Zoo 211 Lecture Notes

DR OLANREWAJU, C.
A BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES MARCH 2021

BIO 102: GENERAL BIOLOGY II
4 UNITS
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
Living organisms are organized into different levels of composition and complexity.
Organization of Life
Life is basically organized into four categories:
 Cell
 Tissue
 Organ
 Organ-System (Organisms)
CELL
Cells are the basic unit of life. The cell is composed of different organelles that carry out
different life processes e.g. Nucleus, Mitochondrion, Chloroplast, Ribosome, Endoplasmic
Reticulum, e.t.c. These organelles perform different functions to make a cell a living entity,
some living organisms are composed of one cell and are referred to as unicellular or one celled
organisms. Some possess hundreds, thousands, millions or billions of cells. These are called
multicellular animals.
TISSUE
A tissue is a collection of cells that perform the same function. All multicellular organisms have
groups of cells with similar structure and function assembling together to form tissues
(Although some multicellular organisms known as simple multicellular organism possess cells
that are not organized into tissues). The tissue improves the efficiency with which the body
functions by allowing division of labour (i.e. sharing of tasks with each tissue being specialized
for a particular job).
Animal tissues can be classified into Epithelial, connective, blood, nerve, muscular and skeletal
tissues. Plant tissues include Epidermal, parenchyma, vascular tissues e.t.c.
ORGANS
These are the functional units of the body made up of more than one type of tissue to perform
a function or functions. For examples, Heart is a muscular organ, it has muscles, blood, nerves
and other parts made up of different specialized tissues involved in pumping blood. Stem is an
organ in plant that has epidermal, xylem vessels, phloem vessels and other tissues all working
together to move materials up and down and to support the root, leaves, flowers and fruits.
1 UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA
DR OLANREWAJU, C. A BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES MARCH 2021
SYSTEM
A system is made up of several organs which together perform a specific function. In the higher
forms of life especially among animals, several organs perform coordinated and related
functions. Such groups of organs working together make the system. E.g. the digestive system
consists of organs such as oesophagus, pancreas, stomach, liver, e.t.c. Sometimes an organ
belongs to more than one system e.g. pancreas secretes hormones in addition to digestive
enzymes and therefore also belongs to endocrine system.
Body composition and working of living organisms are organized into different levels namely:
1. Protoplasmic level of organization

2. Cellular level of organization
3. Tissue level of organization
4. Organ-system level of organization
1. Protoplasmic Level of Organization
All unicellular (one celled) organisms fall under this level of organization. Their body
composition is made up of organelles specialized to perform one life process or the other. E.g.
Some algae, Bacteria, Viruses and Protozoa.
2. Cellular Level of Organization
At this level of organization, cells are seen carrying out different life processes. The cells do not
form tissues but they act independent of one another. This level of organization is found in
simple multicellular organisms. The sponges are a typical example of animals at the cellular
level of organization and some multicellular algae.
3. Tissue Level of Organization
Cells are organized into tissues to perform one function or the other in a multicellular organism.
Organisms at this level of organization are Bryophytes, Cnidarians (Hydra, Obelia, e.t.c.).
4. Organ-System Level of Organization
This level of organization is found in higher multicellular organisms. They possess organs
organized into systems and the different systems working together to form a whole living
organism. This is found in Pteridophytes, Spermatophytes and other higher animals.
THE PLANT KINGDOM
The kingdom Plantae is divided into different Phyla (divisions). The first 7 (seven) phyla are
grouped as algae (Plant-like Protist).
1. ALGAE
Classification of algae is based on: its cellular properties, nature of cell wall, arrangement of
flagella, types of photosynthetic pigments, e.t.c.
Division Properties, examples Habitat
Phylum Rhodophyta (Red) Unicellular, Filamentous, Polysiophonia Saltwater
Phylum Chlorophyta (Green) Unicellular, Multicellular, Spirogyra Freshwater/Saltwater
Phylum Phaeophyta (Brown) Fucus Saltwater
Phylum Baccillariophyta (golden brown) Diatoms Freshwater/Saltwater
Phylum Dinophyta/Dinoflagellata Pyrihophyta, ceratium, Freshwater/Saltwater

\ Cryptophyta formally in the group
Phylum Chrysophyta (Golden) Freshwater
Phylum Euglenophyta (Flagellated) Euglena Freshwater
2. BRYOPHYTES 3. PTERIDOPHYTES 4. SPERMATOPHYTES
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ALGAE
1. They are autotrophic protist

2. They range in size from microscopic single celled organism to large seaweeds that may
be hundreds of feet long.
3. They lack tissue differentiation
4. The dominant generation could be gametophyte or sporophyte
5. They form gametes in single celled gametangia or gamete chamber
6. They contain light absorbing photosynthesic pigment chlorophyll a
7. Some phyla have accessory pigments that give them their characteristic colour.
8. They have the basic role of a producer in aquatic habitat.
9. They are usually haploid and the body portion is called Thallus
ASSIGNMENT
1. Similarities and differences between the different Phyla
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of algae blooms
3. Draw the lifecycle of algae (a generalized lifecycle)
4. Write a short note on diatomaceous earth.
BRYOPHYTES
Bryophytes occupy an intermediate position between the higher algae and lower
Pteridophytes. They are pioneers in establishing themselves. They also show evolutionary
advancement over algae by the development of archegonia, multicellular antheridia and a
distinct alternation of generation.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BRYOPHYTES
 They are generally small

 They are green plants with chlorophyll
 They do not have xylem and phloem i.e. they are non vascular
 Found in abundance in forest and occur in moist habitat, rare to come by in the
savannah and are practically absent in the desert because they lack structures for
conserving water.
 The dominant generation is gametophyte
 The body or thallus is differentiated into simple leaves and stems
 The gametophytes are anchored by a rhizoid
 Sporophyte is attached to and dependent upon the gametophyte for nutrition
 Spores are produced by sporophyte in a spore capsule
Bryophytes are classified into three main classes:
1. Hepaticae or Liverworts (2)Anthocerotae or Horned Liverworts (3) Music or Mosses
Table showing the differences between Mosses and Liverworts
S/N MOSSES LIVERWORTS

1. Leaves possess mid ribs Leaves do not have mid ribs
2. Have multicellular rhizoids Unicellular rhizoids
3. Capsule of sporophyte has an Capsule of sporophyte slit into four valves for
elaborate spore dispersed spores dispersal
mechanism
4. Mosses leaves are of equal size and Leaves are arranged in one plane on either side of
spirally arranged the stem
5. Leaves are not lobed Leafy stem poses intermediate lobe types
6. Oil bodies are absent in the leaves Oil bodies occur in the leaves
ALTERNATION OF GENERATION
Alternation of generation occurs when a diploid generation or sporophye (spore plant)

alternate with a haploid generation or gametophyte (gamete plant). Plant life cycles are marked
by an alternation of generations of diploid sporophytes with haploid gametophytes. As a result
of meiosis, sporophytes produce haploid spores, which grow into gametophytes. Gametophytes
produce gametes, as a result of mitosis. The fusion of gametes produces a zygote, the first cell
of the sporophyte generation.
Sperm
Antheridium
Egg
Archegonium
Male Zygote
gametophyte Mitosis
Female
Gametophyte
germinate Sporophyte (Developing on archegonium)
Spores
Meiosis mature
sporophyte
FIGURE SHOWING GENERALIZED LIFE CYCLE OF BRYOPHYTE AND ALTERNATION OF

GENERATION
FIGURE SHOWING THE LIFECYCLE OF MOSSES
ROLES OF BRYOPHYTES IN THE ECOSYSTEM

1. Many are pioneer plants, growing on bare rock and contributing to soil development
2. In rocks and mountain forests, they form a thick carpet, reducing erosion
3. In forest ecosystems, they act like a sponge retaining and slowing releasing water
4. They provide habitat for other plants and small animals as well as micro-organisms like
nitrogen fixing blue-green bacteria.
5. Lacking a cuticle and transport tissue, they readily absorb whatever is around them and
can serve as bio indicators of pollution and environmental degradation.
VASCULAR PLANTS
The first vascular plant rapidly diversified to cover the earth. This was through the development
of efficient water and food conducting system called vascular tissues. These tissues consist of
strands of specialized elongated cells that form the network through the plant, extending from
the tip of the root through stem into the leaves.
One type of the vascular tissue, the xylem conducts water and dissolved minerals upward from
the roots to other parts of the plant. Another type is the phloem, which conducts glucose (food)
away from the sources of production. e.g. leaves and green stems to other parts of the plants
where they are needed.
Most vascular plants have well developed conducting tissues, specialized stems, leaves and
root, cuticle, stomata and in many vascular plants, seeds. These features have led to their
exploits of vast array of habitat.
SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS
The earliest vascular plants lack seeds which are characteristic of the more advanced plant
phyla. These seedless plant phyla are collectively called Pteridophytes.
GENERAL CHARCTERISTICS OF PTERIDOPHYTES
1. Sporophyte is the dominant generation

2. Gametophyte is reduced to a small simple prothallus
3. The sporophyte is heterosporous in nature (microspores and megaspores)
4. The microspores are the pollen grains while the megaspores are the embryo sacs
5. The megaspores remain completely enclosed in ovules or megasporangium.
6. Water is not needed for reproduction because male gametes do not swim
7. They possess complex vascular tissues in roots, stems and leaves.
Ferns form about 97% of living Pteridophytes. They are highly successful and found in any
habitat where flowering plants are found.
Archegonium mitosis Egg
Matured Gametophyte Antheridium Sperm
Megaspore Microspore
Spores Fertilization
meiosis mitosis
Matured Sporangium Embryo
2n
Sori on sporophyte fronds Young Sporophyte on gametophyte
Adult Sporophyte
Lifecycle of Ferns
Assignment
In a tabular form differentiate between bryophytes and Pteridophytes (at least 5 differences).
SEED PLANTS (SPERMATOPHYTES)
These are seed producing plants. They are divided into Angiosperms and Gymnosperms.
The seed represent an important advancement in evolution and ecology. Having a seed has
several benefits. These include:
1. The embryo are protected from detectors

2. There is no immediate need for external water before germination.
GYMNOSPERMS: There are four major phyla of gymnosperm (naked seeded plants).
i. Corniferophyta (Conifers) ii Cycadophyta (Cycads) iii Gnetophyta (Tree types)

ii. Ginkgophyta (Ginkgos)
GENERAL CHARCTERISTICS OF GYMNOSPERMS
 Gymnosperms are heterosporous
 They are found in the colder temperate and sometimes dryer regions of the world
 Seeds are not enclosed in a carpel, they are borne upon seed scales arranged in cones
 Most ancient seed plant, they arose from fern ancestors in the Devonian period.
Pine fruits
Table showing the differences between the phyla Gymnosperms.
S/N Characteristics Conifers Cycads Gnetophyte Ginkgos

1. Habitat Temperate Warm Tropical, sub Tropical
terrestrial, sub temperate, tropical, dry terrestrial
arctic region tropical and sub regions of common in
tropical temperate China
terrestrial terrestrial
2. Form Non flagellated Motile Non flagellated Motile
sperm flagellated sperm flagellated
sperm sperm
3. Cones Present same Present Present, flower Present, male &
plant like cones & female cones
inconspicuous on different
trees
(dioecious)
4. Example Pines, firs, Cycads Ephredra Gingko biloba
cedars, cypress
5. Status More abundant, Most primitive, Abundant,
550-700 known in danger of closer to
species extinction flowering plant
6. Leaves Needle like, Frond like Tiny scale like Fan shaped
scale like (jointed stem)
7. Economic Source of Source of sago In some species Resistant to air
Importance timber, paper, to make bread the cones are pollution and so
resin, and other berry like and planted along
turpentine, starchy food in scarlet, used for city streets for
e.t.c. Florida, U.S, decorative decoration.
used for purposes. E. Ginko nut is
horticultural sinica is used for roasted as
purposes medicinal delicacies in
purpose China and Japan
8. Type Deciduous Evergreen Evergreen or Deciduous
deciduous
A plant found in savannah called Spins.
Fertilization
Archegonia antheridia mitosis
Megagametophyte microgametophyte embryo
Megaspore microspore
Meiosis meiosis
Megaspore microspore
Mother cell mother cell matured seed
Pollen bearing
Cone (microsporangia) seedling
Ovulate cone
Sporophyte
ANGIOSPERMS
Angiosperms are the largest and most advanced group of plants. They are generally referred to
as flowering plants. They are known as angiosperms because their ovules are found within a
protective structure that is lacking in the gymnosperm.
ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS OF ANGIOSPERMS
1. Formation of seeds (seeds protects the embryo with specialized structure derived from
the parent sporophytes).
2. Possession of cuticle to prevent water loss from plant surface.
3. Possession of stomata for exchange of gases on land.
4. Evolution of different seed dispersal method
5. Flowers of different shapes, sizes and colours are adaptations to survive on any habitat
they are found.
6. Possession of well developed vascular tissues.
Angiosperms are divided into two classes:
i. Monocotyledons i.e. Liliopsida (Monocots)

ii. Dicotyledons i.e. Magnolopsida (Dicots)
Major Morphological Differences between Monocots and Dicots
S/N MONOCOTS DICOTS

1. One cotyledon Cotyledons are usually two
2. Leaf venation is usually parallel Leaf venation is usually reticulate
3. Vascular bundles are scattered Vascular bundles are in ring shape
4. Vascular cambium is absent Vascular cambium is present
5. Possess only adventious root Possess primary and adventious root
6. Secondary growth in root is absent Secondary growth in root is present
7. Pollen grain is usually uniaperturate Pollen grain is usually triaperturate
8. Typically herbs but occasionally woodyWoody or herbaceous plant
9. Examples are grasses, sedges, lilies, palms,
Examples are oaks, buttercups, cacti, peas
orchids, banana, maize, e.t.c. and beans, cotton, hibiscus, tomatoes and
groundnut, e.t.c
Advantages of enclosed seeds in Angiosperms (Carpels)
 Adaptation to protect ovules from predators

 Provides protection from harmful environmental influences
 Allows reduction of the ovule size (refinement of the process of pollination)
 Allows the development of other part of the flower
 These improve the chances of successful reproduction
ASSIGNMENT: Draw a well labeled Diagram, showing Parts of a Flower
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
PHYLUM PROTOZOA (ANIMAL-LIKE PROTIST)
Protozoans are animal like organisms that belong to another new kingdom designated kingdom
Protista. Protozoa differ from algae which are also classified in the kingdom Protista in that they
depend on other organism for their food supply.
The Phylum Protozoa contains a diverse group of microscopic animals which occur only in
watery or moist places. Protozoans are regarded as the most primitive and perhaps the
simplest animals, hence, the name protozoa meaning “FIRST ANIMALS”.
The phylum is classified based on their locomotory organelles into 4 classes (sub phyla)
i. Sarcodina or Rhizopoda (use pseudopodia)
ii. Flagellata or Mastigophora (use flagella)
iii. Sporozoa (no locomotory organs but produce spores)
iv. Ciliata or Ciliophora (use cilia)
General Characteristics of Protozoa
1. They are microscopic organisms

2. They are cosmopolitan
3. Occur only in water or moist places such as the sea, freshwater, soil, body fluids, e.t.c.
4. They are unicellular (one celled) organisms
5. They are at the protoplasmic level of organization
6. Protozoans reproduce both sexually and asexually.
Differences in the morphology of the subphyla of Protozoa
Phyla Shape Habit Nucleus Locomotory Reproduc- Habitat

organelles tion
Rhizopoda/ Unstable Mostly One Psuedopodia Sexual and Moist
Sarcodina body form freeliving, type of asexual envir-
Some nucleus onment
parasitic and body
fluids
Mastigophora Definite Most One Flagella Sexual and Fresh
/Flagellata shape, solitary, type of asexual water and
different free living, nucleus body fluids
shape few are
parasitic
Sporozoa Rounded or Practically One Produces Multiple Body fluid
elongated parasitic type of spores fission
nucleus
Ciliata/ Definite Mostly Two
Cilia Transverse Fresh
Ciliophora shape parasitic, types of fission, water and
few nucleus conjugation body fluids
parasitic
Examples of Sarcodina are Amoeba, Entamoeba, Foraminiferas e.t.c.
Examples of Mastigophora are Euglena, Trypanosoma, Chlamydomonas, Giardia e.t.c.
Examples of Sporozoa are Plasmodia,Eimeria, Toxoplasma, Monocystis e.t.c.
Examples of Ciliophora are Paramecium, Vorticella, Opalina e.t.c.
ASSIGNMENT: Lifecycle of Entamoeba
ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS OF INTESTINAL SARCOMASTIGOPHORA
1. Formation of cyst during dehydration in the intestine
2. Cyst (the infective stage) is resistant to dessication and other unfavourable conditions
and so enhances transmission to other hosts
3. Cyst can survive outside the body for several weeks.
ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS OF HAEMOFLAGELLATES

1. Rate of reproduction is high and so produce large number of individuals within a short
period of time
2. Possession of VSG that bring about antigenic variation. This makes the parasites to
evade host immune system attacks.
3. Lives in the host body fluid (tissue fluid) where it readily takes up glucose needed for its
survival
4. Possession of intermediate host
ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS OF FRESH WATER SARCODINA AND MASTIGOPHORA

1. Possession of contractile vacuole to eliminate excess water in their body
2. Simple diffusion of materials through their cell membrane
3. Ability to form cyst (encystment) during unfavourable environmental conditions which
later results into production of numerous individuals when condition becomes
favourable
Lifecycle of Giardia lamblia
ASSIGNMENT
1. Make a large labeled diagram of one sarcodina and one flagellate

2. Describe the life cycle of Plasmodium (support your answer with a sketch)
CLASS CILIOPHORA
These are the ciliates. Their main characteristics are:
 Possession of numerous cilia

 Two nuclei, one for vegetative function and the other for reproductive function
(meganucleus and micronucleus respectively)
 They also undergo conjugation
Ciliates are the most specialized of all protozoans having various organelles for performing
particular vital processes.
DRAW A DIAGRAM OF PARAMECIUM SPECIES
PHYLUM PORIFERA
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SPONGES
1. They are the most simple and primitive multicellular animals

2. They are at the cellular level of organization. they do not have tissue differentiation or
form tissues like other multicellular animals
3. Sponges are sessile (stationary).
4. They are filter feeders
5. The body surface of a sponge is perforated by numerous incurrent pores (ostia).
6. They are predominantly marine but some are found in freshwater.
7. They are primarily radially symmetrical
8. The principal opening to the sponge body is an exhalant and not a mouth (osculum).
9. The body cavity of a sponge called spongocoele is lined (at least partly) by colar cells
(Choanocytes)
10. The typical larvae is known as amphiblastula
11. They have high powers of regeneration
CLASSIFICATION OF SPONGES
The types of materials and shape of spicules are used in classifying sponges
1. Class Calcarea
2. Class Hexactinellida
3. Class Demospongia
Table showing Differences in the classes
CHARACTERISTICS CLASS CALCAREA CLASS CLASS DEMOSPONGIA

HEXACTINELLIDA
BODY FORMS Sycon, leucosolenia, Euplectella SPpongilla,
hallichondria,euspongia
TYPES Calcerous sponges Glass sponges Silicenus sponges
SKELETON Calcium carbonate Silica Silicon and sponging
TYPES OF SPICULES Separate spicules Triaxon spicules (6 4 rayed spicules
rayed)
Assignment: Draw a diagram showing the Lateral Section of a typical Sponge and Life cycle of
Sponges
ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION OF SPONGES
1. Adaptation to sessile mode of life

2. Possession of pores all over its body for filter feeding. Filter feeding is an adaptation to a
sessile mode of life
3. Small in size. Only two celled layer- an outer layer of covering cells and an inner layer of
flagellated cells.
4. Aquatic animals. They live inside water where food particles flow around them
5. Respiration and excretion also takes place inside the water through simple diffussion
6. Freshwater forms have contractile vacuole for osmoregulation.
7. Radial symmetry is also an adaptation to a sessile mode of life.
PHYLUM CNIDARIA
1. They are at the tissue level of organization.

2. Radially symmetrical (similar body parts radiates from a central mouth)
3. Possess six to ten tentacles around the mouth to aid capture and ingestion of food.
4. Mostly marine, a few species occur in freshwater.
5. They are diploblastic i.e. the body consists of two germ layers (ectoderm and endoderm
separated by jelly like mesoglaea.
6. The body cavity has only one opening, the mouth, the enteron (cavity) is gastro vascular.
7. They produce Nematocyst (Stinging organelle) which serve for defense and food
capture.
8. The typical larvae of cnidarians is the planula larva
9. The body is reducible to one or two forms: Polypoids and Medusoid forms.
10. They move by muscular action. The Ectoderm and Endoderm layers contractile fibre aid
in movement.
ASSIGNMENT: Diagram showing Polypoid and Medusoid forms
HYDRA
CLASSIFICATION OF CNIDARIA
They are classified into three classes:
I. Class Hydrozoa: contains the Hydroids e.g. Hydra, Obelia
II. Class Scyphozoa: contains the true jelly fish e.g. Aurelia
III. Class Anthozoa: contains the sea anemones, corals, e.t.c.
Differences between the two body forms of Cnidaria
S/N Polypoid (Polyp) Medusoid (Medusa)

1 Cylindrical shape Saucer or umbrella shaped
2 Mouth at one end, always at the Mouth located in the centre of the
top under surface of the body
3 Maybe solitary or form a colony Solitary and swim freely in water
4 Gelatinous mesoglea layer is thin Gelatinous mesoglea layer is quite
thick
ASSIGNMENT
I. Read about the lifecycle of Cnidarians

II. Write a short note on Asexual and Sexual reproduction in Cnidarians
PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
Platyhelminthes are easily recognizable by their dorso-ventral flattening hence their name
Platyhelminthes meaning Flatworms (Platy-Flat, Helminthes-worm). Platyhelminthes occupy an
important position in the animal kingdom in that in that many important morphological
features which are found throughout the more complex higher animal groups make their first
appearance in the flatworms.
Important innovations first seen in the phylum include:
 Cephalisation and bilateral symmetry

 Triploblastic organization ,,,, Organ-system level of organization
Beginning with the flatworms, all higher animals have a mass of cells, the mesoderm between
the outer ectoderm and the inner endoderm. The mesoderm arises from the endoderm and is
recognizable as a layer during development (the cells in the mesoglea of Cnidarians arise from
the ectoderm).
Mesoderm forms the bulk of the higher animals, it is partly utilized in the production of the
connective tissues. New and important organ system such as the muscular, excretory,
reproductive, transport and skeletal system arise from this layer and enabled the higher
animals to become larger in size and more complex in organization.
CLASSIFICATION
The phylum is classified into three classes:
 The Tubellaria
 The Trematoda
 The Cestoda
C
B
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PLATYHELMINTHES
1. They are triploblastic animals

2. They are acoelomates
3. They are not metamerically segmented
4. Their bodies are elongated and the anterior ends develops sense organs
5. They are bilaterally symmetrical
6. They are hermaphrodites
7. Respiration and excretion are mainly by diffusion through body surfaces
8. They lack circulatory systems
9. The gut when present has only one opening, there is no anus.
Differences between the Classes of Phylum Platyhelminthes
Tubellaria Trematoda (flukes) Cestoda (tapeworms)

Free living Parasitic Parasitic
Epidermis No ciliated epidermis No ciliated epidermis
Excess Rhabdites No rhabdites No rhabdites
Complex cuticle Possess complex cuticle Complex cuticle
Suckers absent Suckers present Suckers present
Proglottides absent No proglottide Proglottides presnt
Gut presnnt Gut presnt Gut absent
Developed muscles Muscles are poorly Poorly developed muscles
developed
Examples are Examples are Fasciola Examples are Taenia
Phagochaeta, gigantic, Schistosoma spp solium, T. saginata,
ADAPTATIONS OF CESTODES AND TREMATODES TO PARASITIC MODE OF LIFE
1. Reduction and loss of sense organs

2. Replacement of locomotory structure with organs of attachment such as hooks and
suckers
3. Progressive simplification of the digestive organs leading to total loss of the gut in
cestodes
4. Production of numerous offspring to compensate for those inevitably lost during the
transmission from one host to another.
5. Ability to resist chemicals of host e.g. gut enzymes (possession of complex cuticle)
6. Ability to employ self fertilization
7. Production of resistant eggs
8. Free living distributive larval stages
PHYLUM NEMATODA
Nematodes are commonly called roundworms. The name nematode is derived from Greek
word ‘Nema’-thread.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NEMATODES
1. They are elongated cylindrical (Transverse Section) thread like animals

2. The elongated cylindrical body is pointed at both ends
3. They are pseudocoelomates
4. They are cosmopolitan and occur in a wide variety of habitats, in the sea, freshwater
and moist soil.
5. Many nematodes are parasitic while great majorities are free living microscopic forms.
They possess non-metamerically segmented cylindrical bodies
6. The terminal mouth is guarded by lips
7. The posterior end is pointed with a sub terminal anus.
8. The body wall consist of a thick elastic cuticle
9. Sexes are separate
10. Excretory system consist of lateral intercellular tubes
11. The nervous system consist of circumoesophagael ring and one or more non-
ganglionated nerve cells.
12. The lifecycle of nematode are often complex
Examples in this phylum includes Ascaris lumbricoides, Wuchereria bancrofti,
Ancyclostoma duodenale, Dracunculus medinensis
Generalized lifecycle of Nematodes: Ascaris lumbricoides
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF NEMATODES

Nematodes are of considerable medical and economic importance as plants and animal
parasites. Plant parasitic nematodes include those which are serious pests of crops such as
cereals, rice, legumes, potatoes, cotton, forest trees, citrus, and other fruits, yam, vegetables,
e.t.c. example is Meloidogyne spp are parasites of a wide variety of crop plants.
Many parasitic nematode cause diseases in man and his domestic animals. About 50 species
occur in man although the majority of these are non pathogenic. It has been calculated that
probably only two percent of the human race never acted as hosts to a nematode.
PHYLUM ANNELIDA
Animals in this phylum are commonly called segmented or ringed worms. Members have
elongated cylindrical bodies consisting of a linear series of segments indicated externally by
constrictions of the body wall between the segments. ‘Annelus’ means little rings.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ANNELIDS
1. They are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical coelomate

2. They are metamerically segmented
3. Only one segment is preoral
4. The body wall consist of a thin cuticle, an epidermis formed by one layer of cells, an
outer layer of circular muscles and an inner layer of longitudinal muscles
5. The gut is straight and ends in an anus
6. Digestion is extracellular
7. The excretory organs are segmentally arranged in pairs of nephridia
8. Possess a closed blood system in which blood flows forward dorsally and backward
ventrally.
9. Appendages when present are not jointed
10. Larva when present is trocophore
Classification of Annelids
Annelids are divided into three main classes:
 Polychaeta e.g. Nereis, Arenicola

 Oligochaeta e.g. Libyodrilus (west Africa Earthworm)
 Hirudinea e.g. Hirudo, Acanthobdella
NERIES (POLYCHAETA)
LEECH (HIRUDINAE)
LUMBRICUS (EARTHWORM) OLIGICHAETA

A LEECH
Differences in the classes of phylum Annelids
Polychaeta Oligochaeta Hirudinea

1. Many setae Fewer setae No setae
2. Possess parapodia No parapodia No parapodia
3. Well developed head Reduced head Possess head
4. No sucker No sucker Possess sucker
5. Coelom is sub divided Coelom is sub divided by septae Coelom not sub divided by
by septae septae
6. Indefinite number of Indefinite number of segment Definite number of segment
segment (fixed number 33 segments)
7. Separate sexes Cross fertilization (hermaphrodite) Cross fertilization
(hermaphrodite)
8. Free living trocophore No trocophore larval stages No trocophore larval stages
larval stages
The main innovations found in Annelids are metamerism and the occurrence of coelom.
METAMERISM
Metamerism is the serial repetition of homologous parts. It is the differentiation of the body of
an animal along the anterior-posterior or longitudinal axis into a linear series of units or
segments. Each segment is built on the same plan and containing elements of some of the main
systems or organs. Each segment is demarcated externally by an anterior and posterior groove
and separated from each other internally by septa.
All the segments cooperate for the maintenance of the activities of the body as a whole. This
segmented structures are functionally interdependent and integrated so that the individuality
of the body is preserved.
Differences between Strobilisation and Metamerism
S/N METAMERISM STROBILISATION

1. No segment can lead an Segments (proglottides) can lead
independent existence independent life
2. Segments are not cast off Segments are cast off periodically
periodically
3. Segments are more or less of the Segments are not of the same
same age age, the posterior being older
than the ones at the anterior end
Evolution or origin of metamerism in Annelids is correlated with the creeping method of

locomotion. Metamerism evolved in chordates as an adaptation for undulatory swimming. The
main advantage in segmentation is that it provides opportunity for specialization in certain
segments or groups of segments for particular function without interference with others.
All segments in the body are thus not identical, various segments become specialized or fused
to perform specific functions. Such specialization and fusion known as Tagmatization but it’s
not well developed in Annelids although highly developed in the Arthropods. Annelid thus
demonstrates metamerism in its least modified form.
THE COELOM
The coelom can be defined as a fluid filled cavity lying between two layers of mesoderm i.e. the
splanchnic mesoderm next to the endoderm (forming the muscles of the gut) and the somatic
mesoderm next to the ectoderm. The cavity is lined by the coelomic epithelium or peritoneum
which plays a part in the secretion of the coelomic fluid.
Functions of the coelom
1. Separates the gut from the body wall, Peristaltic movement of the gut can take place
independently of those of the body wall
2. It provides a large or spacious cavity in which organs can be accommodated
3. Gives support, protection and assists in locomotion. Serves as shock absorber for
visceral organs.
4. Its incompressibility enables it to function as a hydrostatic skeleton (meant for both
locomotion and maintaining shape).
5. Plays an important role in excretion and osmoregulation of annelids.
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
The Phylum Arthropoda has the following characteristics:
1. They are triploblastic, coelomate animals

2. They have metameric segmentation and are bilaterally symmetrical
3. They possess exoskeleton of chitin and sometimes calcerous matter, maybe rigid, stiff or
flexible
4. Each segment typically bears a pair of jointed appendages used for locomotion, feeding
or sensory purposes.
5. The coelom is much reduced and the main body cavity is called haemocoel
Generally there are four major classes and a super class (with many classes). The super class is
Crustacea commonly referred to as Crustaceans. The four classes are:
 Class Insecta (Insects)

 Class Chilopoda (Centipedes)
 Class Diplopoda (Millipedes)
 Class Arachnida (Arachnids)
CRUSTACEANS
INSECTA
DIPLOPODA
CHILOPODA
ARACHNIDA
Super Class: Crustaceans

1. They are mainly aquatic
2. Head is cephalothorax (head and thorax not distinctly separate)
3. They have 2 pairs of antennae
4. They have atleast 3 pairs of mouth part
5. They have a pair of compound eyes raised on stalks
6. Their appendage often modified for swimming as mainly aquatic, the number of legs
varies sometimes 10
7. They have larva forms
8. Repiratory organs are typically gills which are outgrowths of the body wall or limbs
Examples of animals in the super class are Dapnia(water flea), Astacus (crayfish),
Barnacles, Prawns, Crabs, Lobsters and woodlice.
Class: Insecta
1. Mainly terrestrial
2. Have well developed head, thorax and abdomen
3. Have a pair of antennae
4. Usually have 3 pairs of mouthpart
5. Have a pair of compound eyes or a pair of simple eyes
6. Has 3 pairs of legs on thorax, one pair per segment
7. They usually have one or 2 pairs of wings on the thorax (on the second and/or third
segment)
8. Their lifecycle commonly involves metamorphosis either complete or incomplete with a
larval stage.
9. No gills in adult, gaseous exchange is by trachea (tubes inside the body)
Examples are Periplanata (Cockroach), Apis (Bee), Pieris (White butterfly), bugs, beatles,
wasps, flies, dragonflies, termites, e.t.c.
Class: Chilopoda
2. Have well defined head, other body segment are similar
4. Usually have a pair of mouthpart (jaws)
5. Eyes are either simple, compound or absent
6. They have numerous legs, all identical a pair on each segment
7. There are no larva forms
8. Gaseous exchange is by trachea
9. Members are mainly carnivorous
Example is Lithobius (Centipede)
Class: Diplopoda
2. Have well defined head, other body segment are similar
4. Usually have a pair of mouthpart (jaws)
5. Eyes are either simple, compound or absent
6. They have numerous legs, all identical two pairs on each segment
7. There are no larva forms
8. Gaseous exchange is by trachea
9. Members are mainly herbivorous
Example is Lulus (Millipede)
Class: Arachnida
1. They are terrestrial
2. They have cephalothorax (head and thorax not distinctly separated); thorax separated
from abdomen by a narrow waist like contriction
3. They do not have antennae
4. They do not have true mouth parts but one pair of appendages used in capturing prey
and one pair of sensory palps
5. They have simple eyes only
6. They have four pairs of walking legs on segments 4-7
7. They have no larval form
8. Gaseous exchange is by what is known as lungbooks or gill books or by trachea
Examples includes scorpion, spider, ticks and mites
THE EXOSKELETON
The exoskeleton is secreted by the epidermis; it contains chitin which is a nitrogen containing
polysaccharide that closely resembles cellulose. Chitin has high tensile strength (it is difficult to
break by pulling from both ends).
The properties of the exoskeleton can be altered by combining chitin with other chemicals e.g.
addition of mineral salts, particularly calcium salts, can make it harder, as in crustaceans.
Protein can have the same effect. A range of hardness, flexibility and stiffness is therefore
possible. Flexibility is important at the joints.
Advantages of the Exoskeleton

1. They provide support particularly on land
2. It provides anchor for the muscles internally, particularly those involved in locomotion,
including flight
3. It protects the organism from physical damage
4. The addition of a layer of wax from special glands in the epidermis helps prevent
desiccation on land.
5. Insect flight and the jumping ability of fleas and grasshoppers depends on the presence
of a remarkable elastic protein in the exoskeleton
6. It has a low density, which is important for flying animals
7. They have flexible joints
Life History of Insects

The life histories of Insects varies and are often complex. In many, a process of Metamorphosis
(changes of form or structure of the animal during the course of life cycle). In the more
primitive insects, the larvae stages resemble the adult (imago) during development.
Each successive larvae called a nymph or instar usually looks more and more like the adult. This
form of development is termed HEMIMETABOLOUS or INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS. The
Nymph possesses adaptive features which enable it to live in a different habitat and eat
different food from that of the adult. Examples of hemimetabolous insects are Ticks, Locust,
In group of insects that evolved later, the larvae stages are quite distinct from the adult. The
final larvae moult produces a pupa, in which metamorphosis produces the adult tissue using
components from the degenerating larvae tissues. This process is called HOLOMETABOLOUS or
COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS.
Metamorphosis enables the juvenile and adult worms to live in different habitats and exploit
different sources of food, which is to occupy different ecological niches. This reduces
competition between juveniles and adults. Examples Dragonfly nymph prey upon aquatic
insectsand exchange gases via gills where as adults attack terrestrial insects live in air and
exchange gases via trachea.
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
The phylum Mollusca has the following characteristics:
1. They are unsegmented
2. They are triploblastic
3. They are coelomates
4. They are bilaterally symmetrical
5. The body is soft and fleshy and divided into head, ventral muscular foot and a dorsal
visceral hump.
6. The main body cavity is a haemocoel
7. They have no limbs
The phylum is divided into 3 classes namely:
 Gastropoda e.g. land snails

 Pelycopoda e.g. oysters
 Cephalopoda e.g. Octopus
BIVALVES
CEPHALOPODA
GASTROPODA
Characteristics of the classes are summarized in the table
Characteristics Gastropoda Pelycopoda Cephalopoda

Habitat Terrestrial, marine Aquatic Aquatic
and freshwater
Symmetry Asymmetrical Bilaterally Bilaterally
symmetrical symmetrical
Shell Shell of one piece, Shell consists of 2 Shell is often
usually coiled due to hinged halves called reduced and
rotation of hump valves (bivalves). internal or wholly
during growth. Body is enclosed by absent
the valves and
laterally compressed
Foot Large flat foot used Foot reduced in size Adapted for fast
in locomotion and often used for swimming, foot
burrowing in sand or modified to form
mud part of head and
tentacles
Head Head, eyes and Head greatly reduced Head highly
sensory tentacles in size, tentacles developed with
absent tentacles, suckers
and well
developed eyes.
Mouth Radula a rasping Filter feeders Radula with horny
tongue like structure beak
used in feeding
Anus Anus is anterior Anus is posterior Anus is posterior
Examples Helix aspersa (land Mytilus edulis Sepia officinalis
snail) Patella (marine mussep), (cutile fish), squid,
(limpet), slug oyster octopus
PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
They have the following characteristics:
1. They are triploblastic
2. They are coelomate
3. All members of the phylum are marine
4. Adult shows 5 way (pentamerous) radial symmetry
5. Tube feet for locomotion (6)Calcerous exoskeleton
6. They have no head (7)The mouth generally is in the lower surface of the body
8 The anus is on the upper (aboral) surface.
There are two main classes namely: the Stelleroidea and the Echinoidea
An example of Echinoderm (Stelleroidea)
Differences between the phylum Echinodermata
Stelleroidea Echinoidea
1. Star shaped, flattened Globular
2. Arms not sharply separated Do not possess arms
from disc
3. Few calcerous plates in body Numerous calcerous plates in body
wall, movable spines walls attached to each other to form
a rigid structure, relatively long
movable spines.
4.. Example is Asterias Example is Echinocardium
ASSIGNMENT: Draw a diagram of examples in the Phylum Echinodermata
PHYLUM CHORDATA
The characteristic features of the phylum are as follows:
1. Presence of notochord at some stage of life history. This is a rod of highly packed
vacuolated cells held together with a firm sheath
2. Triploblastic coelomate
3. Bilaterally symmetrical
4. Pharyngeal (visceral) cleft present (slits in the pharynx).
5. Dorsal hollow nerve cord
6. Segmented muscle blocks (myotomes) on either side of the body.
7. Post-anal tail (tails starts posterior to anus)
8. Limbs formed from more than one body segment.
The Phylum is classified into a sub phylum vertrbrata (vertebrates) and six classes namely:
 Class: Chondrchthyes- cartilaginous fishes e.g. Dog fish

 Class: Osteichthyes- bony fishes e.g. Tilapia
 Class: Amphibians- amphibians e.g. frogs and toads
 Class: Reptilia-reptiles e.g. lizards, tortoise
 Class: Aves- birds e.g. sparrow, eagle
 Class: Mammalia- Mammals e.g. humans, dogs

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DR OLANREWAJU, C.

A BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES MARCH 2021

Life is basically organized into four categories:

1. Protoplasmic level of organization

1. Protoplasmic Level of Organization

2. Cellular Level of Organization

3. Tissue Level of Organization

4. Organ-System Level of Organization

Division Properties, examples Habitat

Phylum Rhodophyta (Red) Unicellular, Filamentous, Polysiophonia Saltwater

Phylum Chlorophyta (Green) Unicellular, Multicellular, Spirogyra Freshwater/Saltwater

Phylum Phaeophyta (Brown) Fucus Saltwater

Phylum Baccillariophyta (golden brown) Diatoms Freshwater/Saltwater

Phylum Dinophyta/Dinoflagellata Pyrihophyta, ceratium, Freshwater/Saltwater

Phylum Euglenophyta (Flagellated) Euglena Freshwater

2. BRYOPHYTES 3. PTERIDOPHYTES 4. SPERMATOPHYTES

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ALGAE

1. They are autotrophic protist

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BRYOPHYTES

 They are generally small

Bryophytes are classified into three main classes:

1. Hepaticae or Liverworts (2)Anthocerotae or Horned Liverworts (3) Music or Mosses

Table showing the differences between Mosses and Liverworts

S/N MOSSES LIVERWORTS

Alternation of generation occurs when a diploid generation or sporophye (spore plant)

germinate Sporophyte (Developing on archegonium)

FIGURE SHOWING GENERALIZED LIFE CYCLE OF BRYOPHYTE AND ALTERNATION OF

FIGURE SHOWING THE LIFECYCLE OF MOSSES

ROLES OF BRYOPHYTES IN THE ECOSYSTEM

GENERAL CHARCTERISTICS OF PTERIDOPHYTES

1. Sporophyte is the dominant generation

Archegonium mitosis Egg

Matured Gametophyte Antheridium Sperm

Matured Sporangium Embryo

Sori on sporophyte fronds Young Sporophyte on gametophyte

SEED PLANTS (SPERMATOPHYTES)

1. The embryo are protected from detectors

i. Corniferophyta (Conifers) ii Cycadophyta (Cycads) iii Gnetophyta (Tree types)

GENERAL CHARCTERISTICS OF GYMNOSPERMS

Table showing the differences between the phyla Gymnosperms.

S/N Characteristics Conifers Cycads Gnetophyte Ginkgos

A plant found in savannah called Spins.

Archegonia antheridia mitosis

Megagametophyte microgametophyte embryo

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS OF ANGIOSPERMS

i. Monocotyledons i.e. Liliopsida (Monocots)

Major Morphological Differences between Monocots and Dicots

S/N MONOCOTS DICOTS

 Adaptation to protect ovules from predators

ASSIGNMENT: Draw a well labeled Diagram, showing Parts of a Flower

PHYLUM PROTOZOA (ANIMAL-LIKE PROTIST)

General Characteristics of Protozoa

1. They are microscopic organisms

Differences in the morphology of the subphyla of Protozoa

Phyla Shape Habit Nucleus Locomotory Reproduc- Habitat

Examples of Mastigophora are Euglena, Trypanosoma, Chlamydomonas, Giardia e.t.c.

Examples of Sporozoa are Plasmodia,Eimeria, Toxoplasma, Monocystis e.t.c.

Examples of Ciliophora are Paramecium, Vorticella, Opalina e.t.c.

ASSIGNMENT: Lifecycle of Entamoeba

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS OF HAEMOFLAGELLATES

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS OF FRESH WATER SARCODINA AND MASTIGOPHORA

Lifecycle of Giardia lamblia

1. Make a large labeled diagram of one sarcodina and one flagellate