Njala University

School of Environmental Sciences

Department of Biological Sciences

Biology 122
Lecture Note 2
Biology of Invertebrate Animals
 Unicellular Phylum
The Protozoa (Greek, protos=first; zoan=animal)
 Protozoa include the simplest and mostly microscopic
eukaryotic organisms
 they carry out all their life activities within the limits of a
single plasma membrane
 protozoa have been referred to as ‘‘acellular’’ organisms
because their protoplasm or body substance is not partitioned
into cells
 about 50,000 species have been identified and named and are

cosmopolitan in distribution.
 General Characteristics of Protozoa
Protozoa exhibit the following general characteristics:
 are usually unicellular microscopic eukaryotic organisms
 exist as solitary organisms or may live in colonies
 may be free-living or symbiotic
 may contain one or two nuclei
 may be autotrophic or heterotrophic
 reproduce asexually by binary fission, budding or multiple
fission.
 reproduce sexually by conjugation or syngamy of gametes
 are aquatic or terrestrial organisms
 movement is by pseudopodia, cilia or flagella
 all symmetries are present within members of the group.
 no germ layers are present.
 no organs or tissues are formed, but specialized organelles
serve many of these functions.
 Classification of Protozoa
 Traditionally, protozoa were considered as a ‘‘phylum’’
classified into four main classes based on their locomotory
organelles. These classes include:
 Class Sarcodina – adult moves by pseudopodia.
E.g. Amoeba
 Class Ciliophora (ciliates) – moves by cilia.
 E.g. Paramecium
 Class Mastigophora (flagellates) – move by flagella
E.g. Euglena
 Class Sporozoa – no means of locomotion and are mostly
parasitic.
E.g. Plasmodium
 However, recent classification considered protozoa as a ‘‘subkingdom’’
consisting of seven major phyla.
 Classification was based on several characteristics such as nutrition,
reproduction type, number of nucleus, and whether symbiotic or free-
living and their locomotory organelles.
 Seven phyla are:
o Phylum Sarcomastigophora
o Phylum Apicomplexa
o Phylum Ciliophora
o Phylum Labyrinthomorpha
o Phylum Acetospora
o Phylum Microspora
o Phylum Myxozoa
 Locomotory Organelles in Protozoa
 Protozoa move mainly by means of three locomotory organelles:
Cilia, flagella and pseudopodia
 Cilia and Flagella
- both cilia and flagella are often referred to as undulopodia,
also known as ‘‘wave’’ feet.
- each cilium or flagellum contains nine (9) pairs of
longitudinal microtubules arranged in a circle around a centre
pair – also known as the ‘‘9+2’’ arrangement
- this arrangement is the same for all motile cilia and flagella in
the animal kingdom
- protozoa with cilia and flagella move by ciliary and flagellar
- movement respectively
- such movements are powered by chemical energy from ATP
-

Internal structure of Cilium and Flagellum

 Functions of Cilia and Flagella
1. they help in locomotion in flagellate and ciliated organisms.
2. they create current for obtaining food from aquatic medium.
3. they can function as sensory organs.
4. they show sensitivity to changes in light, temperature and
contact.
5. ciliated larva takes part in dispersal of the species.
 Differences between Cilia and Flagella
Cilia Flagella

Numerous less in number

Short and hair like organelle long whip like organelle

Occur throughout the cell surface present at one end

Beat in coordination beat independently

Show sweeping movement or undulatory movement
pendular stroke
cilium propels water parallel to the flagellum propels water parallel to
surface it is attached its main axis.
 Pseudopodium
 a pseudopodium is the chief means of locomotion among
members of the protozoan class Sarcodina.
 in protozoa, pseudopodium exists in a variety of forms:
lobopodium, filopodium, reticulopodium and axopodium.
 Lobopodia (sing. Lobopodium)
- are large blunt, lobelike pseudopodia containing endoplasm
and ectoplasm.
- used for locomotion and engulfing food.
- occur in naked sarcodina e.g. Amoeba
 Filopodia (sing. filopodium)
- are thin extensions, usually branching and contain only
ectoplasm
- used for locomotion and also provides a constant flow that
delivers food
- occur in shelled amoeba
 Reticulopodia (sing. Reticulopodium)
- are similar to filopodia, except that they branch and rejoin
extensively to form a netlike mesh.
- occur in foraminiferans
 Axopodia (sing. Axopodium)
- are long thin, filaments made of ectoplasm that are supported
by a central axial microtubule with endoplasm
- used in movement and delivering food to the central
cytoplasm
- occur in heliozoans and radiolarians
(a) Lobopodium (b) Filopodium (c) Reticulopodium (d) Axopodium
 Nutrition in Protozoa
• Protozoa feed by two (2) main means:
 As autotrophs
 synthesize their own organic food from inorganic substrates.
 they are chlorophyll- containing organisms that use sunlight to
make food by photosynthesis
 As heterotrophs
 obtain organic molecules synthesized by other organisms.
 some heterotrophs ingest visible particles (phagotrophs or
holozoic feeders) and others ingest food in soluble form
(osmotrophs or saprozoic feeders).
 Holozoic nutrition involves phagocytosis (or engulfment) in
which the organism forms an infolding or invagination around
the food particle
 as the infolding extends further into the cell, it is pinched off
at the surface
 the food particle is then continued in an intracellular
membrane-bound vesicle called food vacuole or phagosome
 lysosomes containing digestive enzymes fuse with the
phagosome and pour their contents into it to effect digestion
 digested products are absorbed across the vacuole membrane
and the indigestible materials may be released to the outside
by exocytosis
 in many flagellates and sporozoans and most ciliates, the site
of phagocytosis is a definite mouth structure called the
cytostome.
 in sarcodines, phagocytosis can occur at any point by
engulfment of the particle with pseudopodia
The following links will also help you understand the process(es)
of phagocytosis in protozoa:
• https://youtu.be/4XlzCe5gDu0
• https://youtu.be/mv6Ehv06mXY
• https://youtu.be/a4aZE5FQ284
• https://youtu.be/5_4Y0tTHqyk
 Reproduction in Protozoa
 Protozoa can reproduce sexually or asexually. 
 Asexual reproduction
 occurs without meiosis and the fusion of gametes or pronuclei.
 generally occurs during favourable conditions of
optimum temperature, availability of nutrients and other
suitable ecological conditions of water.
 does not generate new genotypes and occurs by fission and
budding.
 Sexual reproduction 
 process in which an offspring is produced when two organisms
of the same species exchange genetic material
 offspring ends up with a unique combination of genetic
material from both its parents.
 Asexual reproduction in Protozoa
 Asexual reproduction occurs by fission and budding.
 Fission is a controlled mitotic replication of the nuclear
material (chromosomes) and splitting of the parent cell into
two or more daughter cells/parts.
 Two main forms of fission are binary fission and multiple
fission.
• Binary fission occurs when the protozoan splits into two
individuals.
• In multiple fission, nuclear material divides many times
followed by the rapid differentiation of the cytoplasm into
many distinct individual cells.
 In budding a portion of the parent cell breaks off and
differentiates to form a new complete individual.
 Sexual reproduction in Protozoa:
Syngamy or copulation
• is the union and complete fusion of two gametes of the
same species.
• if the two gametes are identical morphologically, though
they may be different physiologically, then they are
isogametes and their syngamy is isogamy (Monocystis).
• if the gametes differ in size and morphology, then they are
anisogametes and their syngamy is anisogamy
(Plasmodium).
• the smaller gametes which are usually numerous and motile
are male or microgametes; while the larger, generally few and
inactive gametes are female or macrogametes (or
megagametes)
• fusion of two gametes produces a zygote which is called a
synkaryon.
• zygote may develop directly into an adult, or it may encyst
and undergo multiple fission.
 Conjugation:
• conjugation is a temporary union of two protozoa of the same
species for an exchange of nuclear material without the fusion
of their cytoplasm.
• as in ciliates, there is no formation of distinct gametes
E.g. Paramecium caudatum.
Regeneration, Encystment and Excystment in Protozoa
 Regeneration
 is the capacity to regain lost or damaged parts
 it is characteristic of all protozoa ranging from simple to those
with highly complex organizations.
• if a protozoon is cut into two parts and kept under proper
environmental conditions, the part without a nucleus
(anucleated portion) will carry out catabolic activities only and
then degenerates.
• the nucleated portion will however regenerate.
• however, a remarkably small part of the protozoa is able to
regenerate completely even if the nuclear material is
included.
 Assignment 1
• Describe the processes of encystment and excystment in
protozoan
• Outline the importance of these processes in free-living and
parasitic protozoa
 Phylum Sarcomastigophora
 movement is either by flagella or pseudopodia
 one kind of nuclei
 body is naked or may be covered by protective pellicle.
 This phylum is divided into two (2) super classes:
o Superclass Sarcodina
o Superclass Mastigophora
o Superclass Sarcodina
 locomotory organs are pseudopodia that also help in food
capturing
 mostly free living; some are parasitic
 nutrition is holozoic or saprozoic
 food vacuoles and contractile vacuoles are present; marine
forms lack contractile vacuoles.
 encystment takes place in unfavourable conditions
 Superclass Sarcodina
 Consists of two (2) classes:
 Class Rhizopoda
 Class Actinopoda

Class Rhizopoda
 pseudopodia are lobopodia, filopodia or reticulopodia.
 in general body is naked without pellicle, but in some cases
body is enclosed in chambered shell.
 protoplasm is divided into outer ectoplasm and inner
endoplasm.
 Eg: Amoeba, Entamoeba Arcella, Difflugia, Euglypha, etc.
 Two common genera of the class Rhizopoda are the
- Genus Entamoeba
- Genus Endamoeba
 Genus Entamoeba has three (3) species:
- Entamoeba gingivalis – lives in the mouth
- Entamoeba coli - lives in the intestine
- Entamoeba histolytica - lives in the intestine

 Entamoeba histolytica is the most important Rhizopod

parasite of humans.
• it is the third leading parasite that causes death in the
developing countries.
• its life cycle is relatively simple and consists of infective cyst
and invasive trophozoites stage.
• life cycle completes in a single host (human)
• humans get infected with the cyst either indirectly from the
consumption of contaminated food and water or directly by
anal- oral-genital sexual contact.
• cyst wall is lysed by enzymes secreted by the intestine
• when the lysed cyst reaches the caecum or lower part of
ileum it excysts to form eight (8) trophozoites
• peristalsis of small intestine actively carry the trophozoites to
large intestine where they gain maturity and divide by binary
fission.
• occasionally, trophozoites will invade the intestinal wall by
secreting proteolytic enzymes that can digest the mucus lining
of the intestine causing tissue destruction and necrosis.
• when parasites gain access into the blood they migrate to
other tissues and organs and cause extra-intestinal diseases.
• sometimes, when trophozoites load increases, some of the
trophozoites stop multiplying and encyst again
• cysts are then released in faeces to complete the life cycle.
 Class Actinopoda
 members live in fresh and marine water
 marine species are commonly known as radiolarians
 body may be naked or enclosed with chitin or silica shell
 pseudopodia are form of axopodia which are round and float
on water
 they are all pelagic (live in open water)
 E.g. Thallaciocola, Acanthometra, Clathrulina. Pseudospora,
Actinophyns (sun animalcule)etc.
 Subphylum Mastigophora
 members are known as the flagellated protozoa
 move primarily by means of one or more flagella
 Two main groups or classes exist:
 Class Phytomastigophora (or Phytoflagellates)
 Class Zoomastigophora (or Zooflagellates)

The Phytoflagellates (Plant-like)

• possess chlorophyll
• are mostly free-living
• are mainly autotrophic; some are heterotrophic
• E.g. Euglena, volvox, chlamydomonas, dinoflagellates etc.
Class Zoomastigophora
• lack chlorophyll and are heterotrophic
• most are symbiotic and majority are important parasites of
humans and other animals
• possess one to many flagella; however, amoeboid forms with
or without flagella exist in some groups
• E.g. Trypanosoma, Trichomonas, Giardia, Leishmania
• Some of the most important protozoan parasites are
zooflagellates.
• Major genera of medical importance include:
 Trypanosoma
• many of the species live as parasites in the blood of fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals
• some species produce severe diseases in humans and
domestic animals; for example
I. Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei
rhodensiense cause African sleeping sickness (also known as
trypanosomiasis) in humans. They are transmitted by the
tsetse flies
II. Trypanosoma cruzei causes the American trypanosomiasis
called ‘‘chagas’’ disease. It is transmitted by the bite of a bug
(known as kissing bug) and causes nervous system problems
 Trichomonas
• various species of Trichomonas live in the cecum, colon,
mouth and urogenital tracts of humans.
• the most familiar species is Trichomonas vaginalis
• it inhabits the urinogenital tract of humans and may cause
vaginitis which is transmitted venereally

 Leishmania
• species of the genus cause visceral diseases in humans and
they are transmitted by sand flies.

 Giardia
• dwells in large intestine of man and it causes a disease,
diarrhoea.
• its transmission to man takes place by ingestion of infective
cysts with contaminated food and drinks.
 Phylum Apicomplexa
• all members are specialized endoparasites found in most
animal species.
• they possess apical complex for penetrating host cells
• they have single type of nucleus
• they have no locomotion organs except in certain reproductive
stages
• they have complex life cycles often involving multiple species
hosts.
• their life cycle constitutes an asexual phase (in a vertebrate,
humans) and sexual phase (insect, mosquito)
• they have spore-like infective stage in their life cycle
• members of this group cause a variety of diseases in humans
• of these members of the Class Sporozoa are most important of
the phylum Apicomplexa
• the most important genus of the Sporozoans is Plasmodium
which causes the disease malaria in humans
• the genus Plasmodium has four (4) species namely:
i. Plasmodium falciparum
ii. Plasmodium vivax
iii. Plasmodium ovale
iv. Plasmodium malaraie
 Generalized Life cycle of sporozoans
There are three (3) main phases: Schizogony, Gametogony and
Sporogony
1. Schizogony
• in this phase, infective cells called sporozoites undergo multiple
fission in host cells to form many more individuals called
merozoites, which leave the host cell and infect many other
cells (mainly red blood cells).
• in the red blood cells, merozoites divide to form more
merozoites (a form of schizogony called merogony)
2. Gametogony
• in this phase some of the merozoites form either
microgametocytes or macrogametocytes.
• a microgamete fertilizes a macrogamete to produce a zygote
that becomes enclosed and is called an oocyst
Sporogony
• in this phase the zygote undergoes meiosis, and the resulting
cells divide repeatedly by mitosis to form infective rodlike
sporozoites in the oocyst.
• the sporozoites infect the cells of a new host after the new
host ingests and digest the oocyst, or sporozoites are
otherwise introduced (e.g., by a mosquito bite).
 Life Cycle of Plasmodium Parasite
• involves an asexual phase in humans and a sexual phase in the
mosquito
• infective sporozoites are injected during feeding of a female
anopheles mosquito
• sporozoites are carried by the blood to liver cells where they
form merozoites
• on leaving the liver cells merozoites enter the red blood cells
and feed on haemoglobin to produce more merozoites
• digestion of haemoglobin also produces dark insoluble
pigment (Haemozoin) that causes chills and fever when
released into the blood
• the period of fever production varies with particular species
• infection with Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax and P. ovale
produces fever every 48 hours, while that with Plasmodium
malaraie does so every 72 hours
• some of the merozoites released with haemozoin in the blood
will transform into microgametocytes (male) and
macrogametocytes (female) which remain dormant in the
blood until they are picked up by a female mosquito
• in the gut of the mosquito these cells develop into male
(micro)and female (macro) gametes
• fertilization of gametes results in a zygote (ookinette) which
penetrates the wall of the mosquito gut and encysts to form
an oocyst
• in the oocyst, sporozoites are produced, they migrate to the
salivary gland and are ready for transmission again
 Phylum Ciliophora
• members possess numerous cilia for locomotion
• possess two different types of nuclei that perform different
functions 
• reproduce asexually binary fission and sexually by conjugation
• most ciliates are free-living; but a few groups are commensals
or parasitic
• the most common member of this group is the free living
Paramecium
 Asexual Reproduction in Paramecium
• occurs by binary fission involving transverse division of the
animal body into two
• first, the micronucleus divides by mitosis into two which move
to opposite ends
• the macronucleus then elongates and separates into two
• the organism constricts near the oral groove
• new gullet forms and contractile vacuoles appear
• following complete division of the body, two daughter
paramecia are formed
 Sexual Reproduction in Paramecium
• in paramecium, sexual reproduction occurs by conjugation
which involves the following processes
 two paramecia (known as conjugants) come to lie side by side
and are joined at their oral grooves
 in each conjugant, the meganucleus will disappear and the
micronucleus divide by meiosis to form four (4) haploid nuclei
 three of the micronuclei disappear and the remaining one
again divides into two (2) pronuclei (one migratory and one
stationary)
 exchange of nuclei occurs between the two conjugants
 fusion results in the formation of a diploid zygote
micronucleus in each conjugant
• the two conjugants then separate and become ex-conjugants
• in each paramecium zygotic micronucleus divides by mitosis
to form 2, 4, and 8 micronuclei
• four (4) of them enlarge to form micronuclei and the other
four (4) disappear
• each paramecium then divides twice to form four (4)
paramecia, each containing one micronucleus and one
macronucleus
 Parasitic ciliates
• ciliates exist as free-living and as symbionts
• most symbiotic ciliates are commensals, but a few are
parasites
• the most common parasitic type is Balantidium coli which
lives in the intestine of humans, rats, pigs and many other
mammals.
• the organism is transmitted by faecal contamination of water
• in humans, it invades the intestinal lining and causes
dysentery similar to that caused by E. histolytica
 Economic Importance of Protozoa
Protozoa have both beneficial and harmful effects on man and
other animals
 Beneficial effects
• helpful in sanitation
• provide food
• make oceanic ooze that can be of commercial importance
• existence as symbionts (commensals or mutuals) on or within
the body other animals making life possible
• ideal material for cytological, cytochemical, physiological,
biochemical, and genetical studies, because of their small size,
simple organisation, quick reproduction and easy availability.
• help in the study of various biological phenomena
 Harmful effects
• live as parasites on or within the body of other organisms
(host) for the sake of food, shelter and continuance of their
races
• some species of protozoa lives in the soil where they consume
nitrifying bacteria and make the soil unfertile, which
invariably would effect crop yield.
• various species of Protozoa make drinking water polluted and
unpalatable.