Water Air Soil Pollut (2010) 210:87–100
DOI 10.1007/s11270-009-0226-2
Hydraulic Structures in Water Aeration Processes
Ahmet Baylar & Mehmet Unsal & Fahri Ozkan
Received: 26 April 2009 / Accepted: 15 September 2009 / Published online: 10 October 2009
# Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2009
Abstract The primary purpose of water aeration is
to increase the oxygen saturation of the water.
This can be achieved by using hydraulic structures
because of substantial air bubble entrainment at
these structures. This paper reviewed the literature
on hydraulic structures used in water aeration
processes. The hydraulic structures were divided
into two groups as the high-head flow systems and
the free-surface flow systems. The high-head flow
systems were circular and venturi nozzles, pipe
with venturi tube, and high-head conduit, and the
free-surface flow systems were weir, stepped
cascade, and free-surface conduit. Air/water flow
ratio and aeration efficiency in circular nozzles
with air holes and venturi nozzles were signifi-
cantly high. Pipes with venturi tubes showed high
aeration efficiency although they had low air/water
flow ratio. In high-head and free-surface conduits,
almost full oxygen transfer, up to the saturation
value, occurred. Forty-five degrees triangular
sharp-crested weir had significantly better air/water
flow ratio and aeration efficiency than other sharp-
crested weir shapes. Stepped cascades, in particular
A. Baylar (*)
Civil Engineering Department, Firat University,
Elazig 23119, Turkey
e-mail: abaylar@firat.edu.tr
M. Unsal : F. Ozkan
Construction Education Department, Firat University,
Elazig 23119, Turkey
nappe flow regime, were very efficient means of
aeration.
Keywords Aeration . Air/water flow .
Free-surface flow . High-head flow . Oxygen transfer
1 Introduction
Oxygen is vital to the life cycle common to water. It is
essential to keep organisms living, to sustain species
reproduction, and for the development of populations.
Oxygen is soluble in water in direct proportion to the
partial pressure in the gas phase and solubility decreases
as temperature increases. Oxygen enters into the water
by absorption directly from the atmosphere or by plant
photosynthesis. It is removed by respiration of organ-
isms and by organic decomposition. During respiration
and decomposition, animals and plants consume dis-
solved oxygen and liberate carbon dioxide. Organic
waste from municipal, agricultural, and industrial
sources may overload the natural system causing a
serious depletion of the oxygen supply in the water.
Water rich in nutrients produce algae in quantity which
upon decomposition deplete the oxygen supply. Fish
kills are often associated with this process of eutrophi-
cation. Standards for dissolved oxygen vary. Habitats
for warm water fish population should contain dissolved
oxygen concentrations of not less than 4.0 mg/L.
Habitats for cold water fish population should not be
less than 5.0 mg/L.
88
Hydraulic structures increase the amount of dis-
solved oxygen in a river system, even though the
water is in contact with the structure for only a short
time. The same quantity of oxygen transfer that
normally would occur over several kilometers in a
river can occur at a single hydraulic structure. The
primary reason for this accelerated oxygen transfer is
that air is entrained into the flow in the form of a large
n of bubbles. These air bubbles greatly increase the
surface area available for mass transfer. The physical
process of oxygen transfer or oxygen absorption from
the atmosphere acts to replenish the used oxygen.
This process has been termed re-aeration or aeration.
Aeration efficiency (E20) of hydraulic structures
has been studied by many investigators. Within the
last few years there has been a growing interest in the
air entrainment by water jets plunging into pools. A
substantial number of research workers have studied
air entrainment by plunging water jets. Experimental
studies on air entrainment by plunging water jets were
carried out by Ahmed (1974), van De Sande and
Smith (1973, 1976), McKeogh and Ervine (1981) and
Sene (1988). Kusabiraki et al. (1990a, b) studied the
effect of nozzles having various values of length-to-
diameter ratio on the air entrainment rate (Qa). These
and the other related studies were reviewed by Bin
(1993). Evans et al. (1996) measured the change in
effective jet diameter as a function of free jet length
for vertical water jets passing through air. Recently,
Oguz (1998), Zhu et al. (2000) and Ohl et al. (2000)
studied the role of surface disturbances in the
entrainment of bubbles by water jets. Yamagiwa et
al. (2000) investigated the effect of nozzle contracted
angle on Q a of a vertical plunging water jet.
Yamagiwa et al. (2001) studied the effects of liquid
property on the air entrainment of plunging liquid jet.
The first systematic study of the air-entraining
properties in closed conduits was carried out by
Kalinske and Robertson (1943). Campbell and
Guyton (1953) attempted a theoretical solution to the
problem of air demand of a free flowing rectangular
conduit. The United States Army Corps of Engineers
(1964) extended the field data used by Campbell and
Guyton (1953) and recommended an equation for the
free flow. Haindl and Stornik (1957) used gamma
radiation for the quantitative measurement of air
pumped in by the jump and found that the quantity
of the air driven into the conduit by the jump was
entirely in keeping with the expression of Kalinske
Water Air Soil Pollut (2010) 210:87–100
and Robertson (1943). Mura et al. (1959) conducted
prototype measurements of air demand on Ikari Dam.
Lysne and Guttormsen (1971) analyzed the field data
of a number of gate installations and derived at an
equation. Sharma (1976) classified various two phase
flow regimes in gated conduits in his study of air
entrainment downstream of a sluice gate. Harshbarger
et al. (1977) compared field measurements with data
from a 1:20 scale model of a gated structure. Speerli
and Hager (2000) studied air–water flow in bottom
outlets. Expressions were presented for the maximum
air concentration and its stream wise development
along the tunnel.
A number of research workers have studied the
increase in dissolved oxygen at weirs. Gameson
(1957) was the first to report on the aeration potential
of weirs in rivers. Since then, a number of laboratory
investigations into weir aeration have been carried
out, notably by Van der Kroon and Schram (1969a,
b), Apted and Novak (1973), Avery and Novak
(1978), Nakasone (1987), Thene (1988) and Labocha
et al. (1996). Wormleaton and Soufiani (1998) and
Wormleaton and Tsang (2000) studied E20 of trian-
gular and rectangular labyrinth weirs.
Tebbutt et al. (1977) presented some aeration data
for stepped cascades with nappe and skimming flows.
Since they conducted the experiments in small-size
facilities, reduced free-surface aeration was present.
Essery et al. (1978) studied nappe flow in pooled
stepped cascades. Novak (1994) compared a cascade
as investigated by Essery et al. (1978) with a cascade
of pools and a single jet/pool configuration. Toombes
and Chanson (2000) and Chanson and Toombes (2000)
considered aeration in small-slope stepped cascades.
Chanson and Toombes (2002) conducted gas–liquid
interface measurements in stepped cascade.
Recently, Baylar and Bagatur (2000, 2001a, b,
2006), Baylar et al. (2001a, b, 2005, 2006, 2007a, b,
c, d, e, 2008a, b, 2009a, b), Bagatur et al. (2002),
Baylar and Emiroglu (2002, 2003a, b, 2004, 2005),
Emiroglu and Baylar (2003a, b, c, d, e, f, 2005,
2006), Baylar (2003), Ozkan et al. (2006a, b, 2009),
Baylar and Ozkan (2006), Unsal et al. (2008, 2009),
Hanbay et al. (2009a, b) have conducted many studies
to investigate air/water flow ratio (Qa/Qw) and
aeration efficiency (E20) in different hydraulic struc-
tures. The aim of the present paper is to review the
literature on high-head flow systems and free-surface
flow systems used in water aeration processes.
Water Air Soil Pollut (2010) 210:87–100 89

Equation 1 does not consider sources and sinks of

Nozzle oxygen in the water body because their rates are
Water jet relatively slow compared to the oxygen transfer that
occurs at most hydraulic structures due to the increase
Qa
in free-surface turbulence and the large quantity of air
Qw Flow
that is normally entrained into the flow. The predic-
direction
tive relations assume that Cs is constant and deter-
mined by the water–atmosphere partitioning. If that
assumption is made, Cs is constant with respect to
time, and the aeration efficiency, E may be defined as
Downstream (Gulliver et al. 1990):
pool
 Z d 
Cd  Cu A
E¼ ¼ 1  exp  kL dt
Fig. 1 Air entrainment at water jet flow Cs  Cu u V
1
2 Oxygen Transfer Process ¼1 ð2Þ
r

Oxygen is a highly volatile compound with a gas–water

transfer rate that is controlled entirely by the liquid
phase. Thus, the change in oxygen concentration over
time in a parcel of water as the parcel travels through a
hydraulic structure can be expressed as
dm dC
¼V ¼ kL AðCs  C Þ ð1Þ
dt dt
where dm/dt = mass transfer rate of gas molecules
across an interface, dC/dt = rate of change in
concentration, and kL = bulk liquid film coefficient.
Cs is the saturation concentration of oxygen in water at
prevailing ambient conditions. The saturation concen-
tration in distilled, deionized water may be obtained
from charts or equations. This is an approximation
because the saturation dissolved oxygen concentration
for natural waters is often different from that of
distilled, deionized water due to the impact of trace
contaminants and salinity. C is the actual concentration
of oxygen in the water at time t difference being
proportional to the concentration gradient. The term A
is the air–water contact area and V is the volume of
water associated with this.
where u and d = subscripts indicating upstream and
downstream locations, respectively; and r = oxygen
deficit ratio ½r ¼ ðCs  Cu Þ=ðCs  Cd Þ. A value of
E > 1 means the downstream water has become
supersaturated (i.e., Cd >Cs). E=1.0 means that the
full transfer up to the saturation value has occurred at
the structure. No transfer would correspond to E=0.
Oxygen transfer efficiency is sensitive to water
temperature, and investigators have typically
employed a temperature correction factor. For hy-
draulic structures, Gulliver et al. (1990) developed a
relationship for temperature correction factor:
1  E20 ¼ ð1  E Þ1=f ð3Þ
where E = aeration efficiency at the water temperature
of measurement, E20 =aeration efficiency at the 20°C,
and f = the exponent described by
f ¼ 1 þ 2:103  102 ðT  20Þ þ 8:261
 105 ðT  20Þ2 ð4Þ
where T = water temperature.

Fig. 2 Nozzles types None

Air
suction air 1 air 2 air 4 air 8 air
x hole hole hole hole hole
Flow
direction
D
90 Water Air Soil Pollut (2010) 210:87–100

12.0
3 Aeration
none air hole

Hydraulic structures can increase aeration efficiency by 2 air holes

AerationEfficiency (kg O2 /kW h)

creating turbulent conditions where fine air bubbles are 4 air holes
9.0
carried into the bulk of the flow. In this part, hydraulic
structures used in water aeration processes were
reviewed by means of air/water flow ratio and aeration
efficiency. The hydraulic structures were divided into 6.0
two groups as the high-head flow systems and the free-
surface flow systems.

3.1 Aeration with High-Head Flow Systems 3.0

3.1.1 Water Jet Aeration with Circular Nozzles D=15 mm

x = 10 mm
0.0
When a water jet impinges a pool of water at rest, air 0 50 100 150 200 250
bubbles may be entrained and carried a way below the 3
Re x 10
pool free surface. This process is called plunging water
jet entrainment and aeration (Fig. 1). Emiroglu and Fig. 4 Plot of aeration efficiency versus Reynolds number for
Baylar (2003d) and Baylar and Emiroglu (2004) different nozzle types
conducted a series of experiments to study Qa/Qw and
phenomenon affected air entrainment. The differences
E20 of the circular nozzles with and without air holes,
in Qa/Qw were related to changes in the jet shape.
and in particular, the effect of varying numbers and
It was observed from Fig. 3 that the values of Qa/Qw
positions of the air holes and distance between the
in the circular nozzles with air holes were significantly
location of the air holes and the nozzle exit x, as shown
higher than those of circular nozzles without air hole.
in Fig. 2. Subatmospheric pressure occurred depending
The values of Qa/Qw in the circular nozzles with two air
on the air holes on the circular nozzles. This
holes and four air holes were better than those of the
other circumstances and the circular nozzles with two

10 10
none air hole x = 5 mm
1 air hole x = 10 mm
8 2 air holes 8 x = 15 mm
4 air holes x = 20 mm

8 air holes x = 30 mm
6 6
Qa/ Qw

Qa/ Qw

4 4

2 2
Nozzle with
2 air holes
D=15 mm
x = 10 mm D=15 mm
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
3 3
Re x 10 Re x 10

Fig. 3 Plot of Qa/Qw versus Reynolds number for different Fig. 5 Plot of Qa/Qw versus Reynolds number for different x
nozzle types distances
Water Air Soil Pollut (2010) 210:87–100 91

Fig. 6 a Air entrainment Air suction

with venturi nozzle, b ven-
turi nozzle detail Air suction
Water jet

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(a) (b)

air holes and four air holes were in close agreement with of the venturi tube. When a pressurized operating
each other. Figure 4 showed that the aeration efficiency (motive) fluid, such as water, enters the venturi tube
of the circular nozzles with two air holes and four air inlet, it constricts toward the throat portion of the
holes were significantly higher than those of circular venturi tube and changes into a high velocity jet
nozzles without air hole. Moreover, it was observed stream. The increase in velocity through the throat
from Fig. 5 that variation in Qa/Qw was closely related portion of the venturi tube, as a result of the
to distance between the location of the air holes and the differential pressure, results in a decrease in pressure
nozzle exit. The most appropriate distances between in the throat portion. This pressure drop enables air to
the location of the air holes and the nozzle exit were be injected through the suction hole and is dynami-
15 mm for the circular nozzles with two air holes. cally entrained into the motive stream. As the jet
stream is diffused toward the venturi tube outlet, its
3.1.2 Venturi Aeration velocity is reduced and it is reconverted into pressure
energy (but at a pressure level lower than venturi tube
Venturi system creates a pressure differential that inlet pressure). The venturi tubes are highly efficient,
forms a vacuum at suction hole on venturi tube. This requiring less than 20% differential pressure to initiate
is accomplished when a minimal amount of differen- suction. Therefore, venturi tube can be used in water
tial pressure exists between the inlet and outlet sides

5.0 5.0
θ1 =20 ; θ2 = 5 θ1 = 20 ; θ2 =20
O O
O O L N = 60 mm

θ1 =20 O ; θ2 = 10O L N = 20 mm
4.0 4.0
θ1 =20 ; θ2 = 20
O O L N = 60 mm

Circular nozzle L N = 100 mm

3.0 3.0
Q a / Qw
Qa/Qw

2.0 2.0

1.0 1.0

D = 20 mm; D t = 3D/4 D = 20 mm; D t = 3D/4

0.0 0.0
0 32 64 96 128 160 192 224 256 0 32 64 96 128 160 192 224 256
Re x 10 3 Re x 10 3

Fig. 7 Plot of Qa/Qw versus Reynolds number for different Fig. 8 Plot of Qa/Qw versus Reynolds number for different
cone angles outlet lengths
92 Water Air Soil Pollut (2010) 210:87–100

Qa / 2 0.60
Venturi L = 2.5 m
tube
Qa / 2 L = 5.0 m
0.50

0.40

L
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E 20
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Flow 0.30
direction
Pump

Fig. 9 Pipe aeration system with venturi tube 0.20

jet systems as a nozzle and aeration systems with pipe 0.10

as a device supplying air to the system.
D = 36 mm; D t = 3D/4
0.00
3.1.2.1. Water Jet Aeration with Venturi Nozzles Baylar
0 72 144 216 288 360
et al. 2005 investigated the use of venturi tube as nozzle 3
Re x 10
in a plunging water jet aeration system, and, in
particular, the effect of varying angles of converging Fig. 11 Plot of E20 versus Reynolds number for different pipe
and diverging cone and outlet length on Qa/Qw (Fig. 6). lengths
Subatmospheric pressure drew air in through suction
hole at the throat portion of the venturi nozzle. The 3.1.2.2. Pipe Aeration with Venturi Tube Ozkan et al.
resulting aeration of the jet affected its expansion and (2006b) conducted experimental studies to investi-
its surface roughness and hence Qa/Qw in downstream gate the effect of pipes with venturi tubes on Qa/Qw
pool. It was demonstrated that Qa/Qw of the venturi and E20 (Fig. 9). It was observed from the results
nozzle were significantly higher than those for the that pipes with venturi tubes had high E20 values
classic circular nozzle. It was observed from Figs. 7 although they had low Qa/Qw values. The reason for
and 8 that diverging cone angle and outlet length of the this can be that fine bubbly flow in pipe with venturi
venturi nozzle were the most important factors influ- tube associated with high pressure in pipe facilitated
encing air entrainment. the solution of oxygen into the water.
It was observed from Fig. 10 that Qa/Qw decreased
0.20 with increasing pipe length downstream of venturi
L = 2.5 m
tube L. The reason of this was the decreased pressure
L = 5.0 m
differential between inlet and outlet sides as L
0.15
increased. Moreover, E20 increased with decreasing
L, as shown in Fig. 11. The reason of this was that air
that was entrained into the water increased with
decreasing L.
Qa/ Qw

0.10

3.1.3 High-Head Conduit Aeration

0.05
If the gate of a high-head conduit is partly opened, a
high velocity flow occurs downstream of it resulting
D = 36 mm; D t = 3D/4 in subatmospheric pressures (Fig. 12). Theoretically,
0.00 the pressure can be as low as the vapor pressure of
0 72 144 216 288 360
water and may lead to structural damage owing to
3
Re x 10 cavitation. To avoid severe subatmospheric pressures
Fig. 10 Plot of Qa/Qw versus Reynolds number for different the conduit is connected to the atmosphere through an
pipe lengths air vent located downstream of the gate. Its purpose is
Water Air Soil Pollut (2010) 210:87–100 93
Fig. 12 Two phase flow in Air
high-head conduit suction
Gate Qa Air
vent

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to supply air and thereby keep the pressures down-
stream of the gate at a safe level (Sharma 1976).
Unsal et al. (2008) conducted experimental studies
to investigate Qa/Qw and E20 of high-head conduit
flow systems. The results indicated that Qa/Qw
increased as Froude number increased. Moreover,
Qa/Qw decreased with increasing conduit length Lc,
as shown in Fig. 13. Figure 14 showed that the
conduit length Lc did not have an important effect on
E20. The reason of this was the decreased Qa/Qw as
Lc increased. At high Froude numbers greater than 15,
almost full oxygen transfer, up to the saturation value,
occurred. The reason for this can be that the air that
was entrained into the water was immediately forced
downstream in the form of fine air bubbles facilitating
greater oxygen transfer. The high pressure in high-
head conduit also facilitated the solution of oxygen
into the water. Moreover, a regression equation was
obtained for high-head conduit flows relating E20 to
Froude number.
 
E20 ¼ tan h 0:041Fr1:25
where E20 =aeration efficiency at the 20°C and Fr =
Froude number at gate location.
o
3.2 Aeration with Free-Surface Flow Systems
3.2.1 Weir Aeration
The most classic example of a hydraulic structure
where gas transfer occurs is a weir (Fig. 15). The
transfer of gasses between the atmosphere and river
water can occur in a free overfall jet from a weir. A
free overfall jet from a weir plunging into down-
stream water causes entrainment of the air bubbles if
the free overfall jet velocity exceeds a certain critical
value and hence aeration occurs.
Baylar (2003), Emiroglu and Baylar (2003e, 2005)
and Baylar and Bagatur (2006) investigated the free
overfall jets from sharp-crested weirs, broad-crested
weirs, labyrinth weirs, and venturi weirs and their
effect on Qa/Qw (Fig. 16). Moreover, predictive
equations were derived in order to express Qa/Qw of
sharp-crested weirs, broad-crested weirs, labyrinth
weirs, and venturi weirs (Table 1).
Results pointed that Qa/Qw of the free overfall jets
from weirs changed depending on weir shapes. The
ð5Þ
weir geometry defined nappe shapes that were unique
to each weir, and Qa/Qw seemed to strongly depend on
these nappe shapes. For example, in sharp-crested

Fig. 13 Plot of Qa/Qw 1.6

versus Froude number for L c =2 m
different conduit lengths Lc =4 m
1.2 Lc =6 m
Q a /Q w

0.8

0.4

h c =1.6 cm
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Fr
94 Water Air Soil Pollut (2010) 210:87–100

Fig. 14 Plot of E20 versus 1.0

Froude number for different L c =2 m
conduit lengths Lc =4 m
0.8
Lc =6 m
0.6

E 20
0.4

0.2
h c =1.6 cm
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Fr

weirs, Qa/Qw of 45° triangular sharp-crested weir was
significantly better than that of the other weir shapes,
as shown in Fig. 17.
Recently, Baylar and Bagatur (2006) investigated
the effect of the sharp-crested weir shapes on E20.
Results pointed that E20 of 45° triangular sharp-
crested weir was significantly better than that of the
other weir shapes (Fig. 18). A regression equation
was obtained for the triangular sharp-crested weirs
relating E20 to drop height, discharge, and angle in
triangular sharp-crested weir.
 h  a i0:206 1
0:280
E20 ¼ 1  1 þ 0:149h1:341d Q w sin
2
ð6Þ
where E20 =aeration efficiency at the 20°C; hd = drop
height (m), Qw=water discharge (m3/s) and α = angle
in triangular sharp-crested weir (degrees).
3.2.2 Stepped Cascade Aeration
A stepped cascade is provided with a series of steps,
from near the crest to the toe. Stepped cascade flows are
characterized by strong turbulent mixing, large resi-
dence time, and the substantial air bubble entrainment.
Drop
Qa height, h d
Fig. 15 Air entrainment at weir flow
Air bubble entrainment is caused by turbulence fluctua-
tions acting next to the air–water free surface. Through
this interface, air is continuously tapped and released.
Air entrainment occurs when the turbulent kinetic
energy is large enough to overcome both surface tension
and gravity effects. The turbulent velocity normal to the
free surface must overcome the surface tension pressure,
and be greater than the bubble rise velocity component
for the bubbles to be carried away.
The flow over a stepped cascade can be classified
into three types: skimming flow, transition flow, and
nappe flow. For narrow steps or larger discharges such
as the design discharge the water skims over the step
corners and recirculating zones develop in triangular
niches formed by the step faces and the pseudo-bottom,
as shown in Fig. 19a. In skimming flow the water flows
as a coherent stream over the pseudo-bottom formed
by the step corners. For a range of intermediate
discharges, a transition flow regime takes place. The
dominant feature is stagnation on the horizontal step
face associated with significant splashing and a chaotic
appearance (Fig. 19b). For nappe flow the steps act as
a series of overfalls with the water plunging from one
step to another (Fig. 19c). Generally speaking, nappe
flow is found for low discharges and wide steps
(Chanson 2002).
Baylar and Emiroglu (2003b), Baylar et al. (2006,
2007a, d) investigated stepped cascades and their
effect on E20. It was demonstrated that stepped
cascades were very efficient structures at oxygen
transfer because of the strong turbulent mixing
associated with substantial air bubble entrainment
and that this advantage became more pronounced in
the nappe flow regime, as shown in Fig. 20.
In the nappe flow regime, the oxygen transfer on
each step resulted from the flow aeration and mixing
Water Air Soil Pollut (2010) 210:87–100 95

Fig. 16 Weir types: a sharp- Flow direction

crested weir, b broad-crested
Flow direction
weir, c labyrinth weir, d
venturi weir (a) (b)
α

Flow direction
(c) (d)
Lv Throat
θ φ B portion

Converging
Diverging section
section

Flow
direction

in the free-falling nappe, at the plunge point and
possibly at the downstream hydraulic jump. Baylar et
al. (2007a) developed an empirical correlation pre-
dicting E20 for nappe flow regime over stepped
cascades. A stepped cascade design in terms of E20
can be optimized using this empirical correlation. The
resulting correlation is given in Eq. 7.
h i
E1ð20Þ ¼ 1  exp 5:730q0:035
w h0:998
s ðcosðbÞÞ12:042 ðsinðbÞÞ1:594
ð7Þ
where E1 (20) =aeration efficiency of one individual
step at 20°C, qw = unit discharge (m2/s), hs = step
height (m), β = chute slope between 14  b  30
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
(degrees), yc = critical depth (m) ð yc ¼ 3
q2w gÞ, and
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2).
3.2.3 Free-Surface Conduit Aeration
High-speed flow in conduits involves air–water
mixture flow. The air flow results from the
subpressure downstream from the gate. The air
entrained by the high-speed flow is supplied by the
air vent. The air suction mechanism of free-surface
conduit flow systems is similar to high-head
conduit flow systems.
Unsal et al. (2009) conducted experimental
studies to investigate E20 of free-surface conduit

Table 1 Predictive equations for air entrainment rate in different weir types

Equation source Predictive relationship Comments

 1:025  0:605
Baylar (2003) Qa ¼ 0:055qw 1:097 Lhdv B
Lv Venturi weirs
Emiroglu and Baylar 2003e Qa ¼ 2:160cosða=2Þ Q1:030
w h0:782
d Triangular broad-crested weirs
Emiroglu and Baylar 2005 Qa ¼ 1:128Qw hd 0:095cosðfÞ 1:154sinðqÞ
0:696 1:074
Triangular labyrinth weirs for22:5  f  45
Qa ¼ 0:0033q
h hd 1:193cosðq=2Þ
0:166 1:955
Triangular labyrinth weirs forf ¼ 0
w
0:293 0:158

a0:172 i4:598
Baylar and Bagatur 2006 Qa ¼ 0:171hd Qw cos 2 Triangular sharp-crested weirs

where Qa = air entrainment rate (m3 /s), hd = drop height (m), Qw = water discharge (m3 /s), α = angle in triangular sharp-crested and
broad-crested weirs (degrees), f = weir sill slope in triangular labyrinth weir (degrees), θ = weir included angle in triangular labyrinth
weir (degrees), qw = unit water discharge (m2 /s), Lv = crest width of venturi weir (m), and B = throat width of venturi weir (m).
96 Water Air Soil Pollut (2010) 210:87–100

1.50 Recirculating
vortices
Rectangular weir (a)
45o triangular weir
1.25
90 o triangular weir Pseudo-bottom
o
135 triangular weir
1.00
Trapezoidal weir
(b)
Q a /Q w

Semi-circular weir
0.75
Flow
recirculation
0.50
(c)
hs
0.25 Free-falling
nappe

0.00
0.00 0.15 0.30 0.45 0.60 0.75 0.90 1.05 β
h d (m)
Fig. 19 Flow regimes on stepped cascades: a skimming flow,
Fig. 17 Plot of Qa/Qw versus hd for different weir types b transition flow, c nappe flow

flow systems (Fig. 21). The results indicated that Qa/Qw E20 to Froude number, gate opening, and conduit
increased as Froude number increased, as shown in length.
Fig. 22. The reason of this was the increased water "  0:74 #1
velocity at gate location with increasing Froude hc
E20 ¼ 1  1 þ 0:15 Fr 2:56
ð8Þ
number. Figures 22 and 23 showed that the conduit Lc
length Lc did not have an important effect on Qa/Qw
and E20. At high Froude numbers greater than 15, where E20 =aeration efficiency at the 20°C, hc = gate
almost full oxygen transfer, up to the saturation opening (m), Lc = conduit length (m), and Fr =
value, occurred. Moreover, a regression equation Froude number at gate location.
was obtained for free-surface conduit flows relating
1.0
Skimming
0.6
Rectangular weir Transition
o
0.8 Nappe
45 triangular weir
0.5
90o triangular weir
o
135 triangular weir 0.6
0.4
Trapezoidal weir
E 20

Semi-circular weir
E 20

0.3 0.4

0.2
0.2

0.1
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0.0
0.00 0.15 0.30 0.45 0.60 0.75 0.90 1.05 yc / h s
h d (m)
Fig. 20 Plot of E20 versus yc/hs for different flow regimes
Fig. 18 Plot of E20 versus hd for different weir types (open symbols β=30°, filled symbols β=14.48°)
Water Air Soil Pollut (2010) 210:87–100 97

Fig. 21 Two-phase flow in Air

free-surface conduit Qa
vent

Gate
Two phase flow
Air

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4 Conclusions results indicated the venturi nozzles had signifi-

cantly higher values of air/water flow ratio than
In the present paper, high-head flow systems and free- the classic circular nozzles.
surface flow systems used in water aeration processes & Pipe aeration with venturi tube: subatmospheric
were reviewed by means of air/water flow ratio and pressure drew air in through suction holes on the
aeration efficiency. Based on the findings of this throat portion of the venturi tube. Fine bubbly flow
study, the following conclusions were drawn: in pipe with venturi tube associated with high
pressure in pipe facilitated the solution of oxygen
& Water jet aeration with circular nozzles: subatmo-
into the water. The solution of oxygen into the water
spheric pressure occurred, depending on the air
is usually greater in systems with fine bubbles than
holes opened on the circular nozzles. This
systems with coarse bubbles. This occurs because
phenomenon affected the water jet expansion,
fine bubbles present a greater surface area to the
the water jet shape, the air entrainment, and the
surrounding water than larger bubbles. Oxygen
bubble penetration depth and hence the aeration
diffuses into the water at the surface, so a large
efficiency. The results indicated the air/water flow
surface area facilitates greater oxygen absorption.
ratio and the aeration efficiency of the circular
The results indicated that pipes with venturi tubes
nozzles with air holes were better than those of the
had high aeration efficiency although they had low
circular nozzles without air holes.
air/water flow ratio.
& Water jet aeration with venturi nozzles: when a
& High-head conduit aeration: when the gate of
differential pressure existed between the inlet and
high-head conduit was partly opened, subatmo-
outlet sides of venturi nozzle, a vacuum (air
spheric pressure drew the air in through the air
suction) occurred at suction hole of venturi
vent. Air that was entrained into the water from
nozzle. The resulting aeration of the jet affected
the air vent was momentarily forced downstream
its expansion and its surface roughness and hence
in the form of fine air bubbles. The solution of
air/water flow ratio in downstream pool. The
oxygen into the water resulted from fine air
1.2
bubbles injected. Moreover, high pressure in the
hc =16 mm
1.0 L c =2 m 1.0
L c =4 m hc =16 mm
0.8 0.8 L c =2 m
L c =6 m
Q a /Q w

L c =4 m
0.6 0.6
L c =6 m
E 20

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Fr Fr

Fig. 22 Plot of Qa/Qw versus Froude number for different Fig. 23 Plot of E20 versus Froude number for different conduit
conduit lengths lengths
98
conduit also facilitated the solution of oxygen into
the water. The results indicated that the high-head
conduit flow systems had high air/water flow ratio
and aeration efficiency.
& Weir aeration: free overfall jets from weirs
plunging into downstream water caused entrain-
ment of the air bubbles and hence aeration
occurred. The weir shape found as an important
factor influencing aeration efficiency. The weir
geometry defined nappe shapes that were unique
to each weir, and the oxygen transfer seemed to
strongly depend on these nappe shapes. For
example, air/water flow ratio and aeration effi-
ciency for 45° triangular sharp-crested weir were
significantly better than for the other sharp-crested
weir shapes.
& Stepped cascade aeration: stepped cascade is a
type of aeration structures characterized by the
large amount of self-entrained air. Flow over a
stepped cascade is divided into three separate flow
regimes depending on the discharge for a given
stepped chute geometry: nappe, transition, and
skimming flow regimes with increasing discharge.
The results indicated that stepped cascades were
very efficient means of aeration because of the
strong turbulent mixing, the large residence time,
and the substantial air bubble entrainment, and
that this advantage became more pronounced in
nappe flow regime. In nappe flow regime, the
oxygen transfer on each step resulted from the
flow aeration and mixing in the free-falling nappe,
at the plunge point and possibly at the down-
stream hydraulic jump.
& Free-surface conduit aeration: high-speed flow in
the conduit involved air–water mixture flow. The
air flow resulted from the subpressure down-
stream from the gate. The air entrained by the
high-speed flow was supplied by the air vent. Air
that was entrained into the water from the air vent
was momentarily forced downstream in the form
of fine air bubbles. The solution of oxygen into
the water resulted from fine air bubbles injected.
The results indicated that the free-surface conduit
flow systems had high air/water flow ratio and
aeration efficiency.
In conclusion, reviewing the literature on air/
water flow ratio and aeration efficiency of high-
Water Air Soil Pollut (2010) 210:87–100
head and free-surface flow systems, it seemed that
these systems had significantly high performance.
Therefore, these systems would be used as highly
effective aerator in streams, rivers, constructed
channels, ponds, lakes, fish hatcheries, drinking
water, and wastewater treatment processes, etc.
The most appropriate hydraulic structure, which
will lead to optimum aeration efficiency, would be
selected considering a variety of factors, including
economic consideration, characteristics of region,
structure size, discharge, etc.
Future researches should be directed to investigate
effect of high-head and free-surface flow systems on
reducing tastes and odors caused by dissolved gasses
in the water, decreasing the carbon dioxide content of
the water, oxidizing iron, and manganese from their
soluble states to their insoluble states and removing
certain volatile organic compounds in the water.
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