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Introduction
Angular measurement is an important element in measuring. It involves the measurement
of angles of tapers and similar surfaces. In angular measurements, two types of angle measuring
devices are used. They are
Angle gauges corresponding to slip gauges.
Divided scale corresponding to line standard.
The most common instrument is sine bar. The main difference between linear and angular
measurement is the no absolute standard is required for angular measurement.
Sine bar
Sine bar are always used along with slip gauges as a device for the measurement of angles
very precisely. They are used to:
Measure angle very accurately.
Locate the work piece to given angle with very high precision.
Sine bars are made from high carbon, high chromium, and corrosion resistant steel.
These materials are highly hardened, ground and stabilised.
In sine bar, two cylinders of equal diameter are attached at the ends with its axes mutually
parallel to each other.
Two cylinders are also equal distance from the upper surface of the sine bar.
Mostly the distance between the axes of two cylinders is 100mm, 200mm or 300mm.
The working surfaces of the rollers are finished to 0.2µm Ra value.
The cylindrical holes are provided to reduce the weight of the sine bar and alsoto facilitate
handling.
Working principle of sine bar
The working of sine bar is based on trigonometry principle. To measure the angle of the
specimen, one roller of the sine bar is placed on the surface plate and another one roller is placed
over the surface of slip gauges. Now, ‘h’ be the height of the slip gauges and ‘L’ be the distance
between roller canters, then the angle is calculated as
h
sin
L
h
sin 1
L
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Principle of Sine bar
Accuracy requirements of sine bar:
The accuracy of sine bar depends on the following constructional features:
The rollers must have equal diameter and equal cylinder.
The rollers should be placed parallel to each other and also to upper face.
The accurate center to center of rollers must be known.
The top surface of the bar must be flat with high degree of accuracy.
Use of sine bar
Sine bar are used for
I. Locating any work to a given angle.
II. To check unknown angle.
III. Measurement of unknown angles for heavier components
IV. Measurement of unknown angles of heavier components with more accurate
readings.
I. Locating any work to a given angle
To set at a given angle, first ‘h’ of the slip gauge is calculated by the formula
sin =h/L.
After calculating the height ‘h’ ,the required height ‘h’ is made by suitable slip gauge
combinations.
After this, one of the roller is placed on the surface plate and other on is placed on the top
of the slip gauges combination.
II. To check unknown angle :
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Before checking the unknown angle of the specimen, the angle of the given specimen is
found approximately by bevel protector.
Then the sine bar is set at angle of and clamped on the angle plate.
Now the work piece is placed on the sine bar and the dial indicator is set at one end of the
work and it’s moved across the work piece and deviations are noted.
Slip gauge is adjusted so that the dial indicator reads zero throughout the work piece.
III. Measurement of unknown angles for heavier components :
For heavy components, the sine bar is mounted on the work piece at inverted position (i.e.
the rollers are placed in such a way that the rollers should face upward).
The heights of the rollers are measured on the vernier height gauge.
The dial test indicator is mounted on the vernier height gauges to ensure constant
measuring pressure.
Now, the sine angle is calculated as the difference between two vernier height gauge
readings divided by center distance of sine bar rollers.
h1 h2
sin
L
Limitations of sine bars
Sine bars are fairly reliable for angles less than 15 0.
It is physically difficult to hold in position.
Slight errors in sine bar cause larger angular error.
The size of parts to be inspected by sine bar is limited.
Sources of error in sine bar
The different sources of errors are listed below:
Error in distance between roller centers.
Error in slip gauge combination.
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Error in equality of size of rollers and cylindricity.
Error in flatness of the upper surface of sine bar
Error in parallelism of roller axes with each other.
Bevel protractors
Working principle:
Stock
The working edge of the stock is about 90 mm in length and 7 mm thick. It is very
essential that the working edge of the stock be perfectly straight.
Blade
It can be moved along the turret throughout its length and can also be reversed. It is
about 150 or 300 mm long, 3 mm wide and 2 mm thick and ends bevelled at angles of 45° and
60° within the accuracy of 2 minutes of arc. It can be clamped in any position.
The values are obtained by means of an optical magnifying system. This optical
magnifying system is attached with the bevel protractor itself separate arrangement is provided
for adjusting the focus of the system for the normal variation of eyesight. The main and vernier
scale are arranged always in focus of the optical system.
Applications of bevel protractor
The bevel protractor can be used in the following applications.
1. For checking a ‘V’ block:
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Measuring acute angle
Auto- collimator:
Principle of Auto-collimator
A flat reflector placed in front of the objective and exactly normal to the optical axis
reflects the parallel rays of light back along their original paths.
They are then brought to the target graticule and exactly coincide with its intersection.
A portion of the returned light passes through the beam splitter and is visible through the
eyepiece.
If the reflector is tilted through a small angle (), the reflected beam will be changed its
path at twice the angle.
It can also be brought to target graticule but linearly displaced from the actual target by
the amount 2 *f.
Linear displacement of the graticule image in the plane tilted angle of eyepiece is directly
proportional to the reflector. This can be measured by optical micrometer.
The photoelectric auto- collimator is particularly suitable for calibrating polygons, for
checking angular indexing and for checking small linear displacements.
Applications of auto-collimator
Auto-collimators are used for
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Measuring the difference in height of length standards.
Checking the flatness and straightness of surfaces.
Checking squareness of two surfaces.
Precise angular indexing in conjunction with polygons.
Checking alignment or parallelism.
Measurement of small linear dimensions.
For machine tool adjustment testing.
Angle Gauges
Angle gauges is a hardened steel block approximately 75mm long and 1mm wide which
lapped flat working faces lying at a very precise angle to each other. It can be constructed at any
angle from 0 to 360 degree by suitable combination of gauges.
Each angle gauge is marked with ‘V’ which indicates the direction of included angle. To
add the angles, all ‘V’ marks should be in same line and to subtract, ‘V’ marks should be in
opposite direction.
Total angle = 37° 9′ 18″ (Not to scale)
(i) Direct use of angle gauges to measure the angle in the die insert
(ii) Use of angle gauges with square plate.
CLINOMETER
Vernier Clinometer:
Micrometer Clinometer:
In this type spirit level is attached at one end of the barrel of a micrometer. The other end of the
spirit level is hinged on the base. The base is placed on the surface whose inclination is to be
measured.
The micrometer is adjusted till the level is horizontal. This type of clinometer is used for
measuring small angles.
Dial Clinometer:
It is used for checking included angles, relief angles as well as angular face on larger
cutting tools and milling cutter inserts.
It also used for setting inclinable tables on jig boring machines and angular work on
grinding machines,etc.
Screw threads are used to transmit the power and motion, and also used to fasten two
components with the help of nuts, bolts and studs.
There is a large variety of screw threads varying in their form, by included angle, head
angle, helix angle etc.
The screw threads are mainly classified into
1) External thread
2) Internal thread.
For getting the greater accuracy the bench micrometre is used for measuring the major
diameter.
In this process the variation in measuring Pressure, pitch errors are being neglected..
The fiducial indicator is used to ensure all the measurements are made at same pressure.
The instrument has a micrometre head with a vernier scale to read the accuracy of
0.002mm. Calibrated setting cylinder having the same diameter as the major diameter of
the thread to be measured is used as setting standard.
After setting the standard, the setting cylinder is held between the anvils and the reading is
taken.
Then the Minor diameter, D =S± (D2 –D1)
Where,
S =Diameter of setting Gauge.
R1= Micrometre reading on screw thread.
R2=Micrometre Reading on setting cylinder.
Measurement of minor diameter:
The minor diameter is measured by a comparative method by using floating carriage diameter
measuring machine and small V pieces which make contact with the root of the thread.
V piece are made up of hardened steel
These Pieces are made in several sizes, having radii at the edges.
The floating carriage diameter-measuring machine is a bench micrometer mounted on a
carriage.
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The thread work piece is mounted between the centres of the instrument and the V pieces
are placed on the each of the work piece and then reading is noted.
After taking this reading the work piece is then replaced by standard reference cylindrical
setting gauge
Face width
It is the length of the tooth measured parallel to the axis of the gear.
Addendum
It is the radial height of the tooth between the pitch circle and addendum circle.
Dedendum
It is the radial height of the tooth between the pitch circle and dedendum circle.
Face
It is the working area of the tooth between addendum circle and pitch circle.
Flank
It is the working area of the tooth between pitch circle and dedendum circle.
Module (m)
It is the diameter measured per tooth of the gear. It is always represented in mm .
Diametral pitch (Pd)
It is a reciprocal of module of the number of teeth per mm of diameter.
Pressure angle
It is the angle between the line of contact and the common tangent at the
pitchpoint.
Clearance
It is the difference between the dedendum and addendum.
Backlash
It is the difference between the space width and tooth thickness.
Gear ratio (I)
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It is the ratio of the gear diameter to the pinion diameter or the ratio of the pinion speed to
the gear speed or ratio of number of teeth on gear to that on pinion.
Measurement of Gear tooth thickness.
The tooth thickness is generally measured at pitch circle and is therefore, the pitch line
thickness of tooth. It may be mentioned that the tooth thickness is defined as the length of an arc,
which is difficult to measure directly. In most of the cases, it is sufficient to measure the chordal
thickness i.e., the chord joining the intersection of the tooth profile with the pitch circle. Also the
difference between chordal tooth thickness and circular tooth thickness is very small for gear of
small pitch.
The thickness measurement is the most important measurement because most of the gears
manufactured may not undergo checking of all other parameters, but thickness measurement is a
must for all gears.
There are various methods of measuring the gear tooth thickness.
Gear tooth vernier calliper (Chordal thickness method),
Constant chord method (gear tooth micrometre),
Base tangent method,
Measurement by dimension over pins.
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In the gears are fitted on the mandrels and are free to rotate without clearance and the left
mandrel move along the table and the right mandrel move along the spring-loaded
carriage.
The two spindles can be adjusted so that the axial distance is equal and a scale is attached
to one side and vernier to the other, this enables center distance to be measured to with in
0.025mm.
If any errors in the tooth form when gears are in close mesh, pitch or concentricity of pitch
line will cause a variation in center distance from this movement of carriage as indicated
to the dial gauge will show the errors in the gear test.
The recorder also fitted in the form of circular or rectangular chart and the errorsare
recorded.
Limitations of Parkinson gear tester:
Accuracy±0.001mm
Maximum gear diameter is 300mm
Errors are not clearly identified:
Measurement dependent upon the master gear.
Low friction in the movement of the floating carriage.
CO-ORDINATE MEASURING MACHINES
Measuring machines are used for measurement of length over the outer surfaces of a
length bar or any other long member.
The member may be either rounded or flat and parallel.
It is more useful and advantageous than vernier calipers, micrometer, screw gauges etc.
The measuring machines are generally universal character and can be used for works of
varied nature.
The co-ordinate measuring machine is used for contact inspection of parts.
When used for computer-integrated manufacturing these machines are controlled by
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computer numerical control.
Types of Measuring Machines
i. Universal measuring machine.
ii. Co-ordinate measuring machine.
iii. Computer controlled co-ordinate measuring machine.
Constructions of CMM
Co-ordinate measuring machines are very useful for three dimensional measurements.
These machines have movements in X-Y-Z co-ordinate, controlled and measured easily
by using touch probes.
These measurements can be made by positioning the probe by hand, or automatically in
more expensive machines.
Reasonable accuracies are 5 micro in. or 1 micrometer.
The method these machines work on is measurement of the position of the probe using
linear position sensors.
Transducer is provided in tilt directions for giving digital display and senses positive and
negative direction.
Types of CMM
(i) Cantilever type
The cantilever type is very easy to load and unload, but mechanical error takes
place because of sag or deflection in Y-axis.
(ii) Bridge type
Bridge type is more difficult to load but less sensitive to mechanical errors.
(iii) Horizontal boring Mill type
This is best suited for large heavy work pieces.
Types of CMM
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Working Principle
CMM is used for measuring the distance between two holes. The work piece is clamped
to the worktable and aligned for three measuring slides x, y and z. The measuring head
provides a taper probe tip which is seated in first datum hole and the position of probe digital
read out is set to zero.
The probe is then moved to successive holes, the read out represent the co-ordinate part
print hole location with respect to the datum hole. Automatic recording and data processing
units are provided to carry out complex geometric and statistical analysis. Special co-ordinate
measuring machines are provided both linear and rotary axes.
This can measure various features of parts like cone, cylinder and hemisphere. The prime
advantage of co-ordinate measuring machine is the quicker inspection and accurate
measurements.
Schematic Diagram
APPLICATIONS
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