TOXIC PHENOLS IN VARIOUS ANACARDIACEAE SPECIES1

CARLOS J. AGUILAR-ORTIGOZA, VICTORIA SOSA, AND

MARCIAL AGUILAR-ORTIGOZA

Aguilar-Ortigoza, Carlos J. (Instituto de Ecologı́a, A.C., Apartado Postal 63, 91000 Xalapa,
Veracruz, Mexico and Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México),
Victoria Sosa (Instituto de Ecologı́a, A.C., Apartado Postal 63, 91000 Xalapa, Veracruz, Mex-
ico), and Marcial Aguilar-Ortigoza (Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Unidad Siglo XXI,
Av. Cuauhtémoc 330, 06720 México, D.F., Mexico). TOXIC PHENOLS IN VARIOUS ANACARDIACEAE
SPECIES. Economic Botany 57(3):04em, 2003. The leaves and bark of fifteen species of Mexican
Anacardiaceae were analyzed by paper and thin layer chromatography for the presence of
toxic phenols such as catechols, resorcinols and biflavonoids. Based on the results of this and
previous studies, toxic phenols are present in fifty-two species belonging to twenty-seven genera
in Anacardiaceae. The majority of species contain toxic catechols, a few species contain toxic
resorcinols and sixteen species contain biflavonoids. Genera from the basal group in Anacar-
diaceae, including Spondias and allied genera lack biflavonoids. Biflavonoids are present in
the rest of the genera of Anacardiaceae.

FENOLES TÓXICOS EN VARIOS GÉNEROS DE ANACARDIACEAE. En este trabajo se analizaron corteza

y hojas de quince especies de Anacardiaceae distribuı́das en México. El análisis se llevó a
cabo por cromatografı́a de papel y de capa delgada para determinar la presencia de fenoles
tóxicos tales como catecoles, resorcinoles y biflavonoides. Con base en los resultados de este
trabajo y de literatura previa, se ha detectado la presencia de fenoles tóxicos en cincuenta y
dos especies de veintisiete géneros en Anacardiaceae. La mayorı́a de las especies contienen
catecoles tóxicos, unas cuantas contienen resorcinoles tóxicos y deciseis contienen biflavonoi-
des. Los géneros del grupo basal de Anacardiaceae, que incluye a Spondias y géneros afines
carecen de biflavonoides. Los biflavonoides están presentes en el resto de los géneros de
Anacardiaceae.
Key Words: phenols; catechol; resorcinol; biflavonoid; urushiol; Anacardiaceae; toxic aller-
gens; dermatitis.

Among secondary plant products, phenols are
most common in higher plants. Phenolic com-
pounds possess an aromatic ring bearing one to
several hydroxyl groups (Harborne 1973, 1989).
Catechols and resorcinols are examples of sin-
gle-ring molecules and flavonoids are examples
of three-ring molecules (Harborne 1973, 1989;
Ribéreau-Gayon 1972; Smith 1976). Phenols
have been widely studied in chemosystematic
and medical research (Harborne 2000).
Most plant phenols are non-toxic to man and
animals (Whalley 1959). However, there are
some highly toxic phenols confined to resin ca-
nals in certain species of the Anacardiaceae.
Some of these phenols are capable of producing
dermatitis (Evans and Schmidt 1980; Gross,
1 Received 1 April 2002; accepted 16 December
2002.
Baer, and Fales 1975; Mitchell and Rook 1979).
After penetrating the skin, they are oxidized into
quinone derivatives, initiating a complex cell-
mediated immune response leading to a blister-
ing rash (Dunn et al. 1986) and the formation of
immunoglobulin antibodies (Funes et al. 1999;
Stampf, Casagnoli, and Epstein 1990). The in-
gestion of toxic phenols causes gastroenteritis,
hemorrhoids, headaches (Mitchell 1990), ana-
phylaxis, or edema of the glottis (Funes et al.
1999). However, these toxic phenols are also po-
tentially useful for the treatment of cancer, viral
and skin diseases (Carpenter et al. 1980; Ed-
wards and Edwards 1995; Mitchell 1990).
Toxic phenols in Anacardiaceae are likely a
defense by the plants against pests because they
are capable of restricting the growth of patho-
genic fungi such as Alternaria (Cojocaru et al.
1986; Harborne 1999), Fusarium and Helmin-

Economic Botany 57(3) pp. 354–364. 2003

q 2003 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.
2003] AGUILAR-ORTIGOZA ET AL.: TOXIC PHENOLS IN ANACARDIACEAE
thosporium (Rivero-Cruz et al. 1997). Phenols
with antiviral activity have been described for
Spondias (Corthout et al. 1989, 1992). Phenols
that prevent attack by insects (Joel 1980), and
by herbivorous vertebrates (Mitchell 1990) have
been found in Mangifera.
Allergenic phenols are molecules that vary in
the number and position of the hydroxyl groups,
in their length, as well as in the number and
position of double bonds in the hydrocarbon side
chain on the benzene ring (Baer et al. 1967;
Johnson et al. 1972). The most common toxic
phenol in Anacardiaceae is urushiol, a mixture
of closely related 3-n-alk(en)ylcatechols, initial-
ly identified by Majima (1922a) in Toxicoden-
dron vernicifluum (Stokes) F. A. Barkley. Uru-
shiol has fifteen (pentadecylcatechol) or seven-
teen carbon atoms on its side chain (heptadecyl-
catechol). Cardol, another allergenic phenolic
compound found in Anacardiaceae, is a penta-
decylresorcinol found in the fruit of Anacardium
(Evans and Schmidt 1980; Tyman and Morris
1967). Heptadecylresorcinol was found in Man-
gifera (Cojocaru et al. 1986), while cardanol
was discovered in Anacardium (Tyman and
Morris 1967), Schinus (Stahal, Keller, and Blinn
1983) and Schinopsis (Di Lullo 1934). Hapta-
decadienylphenol was identified in Pentaspadon
(Backer and Haack 1941; Lamberton 1959b),
Spondias (Corthout et al. 1989), and in Camp-
nosperma (Lamberton 1959a) and anacardic ac-
ids in Anacardium (Lloyd et al. 1980; Tyman
and Morris 1967) and Pistacia (Yalpani and
Tyman 1983).
Toxic species in Anacardiaceae are members
of four of the five tribes defined by Engler
(1883): Spondiadeae, Anacardieae, Semecar-
peae, and Rhoeae. However, recent studies based
on anatomical, morphological, and molecular
evidence indicate that there are only two line-
ages within the family, one formed by the genera
of Spondiadeae with a few genera of Rhoeae,
and a second with the remaining genera (Pell
and Urbatsch 2001; Terrazas 1994; Terrazas and
Chase 1996; Wannan and Quinn 1991). Twenty-
five of the approximately seventy-six genera of
Anacardiaceae have been recorded as poisonous
(Mitchell 1990). The majority of toxic species
containing catechols belong to the second line-
age of the family.
In Mexico approximately sixty species of
Anacardiaceae have been reported. Among
them, fifteen are presumably toxic but have not
355
yet been tested for presence of toxic phenols.
For example, ‘‘Aquiscle,’’ Toxicodendrum ra-
dicans (L.) Kuntze, is widely distributed in
Mexico and is known to be toxic (Aguilar and
Zolla 1982). Other Mexican species belonging
to genera such as Bonetiella (palo roñoso) and
Pseudosmodingium (tetlate, cuajiote colorado,
chichote) have been reported to cause dermatitis
(Rzedowski and Calderón 1999). Anacardium
occidentale L., Spondias purpurea L., and
Cyrtocarpa procera Kunth are listed as medic-
inal species (Hersch-Martı́nez 1995; Morton
1981). Information from herbarium specimens
indicates that species in the genera Actinocheita
(tetlatia), Comocladia (hincha huevos) and Mos-
quitoxylum are toxic.
The objectives of this paper are to determine
the presence of catechols, resorcinols and bifla-
vonoids in fifteen species of Anacardiaceae from
Mexico and to compile a list of all the species
of the family Anacardiaceae that are known to
produce toxic phenols with information on their
distribution and habitat. The presence of these
phenols among Anacardiaceae in relation to
their taxonomic position is discussed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant Material. Samples of leaves and bark
from field collections of fifteen species of the
genera Actinocheita, Anacardium, Bonetiella,
Comocladia, Cyrtocarpa, Mosquitoxylum, Pis-
tacia, Pseudosmodingium, Spondias, Tapirira
and Toxicodendron were obtained (Table 1).
Vouchers were deposited in the herbarium of the
Institute of Ecology, XAL (Appendix).
Extraction of Catechols and Resorcinols from
Plant Material. Air-dried samples of leaves (20
g) and bark (20 g) were ground in a mill, hydro-
lized with 200 ml of hydrochloric acid and ex-
tracted with 200 ml of methanol for 24 hours at
a cool temperature (4–58C) to deposit waxy and
gummy materials. Filtration was done by suc-
tion, and the filtrates were extracted with ether.
This solution was concentrated in a vacuum and
the residue distilled at low pressure (Harborne
1973).
Extraction of Biflavonoids from Plant Mate-
rial. Air-dried samples of leaves (20 g) and bark
(20 g) were ground in a mill, extracted with
methanol for 48 hours and then concentrated at
low pressure (Harborne 1973).
Determination of Catechols and Resorcinols.
The residues dissolved in ether were examined
356 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 57

two-dimensionally on silica gel (DC-Fertigplat-

Biflavonoids

present
present
present
present
present

present

present
present
present
present

present
absent

absent

absent
absent
ten Kiesegel 60) with 10% acetic acid in chlo-
roform (solvent 1) and 45% ethylacetate in ben-
zene (solvent 2). These phenols absorb short UV
light and show up as dark spots on the gel when
Catechols:

present

present
present

present

present
present
present
present

present
urushiol

present. Catechols were detected using the Fo-

absent
absent

absent

absent

absent
absent
lin-Ciocalteu reagent and resorcinols with the
vanillin-HCl reagent which cause these phenols
to produce pink spots (Harborne 1973).
Determination of the Catechol Urushiol. The

bark, stem, fruit

SPECIES.

residues were diluted in methanol and combined

bark, wood

with 1% alcoholic ferric chloride and immedi-

bark, fruit
Plant parts
analyzed

ately afterwards 2% alcoholic sodium carbonate

MEXICAN ANACARDIACEAE

bark
bark
bark
bark
bark
bark
bark
bark
bark

bark
was added (Hill, Mattacotti, and Graham 1934).
Determination of Biflavonoids. The concen-
leaves,
leaves,

leaves,
leaves,
leaves,
leaves,
leaves,
leaves,
leaves,
leaves,
leaves,

leaves,
leaves,
leaves

leaves
trate was analyzed by paper chromatography
(Whatman 3 MM) using the solvents butanol-
acetic acid-water (BAW) 4:1:5 and chloroform-
methanol 9:1. Biflavonoids absorb short UV
1192
1215
1208
1198
1202
1203
1222
1216
1207
1199
1197
1204
1221
1223
1213

light and ammonia vapor, showing up as dark

Voucher

bands when present (Harborne 1989; Williams

Aguilar
Aguilar
Aguilar
Aguilar
Aguilar
Aguilar
Aguilar
Aguilar
Aguilar
Aguilar
Aguilar
Aguilar
Aguilar
Aguilar
Aguilar

and Harborne 1989).

COMPOUNDS FOUND IN THE FIFTEEN

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

PHENOLS IN ANACARDIACEAE
Cultivated, tropics of the world

Tropical and temperate forests

Urushiol was detected in nine of the fifteen

species we studied (Table 1): Actinocheita fili-
cina, Comocladia engleriana, C. mollisima,
Tropical (cultivated)

Tropical rain forest

Tropical rain forest

Habitat

Tropical dry forest

Tropical dry forest

Tropical dry forest
Tropical dry forest
Tropical dry forest

Tropical dry forest

Tropical dry forest
Tropical dry forest
Tropical dry forest

Mosquitoxylum jamaicensis, Pseudosmodingium

andrieuxii, P. barkleyi, P. perniciosum, P. vir-
letii, and Toxicodendron radicans. It is absent
Oak forest

from Bonetiella anomala. In this species, the ex-

traction was made from leaves but no bark was
analyzed. As such, there is a possibility that cat-
echols can be found in the bark of Bonetiella,
TABLE 1. PHENOLIC

as found for other Anacardiaceae species (Ha-

lim, Locksley, and Memon 1980; Hill, Matta-
Pseudosmodingium perniciosum (Kunth) Engl.

cotti, and Graham 1934; Rivero-Cruz et al.

Pseudosmodingium andrieuxii (Baill.) Engl.

1997). Anacardium occidentale, Cyrtocarpa

Mosquitoxylum jamaicensis Krug & Urb.
Bonetiella anomala (I. M. Johnst.) Rzed.
Actinocheita filicina (DC.) F. A. Barkley

Pseudosmodingium virletii (Baill.) Engl.

procera, Pistacia mexicana, and Tapirira mexi-

Pseudosmodingium barkleyi Miranda

Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze

cana had no urushiol in their leaves or bark.

None of these species are reported to cause der-
matitis when skin comes into contact with these
Comocladia engleriana Loes.
Comocladia mollisima Kunth

Tapirira mexicana Marchand

Anacardium occidentale L.

Cyrtocarpa procera Kunth

plant parts. According to our results, Spondias

Species

Pistacia mexicana Kunth

purpurea had no urushiol, despite the fact that

Spondias purpurea L.

Mitchell (1990) indicated that can cause weak

dermatitis.
We did not detect the presence of resorcinols.
In other studies, resorcinols have been found ex-
clusively in the fruit; e.g., Anacardium occiden-
tale (Tyman and Morris 1967) and Mangifera
indica (Cojocaru et al. 1986). Biflavonoids were
2003] AGUILAR-ORTIGOZA ET AL.: TOXIC PHENOLS IN ANACARDIACEAE
found in eleven out of the fifteen studied species
(Table 1). Cyrtocarpa, Pistacia, Spondias, and
Tapirira lack biflavonoids (Table 1).
Based on the results of this and previous stud-
ies, we find there are fifty-two species belonging
to twenty-seven genera in Anacardiaceae that
contain toxic phenols (Table 2). Twenty-six spe-
cies belonging to eleven genera contain toxic
catechols, three species contain toxic resorcin-
ols, four species of three genera contain anacar-
dic acids, one species contains alkyl quinol and
sixteen species belonging to eleven genera con-
tain biflavonoids (Table 2). We record here twice
as many toxic species in Anacardiaceae as re-
ported in previous compilations (Baer 1979;
Mitchell 1990).
PHENOLS AND PHYLOGENY
As mentioned, Engler (1883) divided the fam-
ily Anacardiaceae into five tribes: Anacardieae,
Spondiadeae, Rhoeae, Semecarpeae, and Dobi-
neae. However, recent phylogenetic studies
based on anatomical, morphological, and molec-
ular character datasets coincide that there are
only two lineages within the family, one formed
by the genera of Spondiadeae and a few of the
genera of Rhoeae (Clade I, with 20 genera), and
a second comprised of the rest of genera, Clade
II, with 49 genera (Pell and Urbatsch 2001; Te-
rrazas 1994; Terrazas and Chase 1996; Wannan
and Quinn 1991). A phylogenetic tree of Ana-
cardiaceae has not yet been published. Never-
theless, based on results by Pell and Urbatsch
(2001) and Terrazas (1994), information was ob-
tained indicating the clade in which every taxon
considered here belongs (Table 2).
The information from Table 2 suggests that
Clade I, the basal group that includes Spondias
and allied genera, is characterized by the ab-
sence of toxic biflavonoids, resorcinols, and cat-
echols. Furthermore, members of this clade re-
tained plesiomorphic characters such as a gy-
noecium with five carpels, fruit often multiloc-
ular with a thick endocarp, lignified and with
irregularly oriented sclereids (Wannan and
Quinn 1991). This basal clade is characterized
by a Spondias-type of endocarp which is found
in Campnosperma and Pentaspadon and also in
Canarium of the Burseraceae (Wannan and
Quinn 1990). In Table 2 the basal group is rep-
resented by Cyrtocarpa, Harpephyllum, Pentas-
padon, Spondias, and Tapirira; all of which lack
catechols, resorcinols, and biflavonoids. Camp-
357
nosperma’s position is controversial and might
be part of the group of Spondias and allied gen-
era. Spondias and Pentaspadon possess the re-
lated phenol, heptadecadienyl-phenol (Backer
and Haack 1941; Corthout et al. 1989; Lamber-
ton 1959b), and Campnosperma possesses non-
adecylquinol (Lamberton 1959a). The species of
the basal group of Clade I have probably lost
capacity to synthesize biflavonoids, while these
secondary compounds are still present in the sis-
ter group Burseraceae. The Burseraceae share
with the Anacardiaceae vertical secretory canals
in primary and secondary phloem and the pres-
ence of biflavonoids (Gadek et al. 1996; Pell and
Urbatsch 2001).
The presence of biflavonoids, resorcinols, and
catechols in species representative of Clade II is
not constant. For this reason, we examined rep-
resentatives of Amphipterygium and Blepharo-
carya, previously placed in Julianaceae and
Blepharocaryaceae respectively, but found them
to be part of this second clade (Pell and Ur-
batsch 2001; Terrazas 1994; Terrazas and Chase
1996; Wannan and Quinn 1991). These two gen-
era, together with Holigarna and Semecarpus,
share morphological characters such as a tricar-
pelar gynoecium, unilocular fruit with an endo-
carp composed of discrete and regularly ar-
ranged layers of cells (Wannan and Quinn
1991); all possess biflavonoids. Moreover, rep-
resentatives of Clade II, with the exception of
Buchanania and Gluta, produce biflavonoids.
However, the presence of catechols varies in
taxa in Clade II. Pseudosmodingium, Comocla-
dia, and Toxicodendron contain toxic catechols,
while other genera such as Rhus or Pistacia, at
some point in their evolutionary history lost the
capacity to synthesize these compounds if, in-
deed, they ever did. Buchanania and Anacar-
dium did not contain toxic catechols. Resorcin-
ols are only produced in Anacardium and Man-
gifera.
Most of the information on the presence of
toxic phenols in Anacardiaceae comes from the
taxa of Clade II, for which species representative
of 21 genera have been studied. Thus, informa-
tion is needed for the remaining 15 genera of
Clade I, a group of 20 genera, the basal group
of Spondias and allied genera, which is very im-
portant to understand evolution of toxic phenols
in the family.
 358
TABLE 2. PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS IN SPECIES OF ANACARDIACEAE. LINEAGES ACCORDING TO RECENT PHYLOGENETIC STUDIES (PELL & URBATSCH 2001;
TERRAZAS 1994) AND TRIBES ACCORDING TO ENGLER (1883).
Catechols: urushiol,
resorcinols and
Species Lineage (clade)/Tribe Habitat/Country Reference Plant part related phenols Biflavonoids

Actinocheita filicina (DC.) F. A. II/Rhoeae Tropical dry forest, This paper; Young 1976 leaves, bark, urushiol present
Barkley Mexico wood
Amphipterygium adstringens Schiede II/Probably Rhoeae Tropical dry forest, Young 1976; Mata et leaves, stem, alkylphenols present
ex Schlecht. Mexico al. 1991; Wannan and bark
Quinn 1988
Anacardium occidentale L. II/Anacardieae Tropical, widely culti- This paper; Evans and leaves, bark, urushiol absent; present
vated, America, Afri- Schmidt 1980; Baer fruit resorcinols;
ca, Asia 1979; Wannan et al. anacardic acid
1985; Young and
Aist 1987

ECONOMIC BOTANY
Blepharocarya involucrigera F. Muell. II/Rhoeae Monsoon-forest, Aus- Wannan et al. 1985 leaves absent
tralia
Blepharocarya depauperata Specht II/Rhoeae Monsoon-forest, Aus- Wannan et al. 1985 leaves present
tralia
Bonetiella anomala (I.M.Johnst.) II/Rhoeae Tropical dry forest, This paper leaves present
Rzed. Mexico
Buchanania arborescens (Bl.) Bl. II/Anacardieae Swamp forest, Indo- Wannan et al. 1985 leaves, fruit urushiol absent absent
China to Australia
Buchanania obovata Bl. II/Anacardieae Swamp forest, Indo- Wannan et al. 1985 leaves, fruit absent
China to Australia
Campnosperma auriculatum (Bl.) ?/Rhoeae Swamp forest, Indo- Lamberton 1959a stem alkylquinols
Hook China, Malaysia
Comocladia engleriana Loes. II/Rhoeae Tropical dry forest, This paper leaves, bark urushiol present
Mexico
Comocladia mollisima Kunth II/Rhoeae Tropical dry forest, This paper leaves, bark urushiol present
Mexico
Cyrtocarpa procera Kunth I/Spondiadeae Tropical dry forest, This paper leaves, bark absent
Mexico
Gluta renghas L. II/Anacardieae Swamp forest, Malay- Backer and Haack wood urushiol absent
sia 1941; Young and
Aist 1987

[VOL. 57
Gluta usitata Ding Hou II/Anacardieae Swamp forest, Burma Majima 1922b wood urushiol
Harpephyllum caffrum Bernh. ex I/Spondiadeae Tropical forest, South Wannan et al. 1985 leaves, fruit absent
Krauss Africa
 2003]
TABLE 2. CONTINUED.
Catechols: urushiol,
resorcinols and
Species Lineage (clade)/Tribe Habitat/Country Reference Plant part related phenols Biflavonoids

Holigarna arnottiana Hook II/Semecarpeae Tropical rain forest, Evans and Schmidt seed kernel urushiol

AGUILAR-ORTIGOZA ET AL.: TOXIC PHENOLS IN ANACARDIACEAE

Indo-malaysia 1980; Nair et al.
1952a
Lithraea brasiliensis Marchand II/Rhoeae Tropical dry forest, Gambaro et al. 1986 leaves, stem urushiol
South America
Mangifera indica L. II/Anacardieae Cultivated in tropics of Cocojaru et al. 1986 fruit alkylresorcinol
world
Metopium brownei (Jacq.) Urb. II/Rhoeae Tropical rain forest, Rivero-Cruz et al. 1997; bark wood urushiol
Mexico, Central Young 1976
America and West
Indies
Metopium toxiferum (L.) Krug & Urb. II/Rhoeae Tropical rain forest, Gross et al. 1975; wood urushiol
Florida and West In- Young 1976
dies
Mosquitoxylum jamaicensis Krug & II/Rhoeae Tropical rain forest, This paper leaves, bark urushiol present
Urb. Mexico, Jamaica
Pentaspadon motleyi Hook. I/Rhoeae Swamp forest, Malay- Backer and Haack 1941 alkylphenols and
sia anacardic acids
Pentaspadon officinalis Holmes ex I/Rhoeae Swamp forest, Malay- Lamberton 1959b
King sia
Pistacia chinensis Bunge II/Rhoeae Open slopes, China, Wannan et al. 1985 leaves, fruit absent
Philippines
Pistacia mexicana Kunth II/Rhoeae Oak forest, Mexico This paper leaves, bark urushiol absent absent
Pistacia vera L. II/Rhoeae Cultivated worldwide, Yalpani and Tyman fruit anacardic acids
dry zones 1983
Pseudosmodingium andrieuxii (Baill.) II/Rhoeae Tropical dry forest, This paper leaves, bark urushiol present
Engl. Mexico
Pseudosmodingium barkleyi Miranda II/Rhoeae Tropical dry forest, This paper leaves, bark urushiol present
Mexico
Pseudosmodingium perniciosum II/Rhoeae Tropical dry forest, This paper leaves, bark urushiol present
(Kunth) Engl. Mexico
Pseudosmodingium virletii (Baill.) II/Rhoeae Tropical dry forest, This paper leaves, bark urushiol present
Engl. Mexico
Rhus typhina L. II/Rhoeae Temperate forest, North Bestmann et al. 1988; leaves, wood alkylphenols

359
America Bate-Smith 1962;
Young 1976
 360
TABLE 2. CONTINUED.
Catechols: urushiol,
resorcinols and
Species Lineage (clade)/Tribe Habitat/Country Reference Plant part related phenols Biflavonoids

Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi II/Rhoeae Tropical forest of Bra- Stahl et al. 1983; Mor- fruit, stem alkylphenols and
zil, cultivated in ton 1978 alkylresorcinol
North America, Eu-
rope and Asia.
Schinopsis lorentzii Engl. II/Rhoeae Tropical dry forest, Di Lullo 1934 alkylphenols
South America
Semecarpus anacardium L. II/Semecarpeae Cultivated tropical tree Rao et al. 1973; Gedam pericarp urushiol present
introduced to Africa et al. 1974; Wannan
and Indochina et al. 1985
Semecarpus australiensis Engl. II/Semecarpeae Monsoon forest, Aus- Oelrichs et al. 1997 fruit urushiol
tralia and Malaysia

ECONOMIC BOTANY
Semecarpus gardneri Thw. II/Semecarpeae Wet montane forest, Sri Carpenter et al. 1980 fruit urushiol
Lanka
Semecarpus heterophyllus Bl. II/Semecarpeae Wet montane forest, Backer and Hack 1938 stem urushiol
Malaysia
Semecarpus obscura Thw. II/Semecarpeae Wet montane forest, Sri Carpenter et al. 1980 fruit urushiol
Lanka
Semecarpus subpeltata Thw. II/Semecarpeae Wet montane forest, Sri Carpenter et al. 1980 fruit urushiol
Lanka
Semecarpus travancorica Beddome II/Semecarpeae Montane forest, India Nair et al. 1952; Putam- bark urushiol
bekar and Beri 1954
Semecarpus walkeri/Hook II/Semecarpeae Wet montane forest, Sri Carpenter et al. 1980 fruit urushiol
Lanka
Smodingium argutum E. Meyer ex II/Rhoeae Riverine thorn bush, Eggers 1974; Findlay et leaves, stem urushiol
Sond. South Africa al. 1974
Spondias purpurea L. I/Spondiadeae Cultivated, tropics of This paper leaves absent
the world
Spondias mombin L. I/Spondiadeae Cultivated, tropics of Corthout et al. 1989, leaves, stem alkylphenols
the world 1994
Tapirira mexicana Marchand I/Spondiadeae Tropical rain forest, This paper leaves, bark absent
Mexico
Toxicodendron diversilobum (Torr. II/Rhoeae Shrubs of SW of USA, Corbett and Billets leaves, stem, urushiol

[VOL. 57
and A. Gray) Greene NW of Mexico 1975; Gross et al. wood
1975; Young 1976
 2003]
AGUILAR-ORTIGOZA ET AL.: TOXIC PHENOLS IN ANACARDIACEAE
TABLE 2. CONTINUED.
Catechols: urushiol,
resorcinols and
Species Lineage (clade)/Tribe Habitat/Country Reference Plant part related phenols Biflavonoids

Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze II/Rhoeae Tropical and temperate Gross et al. 1975; Baer leaves, bark, urushiol present
forests, North Amer- et al. 1980; Bate- stem, fruit
ica and Eastern Asia Smith 1962; Wannan
et al. 1985; this paper
Toxicodendron striatum Kuntze II/Rhoeae Tropical rain forest, Nakano et al. 1970 leaves, stem urushiol
Central and South
America
Toxicodendron succedaneum (L.) II/Rhoeae Cultivated, China and Majima 1922a; Chen et leaves, fruit, urushiol present
Kuntze Japan al. 1974 bark
Toxicodendron toxicarium Gillis II/Rhoeae Temperate forests, Gross et al. 1975 leaves, stem urushiol
South-Eastern U.S.A.
Toxicodendron vernicifluum (DC.) II/Rhoeae Cultivated, China and Majima 1922a; Du et stem urushiol
F. A. Barkley Japan al. 1984
Toxicodendron vernix Kuntze II/Rhoeae Temperate forests, Gross et al. 1975; Ada- leaves, stem urushiol
Eastern North Amer- wadkar and El Sohly
ica 1983

361
362 ECONOMIC BOTANY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The project was made possible by a grant from CONACYT Mexico
(225260-5-29378N to VS) and from PROMEP (to CA-O). We thank
Francisco Lorea for his help obtaining herbarium specimens, and Raúl
Acevedo, Sergio Avendaño and Santiago Barrios for their help with field
work. We are grateful to Bianca Delfosse for editing the English version
of this manuscript.
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APPENDIX
HERBARIUM VOUCHER SPECIMENS
(ANACARDIACEAE), DEPOSITED IN XAL
Actinocheita filicina (DC.) F. A. Barkley, MEXICO:
GUERRERO: Aguilar, Xochipala, 8 September 1999, C.
AguilarOrtigoza 1192. Anacardium occidentale L.,
MEXICO: GUERRERO: Aguilar, Tierra Colorada, 17 May
2000, C. AguilarOrtigoza 1215. Bonetiella anomala (I.
M. Johnst.) Rzed., MEXICO: QUERETARO: Aguilar, Bar-
ranca la Culebra, 15 May 2000, C. AguilarOrtigoza
1208. Comocladia engleriana Loes., MEXICO: VERA-
CRUZ: Aguilar, Puente Nacional, 10 December 1999,
C. AguilarOrtigoza 1198. Comocladia mollisima
Kunth, MEXICO: GUERRERO: Aguilar, Xochipala, 22
March 2000, C. AguilarOrtigoza 1202. Cyrtocarpa
procera Kunth, MEXICO: GUERRERO: Aguilar, Xochi-
pala, 22 March 2000, C. AguilarOrtigoza 1203. Mos-
quitoxylum jamaicensis Krug. & Urb., MEXICO: VE-
RACRUZ : Aguilar. Catemaco, 20 May 2000, C.
AguilarOrtigoza 1223. Pistacia mexicana Kunth,
MEXICO: GUERRERO: Aguilar, Chilpancingo, 17 May
2000, C. AguilarOrtigoza 1216. Pseudosmodingium
andrieuxii (Baill.) Engl. MEXICO: GUERRERO: Aguilar.
Xochipala, 22 March 2000, C. AguilarOrtigoza 1207.
Pseudosmodingium barkleyi Miranda, MEXICO:
GUERRERO: Aguilar, Cañon del Zopilote, 22 March
2000, C. AguilarOrtigoza 1199.
Pseudosmodingium perniciosum (Kunth) Engl.,
MEXICO: MEXICO: Aguilar. Barranca los Muñecos, Te-
jupilco, 14 September 1999, 1197. Pseudosmodingium
virletii (Baill.) Engl., MEXICO: QUERETARO: Aguilar,
Arroyo Seco, 29 March 2000, 1204.
Spondias purpurea L., MEXICO: VERACRUZ: Aguilar,
Catemaco, 20 May 2000, 1221.
Tapirira mexicana Marchand, MEXICO: VERACRUZ:
Aguilar, Catemaco, 20 May 2000, 1222. Toxicoden-
dron radicans (L.) Kuntze, MEXICO: MORELOS: Agui-
lar, La Pera, Cuernavaca, 16 May 2000, 1213.