is most suitable when producing threaded work on the capstan
lathe: (i} self-releasing tap; (ii) collapsible tap; (iii) self-opening diehead.

9. Describe with the aid of neat sketches the operating principles of the
following tool devices used on a capstan lathe: (i) roller-steady turning
tool-holder; (ii) slipping-clutch tap-holder.

145
 6 Milling

Milling is a process of generating machine surfaces by progressively removing a

predetermined amount of material from the workpiece, which is advanced
normally at a relatively slow rate of movement or feed against a multi-tooth
cutter rotating at comparatively high speed about its own axis. An important
feature of the milling process is its ability to remove the surplus material
quickly and accurately; this may be attributed to the cutter's teeth, each one
removing its share of the stock and producing individual chips. The work may
be fed against the cutter in any one of three mutually perpendicular
directions. With the addition of an attachment, rotation of the work can take
place about one of these directions.The variety of attachments available for
the milling.machine considerably increases its scope and versatility. In
addition to straight milling of flat surfaces, gear and thread cutting, drilling,
boring and slotting operations may be carried out on such a machine tool.

TYPES OF MACHINE

Milling machines are not all alike, some are manufactured for mass production,
others for small-batch production and tool room work. When choosing a
milling machine consideration must be given to the class of work to be
performed. Milling machine designs can be categorised generally into specific
ranges of types and sizes, as indicated below.

Column and Knee-type Milling-machines

Column and knee-type milling-machines are used extensively in tool rooms,

jobbing shops and on production lines. This is because this type of machine
has the ability to perform a wide variety of milling operations on small to
medium workpieces due in part to the large number of attachments available.
The machine is shown in detail in figure 6.1. It has a knee-shaped projection
from the main column which supports the table. The table motions are shown
in figure 6.2. This machine provides easy adjustment of all moving parts,
while speed and feed changes are quickly and easily made.

146
 Figure 6. 1 Milling machines
(a) plain; (b) universal; (c) vertical

(c)

147
 arrangement found in
the plain and vertical arrangement found in the
milling machines universal milling machine

table~

column encloses the motor that dnvesl

the spmdle and the change saddle
~ ------"
~
gears for the power feed table support ~

t-~
~
UtJ ' I
~
!L_____kn_e_e_~-n-la-rg~e~d)----~
base

(coolant reservoir)

Figure 6.2 Table motions of a milling machine

The principal column and knee-type machines may be classified as (a)

plain milling-machines (figure 6.1a), (b) universal milling-machines
(figure 6.1b), (c) vertical milling-machines (figure 6.1c) The difference
between the plain and universal milling-machine, lies in the table movement.
The table of the plain machine travels only at right angles to the axis of the
spindle, the universal machine's table can be swivelled approximately 45° to
right or left on the saddle. This additional movement of the universal-type
machine is suitable for milling helical shapes

Bed-type or Manufacturing Milling-machines

Bed-type milling-machines are the standard machine used for quantity

production of identical parts. They are very rigid in construction and can be
used for heavy work. Also, when equipped with fixture and attachments,
these machines can perform a variety of milling operations. They have a fixed
table support or bed secured to the floor. The table moves horizontally on
the bed. It can be seen from figure 6.3 that the spindle carrier is provided
with vertical adjustment, the horizontal movement being provided by the
spindle quill. Standard machines are made in two styles (a) plain
milling-machines with one horizontal spindle (figure 6.3a). (b) Duplex milling
machines with two horizontal spindles located on opposite sides of the table
(figure 6.3b). This particular design enables two parallel faces to be finished

148
 overarm headstock

quill
table
spindle carrier

bed

(a)

(b)

Figure 6.3 (a) Main elements of the plain manufacturing milling-machine;

(b) Duplex milling-machine

with one pass of the component. An important feature is that the cutters
when used must be left- and right-handed.

Special-type Milling-machines

Specially designed milling-machines are used in production shops. These

machines are designed for individual milling-operations and are generally
suitable only for the particular job. The design and construction of such
machines is determined by the specific milling-operation to be carried out, as
well as the cost of such an operation and the number of parts to be
machined.

MACHINE POWER

In order to determine the maximum feed-rate it is necessary to know the

power available from the machine. The machine normally has a power

149
indicator attached to the motor casing. If this is hidden due to machine
construction, relevant data can be obtained from the manufacturer's
instruction manual.

Speeds and Feeds

The speeds and feeds are usually determined within a range by the
manufacturer, high or low ranges being available on demand where necessary.
For general use it is possible to use the low speed of a high-range machine or
the high speed of a low-range machine. Compensation can be taken in the
diameter of the cutter used and in the depth and width of cut if insufficient
power is available to satisfy surface-speed requirements.

MACHINE CONDITION

It is stating the obvious to say that the machine should be in a condition to

perform efficiently. Unless this requirement is met it can be dangerous to the
operator and expensive for the company in component damage and cutter
breakage.

CUTTER SELECTION

The part or component to be milled will normally determine the type and
diameter of cutter to be used. In machine shops where skilled operators have
the freedom of choice, it is possible to use one cutter to perform a variety of
tasks. Often the time taken to remove the·cutter in use and replace it with
another would extend. the total time-requirement for machining beyond that
taken by the original cutter in 'making do'. Obviously there are no fixed rules
under those conditions but intelligent use of the guidelines will provide a base
from which to work.
Before decisions on cutter choice are taken, an evaluation of the operating
conditions and requirements must be made. Factors to be considered can be
itemised, and a further analysis of each factor taken.
(a) cutter selection is influenced by the type of milling machine and
the power, speeds and feeds. This aspect of cutter selection was discussed in
the previous section.
(b) type of component- solid or frail structure
(c) component material - ferrous, non-ferrous or plastics
(d) material-removal rate and requisite surface finish
(e) quantity required and/or production rate
(f) cutter resources available

150
Component Structure

If a solid block of regular shape is milled there will be fewer limitations due
to inherent lack of rigidity, than with a flimsy structure which could deflect
under load, causing chatter and resulting in a poor finish. With a large arc of
contact between the work and cutter, it is desirable not to have too great a
number of teeth in contact since this can cause chatter. Conversely when the
arc of contact is small, with interrupted cuts, a greater number of teeth may
be necessary to keep several in contact at the same time as shown in figure
6.4.
With forgings, scale or work-hardened surfaces are often treated by
shot-blasting or normalising before machining. When such treatment is not
carried out, cuts, of sufficient depth must be taken to get under the difficult
surface-skin. Sand castings tend to have inclusions, so again light cuts should
be avoided. Since frail fabrications tend to be less rigid under heavy
cutting-operations, the vibration set up will have a damaging effect on surface
finish and also on positive-rake cutter-teeth.

feed

(a) (b)

Figure 6.4 Arc of contact and number of teeth in contact when machining

Component Material

Knowledge of the material enables the feed and speed to be set in relation to
the available power of the machine. The amount of material that can be
removed by one unit of power (hp or kW per minute) is usuallY called the
'metal-removal factor'. This metal-removal rate remains fairly constant with
high-speed steel or carbide cutters, but varies with the material.

151
Amount of Material Removed

The material volume to be removed also affects the decision on which type of
cutter should be used. Roughing cutters will not produce fine finishes neither
will finishing cutters remove large volumes of stock. Cutters of coarse pitch,
generous helix, and radial-rake chip-clearance are usually used for roughing.
Finish cutters have the reverse of this, low cutting-angles, fine tooth-pitch and
less chip-clearance. For example
250 mm dia. H.S.S. inserted-blade face-milling cutter
Medium duty 24 teeth
Extra heavy-duty 14 teeth
100 mm dia. H.S.S. inserted-blade shank-type end-mills
Standard 12 teeth
Heavy duty 10 teeth

Surface Finish

Surface finish is measured by C. L.A. (centre-line average) or R.M.S. (root mean

square) values. The lower the value the finer the finish. The micrometer finish
required has its greatest importance on the finish milling-operation. The
moment the C. L.A. figure exceeds the requirement the cutters must be
changed. If quantities are recorded between high and low micrometer
readings, anticipated cutter changes can often be related to periods of
operator rest or of low production. Micro finish for milling can run from
740 t.~m (being fine) to 3100 t.~m on roughing, with general average about
1500-2000 t.~m.

QUANTITY AND PRODUCTION RATE

The rate of demand for components varies from one-off to many thousands
per day. In small machine-shops standard cutters are used whenever possible
since they can be used on a wide variety of work. Where high production-
rates are needed it is often beneficial to manufacture special tools
that will perform the same operation throughout their life. Usually this makes
them unsuitable for any other work. Carbide cutters are desirable or
necessary, but high-speed steel cutters can often meet the demand by
different and more economic set-ups. Where there is high-volume production
and conditions are suitable carbide cutters are normally the rule.

Cutter Resources Available

Usually most large factories have their own cutter-grinding facilities; smaller
factories normally utilise the tool room to provide the cutter maintenance

152
necessary. To maintain a constant supply of cutters for production it is often
essential to stock a 'float' of cutters. The quantity contained in the float will
depend on the speed of the 'turn round' during regrinding. The usual practice
is to provide x number of cutters on the machine, a set of x number in the
the stores, while a further x cutters are at cutter grinding; this should be
regarded as the very minimum requirement. Exceptions to the rule are, of
course, cutters with indexable throw-away inserts- the cutter body is always
attached to the machine -again spares must be available in the event of body
damage.

MILLING CUTTERS

Milling cutters are made in a large variety of shapes and sizes for machining
both regular- and irregular-shaped surfaces on the workpiece. They can be
classified according to various charateristics

(1) (a) Those where the teeth and body are integral; (b) The
inserted-tooth type, with removable teeth held and rigidly locked in slots or
suitable holes in body
(2) (a) The cutter teeth may be straight -parallel to the axis of
rotation; (b) The teeth may be set at an angle to the axis of rotation, known
as the helix angle
(3) Milling cutters may be either right- or left-hand rotating, and
with either right- or left-hand helix
(4) Cutters may be made (a) With a centre hole for mounting on an
arbor; (b) Integral with or mounted on a shank for insertion in the end of
the milling machine spindle; (c) With the back recessed for bolting directly on
the spindle nose

Straight-tooth Cutters

When cutting with straight teeth, the cutting edge engages the work along the
full width of the cut at the same moment. As the tooth enters the work and
begins to form the chip, the pressure on the cutting edge increases rapidly,
and continues to rise until it reaches a maximum at a point near the end of
the tooth travel when the chip is completely formed, and then drops
suddenly as the tooth leaves the work (figure 6.5a). This sudden change in
cutting force usually causes the vibratory condition known as chatter. This
produces an inferior finish on the milled surface and shortens the life of the
cutter owing to chipping of the cutting edge. Smoother operation is generally
obtained when two or more teeth are simultaneously engaged in the work
because, as one tooth leaves the work the load change on the cutter is not as
great as when only one tooth is engaged at one time.

153
sl roighl- loolh
plain milling-
culler

(a)

Figure 6.5 Chip formation (a) with a straight-tooth milling-cutter; (b) with
a helical cutter

Helix Angle

The majority of milling cutters have their teeth cut on a helix. The helix angle
is the angle between the tangent to the edge of the tooth and the axis of the
cutter (figure 6.6). In plain or slab milling-cutters, the cutting edge is usually
formed on a helix for the purpose of obtaining a gradual engagement of each
tooth with the work. This results in smoother cutter-operations than are
possible in cutters having straight teeth. For the same reason side mills,
shell-end mills, etc., often have their teeth inclined with respect to the axis of
rotation.

154
 spindle

& helix angle

F.= axial component

FR =radial component
Fr =tangential component

Figure 6.6 Forces produced in milling with a helical mill

When the teeth are cut on a helix (figure 6.5b). the length of cutting edge
in contact with the work varies with the helix angle, the depth of cut and the
position of the tooth along its path. When cutter teeth are on a helix angle
the chip is formed at an angle with respect to the direction of feed,
corresponding to the helix angle.

Forces Produced on Plain or Slab Milling-cutters

The forces produced in the cutting operation can be assumed to be

represented by a single force normal to the face of the tooth, and a frictional
force acting along the face of the tooth, opposing the flow of the chip. The
resultant of these forces is the force required to form the chip. The
magnitude of these forces depends on the method of milling employed, the
kind of material being cut, the thickness of the chip, the type of cutter used,
the cutting material, the tool geometry and the cutting fluid employed. The
force on the cutting face can be resolved in to component forces along chosen
directions. The three mutually perpendicular directions commonly chosen are
axial, tangential, and radial relative to the cutter (figure 6.6).

Axial Component This component depends on the hand of the helix and
hand of cut. It either tends to press the cutter against the machine column or
try to pull it away. It is important to ensure that the axial thrust is towards
the column.

Tangential Component This component opposes the rotational force of the

cutter and causes the arbor and cutter to twist. This can affect the accuracy
of the machining operation.

155
Radial Component This component usually deflects the cutter and arbor
away from the workpiece.
The magnitude and direction of the cutting force can be controlled in
cutter design. Therefore within limits the relationships between axial,
tangential and radial components can be greatly influenced by the designer.

The Cutting Action of a Milling Cutter

In order to design a milling cutter correctly one must analyse its action and
draw upon the experience gained when milling and from other phases of
metal cutting. This is particularly necessary when designing cutters for
production purposes, as the floor-to-floor times, tool life, the quality of the
finish depend on a number of factors which interact.

Essential Requirements of a Milling Cutter

In a number of respects the action of a milling cutter is similar to that of a

lathe tool. There is one very important difference: a lathe tool is normally in
constant contact with the work, but a milling cutter, as it revolves, brings
fresh edges into action, and this permits the coolant to have a greater effect
on the cutting edges. A careful study of the milling action will show the need
for the following essential requirements (figure 6.7).

(i) The top rake is to be adjusted to suit the characteristics of the

metal to be cut. Standard high-speed steel plain milling-cutters are made with
positive rake angles of 10° to 15°; this allows maximum tool-strength for
all-round use. These values are satisfactory for milling low-carbon steels, but
when milling softer material such as aluminium, the rake angle should be
increased to 25° or more. It should be noted that any increase in rake angle
will cause a decrease in the tooth strength. When using special milling-cutters
whose tool material is other than high-speed steel different rake angles may
be necessary. When using such other tool materials the rake angles may be
positive or negative - if confronted with a problem involving such angles it is
advisable to consult a manufacturer's chart on rake and clearance angles.
(ii) Adequate chip-space. It should be noted that the gullet of the
cutter tooth must provide ;ldequate space to accommodate the volume of
metal contained in the machined chip. If there existed insufficient gullet
space high cutting- and rubbing-forces would be present- due to reaction
from the forced packing of the chip into the gullet. The cutting action would
be similar to that found when using a loaded or clogged file. The life of the
cutter is somewhat governed by the reduction in gullet space that production
machining will allow. It should be noted that as the gullet volume is reduced,
the depth of cut and hence the volume of chip, must be reduced to maintain
cutting efficency.

156
 cu t t ing edge

clearance angle or
primary clearance

direction
of rotation

~
/ .

I
\ "
\

Figure 6.7 Nomenclature of plain milling-cutting

(iii) Correct clearance. Milling cutters must have clearance for cutting to
occur. Optimum cutting efficiency takes place at some minimum angle of
clearance; any increase of this angle does not improve the cutting efficiency,
but it will weaken the tool tooth by reducing the wedge angle.

The Cutting Action

When operating many milling machines, care must be taken to ensure that the
workpiece is fed in a direction opposite to the rotation of milling cutters.
This practice, shown in figure 6.8a, is called 'conventional ' or 'up' milling; it
is necessary because backlash, caused by wear in the lead screw and its nut,
will be taken up suddenly if the feed is in the opposite direction. This in turn
causes sudden strains on cutters and arbors that are apt to break the one and
•
bend the other. The cutting action starts from zero chip cross-section and has
a tendency to lift the table while removing chips (figure 6.9a).
Some milling machines are designed so that backlash between the
leadscrew and its nut may be taken up by adjustment, or automatically, to
compensate for wear. On these machines the feeding direction of the

157
 ---
(a)
feed
-feed

(b)

Figure 6.8 Cutting action (a) conventional (up) milling, feeding and cutting
movement oppose each other- cutting action zero to maximum
chip-thickness; (b) climb-cut (down) milling, feeding and cutting movement
in the same direction -cutting action maximum to zero chip thickness

workpiece and the rotation of cutters may be in the same direction as shown
in figure 6.8a. This practice is called 'Climb' or 'Down' milling. With climb
milling the maximum thickness of chip is removed and the cutter tends to
force the table downwards (figure 6.8b). The specific machining force on the
milling cutter, other technical conditions being equal, is considerably lower
with this operation, which permits, with the same power consumption (a)
more favourable rake angles, (b) increase in service life by 50-60 per cent,
(c) greater chip cross-sections, 20-30 per cent. The machining and feeding
operations are more even, the cooling effect improves and becomes more
efficient (figure 6.1 0). and the quality of the work surface improves. Climb
milling widens the field of application of the machine, since work quite
impossible to tackle with conventional milling is easy to handle with the
climb-cut method (figure 6.11).

(a) (b)

play of forces V vertical component

H horizontal component
R resultant force

Figure 6.9 Cutting forces (a) conventional (up) milling; (b) climb-cut
(down) milling

158
 Figure 6.10 Cooling effect of conventional and climb-cut milling

Formed Milling-cutters

Formed cutters are used in milling contours of various shapes. They may be
divided into two classes (a) the shaped or form-profile cutters (figure 6.12a),
(b) the form, machine-relieved cutters (figure 6.12b).
Shaped or form-profile cutters have an irregular shape or profile, but in
other respects are similar to plain milling-cutters. They may be of either the
solid or inserted-blade type. These cutters are used when simple outlines or
profiles are required, due to the difficulty of maintaining the accuracy of this
profile when the cutter is resharpened.
Form, machine-relieved cutters are designed so that their shape and size
will not be lost by the need to resharpen the cutting edge. This is because the
necessary clearance or relief angle is provided in such a way that when cutter
resharpening is carried out on the face of the tooth (figure 6.13), the contour
of the original profile is preserved. The form cutter cannot be reground by
the removal of metal from the periphery, because this would cause the form
or profile to change. Form-relieved cutters may be resharpened many times,
until the teeth are too slender to withstand the strain of the cutting load.

(a) . (b)

Figure 6. 11 Machining thin-walled component (a) cannot be done by

conventional milling; (b) can be done by climb-cut milling

159
 (a)

( b)

(c)

Figure 6. 12 Formed milling-cutters (a) equal double-angle cutter; (b)

convex cutter; (c) concave cutter

Throw-away Inserts or Inserted Blades (figure 6.14)

There are few differences between inserted-blade or throw-away-insert cutters

when their productivity potentials are assessed. The inserted-blade cutter does
have the advantage that if there is any distortion of the cutter body it can be
minimised during the .regrinding process. This effectively prevents a
'high-tooth' condition, which allows overloading and generates an inferior
surface-finish. Also there can be a greater number of teeth due to the cutter's
method of construction. The inserted blade's ability to produce fine finishes
by the long-face cutting-edge tends to give preference to this style of cutter.
In figure 6.15a this is demonstrated by the length of face contact of 6 mm; in
figure 6.15b the throw-away insert will only have the radius in contact with

160
 1r
/~ / \ '

I -+--+- I

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.13 Form-cutter grinding (a) cutter must be ground so that front
face is radial; (b) and (c) both cutters are ground offset and will lose their
contour

Figure 6. 14 Throw-away inserts

161
 30° lead angle 30° lead angle

radius
H
wiper f Ia!

(a l (b) (c)

Figure 6.15 Inserted-blade cutters

the work, in the position shown in figure 6.15c it is necessary to produce a

specially manufactured insert to increase the length of contact.
The use of throw·away inserts on roughing or semi·finishing operations
will have other benefits -the reduction of the load in the cutter grinding
department, that can amount to considerable cost-saving on machines, skilled
personnel, space and services. A turther benefit is that the maintenance of the
throw-away insert cutter has become the responsibility of the operator,
thereby improving efficiency in manpower.
The units produced per tip or insert would require cost analysis to
determine the most economic process. One factor with positive-type inserts,
figure 6.16a is that the number of edges is halved; also, occasional errors in
tip indexing can reduce the theoretical performance of components per
corner or edge. To establish the optimum cutting-conditions, correlation
between inserted blades and throw-away inserts must be based on empirical
results. These insert blades offer a greater flexibility to the tool designer when
considering a specific application.

r - - - -,
I
I
I
I
L - - j
__
I
I
I
I
0 DO
(a) (b)

Figure 6.16 (a) Positive-rake insert- four possible cutting-edges; (b)

negative-rake insert - eight possible cutting-edges

162
CUTTER TYPES

Double Negative Cutter

The configuration of the cutter shown in figure 6.17 makes it very robust and
suited to heavy-duty or interrupted cutting. It is very efficient when used on
cast iron. When this cutter is made up of carbide inserts it enables a greater
number of interchangeable edges to be used, thereby influencing the
economics of choice. Some disadvantages are the high cutting-forces, and the
power consumption by its ploughing method. The chips produced are
deflected or forced back on to the finished surface, resulting in a
deterioration of the surface finish. The cutter also transmits to the item being
machined a tendency to deflect away from the cutter.
Various materials are unsuitable for this cutter including aluminium,
copper and other ductile materials. Where work hardening is predictable this
type of cutter should be avoided.

negative radial-rake negative axial-rake

Figure 6. 17 Double negative cutter

Double Positive Cutter

A double positive cutter is illustrated in figure 6.18. The cutting edges are
inclined at a positive angle to the two planes. When inserts are used in a
suitable body they must be ground to provide adequate working-clearance as
indicated earlier. The advantages are (1) less power is used, (2) less
chip-compression, (3) freer chip-clearance. Deflection is reduced with a
corresponding reduction in temperature at the cutting edge. Surface finish is
improved. The cutter is suitable for aluminium, brass and ductile materials. It
can be used with advantage on work-hardening metals. Since the load applied
is less, components that may be difficult to support, or where there is an
inherent lack of rigidity, may be machined with a greater level of success.

Positive-Negative Combination

A positive-negative combination cutter is illustrated in figure 6.19. When the

cutting plane of a carbide insert or inserted blade is such that the rakes are

163
 positive radial- rake positive axial- rake

Figure 6.18 Double positive cutter

positive axially and negative radially, an interesting phenomenon occurs. The

cutting action tends to pull away the chips from the finished surface and
deflect them outwards towards the periphery of the cutter. This cutting
geometry is known as the shear angle. The shear angle shown in figure 6.20 is
measured relative to the axis of the cutter and along the cutting edge. The
shear angle in figure 6.20 is positive in its action although cutter geometry is
negative in its radial plane. It functions similarly to the helix of an end mill.
Shear-angle cutters have the ability to remove a high volume of material with
a good surface-finish. Chips are cleared without difficulty during the process.
They are very suitable for steel and continuous-chip materials and for cast
iron. They are widely used in production machining, tool rooms and service
departments.

Neutral-rake Cutters

A neutral-rake cutter is illustrated in figure 6.21. A cutter of this type is able

to produce true 90° shoulders and is suitable for general applications. Tooth
loading is correspondingly lighter with the result that it is not recommended

negative radial- rake positive axial- rake

Figure 6.19 Positive-negative cutter

164
 \-=it-- - reference plane passes
through the cutter axis
and inside end of
cutting edge

note: leading point of cutting

edge is at smallest
diameter of corner angle

Figure 6.20 Cutting geometry

for fast high-volume-removal rates. Its use in general machine-shops where
there are a variety of operations and materials machined will reduce the need
for a range of alternative stocks.

Direction of Rotation

To establish the hand of a cutter, that is, whether it is right-hand cutting or

left-hand cutting, it must be viewed from the back. When the cutting action is
clockwise it is a right-hand cutter. Conversely if the cutting action is
anticlockwise it is a left-hand cutter. Left-hand cutters can be employed with
right-hand cutters when machining is needed on a duplex operation, the two
cutters facing each other with the feed in one direction (figure 6.22).

Lead Angle

The lead angle has two important effects

(1) The greater the lead angle the more the chip is distributed over
the cutting edge.

0 ° radial rake 0° axial rake

Figure 6.21 Neutral-rake cutter

165
 ~
1t)
'

I
'

~
(~~
'--P
Figure 6.22 Duplex milling requiring a right-hand and left-hand cutter

(2) For each increment of feed the chip, due to the geometry, is
thinner.
These two effects are illustrated in figure 6.23. The increased lead angle limits
the depth of cut; a practical maximum is 30°. Where the lead angle is 45° it is
usually employed to machine a 45° angle. From the earlier comments it will
be seen that with a 30° lead angle, a shear-angle cutter would be the most
suitable choice for maximum metal-removal.

Faed·rate Effect on Corner Radius

When the feed rate is greater than the corner radius the surface finish will
reflect this 'cusp' form across the material. To improve this result and to lower
the J.Lm finish, the feed must be reduced or the corner radius increased. When
the corner radius is increased the length of cut also increases. To overcome
this difficulty a flat, tangential to the radius and parallel to the cutter face, is

0·3mm
advance

2° lead 45° lead

Figure 6.23 Cutter lead-angle effect

166
 radius wiper flat

Figure 6.24 Surface-finish improvement

reproduced on the cutter edge (figure 6.24). This 'wiper flat' effectively
eliminates this crescent surface-form which subsequently produces a better
finish. The flat should be 25 per cent wider than the actual feed-rate per
revolution.

Cutter Diameter

When the decision is made about which diameter cutter to use, it should be
remembered that it is only on the centre line of the cutter that the feed rate
is at its selected maximum. The cut, if equal in width to the cutter diameter
at a point 90° to the direction of feed is nil (figure 6.25). Therefore that
ratio of cutter diameter to machined width is inefficient. If again the cutter
were of very large diameter the teeth arc of contact would be less giving rise
to vibration and unwanted shock-loading. It is good practice to relate the
width of cut to the ratio of 2/3 the cutter diameter. Again this is a guide line
for production decisions and may not be economical for one-offs or
small-batch work.

diameter and width relationship equal width 2;3 x diameter for face milling

Figure 6.25 Relationship between cutter diameter and work width

167
MILLING ACCESSORIES

Rotary Table

Rotary tables are supplied basically of three types (i) self-powered; (ii) with
built-in mechanism for receiving power from the machine to which they are
attached, plus manual operation, as shown in figure 6.26a; (iii) manually
operated only. The drive for the power-operated tables is usually from a muff
coupling which is connected to an auxiliary drive-shaft from the parent
machine. Further sophistication is provided by the ability to disengage the
power feed at any given point by an adjustable trip-mechanism. It is
interesting to note that the constant-velocity joints provided in the drive
allow for variations in table height, and for table movement both horizontally
and longitudinally. Both types of table can be located horizontally, while
some are provided with ability to be mounted vertically on the machine table.
To assist 'setting up', tenon blocks are provided to engage in table slots.
The drive can be disengaged to allow the table to be rotated freely by hand
pressure, thereby relieving the tedium and reducing the time taken by hand
indexing through the worm gearing. Further assistance in setting is given by
shallow-spaced concentric rings and the tee slots machined in the table
surface. Using the rotary table as a base, innumerable methods of machining
can be carried out. Work can be held in a vice, a 3-jaw chuck or special
fixtures, and to add to the range of this extremely versatile piece of equipment
other simple attachments can be used.

Spigot Plug A ground plug which spigots into the rotary table and is
concentric to its axis, allows a zero datum to be obtained between the vertical
head of the milling machine and the rotary table (figure 6.27).

Angle Bracket An adjustable angle-bracket is shown being set in

figure 6.28. These are usually made of cast iron in a wide range of sizes. Their
function is to provide an adequate datum for clamping components that are

(b)

Figure 6.26 Rotary table (a) powered by machine; (b) detailed showing (i)
tenon slots (ii) concentric rings (iii) spigot holes

168
 Figure 6.27 Use of the spigot plug to centralise rotary table

difficult to machine using other methods of clamping. They can be used with
tenon blocks, providing an accurate parallel or a 90° datum to the machine
ways.

Vertical-milling Attachment Two vertical-milling attachments are shown

in figure 6.29. Figure 6.29a illustrates a standard vertical-milling attachment
which is located on the Vees of the overarm and firmly clamped to the body
and overarm. The drive shaft of the attachment is connected to the machine
spindle and runs at the same speed as the spindle (1:1, 90° gearbox ratio). The
attachment is designed so that it can swivel through 360°. The spindle nose of
the attachment is the same as the main spindle, having provision for collets,
collet chucks, arbors, etc.
Figure 6.29b illustrates a universal milling-attachment. This attachment is
similar to the vertical one described above, except that a horizontal spindle is
also provided. This additional feature enables the cutter to be put at any
angle in the two respective planes.

Figure 6.28 Setting an adjustable angle-bracket

169
 (a) (b)

Figure 6.29 (a) vertical-milling attachment;Jb) universal milling-attachment

Slotting Attachment Figure 6.30 illustrates two applications of the slotting

attachment. This attachment is designed to convert the rotary motion of the
main spindle into a reciprocating motion. This action increases the capacity
of the milling machine, permitting the manufacture of slots and key-ways.

Special-purpose Features

The special purpose features available on a milling machine will depend upon
the initial capital cost. To include all the items available one must assess the
projected use of the machine tool and the economics of its use. The following
list gives some indication of the options that are available

Figure 6.30 Slotting attachment

170
 (i) Tilting head, manually or power operated
(ii) Slotting attachment
(iii) Horizontal-milling attachment plus auxiliary head
(iv) Overarm to advance head and to rotate 360°
(v) Table able to swivel and tilt; power feed in all directions
(vi) Optical measuring-equipment
(vii) Power feed to dividing head and rotary table

Arbor Mounting

An arbor should be of suitable length, and of the maximum diameter possible

for the cutter or cutters to be mounted on it. It should have an undamaged
male-taper. Location in the female-taper hole of the machine should be
carried out with care and cleanliness. Driving tenons should fit with minimum
clearance into the slots provided in the arbor flange. All collars, spacers and
cutters must be free from all particles of swarf on their contacting faces
during assembly. Failure to ensure meticulous cleanliness during assembly can
cause the arbor to bend, or spring when tightened together by the arbor nut.
The arbor key must be fitted, since any tendency for the cutter to slip while
cutting would immediately bend the arbor and possibly score its diameter.
Occasionally when mishaps occur the key is sheared by the turning moment,
ruining the arbor in the process.

Straddle or Gang Milling

When straddle or gang milling (figure 6.31 ), that is, making use of two or
more cutters, calculation must be made to ensure that the distance between
the cutting edges will meet drawing requirements. This distance can be made
up of standard collars and individual shims, specially made collars or an
adjustable collar.

Precautions when Straddle or Gang Milling When straddle or gang milling

the cutting edges of both cutters can contact the component at the same
instant. The resulting very heavy stress can be detrimental since it induces
vibration into the arbor and machine tool. For the purpose of avoiding these
effects methods incorporating flywheels and alternate-tooth loading can be
introduced. Further improvement can be made by using opposing helix angles
for the cutter teeth. This practice tends to cancel any vibration and prevents
unwanted stress being transmitted through the arbor to the machine.

Rigidity To ensure that the assembled arbor is able to perform satisfactorily,

the cutters must be fitted to the shortest arbor, their position on the arbor
being as near as possible to the machine body; examples of stub-arbor cutting
are shown in figure 6.32. When possible in straddle or gang milling an arbor

171
 Figure 6.31 Typical straddle- or gang-milling operation

overarm support or yoke should be fitted between the cutters. The arbor
support with its bearing collar should be as close to the clamping nut as is
practical. Support of the arbor while tightening is essential.

Universal Dividing-head

The universal dividing-head is a versatile and accurate indexing attachment

that may be employed to support the workpiece between centres or hold it in
a chuck. It incorporates an indexing arrangement, as well as gearing which is
connected to the driving mechanism for the purpose of imparting rotary
motion to the work, as required when cutting helices (figure 6.33). The
periphery of the work may be indexed or divided into any number of given
parts, for machining or marking-out. The milled surfaces may be either

(o) (b) (c)

Figure 6.32 Stub arbors - Maximum rigidity (a) shell-end mill; (b) facing
cutter; (c) gang of plain cutters

172
 Figure 6.33 Universal dividing-head

straight (parallel to the axis of work), as in the machining of spur-gear teeth ,

or at an angle as in the flute of twist drills and helical mills, cams and a
variety of similar work.
The accurate spacing is accomplished by means of the index crank and the
index plate (one of a set furnished with the head). or as in the case of the
more common divisions, by means of the rapid indexing plate fastened to the
nose spindle. The basis of the indexing operation lies with the worm and
worm wheel incorporated inside the dividing-head body (figure 6.34). The
worm wheel which is keyed to the spindle contains forty teeth and the
single-start worm is in mesh with it. For every turn of the index crank the
worm rotates once and the worm wheel, advances one tooth and
correspondingly the spindle makes one-fortieth of a revolution. Note
1 Turn of the index crank rotates the main spindle 1/40th of a turn
40 Turns of the index crank rotate the main spindle 1 revolution

(In some cases it is convenient to note that 1/40th of a revolution is equivalent

to 9 degrees.) Now if the index crank can be accurately moved through
portions of one complete revolution, then the amount of division obtained
will be greatly extended. As above
1 turn of index crank = 1 /40th turn of main spindle

rapid index plate pin

rapid index plate
(usual ly 24 hole)

~.--~----fron t end of worm spindle

hos provision for chuck I
collet /centre support
headstock
( worm) spindle --·~...-,r~ '"'"-----.
lr-< ~- index plate
provision for affixing --f"'T'--\-1
~
shaft for gears selector orm
crank

plunger

Figure 6.34 Cut-away view of an indexing head

173
Therefore
1/1 Oth of 1 turn of index crank= 1/10 x 1/40 = 1/400th turn of main
spindle

Fractions of a turn or revolution of the index crank are provided by equally

spaced holes of different centres and different pitch-circle diameter (P.C.D.) on
each of the index plates available.

Care and Use of the Dividing Head A dividing head is a precision

instrument, and must have care and attention if the initial accuracy that has
been built into it is to remain. At all times it should be maintained in a clean,
well-lubricated condition, stored in a proper manner, and not dumped
haphazardly on the floor. Accurate work can be obtained only by giving
attention to the following points

(a) Ensure that the work is held firmly in position, whether on a

mandrel between centres or held in the chuck.
(b) Use a dial indicator to check that the workpiece is set true.
(c) Accurate indexing; make use of the sector arms.
(d) When indexing take precautions to accommodate any backlash
that may be present in the gears (worm and worm wheel).
(e) Adequately support the work.

Indexing

There are various methods of indexing; the ones that will be discussed are the
most common (i) direct (ii) simple (iii) angular (iv) compound (v) differential.

Direct Indexing Direct indexing is the simplest of the indexing methods; it

is carried out with the worm shaft disengaged from the worm wheel.
Relatively common divisions are indexed by means of a front index-plate that
is attached to the main spindle-nose and held in position by a spring-loaded
locating pin engaged in the selected circle of holes (figue 6.34).

Simple Indexing The dividing head is furnished with a set of indexing

plates each containing several circles of holes carefully spaced, so that the
crank can be held in any desired position. The crank must be turned a whole
or fractional number of revolutions to attain the prescribed divisions of the
workpiece, and the fractional element of rotation may be catered for
accurately by using an indexing plate -this will constitute simple indexing.
Example: It is required that the disc shown in figure 6.35 has seven
grooves.

174
Figure 6.35 Simple indexing - machining seven equi-spaced grooves

Solution: Seven divisions are required on the workpiece, therefore the

number of turns of the indexing crank must be

40 = 5~
7 7

5 turns present no problem; 5/7th of a turn needs consideration. If the

universal dividing head is a Brown and Sharp, three indexing plates are
supplied
plate 1- 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,20 hole circles
plate 2-21,23,27, 29, 31,33 hole circles
plate 3- 37, 39, 41, 43, 47,49 hole circles
It is necessary to select a hole circle that can accommodate 5/7th of a turn;
21 and 49 are two such circles and 21 is the most convenient.
5/7th of 21 holes = 15 holes
Therefore to machine a component with seven divisions it is necessary to
rotate the indexing crank 5 complete turns+ 15 holes of a 21 hole circle, to
mill each consecutive groove.

Index Sector The index sector (figure 6.36) enables the correct number of
holes to be obtained at each indexing with the least chance of error. Without
the index sector much care would have to be exercised in counting the holes

175
 first location second location
of plunger of plunger fine- adjusting screws

index 21 spaces
(a) {b)

Figure 6.36 (a) Index sector; (b) fine crank-adjustment

in an index plate when indexing to obtain any given number of divisions.

Figure 6.36a shows the arms of the sector set for 21 holes in the 24 hole
circle. In setting the sector, never count the hole in which the pin of the
index crank is placed. It is the number of equal hole pitches that are
important. For 21 holes there should actually be 22 holes between the arms
of the sector, but one is filled by the pin.

Angular Indexing When indexing for an angle, it is necessary to find the

movement of the index crank to produce the required movement of the
workpiece in degrees before another cut is taken. If it requires 40 turns of the
crank to produce one revolution of the spindle (360°) one turn of the
index crank must move the spindle through an angle equal to 360° divided by
40 or 9°. Using a Brown and Sharp indexing plate, of the indexing circles
available, 18 and 27 are divisible by 9; thus 18/9 = 2 and 27/9 = 3 give the
number of holes to move the index crank in the respective circles to move the
spindle (workpiece) 1°.
Example: The angle required is 35'h0 ; the calculations for the indexing
movement are carried out as follows
Solution: Required Angle= 35'h 0 , 3 full turns of index crank turns workpiece
through 27° leaving 8'h0 •
18 hole circle; 2 holes per degree; 8'h degrees= 17 holes
To obtain a work division of 35'h0 , turn the index crank 3H revolutions on
an 18 hole circle.

Compound Indexing It is often required to obtain divisions beyond the

scope of simple indexing, and to do this a method known as compound
indexing is used. In order to use this method the dividing head must be
equipped with an additional index pin, which is stationary, but can be
adjusted radially to engage holes in the index plate.
Compound indexing consists of two separate simple indexing operations.

176
In the first the index crank is rotated in the usual manner for indexing a
number of spaces in the index plate. This is followed by rotation of the index
plate with the index crank engaged. The index plate is rotated by disengaging
the plate stop and indexng, with respect to the fixed index pin, a number of
holes on a different circle of holes in the same index plate. To 'add' to the
previous amount indexed, rotation of the index plate is made in the same
direction as the rotation of the index crank; it is made in the opposite
direction to 'subtract'.
Example: It is required to find the movement of the index crank of a
Brown and Sharp dividing head, for 96 divisions. Let the crank indexing be x
holes on an X hole circle and the plate indexing y holes on a Y hole circle

. . X+ y
Tota I mdexmg =---
X y

Note +same direction,- opposite direction. It is required that two

fractional values be obtained whose sum or difference is equal to the r~quired
indexing fraction: to assist calculations, factorise the numbers used in the
necessary equations. From the circles available on the indexing plates
provided, select two circles on the same plate. The circles selected are the 18
and 20 hole circles.

Procedure: Make a fraction in which the numerator is the product of the

divisions required (96) and the difference between the number of holes in the
two circles (20- 18 = 2). The denominator is the product of the circle
numbers (18 and 20) and 40 (dividing head 40:1 ratio). Therefore

96 X 2 (2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 3) X (2)
40 X 20 X 18 (2 X 2 X 2 X 5) X (2 X 2 X 5) X (2 X 3 X 3)
1
5X5X3 75

If the numerator completely cancels, then it can be accepted that the hole
circles chosen are suitable for compound indexing 96 divisions.
The product of the uncancelled factors in the denominator is taken as the
numerator of each of the two fractions, their denominator being the number
of hole circles selected

75 75
and or and 3~
18 20

The index crank is moved clockwise 4[a revolutions on the 18 hole circle, and
the stop pin is then disengaged and the plate and index crank moved counter
clockwise 3¥o revolutions on the 20 hole circle. The difference between the
two movements will equal the movement necessary for the indexing of 96

177
divisions; that is

4_a_ - 3.12 = ~
18 20 12

The spindle movement (or workpiece) is 1/40 of the crank movement

1 5 1
-x-=-
40 12 96
An alternative to the above indexing fractions is to subtract 4 from each
fraction; the result is
3 5 5
-+-=-
18 20 12
and
5
-x-=-
12 40 96

Subtracting 4 from each fraction results in a smaller movement of crank arm

and index plate with less possibility of error and more quickly (figure 6.37).
It may now be appreciated that compound indexing is rather long and
laborious, and is somewhat unfavourably regarded in machine shops. A more
popular indexing technique is that of differential indexing.

Differentia/Indexing Only a limited number of divisions can be obtained

by using the three plates regularly supplied with the dividing head for simple
indexing. Many divisions not obtainable by simple indexing can be indexed

to pick up hole
use the fine-
adjustment 5crews

I st index 5/20

Figure 6.37 Path for compound indexing : 1/96th

178
by the differential indexing method. Differential indexing is similar to
compound indexing in that both the crank and the plate are revolved, but in
differential indexing the movement of the crank and plate occur at the same
time, resulting in less chance of error than in compound indexing. The
movement of the crank and plate is produced by a train of gears interposed
between the spindle of the dividing head and the worm shaft that imparts
motion to the plate. By this arrangement the index crank is moved in the
same circle of holes and the operation is like plain indexing. If gears are
placed on the spindle and the worm shaft of the dividing head (figure 6.38),
and one intermediate gear is used to complete the train, the plate will rotate
in the same direction (clockwise) as the crank. With two intermediate gears,
the plate will rotate in a direction opposite (counter clockwise) to the crank.
The total movement of the index crank at every indexing is equal to its
movement relative to the plate plus the movement of the plate when the plate
rotates in the same direction as the crank, and minus the movement of the
plate when the plate rotates in the direction opposite to the crank. The
desired movement of the plate for each indexing can be obtained by the use
of proper change gears. The change gears regularly supplied with the Brown
and Sharp dividing head are 24 teeth (two gears), 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 56, 64,
72, 86 and 100 teeth.
Example: To machine a gear with 119 teeth it is necessary to obtain the
change gears for the spindle and the worm.
Solution
40
Number of turns of indexing crank = -
119

If a 119 hole circle were available this fractional indexing would be carried
out 119 times, at the end of which the spindle (workpiece)would have made
one complete revolution. Using the Brown and Sharp dividing head a 119
hole circle is not available; it is therefore necessary to make a close
approximation to the fraction 40/119, either larger or smaller, so that the
number of divisions required can be obtained by simple indexing with the
presence of a small error.

,._---+--idler gear
(one or two)

(a) (b)

Figure6.38 Differential indexing (a) front sectional-view; (b) back-view

showing arrangement for differential indexing

119
Let 40/120 be the fraction selected
40 1 6 40
-=-=-;::::::--
120 3 18-119
With differential indexing it is not imperative to select any particular indexing
plate, but it is best to choose one with a number producing factors that are
contained in the change gears. Plate 1 has an 18 hole circle; its factors
(2 x 3 x 3) can be accommodated by the change gears. If this approximate
ratio 6/18 is indexed 11 9 times an error results. It is the purpose of the
change gears to counteract this error. Total indexing

6
- x 119 = 39i~ turns of the indexing crank
18
It can be seen that the indexing crank has revolved 6/18 short. The spindle
gear-wheel must impart a motion to the plate so that the difference 6/18 may
be taken up using suitable change gears. The directional motion of the index
plate must be in the same direction as the indexing-crank movement. The
gearing-ratio requirements are shown in figure 6.40.
Change gears available: 24, 24, 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 56, 64, 72, 86, 100

drivers 18 72 worm gear

---=-=-=
driven 6 24 spindle gear

When the spindle (workpiece) has made one revolution (24 teeth) the worm
gear will have moved 24 teeth or 24/72 = 6/18 of a revolution, in the same
direction as the crcmk because one intermediate gear was used to complete
the train. This gearing is arranged as shown in figure 6.39 and since the
indexing crank is indexed 6 holes on an 18 hole circle, an imperceptible
movement of the index plate is taking place in the same direction as the
crank.

l
I

l_J
J_ -- - -"-"~"" "" ---l-

""'-©~ I
_1_-----~-·

Figure 6.39 Gearing arrangement for differential indexing

180
 ~--vertical-head
attachment

gear ratio
-HH---worm spindle

feed 5 mm lead
lead screw

Figure 6.40 Apparatus for helical milling

Milling Helical Grooves

When the worm spindle of an index head is geared to the lead screw of the
milling machine so that the work revolves as the table moves along the ways,
a helical or spiral cut is produced; as shown in figure 6.40. Helical
milling-cutters, helical gears, twist drills and similar work are produced in this
way. The milling of such items requires a particular relationship between the
motions of the dividing head and associated gear train, to control the distance
the work will travel while making one complete revolution. Before the helix
can be machined the lead and angle of helix is necessary together with work
diameter.

Helix Angle A helix is a theoretical line that can be generated on a cylinder

surface by a cutting tool feeding at uniform rate parallel to the cylinder axis,
while the cylinder is rotating at uniform rate as shown in figure 6.41. The
lead of a helix is the distance L travelled by the tool point during one
complete revolution of the cylinder. If the surface of the cylinder is rolled
out on a flat plane the helix develops into a straight line A-B. The angle 8 is
the angle used in setting up the blank for the milling operation.

Gear Ratio The lead that is cut on the work is dependent on the selected
gear-train. By selecting different combinations of change gears, the distance
that the table moves while the spindle revolves once, may be changed
(figure 6.42). When the work spindle makes one revolution the table
moves a set distance; this is known as the machine lead.
The table feed-screw usually has a single start, 5 mm pitch thread and
therefore a lead of 5 mm. Motion is transferred from the lead screw to the
spindle through the worm and worm wheel, which have a 40:1 ratio. When

181
 B

/
/
I
I

/
/

cutting -tool
feed

L
rrD -I
heliK lead

Figure 6.41 Generation and development of a helix

the work spindle makes one revolution the table moves a distance of 200 mm
if even gearing {1: 1) is used. The ratio of driven to driver gears may be found
by equating the lead required on the helix to the machine lead.
The universal milling-machine table swivels on a centre in line with the
spindle axis; it is swivelled to the required helix angle for the purpose of
placing the tangent of the groove in the plane of the cutter. This avoids undue
interference between the cutter and the workpiece, and when using form
cutters it is essential for the reproduction of the required form.
Consider the action of a form cutter. The motion of the cutter must be
parallel with that of the work, or the machined form will be distorted as
shown in figure 6.43. Note. When the cutter machine is squa.re to its cutting

-driver
gear
driven
gear

intermediate
~---+-shaft
(driven)

lead screw

Figure 6.42 Gearing set-up for helical milling

182
 here again the
e~treme case I e~treme case 2 cutter machines
on its periphery
and not its face

cutter machines on its

periphery not its face

the groove form is distorted the groove form is d si torted

Figure 6.43 Machining with a form cutter

edge, true reproduction results. It should now be obvious that to obtain the
correct formed groove the path of the cutter must be set at some intermediate
angle, this being the helix angle.

Intermediate-angle Setting Machine setting for correct form cutting with

helix angle 20° (figure 6.44). When cutting helical grooves of appreciable
depth, it is usual to use the mean diameter as a basis for calculating the helix
angle. When cutting gear teeth, the helix angle is usually calculated using the
pitch-circle diameter.
Example: An example of helical milling is the machining of the two flutes
on a high-speed steel drill. Considering a drill of 12 mm diameter which is to
have its flutes machined with a 70 mm lead, calculate (a) the helix angle
necessary for setting the milling-machine table; (b) the gearing necessary to
produce the required rotary motion of the drill blank. Consider using a
universal miller with the standard 5 mm pitch, single-start lead screw. The
gears available are 24, 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 56, 64, 72, 86 and 100.
Solution: Figure 6.45. When set-up as shown, cut first flute then index
dividing head 20 turns (work blank half a turn), proceed to cut second flute.
(a) Calculate helix angle

127T
e =tan-!-
70
= tan -I 0.5386 = 28° 18'
(b) calculate gearing
driven lead of drill
driver lead of machine
70 40 7 40 56
=- =- x- =- x-
200 100 8 100 64

183
milling-ma chine----T -:-1 ·__ _,- ./'
spindle '...:.T.J ./'
/ dividing head
~ blank

table swivelled zoo

Figure 6.44 Helical-milling set-up

set up

(a)

I
&=helix angle
L =lead of flutes
70 mm
L

1"'" 12-rrmm -I
(b)

gear arrangemen t

Figure 6.45 Intermediate angle setting

184
Cam Milling

The principle of cam milling can best be understood by imagining the cam
and follower to be replaced by a disc and cutter respectively, and the linear
and rotary motions being reversed in direction, keeping the ratio of
magnitudes constant, as shown in figure 6.46.
A method often used to machine constant-lift or-rise cams is that of using
the dividing head and vertical-spindle milling-attachment as shown in
figure 6.48. The milling operation is similar to that used for the machining of
relatively short-lead helices. With the dividing head geared to the table
feed-screw the cam blank is secured to its end using a suitable mandrel. When
cutting peripheral cams an end mill is used in the vertical-spindle
milling-attachment. The cutting is carried out by the teeth on the periphery of
the end mill. When machining it is important to ensure that the cutter axis is
parallel to that of the dividing-head spindle so that the cam peripheral face is
at right angles to its side.
It should be appreciated by now that to mill a specified lead, suitable
gear-wheels must be available. If the lead is changed then a different gear-ratio
is required. The variety of lifts used on cams in industry is enormous; the
number of wheels to bring about all these leads would be out of all
proportion to economic production. To overcome the difficulty of changing
wheel numbers the head is inclined, and the axis of the cutter adjusted to lie
parallel to that of the dividing-head spindle. With the set-up in figure 6.47 and
using the gears available, leads of very great accuracy can be obtained. The
setting angle of the dividing head plays a very important part in cam milling.

Setting Angle of Head To explain the principle behind the inclining of the
dividing-head spindle, consider three cases (figure 6.48).

cam
rise
L- ·
follo~er
'
t
vmm/s

(a) (b)

Figure 6.46 Cam milling (a) the cam rotates at a constant angular speed of
w rad/s causing the follower to rise at a constant linear speed of v mm!s; (b)
the disc is made to rotate at a constant angular speed of w rad/s; the relative
advancement of the cutter is at a constant linear speed ofv mm!s

185
 intermediate spindle

idler

Figure 6.47 Cam milling

disc

tt--
I
I
~ I
table t table
~
feed
(a) (b)

\of dividing head

\
t
feed 'm
(c)

Figure 6.48 Cam milling - setting of head angle

186
 (1) With the dividing head inclined at right angles (90°) to the
surface of the table and geared for a given lead. As the table advances and the
disc rotates the distance between the heads and the cutter axis becomes less.
This results in the production of a cam whose lead is the same as that for
which the machine is geared.
(2) Considering the same set up but with the head set at zero degrees.
It is apparent that as the table advances and the disc is turned its periphery, if
milled, will be concentric having a zero lead.
(3) It should now be apparent that if the dividing heads were inclined
at some intermediate angle between 0° and 90°, any lead less than that for
which the machine is geared, can be arranged.

sin Cl =cam rise (per rev) =cam lead

to ble lead table lead

LJ . _,cam lead
C7 =s1n ---
table lead

ear train= cam lead to be cut L

g lead of machme 200

driven L
drivers= 200

I_ _I table
IH'travel

Figure 6.49 Relationship between cam rise, table lead and inclination of
dividing-head spindle

It should now be clear that cams with a very large range of different leads
can be obtained with one set of change gears, and the problem of milling the
lobes of a cam is reduced to a question of finding the angle at which to set
the dividing head to obtain any given lead.
The relationship between the amount of cam rise, the table lead and the
angle of inclination of the dividing-head spindle is shown in figure 6.49. The
rise of a cam is the distance travelled by the follower when the cam is rotated
through the angle that includes the complete cam profile. When this angle is
equal to 360° the cam rise is then known as the cam lead L.
The lead of a milling machine having a 5 mm pitch single-start lead screw,
using a 40:1 ratio dividing head is 200 mm. Let the angle of inclination of the
dividing-head spindle be (J •
Example: A cam has a rise of 15 mm in 90°; calculate the gear train
required.

187
Solution
360°
Cam lead (rise for 360°) = 15 mm x 900 = 60 mm

driven cam lead

gear train = - - - = - - - - - -
drivers machined lead
60 40 6 40 48
=-=-x-=-x-
200 100 8 100 64
cam lead
Angle of inclination =sin - 1 ----
table lead
60
=sin - 1 - = sin - 1 1 = 90°
60

With the milling machine set up under the conditions suggested in the
above example, it will be difficult to commence cutting. Even if the table
traverses its full amount it is unlikely that cutting will take place, because the
distance between the cam disc and cutter is too great to overcome. The
problem can be solved by inclining the dividing head at some convenient
angle, and reviewing the calculations to compensate for this angle.
From a practical point of view consider an angle around 45°.
cam lead
sine= =sin 45 = 0.7071
machine lead
therefore
cam lead
machine lead=----
0. 7071
In the case of the above example
60
machine lead = - - -
0.7071
= 84.86 mm
The machine table must now be geared up between lead screw and dividing
head so that it will have a machine lead of around 84.86 mm. This may prove
to be an inconvenient number- round it up to 90 mm. T~is will cause a
slight change in the angle of inclination of the head.

driven 90 40 72
---=-=--x-
driver 200 100 64
Angle of inclination is

0 -1
Sin 60=
- 41 048'
90

188
Concluding, by inclining the head to an angle of 41 o 48' and gear with
drivers 40 72
---=-x-
driven 100 64
a cam with 15 mm rise in 90° can be machined.
Example: Calculate the leads, gears and angles of inclination that are
necessary to machine the cam shown in figure 6.50. The cam has a 14 mm
rise in 90° 11 mm rise in 80° and 10 mm rise in 60°.
Solution: To calculate the three required cam leads
0 360
14 mm rise in 90 =- x 14 = 56 mm lead
90
0 360
11 mm rise in 80 x 11
=- = 49.5 mm lead
80
0 360
10 mm rise in 60 = - x 10 = 60 mm lead
60
For greater accuracy, choose a lead larger than the maximum desired lead to
be cut. This places the whole 90° movement of the dividing head at the
operator's disposal; he can now attain finality and locate the other two leads
using a single gear-setting.
Selecting and using a lead of 80mm, calculate and gear the machine as
follows.
cam lead 80mm 2 40 driven
machine lead 200mm 5 100 driver

II mm rise in 80° 14 mm rise in 90°

10 mm rise
in 60°

Figure 6.50 Cam profile

189
Connect the 40-tooth gear on the dividing-head intermediate spindle and the
100-tooth gear is positioned on the lead screw. It will be necessary to use
idler gears. The machine lead now becomes 80 mm. To solve for the angle
at which the dividing head is inclined divide the required cam lead by the lead
of the machine. The angle may be taken from sine tables.

required cam lead

sin 8 = - ' - - - - - - - -
actual lead

· 8
For 14 mm riSE! = sm
·-I 56 =sin- 1 0.70=44°25'
80

49.5 1 o
For11 mmrise8=sin- 1 --=sin- 0.62=3818
I

80
60
For 10 mm rise 8 =sin -I 80 =sin -I 0. 75 = 48°36'

Conclusion: When machining the cam the miller is geared the same for all
leads, and when cutting the desired lobe the head and cutter are inclined at
the respective angle.
For ease in cutting cams it is advisable to mark out the desired cam-profile.
Where considerable material has to be removed it is economical to drill the
work to a rough outline and remove unwanted portions. If milling takes place
without preliminary machining, cuts must be applied gradually so as not to
overload the cutter.
Whenever possible the work should be set-up so that the end-mill will cut on
the lower portion of the cam disc, since this brings the mill and table nearer
together and makes for greater rigidity. This also enables the operator to
observe any lines that may have been laid out on the cam.

QUESTIONS

1. What are the principal features of construction of the following milling

machines (i) plain horizontal milling-machine, (ii) universal
milling-machine, (iii) production milling-machine?

2. Chip formation and cutting forces are two important features that an
engineer must consider when selecting a milling cutter. Explain how the
cutter helix-angle influences these two features.

3. Explain the difference between up-cut and down-cut milling. How does
the choice of cutting technique influence (i) the cutting forces? (ii) the
cooling action of the cutter? (iii) machining of frail components?

190
 4. Explain, with the aid of sketches, how a shaped-profile cutter and a
machined form-relieved cutter differ in construction. What precautions
are necessary when re-sharpening form cutters?

5. (a) Show clearly with the aid of line diagrams how an inserted
tooth-face mill is held and driven. How is the tooth insert held in the
body, and given suitable cutting angles?
(b) What machining conditions cause premature failure or poor
performance of the inserted-tooth cutter?
(c) Large inserted-tooth face-mills are said to have a 'flywheel effect'.
Explain the meaning and significance of this effect.

6. What differences in cutter design must be considered when

manufacturing milling cutters for positive- and negative-rake milling?

7. Explain with the aid of sketches the advantages of gang milling. What
precautions are necessary to ensure accurate machining?

8. List some typical applications of the following universal-milling

attachments (i) rotary table, (ii) universal dividing-head, (iii) slotting
attachment, (iv) vertical-milling attachment.

9. What precautions are necessary during helical milling to ensure accurate

geometric form of the flutes?

10. Explain with the aid of neat sketches how a constant-rise cam is
machined on a universal milling-machine.

11. Calculate and illustrate a suitable setting for milling a constant-rise cam
that has a 15 mm rise in 85 degrees, 14 mm rise in 40 degrees and
8 mm rise in 120 degrees. The dividing head available is a Brown and
Sharp with all the necessary attachments.

191
 7 Hole Production

DRILLING

This seemingly simple operation is often overlooked in the general acclaim

that is afforded to other more sophisticated aspects of engineering
development. The need to produce a hole has been with us since man needed
to make even the most simple tools from materials too hard to be pierced by
hammering or burning; friction with an abrasive material using Archimedes'
drill action was probably the next progressive step. With the advent of metal
the next step is a simple flat drill of the pointed or spade type. This being
forged flat would need little alteration to twist the flat blade, producing. as a
result 'flutes', thus greatly assisting in the removal of debris from the hole
being produced. From this, a mainly subjective view, developments over the
years have produced many different drills with a very superior performance,
economics being considered not only in drill price but as a 'cost per hole'.
When it is necessary to specify a drill to produce a desired hole size, it should
be borne in mind that standard drills are available before a non-standard is
chosen, or even to consider redesign of the component to use standard drills
where possible.
In the following illustration is the general twist-drill nomenclature
(figure 7.1). The essential features of a drill are the he Iix angle, web thickness,
point angle, back taper, diameter, heat treatment and surface finish. If soft
materials are to be drilled then the removal of the chips is of greater
importance than great strength or rigidity. Usually the helix angle is high and
angles of 45° are common, with a wide polished flute and a reduced web
thickness, the web being thinned at the point. Variations in these points are
illustrated in the drills shown in figure 7.2. Basically the drills fall into groups
and the permutations of these groups can result in a bewildering number of
drills to choose from. To limit this field the difference in straight-shank,
taper-shank, one-, two-, three- and four-flute drills will be studied.

Straight Shank As the name implies the shank is parallel and is about the
same size as the drill diameter. It is universally used and within a given range
it is quickly interchanged when necessary. Its accuracy suffers when the

192
equipment in which it is held deteriorates. The normal 3-jaw drill chuck of
say 0-12 mm capacity soon loses its accuracy for small-diameter drills
(2 mm) if the drills of 12 mm size are not clean and securely held in the
chuck. When drilling 12 mm holes the drill should be inserted to its full depth
in the chuck, sinte the axial load produces axial movement if only gripped by
a short section of the drill-chuck jaw. This axial movement soon produces a
failure in driving, damaging the drill and the chuck simultaneously.
relat ive
lip height

web

i_ dri ll axis
chisel - '~-...>
edge
r l ip or
'1\'I""'«<J>.--+-- cylindr ical
land
cut ting
edge
relief
angle

Figure 7. 1 Twist-drill nomenclature

193
 ~ wide polished flutes

v~<G; ~
plastics -slow spiral

~ ~
soft metals -quick spiral

=~~-.:::----~~~---------­
v
(1)

general use- standard spiral flutes

brass/bronze- slow spiral flutes

Figure 1.2 Important features of drills for various materials

Taper Shank This has a far more positive drive, and is necessary on the
larger-diameter drills. The tapers must be clean and free from burrs. One
inherent benefit is that even very small taper-shank drills can be used on big
machines since a series of sleeves can build up the taper shank to the
machine's capacity; obviously sensitivity will suffer in individual cases.

Deep-hole Drilling

Completely different features are required for drills that are used for
deep-hole drilling. An important point of design is to reduce end thrust,
to prevent bowing and flexing, producing as a consequence hole run-out and
short drill-life. Greater rigidity is created by increasing web thickness and
making the flutes narrower; a helix angle of 35° gives a good chip removal.
End thrust is reduced by special grinding of the chisel edge, virtually
eliminating a non-cutting action by creating two inner cutting-edges with
positive rake-angles (figure 7.3). Cooling is provided by a coolant hole being
cast into the flutes of the drill. The coolant exit is in the flank behind the
cutting edge. Development by the Sandvik Co. of Sweden has produced a drill
which differs from the twist drill by removing the swart through the hollow
centre of the drill - it cannot of course be used for small holes. This ejector
drill (figure 7.4). has an internal cutting-fluid supply pumped through the
annular space between the drill tube and the inner tube. Chips and coolant
are thus forced back through the inner tube, to help cool the cutting edges.

194
 '®•"
1/4 to 1/3 of length
of cutting 1ip
coolant exit

~)
, .....--.~ -1
- - -(\"
,' t:4-- relation of
grinding wheel
to drill
'

~
w-shown as
percentage
of drill diom.
I . side view 2, front view

(a) (b)

Figure 7.3 Drill design for deep-hole drilling (a) special grinding of the chisel
edge producing positive rake-angles from 5" to 8° at the cutting lip; (b)
coolant holes for deep drilling

Gun Drilling

Deep-hole drilling is again relative. Very-deep-hole drilling, where the ratio of

the length or depth of hole is great in relation to the diameter is sometimes
described as gun drilling, the drill being specially manufactured to a precise
design. This gun drill is a tool capable of drilling a round straight hole very
accurately to almost any depth from bar stock. It can be described as a single
straight flute, self-piloted deep-hole drill. As the name suggests it originated
with the drilling of firearm or gun barrels. The cutting edge is attached to a
hollow carrier which has a vee form introduced to its periphery. This form is
clearly seen in figure 7 .5b.
Usually the gun drill is provided with a channel along which the chips flow
after being separated from the workpiece. Coolant is pumped through the
hollow section of the drill at very high pressures; the magnitude of pressure
depends on the length and diameter of the hole. The drill equipped with a
carbide tip is carefully ground to a precise form to give support when its

(b)

Figure 7.4 Special drill-head for deep-hole drilling (a) coolant and chip
flow; (b) drill head

195
 (a)

iooo~nfl~" '--m
an~ angle~
1 ~~
point
1-- '
location-!
shoulder
dub-off
(b)

Figure 7. 5 (a) Gun drills; {b) general nose-configuration of gun drill

trepanning action is used. These drills operate at high speeds and low feeds by
comparison with twist drills; they are very accurate and produce an excellent
surface finish. Since the drills are long, that is, high ratio of length to
diameter, it is necessary to support them adequately, to prevent bowing and
whipping during the cutting cycle. Normally gun drilling is carried out on a
machine specially constructed for this purpose.

Multiple-flute Drills

When the diameter of the drill permits and the type of operation allows,
advantage can be taken of 3- or 4-fluted drills (figure 7 .6). This permits a
greater penetration rate than with a 2-flute drill. It is widely used in industry
as an opening-out drill.

25°-33°

©~ four flute (for opening out)

Figure 7.6 Multiple-flute drills

196
 3-flute drills are used extensively where forgings have pieced, forged or
cored holes. They are also used on multitool set-ups, where facing tools can
utilise the greater flute-volume to get tool clearance while using standard tools.
4-flute drills are used for similar function, although some prefer to use this drill
on previously drilled holes. This is largely subjective and a choice of 3 or 4
flutes in suitable circumstances is a personal one. Available in high-speed
steel or carbide tipped they provide the link between drilling and reaming,
since it falls half-way between the two.

Dual-diameter Drills

Dual-diameter drills are a development of the stepped drill. Where there is a

requirement for a double-diameter hole, and it would be practical and
economical to machine in one operation, this type of drill is widely used. A
restriction in its use is the ratio of its diameters. Provided the difference is not
excessive they can be used with complete success. Further refinement can
allow even three diameters to be machined in one operation. Figure 7.7
shows the construction of a typical dual-diameter drill. The servicing of these
drills is obviously a skilled operation and their performance depends upon this
skill being consistently applied.

Drill Reamers

This again is the rationalisation of two operations brought about to increase

efficiency. If in a multi-drilling machine the drilling and reaming operations
are carried out simultaneously in one operation, then all the holes should be
in correct relationship to each other. They are not affected by positional
errors that can develop in following operations should the need to ream to
size be performed on another machine. Holes produced in this way can be
used as datum locations for subsequent operations and although errors can
and do exist between operations it does reduce the chance of error.
Drill reamers (figure 7.8) are widely used in production shops, due to their
ability to retain their accuracy during production runs. Generally these drills

25°-33° 25°-33°

~~
U.
~
dual diameter
dual diameter ~ also plain stepped

Figure 7. 7 Dual/triple-diameter drills

197
 Figure 7.8 Drill reamer

are set so that the pilot section of the drill has broken through the material,
and will not influence the accuracy of the reamer section, which then comes
into action.

DRILLING MACHINES

All drilling machines are characterised by some means of rotating a cutting

tool and advancing the tool along its own axis into a stationary workpiece to
produce a hole approximately the same size as the cutting tool. There are
many different machines available to apply the basic function of drilling in
the manner best suited to specific applications. There are numerous variations
in the types of drilling machine in use, and they may be classified into five
groups: sensitive, pillar, radial, turret drills and multiple-spindle machines.

Sensitive Drilling-machine

The sensitive drilling-machine, as illustrated in figure 7.9a, is a relatively light

form of machine used to drill small holes up to approximately 12 mm
diameter. These machines are designed with a wide range of speeds to suit the
drill diameters that are used on them. They are often provided with a hand
feed only, so that the operator controls the advance of the spindle and also
supplies the feeding pressure. As the drill is fed into the work, the operator
actually feels or senses the cutting action, hence the designation 'sensitive'.

Pillar Drilling-machine

The pillar drilling-machine, as illustrated in figure 7 .9b, is similar in general

design to the sensitive drill, but differs in size, speed range and capacity for
larger drill sizes up to 50 m·m diameter. Drills used are generally those with
Morse-taper shanks and utilise, by means of adaptors, a variety of sizes. Drills
with parallel shanks are carried in chucks which may have taper shanks to fit
the spindle bore or may be fitted direct to the nose spindle. To assist in
locating the workpiece under the spindle, the arm and table may be moved in
an arc about the centre of the column, and the table may be rotated about its

198
Figure 7.9 (a) Sensitive drilling-machine; (b) pillar drilling-machine; (c)
radial-arm drilling-machine; (d) turret drilling-machine; (e) multiple-spindle
drilling-machine

199
own centre. The table has provision, with T-slots, to clamp the workpiece in
place, before commencing machining. These machines are ideally suited to
work that includes drilling, reaming, counter-boring, counter-sinking and the
tapping of holes.

Radial-arm Drilling-machines

The radial-arm drilling-machine, as illustrated in figure 7.9c, is designed for

drilling medium to large and heavy workpieces. It provides great capacity for
work and flexibility of application at relatively low cost. The radial arm
permits the positioning of the drilling head at varying distances from the
column and also rotation of the head about the column. This allows for easier
drilling of the heavier workpieces, because they do not need to be moved into
position for drilling. The head contains all feed and speed gearing and also
mounts all necessary controls for the various motions of the machine.

Turret Drilling-machines

The turret drilling-machine, as illustrated in figure 7.9d, has become

increasingly popular in recent years for both short-run and production-drilling
operations. It is characterised by a multi-sided spindle turret. For relatively
simple operations, the workpiece may be positioned by hand and the turret
fed by hand or by power. The turret is then indexed to perform a number of
drilling, reaming, tapping and counter-sinking operations. Later models are
designed so that the speed of each spindle can be selected individually,
allowing for the correct speed to be used for drilling, reaming, tapping and
counter-sinking.

Multiple-spindle Drilling-machines

The multiple-spindle drilling-machine, as illustrated in figure 7.9e, is designed

to secure a high rate of production by drilling a number of holes in a
workpiece simultaneously. There is a family of these machines covering the
field from the simple group of standard upright spindles to specially designed
single-purpose production machines.

Drilling Jigs

Drill jigs are extensively used in quantity production, where the marking out
of similar components becomes uneconomical and unnecessary. It is
extremely difficult to produce articles that must be completely
interchangeable by machining to carefully prescribec;llines. The use of a jig
not only eliminates marking out, but can provide this degree of

200
interchangeability within its constructional design accuracy. The design of drill
jigs incorporates many of the principles found in 'jig and fixture design'. It
also has a few additional features characteristic of drill-jig construction.
For example, the purpose of a drill jig is to secwe the workpiece while
drilling, reaming, counter-boring, counter-sinking, spot-facing or tru>ping.
With the exception of taps, these tools are usually guided during cutting;
therefore the jig provides the means of guiding the tool, whose position is
pre-determined. The tools are guided by means of hardened and tempered
bushes; these are press-fitted into the drill plate which is positioned relative to
the workpiece. The accuracy or finish of the holes in the workpiece will
govern the design of the drill bush. If little importance is put on accuracy or
finish and the tool is a twist drill, then either of the bushes in figure 7.10 may
be used. Where greater accuracy and finish are required, it is necessary that
the holes be drilled undersize and further tools used to obtain the required
dimension; or when it has been decided that holes requiring reaming can best
be machined while the component is still in the jig, then slip bushes will be
required (figure 7.11 ). The bores of thesP. bushes are of such a size as to
accommodate subsequent tools, except when tapping, when they are
removed. There is a wide selection of drill jig types in use and it is beyond
the scope of this text to discuss these, but to reinforce what has been
discussed so far, consider the casting shown in figure 7.12; it is necessary to
drill and ream the hole shown. Figure 7.12 shows a suitable jig for the
machining operations.

BROACHING

Where internal and external shapes are to be produced to a repetitive high

standard of surface finish and very close tolerances, broaching is used. This is
the method where the master or size-cutting item is pulled or pushed through
or past the periphery of a component, to reduce or alter its shape to conform
to drawing requirements. This master or broach can either be a single unit or
a number of sections constructed so as to combine to form a complete unit.
The design of the broach is dependent on the shape required and the amount

--:-:::I
- .,
:.--:~ ~- ;~::::-~
,......
1- -_- -
-- --
~
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7. 10 Drill bushes (a) headless; (b) headed; (c) flanged with screws

201
 ~-~·~·

)) /iii
/~tation
(a) (b)

Figure 7. 11 (a) Slip-bush arrangement,· (b) renewable-bush arrangement

Figure 7.12 Typical post~jig used for drilling and reaming

202
 n ,--
face
angle pitch land
----\~ vake angle

1
dept{ ~~
(a) L-=-J
(d)

(c)

Figure 7.13 Broach teeth and nomenclature (a) form of broach teeth; (b)
sizing tooth; (c) cutting tooth; (d) cutting action

of material to be removed. Its cutting action depends upon the teeth which
are illustrated in figure 7.13. They act against the direction of movement of
the broach, progressively removing small amounts of material per tooth.

Example of Bore Broaching

Bore size before broaching = 0.5 mm on diameter

broach length 900 mm x 100 teeth
0.5
amount of metal removal per tooth = - = 0.005 mm
100
that is, 0.0025 mm from each side of bore, therefore excluding finishing
teeth, removal rate is very low.

Example of Bore and Key-way Broaching

bore size before broaching= 0.5 mm on diameter

key-way= 6.25 mm
broach length 900 x 100 teeth
0.25 + 6.25
amount of metal removal per tooth = mm
100
= 0.65 mm
that is, a greater removal rate due only to the key-way.

203
 From these simple examples the tooth loading depends upon the length of
the broach and the number of teeth. Another factor influencing the number
of teeth is the width of the face to be broached; it is obviously beneficial to
present to this face more than one tooth in contact at the same time.
Broadly the action of broaching takes place in three ways (1) (a)
pull-down broaching, (b) push-down broaching, (2) pull-up broaching; (3)
horizontal broaching.

Pull-down Broaching

The broaching machine (figure 7.14), is usually generously proportioned

with a well-ribbed construction preventing flexing or distortion under load
conditions. Motive power can be supplied from a hydraulic cylinder, or in
smaller broaching machines by lead screws. These drive a nut (bridge tractor)
to which the puller is attached. This puller, to which the specially shaped
broach is secured, has a quick-release mechanism which permits broach
removal at the end of each cycle. Where broach removal cannot be performed
manually for either safety reasons or production requirements a secondary
cylinder lifts the broach clear holding it in the correct aligned position in
preparation for the next stroke. This secondary cylinder, called the 'broach
retriever' has a quick-release chuck to allow the broach to be disengaged when
the puller on its working stroke takes over. This broach holder is illustrated in
figure 7.14.

CINCINNATI
il:tP
00
~

Figure 7.14 Broach holder

204
 Figure 7.15 Typical broaching-operations

A number of combinations can be incorporated into one broaching

operation. Internal and surface broaching can be carried out simultaneously,
also push broaching where the component is pushed by a vertical ram through
a circular broach (or tunnel broach). Angular faces can be achieved with
inclinable work tables, a multiplicity of broaches can produce more than one
component per stroke and illustrated in figure 7.15 are some of the methods
used. An advantage of the pull-down method is that where the cutting
pressure is evenly distributed around the axis of movement clamping need not
be necessary, gravity giving sufficient accuracy once the component has been
located. Feed rates in metres per minute are variable ranging from 0.75
m/min, with the return stroke perhaps twice that rate. The coolant is usually
chosen for its lubrication qualities, this being a greater requirement than
cooling.
Broaches are made of high-speed steel and are very accurate. They are
extremely expensive, needing careful handling and storage. Special broach-
racks provide safety, while constant vigilance is essential for economy.
Pull·up broaching can be performed on the same type of machine.

205
Horizontal Broaching

Originally designed for high production-rates, the motion of the components

is transmitted by a strong chain called the tractor chain. To this chain is
attached work-holding equipment, which may have manual or automatic
loading. Since this chain is endless and passes over two sprockets the
production capacity of this method is very high. As the work-holding fixtures

Figure 7.16 Typical components produced by tunnel broaching- shading

represents broached areas

206
pass through the machine, the surfaces are presented to the tools mounted
around the component path. The resulting configuration resembles a tunnel
through which the components pass, hence 'tunnel broaching'. After passing
through the tunnel the component is removed whole and the fixtures
pass through the return tunnel where all the chips produced during the cycle
can be removed by cleaning jets. Access to the stationary cutting-tools is
provided by a hinged tunnel; this permits examination of the cutting edges
and their removal for regrinding after the required quantity has been
processed. Some components that can be produced on this machine at a high
production-rate, angular faces presenting little or no difficulty, are illustrated
in figure 7.16.

BORING

Boring has been classed as a primary function of the lathe. Here the hole, a
cylindrical contour, is generated on the inside of the workpiece. Due to the
limitations in producing accurate geometric relationships between holes and
contours on workpieces that are large, and awkward shapes involving
considerable balancing problems, the boring machine evolved. The
horizo1,1tal-boring, drilling and milling machine is an extremely versatile tool
and is found in most machine shops. It is specially adapted to machine large
workpieces such as engine frames and machine housings. As the name
indicates, this machine tool may be used to do drilling and milling. Also it is
capable of a variety of operations such as facing, screw cutting, and, over
short lengths, external turning. Machining on a horizontal borer the
workpiece is held without rotation on a table while the holes, surfaces or
contours are machined with a tool held, rotated and fed longitudinally by a
horizontal spindle. The method of moving the tool and not the workpiece
ensures accurate geometric alignment between different surfaces that are
machined at one setting.
Before dealing with the operations it will be best to describe the principle
parts of a typical horizontal-boring, drilling, and milling machine
(figure 7.17).

Bed This, the main casting, is secured on suitable foundations; the top
surface is machine finished to support and align the headstock
supporting-column, end-support column and the saddle <!nd table
·sub-assembly.

Headstock Supporting-column This column has faces machined to

accommodate the spindle head.

End-support Column This column is located at the other end of the bed,
and is used to support the outer end of line-type boring bars. This column

207
 end - support
column (easi ly
removabl e)
headstock supporting-
column

end - support
bearing-block

saddle bed

Figure 7. 17 A typical table-type horizontal boring, drilling and milling

machine with principal components identified (Courtesy of Staveley Machine
Tools Ltd)
may be moved longitudinally on the bed to position it for different lengths of
bar, and may be removed from the machine when unnecessary.

Headstock This is mounted on the front of its supporting column. It is

adjustable vertically and its weight is counter-balanced to assist in its
movement. The headstock contains a quill-and-spindle sub-assembly that is
mounted in a horizontal bearing. The spindle rotates in the quill to provide
the rotary motion for cutting tools, and the quill moves longitudinally in its
bearing to feed boring tools, twist drills, and milling cutters to the workpiece.
The spindle has a tapered hole in its end so that the tapered shanks of boring
bars and other tools may be secured for use on the machine.

Saddle and Table The saddle and table sub-assembly is mounted on top of
the bed between the two columns. The saddle may be moved longitudinally on
the bed, and the table may be moved transversely on the saddle when
setting-up or feeding. The table is a rectangular casting which is finished with
T-slots in its top so that workpieces or work-holding fixtures may be bolted
to it. An additional feature which is of great value in promoting the correctness
of alignment, and in saving the time of resetting for different operations, is
the auxiliary table-top (figure 7.18).
This auxiliary table-top is pivoted on a central spigot with locating and
locking arrangements provided so that it may be located and secured at any
angle. This action allows machining to be carried out on a number of
workpiece faces without moving the work.

208
 Figure 7.18 Auxiliary square table-top

Boring-machine Operations

The boring machine has an enormous capacity for different machining-

operations, and in this short text it is only possible to select a few. Six of the
more common operations are shown in figure 7 .19.

Jig Boring The jig borer (figure 7.20), was developed primarily to solve the
toolmaker's problem of attaining the precise location of bushes, plugs, shafts
and locating pins during the construction of jigs, fixtures and precision
production-tools. The jig-boring machines are designed with many
refinements to promote extreme limits of accuracy; attaining direct and rapid
location of holes, slots, etc. with quality and precision. The location and
mating of the various parts of the machine are more accurate than in normal
machine-tool practice. Special techniques are incorporated into the machine,
enabling precise movement of the work table, spindle head, etc. to be
measured.
As its name implies, one of the basic uses of the jig borer is in jig
manufacture. Since accuracy of a component that has been produced with
the use of a jig cannot be greater than the accuracy of the jig itself, it is
important that the jig is produced to a high degree of accuracy. The location
and axial relationships that may exist between machined faces, holes and
slots, in one or more planes (the cubic concept of accuracy), can be just as
important as their size; within the limits of manufacture, the jig borer attains
these requirements. Generally speaking the errors in the jig are of the order of
one-tenth of those permissible in the work. The jig borer is a versatile and
efficient means of machining, and together with its standard of accuracy, has
found an increasing acceptance in manufacturing industries, where the
quantity to be manufactured does not warrant the expense of making a jig.
In many boring operations the accuracy of the work depends directly on

209
 drill- bore
and ream

turn boss bore bot h holes to

and face ensure axial alignment
face -machined square
to f ron! face
(a)

machine front and back of gear housing

( I) machine front, drill, bore ream, turn and face

( 2) turn auxiliary table 180°
( 3 ) machine back face as ( I )

S=-
.·-~
m·

ream

parallel
strips
(b )
turn boss and face

210
 ( I ) bore holes
machine side face and bore holes (2 ) face mi l l side
{ 3 ) dri l l and tap hales

tapping attachment
(c)

Figure 7.19 (a) Detailed drawing of gear housing; (b) and (c) machining
gear housing shown in (a) - exercise for horizontal boring, drilling
and milling machine

Figure 7.20 Jig-boring machine

211
the accuracy of the marking out, but frequently when jig boring the latter is
merely used as an indication of the necessary machining locations. The jig
borer is capable of positioning the spindle within approximately 0.0025 mm
for absolute location or spacing of holes, without preliminary measurement
or marking out.

Location of Jig-boring Spindle With the workpiece geometrically

orientated to the machine-table traverse, it is necessary to have an accurate
measuring-system to locate the spindle axis in the prescribed position for
machining, This location of the spindle axis will undoubtedly be with
reference to some datum point on the work-surface edge, holes, scribed line,
slot or contour. It will be necessary to locate the reference point and measure
from it. A variety of pick-up and measuring techniques have been designed
and incorported in jig-boring machines to obtain the necessary degree of
accuracy for precision location, namely precision lead-screws, mechanical or
electrical gauging, optical measuring.
Precision lead-screw location, assisted by micrometer dials, is the most
common method (figure 7.21a). The most accurate machines of this type are
those which make use of the compensated lead-screw.. The table and spindle
head are moved by an arrangement of high-precision lead-screws, often
supplemented with a calibration chart showing any errors in the screw pitch
to be allowed for; periodic errors in the micrometer heads or variations due to
other causes are also represented on this chart.
Automatic compensation for error can be accomplished by means of a
correction strip or cam. The design of the strip or cam is based on the
calibration chart mentioned above. A follower will be influenced by the strip
or cam profile, and any slight variation to be compensated for will cause the
follower to adjust the angular position of the lead-screw nut as shown in
figure 7.21b. After years of machine service any wear that occurs may be
adjusted by modifying the compensation strip or cam, and the machine is
again brought back to its original accuracy.
There are many methods of mechanical gauging developed for use in jig
borers; these generally consist of building up a set of gauge blocks, rollers or
length bars to the required dimension. In these systems the final fractional
dimension can be obtained by use of a micrometer adjustment or by a dial
indicator, as shown in figure 7.22. Further developments of this system also
utilise electrical gauging or measuring systems.
The optical measuring-system utilises an extremely accurate graduated-
scale and optical system for each axis. The scales are usually mounted inside
the machine so that they cannot be damaged, and read by an optical system.
Jig-boring machines use lead screws and hydraulic mechanisms to impart
motion to the table or spindle, but depend entirely on the scales for their
accuracy. Since there is nothing to wear out on the scales, original accuracy
of positioning is retained regardless of the type of work. On the larger-type

212
 zero disc ond lever
free to lurn on
leod - screw ox is
correction- _ _ ...,._
strip follower

ocluo l ing lever

for zero disc

(b)

Figure 7.21 (a) Rectilinear positioning controlled by accurate lead-screw

set from dial; (b) correction strip - lead-screw error-compensator
jig-borers, such as the planer-type, the machine can be equipped with scales
and an optical projection screen.
Precision rotary tables are also frequently incorporated in jig-borer
construction. When machining a series of equi-spaced holes on a pitch circle,
then a rotary table mounted and centralised on the machine table can be very
useful. The indexing of the holes depends on the design of the rotary table.
The optical rotary table is rapid and extremely accurate, with angular
positioning well within 5 seconds of arc. The inclinable rotary table will prove
to be a worthwhile investment, covering all indexable work whether angular,
flat or vertical (figure 7.23).

General Jig-boring Operations The jig-boring machine designed with the

optical measuring-systems is used extensively in the watch-making industry
where accuracies of 2 Jlm must be guaranteed for the precise location of the
worktable to ~atisfy the machining requirements. The boring head contains

213
 ,.111·267 mm
1

(a)

( i) initia"l D.T. I. reading= zero

( ii) remove slips and move table
(iii) final D.T.I. reading =zero

y--,,{ ":
~.-::;_..::.."'-......:====--=-~.....::.=-__;='--...::>f-" :.' ~'--: ~ ~';: =- /~\'---= -:.I- -

precision rollers
( i) zero D.T.I.
( ii) move micro-locator across rollers
(iii) measurement-difference between
whole roller dimensions is token
up by micrometer head

(b)

Figure 7.22 Mechanical measurement (a) drill two holes 111.267 mm

between centres; (b) methods of controlling precise table-movem,ent

214
 Figure 7.23 Optical rotary- and inclinable-table

4 holes reamed
y mm diameter

~·-
jig- plate

Figure 7.24 Typical jig-boring workpiece

215
 ( a)

==:r·-
I
table and work traverse

(b)

locating datum point precise table-movement precise table -movement

with groticule of d mm in transverse o mm in longitudinal
microscope direct ion direct ion

omm in this position the

centre - axis ol the
column is now
coincident with the
It of 1he reamed hale

stag e 2 stage 3

(c)

216
--$-- -$ --
(e)

- $- --$ --
'

(d)

Figure 7.25 Workpiece accurately positioned and secured for machining (a)
workpiece clamped to machine table - effective clamping leaves tool area
unobstructed, parallel strips prevent marking machine table during cutting;
(b) edge of workpiece parallel with table -set work so that longest edge is
parallel to table traverse using cross-wires of locating microscope in two
extreme positions shown; (c) boring stages and machine stages - repeat the
seven stages to machine the three remaining holes; (d) locating axis and
preparing for boring 'boss'- repeat first six stages in (c); (e) counter
boring in a boss using universal facing- and boring-head

217
three tools, the boring spindle, the spotting tool and the locating microscope,
which can independently be brought exactly on to the same point of the
workpiece. The axes of the three tools are parallel to each other and situated
within the same vertical plane. In practice this configuration of spindle,
spotting tool and microscope permits the spotting of a point, checking its
position and the drilling of a hole without any loss of time or accuracy.
The component illustrated in figure 7.24 is a typical example of the type
of work encountered on a jig borer. There is a general sequence of rules that
should be followed wherever possible, ensuring efficient and accurate
production. Figure 7.25 shows the sequence of events in the machining of the
component
(a) Set up the workpiece to ensure necessary geometric relationship
with the machine travel.
(b) Establish the dimensional relationship between the reference
point on the work and the spindle axis. Relate this to the measuring system
by setting the scales and dials.
(c) Firmly secure the workpiece to the table with clamps and again
verify the alignment to ensure against unnoticed shift.
(d) Spot the position of all holes lightly with a centre drill.
(e) Rough all holes to nearly finished size, before finishing any of
them.
(f) Check that the original setting of the workpiece has not moved
during roughing.
(g) Finish-bore all holes to size. This finishing operation may be
carried out either by boring with a single-point tool or by the use of an
end-mill type of reamer which enlarges the hole chiefly by end cutting, and
finishes it by the reaming action of the helical teeth along the body of the
mill or reamer. The end mills or end reamers are not as accurate as a
single-point tool. Single-point boring tools of the adjustable or offset type are
used.

QUESTIONS

1. Show the essential features of a standard twist drill and indicate briefly
its cutting action.

2. Illustrate the essential features of drills used extensively for deep-hole

drilling.

3. Describe the construction and type of work for which each of the
following machines is particularly suitable: (i) sensitive
drilling-machine, (ii) radial-arm drilling-machine, (iii) turret drilling-
machine, (iv) multiple-spindle drilling-machine.

218
 4. Explain how the capacity of the following drilling machines is usually
specified, and with the aid of line diagrams indicate the principal
motions available; (i) sensitive drilling-machines, (ii) radial-arm
drilling-machines, (iii) turret drilling-machines.

5. (a) Why are drill jigs used in production?

(b) What ar.e the essential features built in to drill jigs, that ensure an
acceptable production life?

6. Describe with the aid of sketches the technique of internal broaching,

illustrating the cutting action of the teeth.

7. (a) Give four typical components that have internal surfaces suitable
for broach machining.
(b) When high production-rates are necessary surfaces may be
machined by 'horizontal broaching'. Give examples of typical
components that may be broached using this technique.

8. (a) Make a line diagram showing in outline the main features of a

typical horizontal boring-machine.
(b) Indicate by means of arrows and notes the main movements
obtainable on the head and on the table of the machine.

9. Explain briefly what is meant by 'in-line' boring when using a

horizontal boring-machine, noting any necessary precautions to ensure
accuracy of machining.

10. (a) What brought about the requirement for a jig-boring machine?
(b) Describe, with the aid of line diagrams, two measuring systems for
a jig-boring machine.

11. The relationship between the component and the machine spindle on a
jig-boring machine may be determined by using a hole, a line or the
edge of the component as a datum. Describe the procedures for
location from any two of these features giving details of the equipment
used.

12. (a) State three important features of design and construction, in which
a jig-boring machine differs from a vertical milling-machine.
(b) Describe the accessories that are available with a jig-boring machine
and what features of their design ensure the highest degree of accuracy
possible.
(c) What accuracies can normally be achieved?

219
 8 Examination Technique

The Social Need for Examinations

Why do examinations exist? Why must we all go through our educational lives
in the shadow of an ogre- the examination -waiting there at the end of the
course? Our increasingly sophisticated and specialised society demands that
some academic assessment be made of its members, so that they can be
placed where they can contribute most. We all play our part in keeping the
everyday machinery of modern life going, but some of us are more highly
specialised and polished components than others. Naturally, to produce such
components costs money and since society is paying it wants to see evidence
of a profitable investment. Those selected for further training, often because
of previous examination results, have to complete their course successfully to
fulfil their own ambitions and their social obligation. It is really a mutual
bargain struck between society and the individual. Society needs specialists,
and in return for evidence of successful work at a rigorous, advanced level,
the individual who is now equipped to make an important social contribution
receives social status and a monetary reward. Of course, this is an over.
simplification of the whole affair, but the general idea is valid.

The P,rsonal Need for Examinations

There are some people whose flair and determination take them to the top
without the aid of academic qualifications, but these are few. Some choose to
prove themselves through the educational system, at least those of us who
find ourselves in further education do, for we are not legally compelled to
study after leaving school. Personal needs for advanced training will vary;
vocational training, a desire for better prospects or simply a thirst for
knowledge can be motivators. Whatever the aim the student has in mind, it
can only be to his advantage to pass his examinations to the best of his ability
and many a candidate has failed to do justice to himself simply because he
lacked sufficient confidence to take the final hurdle in his stride.

220
What is the Examiner Looking for?

When setting a paper the examiner is aiming to assess whether the time a
student has spent studying has been well employed and to do this he will be
looking for particular qualities in the examination script. Does the student
know and understand what he is writing about? Can he utilise this knowledge
to solve new problems and does the overall presentation of his work show a
clear and logical mind? Since the examiner is looking for these qualities, it
behoves the student to acquire them. To display them well means practice.

How to Prepare for an Examination

The first thing to recognise when preparing for an examination is that the
lecturer will not generally cover the whole syllabus. Relying on his
experience, he will choose topics that he feels are most likely to appear on
the examination paper and teach those parts of the course thoroughly. It is
useful to look over a syllabus and see exactly where your areas of knowledge
lie, but to panic at this stage and try to cover what the lecturer has omitted
will only lead to anxiety, loss of confidence and a poor performance. Working
within the framework of your course work, prepare your work
systematically. Learn your lecture notes thoroughly, taking time to make sure
you understand them and can manipulate them. The examiner is not looking
for parrots, but for thoughtful intelligent engineers. Look at past
examination-paper questions, such as the following on sintering and decide
whether you could answer them using your notes. Begin by dividing the topic
into manageable parts, because careful preparation at his stage will enable you
to remember all aspects of this topic and see how they are inter-related. List
the main headings first
Powder production
Purification
Grading
Mixing
Die-filling
Pressing
Pre-sintering
Machining
Final sintering
There is a logical progression of ideas here which will help when memorising
and recalling them. Further division of individual headings can also help to
clarify thoughts before and during an examination. Sub-divide the main
headings, for example
Pressing: Die design
Component-profile design

221
 Compaction
Density variation
Porosity
Ejection
Handling
When you are able to handle your material easily in these small packages it
will help when approaching questions. One possible question on sintering is
'Describe the sintering process by which the component shown in the diagram
can be made on a mass-production basis.' A quick glance at the main headings
will show that some are more relevant than others to this particular question
and that certain aspects of them are also more relevant. It would not be
sensible to discuss powder production in depth, although it must be
mentioned briefly, because the examiner wants a general answer covering all
aspects of the process rather than a microscopic view of only a part of it.
Thinking about the other possible questions that could be asked about
sintering will also be valuable preparation; for example
the advantages and disadvantages
the precautions necessary at different stages
the metallurgical aspects of sintered components
the mechanical properties of sintered components
the temperature and atmospheric control of sintering furnaces
Previous examination questions will also give you an insight into the type.of
question asked on particular topics.
If you prepare all your course work in this way the examination will hold
few terrors. You are not tied rigidly to lecture notes using this method of
planning and can move freely from one idea to another, keeping in mind the
overall pattern of the question, rather than pouring out everything that might
be remotely relevant! Try to think about the types of question which might
come up and what main points you would include when answering them- it
is a good exercise.

The First Five Minutes of an Examination

When you first turn over the examination paper, spend time reading it
through at least twice, so that you have an overall impression of the pockets
of knowledge being tested and the type of questions set. For example, if there
is a question on grinding it could be a general one or one about a specific
aspect of grinding. You will also be able to assess which five of the nine
questions will enable you to display your knowledge and ability best. Do not
choose your questions rashly on first impressions, only to discover that you
have chosen badly and have misused time that could have been put to better
effect. You should now be in a position to know if you have sufficient
knowledge to answer the questions adequately, in the form in which they

222
were set. You may perhaps be able to answer a general question on grinding,
but could you discuss the machining action and relative cutting-forces of a
natural abrasive grit? Having chosen your questions, check finally to see that
you have not chosen what seem to be the simplest questions, which may not
be simple anyway. Even if they are straightforward, over-confidence when
tackling them could lead to carelessness or omissions, so think carefully about
all your questions before deciding finally. Is the accumulated time spent in
preparing for the examination to be wasted? You are staking your career on
these questions, remember.

Allocation of Time

Having marked your questions, divide the remainder of the time equally
between each of them. If the examination is three hours long and ten minutes
has been given to reading through and marking, then your time should be
divided like this

180- 10
---- = 34 minutes each
5
Do not over-run the time allocated for each question; if the examiner tee1s that
this is adequate and you find it too much you are omitting material relevant to
the question, or if you find it too little, you are including irrelevant material.

Preparing to Answer the Question

Do not now rush off on a frantic writing-spree. Make sure you understand the
implications of the question and are aware of the way in which the question
is phrased. Does it ask you to describe, to analyse, to discuss, to compare or
to explain? Marshal the facts that are relevant, jot them down and check that
they relate to the question. Your list will probably be haphazard so
reorganise' it until it suits the theme or angle of the question. Those points
that are not directly relevant to the subject must be struck out now making
sure that there are no gaps in your essay plan. Having pruned and compiled a
careful and thorough outline, the pattern of your essay should now be clear
and should indicate to you your line of thought and possible introduction.
For example, the following plan could be used for the question 'Explain
briefly the main factors in the methods of manufacture of a self-lubricating
bearing'

Stage one: a list of possible key words

Impregnation
Sintering
Pressing
Mixing

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 Powder selection
Porosity
Choice of lubricant
Market

Stage two: a reorganisation of the key words

Market
Powder selection
Mixing
Pressing
Porosity
Sintering
Choice of lubricant
Impregnation
Stage three: check the words of the question. It asks you to describe, not
discuss or compare and to do so briefly. It also stresses that the main factors
in manufacturing methods of self-lubricating bearings are to be described.
The introduction to the essay can be based on the economic factors of
sintered self-lubricating bearings and following this stress can be placed on
powder selection, porosity and choice of lubricant. Other points will be
mentioned, but not in such detail.

Writing the Answer

Now all that is left is to write down the information outlined in your plan in
concise, vigorous English. While writing, link your points smoothly to allow
the examiner ease of reading and understanding. Avoid getting carried away
when actually writing the answer, since a badly proportioned essay
accompanied by many asides or unnecessary explanations once the original
plan has been abandoned, will be difficult to read, thus assuring the examiner
that the writer is a muddled thinker. He will then be less well-disposed toward
you. Too many overcomplicated or unnecessary diagrams will not gain marks
either, for they only serve to prove that the writer is unable to distinguish the
essential from the irrelevant. When the examiner has finished reading the
essay he should be able to tell from its theme and structure what the title was
if you omitted it as a heading.

A Last Word

Psychologically it is a good tactic to pamper an examiner with a clearly

written, well-presented script. He will be more positively biased towards you
than if you have crowded the page, scrawled the script, scored out words and
dotted the whole page with multitudinous blots. This type of script requires
extra effort and with several hundred scripts behind him and many more in

224
front a poor script will not put him into a pleasant frame of mind when
allocating marks.
At the end of your examination paper you should now be able to sit back
content in the knowledge that your questions are well planned, logically
organised, each unified by a central theme and written in legible, concise,
vigorous English. All you need now are the results!

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Index

accumulative error 9 capstan and turret lathes 126-43

accuracy and economics component structure 151
accuracy of lead-screws 213 tool set-ups for 142
acetylene generation 42 use of, for component types 126
Acme thread form 121 carbide inserts 104
air-operated chucks 111 carbide tools 79
Airy points 24 coatings for 80
allowances, limits and fits 18 grinding of 87
aluminium oxide 80 carbon-tool steel 77
angle blocks 4 carburising flame 46
angle bracket 169 cemented-carbide tools 82
angle cutter 160 centre-drill holes 104
angle gauges 4 centre-hole measurement 105
angles, measurement of 32 centre-hole protection 105
angular indexing, dividing head 176 centres, lathe 1 03-5
anti-flashback hose protector 45 centring and facing tools 135
arbor milling 172 ceramic materials 80
arbor mounting 171 ceramic-tipped tools 84
arc of contact 1 51 chaser 138
arc welding 54 chemical cutting-lubricants 101
argon arc welding 54 chip breaker 84
auxiliary table-top 209 chip formation 91, 154
chucks, lathe 11 0
backlash 213 powered 111
balancing turning fixtures 114 C.L.A. 152
bar stops and centres, capstan 134 clearance fit 14, 16
batch production 126 climb-cut milling 158
bend test 66 clock gauge 214
bilateral tolerance 14 collapsible taps 139
blowpipes 44 collet arbor 109
bore gauge 28 collet chuck 109
boring, jig 209 collets 109
machine 208 combination centre-drill 104
operations of 209 combination knee-turning tool-holder 132
boring bar 116, 132 comparator 32
applications of 116 electrical 35
boring-bar cutter micrometer 132 mechanical 34
boring-bar cutters 116, 132 optical 35
boring buttons 114 pneumatic 35
boring head 217 comparator level 25
brazing tips 82 compensated lead-screw 213
British Association (B.A.) thread 121 component manufacture 15
broach design 203 compressed-air chuck 111
broach holder 204 continuous chip 92
broach teeth 203 conventional milling 158
broaching 201 coolant supply 115
examples of 202, 206 co-ordinate dimensioning 215
machine 204 costing batch production 126
broaching operations 205 crack detection 67
BS1916: Limit System 16 crater wear 75
BS1790: 1961 Length Bars 23 cutting, effect of feed on 93
BS4500: 1969 Limits and Fits 17 effect of rake angle on 88
built-up edge, cutting-tool 75 flame 50
chip formation and 92 oxy-acetylene nozzles for 51
butt welding 64 negative-rake 94
button boring 114 cutting force 96, 155, 158
cutting lubricant 100
cam milling 185 cutting procedure 52

227
cutting screw threads 120 flux, powder 57
cutting speed 93 forces, milling cutting 155
relation of to tool life 93 form milling-cutters 159
cutting-tool angles 86-90 form-cutter grinding 161
cutting-tool post settings 123 friction welding 64
cutting tools 73
action of 89, 156 gang milling 171
geometry of 88 gas cylinders 43
life of 73 gas regulators 43
materials for 76 gas welding 40
cycle-engineers screw-thread form 121 gauge, angle 4
gap 3
dead centres 104-5 design of 5
deflection of bar in lathe 115 'Go' 3
destructive testing 66 height 2
dial gauge 2, 33, 214 'Not Go' 3
dies 137 limit 3
differential indexing 178 multi- 22
discontinuous chip formation 92 plug 3, 4
dividing head 21, 172 receiver 22
indexing 174 ring 32
optical 22 roller 32
dog (work driver) 108 slip see gauge blocks
down-cut milling 158 taper 4
drill, dual-diameter 197 gauge block 7
twist 193 build-up of 12
multi-flute 194, 196 care of 9
drill centre 104 examples of use of 10, 19,32
drillland 193 grades of 7
drilling 192 testing 12
deep-hole 194 gauge-block accessories 11
drilling jigs 200, 202 gauge design 35
drilling machines 198 gauge grades 7
multiple-spindle 199 gauge material 6, 7
pillar 199 gouging 51
radial 199 grinding cutting-tools 87
sensitive 199 gullet 157
Duplex milling machine 149, 166 gun drilling 195
dynamometer 97
hardenability 77
eccentric turning 117 hardening flame 46
economics of accurate production hardness, secondary 78
edge locator 216 headstock 127
edge wear 75 height gauges 2
electrical comparator 35 helical cutter 154
electrode selection 59 helix angle 154
electrodes 62 · Herbert capstan lathe 127
electro-plating 6 high-speed steel 78
electro-slag welding 57 hole basis 16
end bars 10 hole production 192-218
end mill 181 horizontal boring, drilling and milling
shell 172 machine 208
E.P. cutting fluids 101 examples of work on 210
examination technique 220.6 horizontal broaching 206
examinations, need for, personal 220
social 220 impact testing 66
inclinable rotary table 215
face-plate operations 113 independent-jaw chuck 110
feed force 97 indexable throw-away insert tools 83, 85
feed milling 150 indexing 174
female centre 1 05 angular 176
fillet weld 47 compound 176
fits, limit system of 14 differential 178
quality of 19 direct 174
flame, welding 64 simple 174
flame cutting 50 indexing head 172
flash welding 64 indicator, dial 2, 33, 214
fluids, cutting 100 inserts, tip 83, 85, 163

228
inspection and measurement milling component structure 151
inspection of welds 65 milling cutters 153, 160
interchangeability 14 availability of 152
interference fit 14, 16 chip formation 154
I.S.A. limit system 16 cutting action 156
I.S.O. Limits and Fits 17 feed 150
selection of 150, 167
jaws, soft and hard 111 surface finish 152
jig 202 milling helical grooves 181
jig boring 209 milling-machine table motions 148
jig-boring machine 211 milling-machine types 146
examples of work 215 horizontal 147
jig clamping 214 manufacturing 148
jig drilling 216 Universal 147
jig location 212, 214 vertical 147
jig operations 213 milling material 151
jig reamer 216 monochromatic light 13
Morse-taper 103
knee-turning tool 130 multiple tool-layouts 123
knee-turning tool-holder, combination multi-start threads 120
132
knuckle thread form 121 negative-rake cutting 94
knurling tool 140 neutral flame 46
Newall limit system 16
land, drill 193 non-destructive testing 66
milling-cutter tooth 157 'Not Go' gauge 3
lathe bed 127 nozzle, flame-cutting 51
lathe centres 103-5
lathe chucks 11 0 optical comparator 36
lathes, capstan 126 optical-display rotary table 21
turret 129 optical dividing-head 22
lathe-tool dynamometer 97 optical flat 12
layouts of lathe cutting-tools 142 optical microscope 30
lead, screw-thread 119 optical rotary- and inclinable-table 215
lead-screw compensator 213 orthogonal and oblique cutting 91
lead-screw pitch, correction of 213 ovality 26
leftward welding 48 oxidising flame 46
length bar 23 oxy-acetylene flame 46
length-bar accessories 25 oxy-acetylene welding 40
length standards 7 oxygen 41
level comparator 25
light interference 13 parting tool-holder 140
limit gauges 4 penetration method 67
limits and fits 13 pitch of thread 119
limits of size 15 pneumatic comparator 37
line and end standard · 7 pneumatic gauge 37
live centres 104 polar chart 29
lobing 26 power in milling 149
long-shaft turning 115 precision balls 10, 32
lubricants for cutting 100 precision rollers 10, 32
precision spirit-level 25
machinability 74, 98 production rates 152
machine condition 150 projection welding 63
machine power 149 protector block 9
magnetic inks 68 pull-down broaching 204
magnetic inspection 68
mandrels 106 qualities of fits 19
component location 107
manual metal-arc welding 54 radial and tangential cutting 99
mechanical comparator 34 radial cutting-force 97
mechanical magnification 34 radial drill 199
mechanical testing 66 radiography 69
metal cutting 89 rake, tool 157
metal-inert-gas (M.I.G.) welding 55 reamers 198
metre, International Standard 7 receiver gauges 22
microbore unit 133 recessing tools 133
micrometers 2 reducing flame 46
milling 146-90 relieved cutters 160

229
resistance welding 61
resultant cutting-force 97
rightward welding 48
A. M.S. value of surface finish
roller, box 135
rollers, precision 10
position of 136
roller-steady tools 135
rotary table 21, 168
inclinable and 215
roundness testing 26-7
running or live centre 104
saddle, lathe 127
safety, arc-welding 59
screw-core diameter 120
screw cutting 118
screw form testing 31
screwing with diehead 137
seam welding 62
secondary hardness 78
self-centring chuck 10
self-opening diehead 137
self-releasing tap holders 139
sensitive drilling machine 199
setting-up a capstan lathe 142
shaft basis 16
shielded-arc welding 57
sine bar 10, 19
sine centre 20
single-start thread 120
sintered carbides 79
slip bushes 202
slip gauges see gauge blocks
slipping clutch 139
slotting attachment 170
soluble oils 100
sonic and ultrasonic testing 70
speed and feeds, milling 150
spherical-turning attachment 142
spigot plug 168
spirit levels 2, 25
spot welding 62
steadies 11 7
stellite 78
stelliting 53
straddle milling 171
straight carbides 79
straight-tooth cutters 1 53
stub arbor 172
stud welding 57
submerged-arc welding 57
surface finish 6, 152, 167
swart removal 115
Swiss jig borer 211
tangential and radial cutting 99
tangential cutting-force 87
tangential diehead 138
tap holders 139
Taylor's equation 93
temperatures, welding 50
thermal cracking 75
thread forms 120
throw-away tips 83, 160
tip grinding 87
tip inserts 83, 160
titanium-carbide coating 80
tolerance 13
tolerance grades 17
tolerance zones 17
152 tool, box turning 143
tool erosion 74
tool geometry 86
tool failure 76
tool-makers' buttons 114
tool-makers' microscope 30
tools, life of 74
torches, welding 44
transition fit 14, 16
travelling steady 117
trepanning 118
trepanning cutting-heads 119
tungsten carbides 79
tungsten-inert·gas (T.I.G.) welding 55
turning 103
turning between centres 103
turret, hexagon 127
turret lathe 129
turret stops 127
twist drill 193
ultrasonic testing 70
unified screw-form 13
unilateral tolerance 13
Universal dividing head 172
Universal milling machine 147
up-cut milling 158
U.S.A. and metric Sl form thread 121
Vee-steady turning tool-holder 137
vernier caliper gauge 2
vertical milling attachment 169, 170
vertical milling machine 147
wear of block gauges 9
web angle, drill 193
weld beads 47
weld preparation 46
weld process selection 60
welding 39-70
electric-arc 54
safety in 59
electro-slag 57
flame 46
gas, equipment for 43
leftward and rightward 48
joint preparation for 49
metallurgical aspects 39
projection 63
resistance 61
seam 62
spot 62
stud 57
submerged-arc 57
welding techniques 47
welding terminology 47
welds, testing of 65
electrode selection for 59
Whitworth thread form 121
work driver, lathe 108
work-holding, lathe 108
wringing of gauge blocks 8
X-ray inspection of welds 69
230