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A Review on Improving Airflow Characteristics inside the Combustion

Chamber of CI Engines to Improve the Performance with Higher Viscous
Biofuels

Article  in  Fuel · February 2020

DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2019.116769

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A Review on Improving Airflow Characteristics inside the
Combustion Chamber of CI Engines to Improve the
Performance with Higher Viscous Biofuels
S. Bari1,*, S. N. Hossain1 and I. Saad2
1
School of Engineering, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, Australia
2
Automotive Research and Testing Center (ARTeC), Universiti Teknologi MARA,
40450, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract
Performances of diesel engines run on biodiesel and vegetable-based fuels are not satisfactory
mainly due to higher viscosity, and they are termed as higher viscous fuels (HVFs).
Researchers have developed different techniques to improve the performance of diesel engines
run on HVFs such as preheating HVFs, blending with lighter fuels, and changing injection
strategy. These techniques improved the performance with HVFs, but the performances are
still lower than diesel. Another technique, improving the in-cylinder airflow characteristics can
create more turbulence inside the combustion chamber to break up HVFs and mix better with
the in-cylinder air to improve the performance of the engine. Most reviews show that the
performances of diesel engines are improved with higher turbulence though with diesel, but
few papers show that this technique can improve the performance of diesel engines with HVFs
as well. Based on literatures, the in-cylinder turbulence can be increased using guide vanes and
throttling the intake manifold and modifying the combustion chamber and intake manifold. It
is found that about 1.3 to 2.8% efficiency improved by improving the in-cylinder turbulence
by using guide vanes when the engines ran on HVFs. Some researchers have also reported
around 12% improvement in brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) by improving the swirl of
the air inside the combustion chamber. This paper reviews different techniques to improve the
in-cylinder airflow characteristics in IC engines and reviews a handful of papers with HVFs to
show that increasing in-cylinder turbulence can improve the performance of the CI engines
with HVFs.
Keywords: Diesel engine; airflow characteristic; biodiesel; vegetable-based fuel

1. Introduction
Compression Ignition (CI) engines have gained popularity as a power source in different
sectors such as transportation, agriculture, power generation and construction engineering due
to their superior performance characteristics over other internal combustion (IC) engines [1].
Till to date, diesel is the dominating fuel for CI engines. However, high depletion of limited
reserve of fossil fuels [2], uncertainty in fuel prices [1], toxic pollutants and greenhouse gas
emission [3, 4] are few main reasons to motivate researchers for alternative fuels for CI engines
[5]. Alternative fuel sources have advantages of locally available, lower toxic emissions, and
environmentally sustainable. Biofuels are one of the most attractive alternative fuels for CI
______________________________
*Corresponding author, email: saiful.bari@unisa.edu.au,
Tel: +618 8302 3439; Fax: +618 8302 3380
engine with or without alternation of the engine [6]. The feedstock of these alternative fuels
are widely available as flora and fauna in nature [7]. Non edible feedstock of alternative fuels,
such as Calophyllum inophyllum, Jatropha nana, Jatropha curcas oil etc, are economic and
nature friendly as they are grown in the wasteland worldwide [7]. As a result, they are not
threating to edible crop cultivation. Therefore, these alternative fuel sources can be one of the
primary feedstocks for biofuels.
Biofuels can be extracted from various feedstocks such as animal fats, edible/nonedible
vegetable oils and waste cooking oils by the process of transesterification [8, 9]. Depending on
the feedstocks, the properties of biofuels can be different [10]. Due to variable properties, the
performance of biofuels from different feedstocks are also different [11]. Many researchers
have investigated the performance of CI engines running on high viscous biofuels (HVFs). Few
important engine performance parameters such as brake power, brake thermal efficiency, brake
specific fuel consumption, and brake mean effective pressure are presented in Table 1 for CI
engines running on HVFs. These parameters are compared with the performance of the engine
running on petro-diesel fuel. Generally, CI engines run with HVFs reduce the performance of
the engine in comparison to the run with petro-diesel fuel. It has been reported that the engines
produce lower power, lower torque and consume more fuel relative to the one use petro-diesel,
which are summarized in Table 1. These lower performances are due to higher viscosity, higher
density and the presence of heavier molecules which make HVFs less prone to evaporate,
diffuse and mix with the in-cylinder air. Additionally, HVFs also affect the fuel supply system
creating problems of filter clogging and injector choking [12]. Furthermore, when the engine
is dismantled, more carbon deposits are found which developed inside the cylinder [13]. When
the fuel properties of HVFs are modified to have physiochemical properties closer to petro-
diesel fuel, such as biodiesel from certain feedstocks, it is found that the thermal efficiency of
CI engines are higher than the same engine run with diesel fuel due to the presence of oxygen
molecules in biodiesel [14]. Emissions such as NOx, CO and unburned HC are also found to
decrease compared to the diesel run [15].
Table 1: Performance of CI engine running on HVFs.
HVFs Fuels
Engine performance parameter Pure vegetable oil Non edible vegetable Waste Cooking Oil
oil (WCO)
1.7-1.5% decrease for 2.35% decreased [17] 4.28% decreased [17]
Brake power
75-100% load [16]
Brake thermal efficiency 5-15% decrease [18, 19] 8.2% decreased [17] 6.86% decreased [20]
Brake specific fuel consumption 5.02% increased[21] 10% increased [17] 13.56% increased [20]
Brake mean effective pressure 10% decreased [19] - -

To improve the performance and reduce the emission of CI engines run with HVFs, researchers
have used various techniques to solve or ease the above-mentioned problems. Popular
techniques include blending HVFs with diesel fuel and preheating HVFs to reduce the
viscosity. Injection pressure and timing are also adjusted to aid evaporation of the HVFs and
give more time to combust the HVFs. The other techniques used by researchers are using low-
heat rejection CI engines and preheating the inlet air temperature to improve the evaporation
of the HVFs to improve the combustion. These techniques have improved the performance and
reduced the exhaust emissions of CI engines more than if they were not used when ran on

2
HVFs. Even though the performance of the CI engines with most HVFs are lower compared to
those achieved using diesel fuel.
This is clearly understandable from the introductory discussions that all three processes of
vaporization, diffusion and mixing need to be stimulated more in order to further increase the
performance and decrease the emissions of diesel engines using HVFs. However, most
researchers carried out researches to improve the fuel properties of the HVFs to match to those
of diesel fuel. On the other hand, airflow characteristics inside the combustion chamber could
be stimulated to breakup higher viscous fuels, reduce the depth of penetration and increase the
spreading angle of the injected HVFs inside the combustion chamber. This technique combined
with the above-mentioned techniques could further improve the performance of CI engines
with HVFs. After an extensive literature review, the authors have found that adequate review
papers are available on the performance of the CI engine run with higher viscous fuels using
the above-mentioned techniques. However, the authors have found scarcity of literatures and
reviews to improve the in-cylinder airflow characteristics to improve the performance of CI
engines run with HVFs. Therefore, in this paper the authors present an extensive review on the
improvement of the in-cylinder airflow characteristics for HVFs in CI engines and other related
techniques to improve the in-cylinder airflow characteristics in IC engines which can be applied
to CI engines for HVFs. The authors believe that the improvement of the in-cylinder air flow
characteristics along with other techniques to improve the HVFs properties can play a
significant role for the improvement of the performance of HVFs in CI engines.
2. Properties of Alternative fuels
The use of alternative fuels which are renewable and environmentally friendly have the
potential to solve or at least ease the current fuel crisis [22, 23]. In 1900 at the World Exposition
in Paris, France, Dr Rudolf Diesel, known as ‘the father of the CI engine’ [24] demonstrated
his diesel engine using peanut oil as a fuel. This proved that the CI engine could run using
various types of vegetable oil-based and animal fat-based fuels. It is understandable that pure
vegetable oil, non-edible oil and waste cooking oil are examples of vegetable oil-based fuels
that can run CI engines. Biodiesel with its feedstock coming from various renewable resources
can also be used as alternative fuels for CI engines.
Similar physiochemical properties of vegetable-based fuels compared to those of diesel fuels
[25-27] make them the primary choice as alternative fuels for CI engines. These properties
allow vegetable-based fuels to be directly injected in CI engines with insignificant alterations
or no alterations. A review of the properties of these fuels from various sources are analysed
and discussed in this paper. The authors have considered five main fuel properties such as
kinematic viscosity, cetane number, heating value, density and flash point. Table 2
demonstrations the comparisons of these properties of HVFs and diesel fuel. It is worth to
mention here the authors have categorized the alternative fuels depending on the feedstocks
such as pure vegetable oil, non-edible oil, waste cooking oils and biodiesel. In Table 2, the
properties are presented in the form of ranges. However, there are few non edible biofuels such
as Calophyllum Inophyllum, Jatropha and pongamia which have much lower kinematic
viscosity compared to other non-edible biofuels but still higher than diesel fuel [14]. The
techniques described in this paper can also be applied to these biofuels to improve the
performances. In the following subsections the five main fuel properties of biodiesels as
mentioned before are discussed.

3
 Table 2. Properties of alternative fuels for CI engines as compared to diesel fuel [28-37].
Alternative Fuels for CI Engine
Fuel Properties Diesel
Pure Vegetable Oil Non-edible Oil Waste Cooking Oil Biodiesel
Kinematic viscosity @ 25-40°C
1.9-5.7 27.2-72.6 27.84-79.21 27.42-201.3 3.5-11.3
[mm2/s]
Cetane number 40-59 37.1-48.1 38.1-46 55.72-61 45-70
Heating value [MJ/kg] 41.87-45.343 37-40.5 34-39.87 37.27-40.72 32.9-42.65
Density [kg/L] 0.815-0.867 0.9026-0.946 0.916-0.934 0.39-0.937 0.87-0.9
Flash point [°C] 42-86 150-290 99-257 243-290 135-250

2.1 Kinematic viscosity

It is evident from Table 2 that kinematic viscosities of alternative fuels are generally higher
than that of diesel fuel. These alternative fuels are termed as higher viscous fuels (HVFs).
Kinematic viscosity determines the fuel flow characteristics in fuel pipes, pumps and through
injectors. Higher viscosity will increase the friction inside these components. Inside the
combustion chamber, higher viscosity will also increase the fuel penetration length and reduce
the cone angle which will make the combustion poorer as compared to diesel fuel [38].
2.2 Cetane Number
Cetane number indicates the time period between the start of injection and the first identifiable
pressure increase due to combustion [38]. Diesel engines rely on the auto-ignition of diesel fuel
in contrast to spark ignition engines which rely on the spark plug to initiate the combustion
process. Higher cetane number is desirable for CI engines to reduce the rapid combustion phase
which occurs after the delay period due to the fuel injected during the delay period that mixes
with air inside the combustion chamber. If the delay is too long, this rapid combustion phase
is so high that “diesel knock” occurs inside the combustion chamber which is not desirable.
Therefore, CI engine requires fuel with higher cetane number that translates into shorter delay
with controlled rapid combustion phase that leads to smoother running, more complete
combustion and better performance [38] of the engine. In contrast, fuels with low cetane
numbers tend to create higher rapid combustion phase that could lead to “diesel knock”,
incomplete combustion resulting increase gaseous and particulate exhaust emissions. It can be
found from Table 2 that generally pure vegetable oils and non-edible vegetable oils have
slightly lower cetane numbers, on the other hand, waste cooking oils and biodiesels have higher
cetane numbers than diesel fuel. Therefore, generally, in terms of ignition quality, HVFs have
no issue with auto-ignition.
2.3 Heating value
Another important property of fuel is the heating value. It implies how much energy can be
released per unit mass of fuel injected inside the combustion chamber. Obviously, higher
heating value of fuel is desirable to reduce the size of the injection system. As found from
Table 2, the heating values of HVFs are about 10-15% lower than that of diesel fuel [25, 39].
As a result, power generation using HVFs are lower than using diesel fuel. However, this only
effects the higher power regions of the engine. To get the same power as the diesel fuel, HVFs
need to push the fuel rack more compared to diesel fuel to inject more fuel to compensate for
the lower calorific values. When the fuel rack reaches its maximum position, HVFs starts to
produce lower power than that produced by the diesel fuel. Usually, this happens towards the
rated to maximum power regions of the engine. Therefore, attention needs to be given to run

4
diesel engines at near rated to maximum power regions with HVFs. If the engine is expected
to run in these regions, provision needs to be in place to run the CI engines with diesel fuel
only.
2.4 Density
As can be seen from Table 2, another property density of HVFs are generally 10% higher than
that of diesel fuel [25]. HVFs have higher densities due to the presence of heavier molecular
weight molecules in their molecular structure. In CI engines, the fuel metering systems meter
the fuel by volume. Therefore, for the same volume of diesel fuel at a particular power, the
HVFs will have higher mass of fuel injected into the combustion chamber, which can
compensate the loss of power due to the lower calorific values of HVFs. However, performance
shows that at higher power regions, HVFs produce lower power means that the gains in higher
mass flow due to higher density are lower than the loss due to lower calorific values of HVFs
compared to diesel fuel. Also, the heavier molecules in the HVFs poses difficulties to atomize
the fuel inside the combustion chamber due to higher momentum and longer break-up times
for liquid droplets [25] resulting soot production which deposits inside the combustion
chamber.
2.5 Flash Point
On the other hand, another property, flash point which is defined as the lowest temperature
which will make the fuel vapour to ignite by the presence of a flame [25], is needed to assess
the safety hazard of the fuel. Higher the flash point temperature lower will be the fire hazard
during storage, transportation and handling. Flash points of HVFs are much higher than diesel
fuel means that HVFs are less fire hazard fuels than diesel fuel. It is reported that flash point
value has no direct effect on the combustion efficiency or engine performance [40].
3. Effect of Swirl and Tumble
As mentioned previously, enhancement of vaporization, diffusion and mixing of the air and
fuel in CI engines using HVFs needs to be further investigated to improve its performance and
reduce emissions. Theoretically, these processes can be enhanced by increasing the in-cylinder
airflow characteristics known as swirl and tumble [38, 41, 42]. For this reason, this section
reviews the effect of swirl and tumble to enhance these processes. Furthermore, this section
reviews the methods used to stimulate the in-cylinder swirl and tumble.
Theoretically, swirl is the organized rotation of the cylinder charge about the cylinder axis, and
tumble is the movement of cylinder charge from the upside to the down side of the cylinder
and back again around an axis perpendicular to the cylinder axis [38, 41-44] which are shown
in Fig. 1. Swirl and tumble are created by moving the intake flow into the cylinder with an
initial angular momentum. Swirl motion is important to enhance the combustion rate and
increase the flame propagation speed [45]. Although some decay occurs in swirl and tumble
during the intake and compression strokes due to friction, however, intake-generated swirl and
tumble usually persists through the intake, compression, and combustion processes.
At the end of the compression process, their level is reliant upon both the swirl generated during
the intake process and then, the amount it is amplified during the compression process [43].
Swirl and tumble are used in diesel engines to promote rapid mixing between the injected fuel
and inducted air charge [38, 41, 42]. As the fuel is injected, the swirl and tumble take the fuel

5
away by convection from the fuel injection region to the outer region making fresh air available
for the fuel about to be injected.
Swirl and tumble are the velocities of the in-cylinder air which is in the form of high velocity
and turbulence. As a result, all airflows into, out of and within the engine cylinders are in the
form of turbulent flows except for those flows in the corners and small crevices of the
combustion chamber which are dampened near the walls. Consequently, the turbulence and
thermodynamic heat transfer rates within the combustion chamber are increased by an order of
magnitude. Broatch et al. [46] investigated the influence of swirl on heat transfer in a diesel
engine cylinder and they have reported 4-12 % increase of heat transfer due to the increase of
swirl at different operating conditions of the engine. Also, due to these heat transfer, the rates
of evaporation, mixing and combustion also increase. Near Top Dead Centre (TDC), high
turbulence is very desirable when ignition occurs for better combustion. It breaks up the fuel
molecules, aids mixing fuel with air, and spreads the flame front much faster than that of a
laminar flame [43]. That is how swirl and tumble increase the performance and decrease the
emissions of CI engines.

Figure 1. In-cylinder airflow within the cylinder; top right is swirl motion and bottom right is
tumble [44]

Swirl and tumble are generated by making the intake system of an engine to provide a tangential
component of the flow as it moves into the cylinder [38, 43]. This is done by modelling and
contouring the intake system, piston face and other components of an engine. The flow pattern
and appropriate turbulence modelling inside the engine is explained in the work of Naser and
Gosman [47, 48]. Some work by researchers to improve turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) and
swirl ratio inside the cylinder are presented in Table 3. Table 4 shows the improvement of
performance and reduction of emissions using the techniques to enhance the turbulence inside
the combustion chamber. Methods used to stimulate the in-cylinder swirl and tumble are
reviewed and presented in the following sections.

6
1 Table 3: Summary of different techniques to improve TKE and swirl ratio
Technique Fuel TKE Swirl ratio
Three different piston-bowl geometry designs were considered; open Emulsified 25% increase by 18 % increased by
cylinder bowl (OCB), shallow depth re-entrance combustion chamber biofuel SCC SCC
(SCC),and omega combustion chamber (OCC) [49]

Tumble deflectors [50] Gasoline 25% increase 12 % increase

Guide vane [51] Emulsified 70% improvement 22% improvement
Biofuel
Combinations of twisted tape and guide vanes with shrouded valve Cold flow 86.5% improvement 5.2% improvement
[52]

Piston bowl configuration: Shallow depth combustion chamber Cold flow 60% improvement 29% improvement
(SCC), Toroidal combustion chamber (TCC), Shallow depth re-
entrant combustion chamber (SRCC) and Toroidal re-entrant
combustion chamber (TRCC) [53]
2

3 Table 4: Improvement of performance and reduction of emissions using modifications of combustion chamber and inlet geometry to enhance
4 turbulence inside combustion chamber.
Technique Fuel type Performance Emission

BP BTE BSFC CO CO2 NOx HC PM

Combustion bowl geometry [54] KME (kapok methyl ester) BP reduced 5.2% ↑ 6.26 ↓ 15.7% ↓ - Similar as diesel - -
– diesel blends.

Helical guide vane [55] Mamey Sapote biodiesel 0.48% ↑ 8.63% ↑ 7.6% ↓ 14.3% ↓ 7.4% ↑ 4.3% ↓ 15.6% ↓ -
blend

Combustion chamber geometry and soybean methyl ester blend 8.07% ↓ 5.14% ↑ 50.26% ↓ 59.63% ↓
EGR [56]

Concave swirl generator at inlet [57] Ethanol blend 9.1% ↑ - 5.2% ↓ 25% ↑ 33.3% ↓ 4% ↑

injector nozzle geometry, angle of Honge oil methyl ester 3.5% ↑ 50% ↓ 10% ↓ 18% ↓
masking,
grooves on pistons and grooves and
bridges on the cylinder head [58]
5
 6 4. Techniques to Improve Swirl and Tumble
7 Numerous methods including, use of baffle or butterfly valve for choking the intake airflow;
8 modification of the combustion chamber and piston head; using guide vanes to guide the inlet
9 airflow, and modifying the intake runner can generally be used to improve the in-cylinder
10 airflow characteristics [59-63]. Among these techniques, guide vane is one of the simple and
11 promising one and few researchers did apply this technique. Compared to other methods, this
12 method also would reduce the modification required to the existing CI engines. Therefore, in
13 this paper at first, this technique is reviewed and then other techniques like throttling the intake
14 manifold, combustion chamber design, and intake manifold design are reviewed.
15 4.1 Guide Vane
16 The main purpose of a guide vane in the intake runner is to guide the airflow before it enters
17 the cylinder. It is a static vane used to deflect the airflow according to its shapes. Generally, it
18 is placed inside the intake system from after the air filter up to before the inlet valve. Sun et al.
19 [64] developed a guide vane named “swirler” and placed it on the inlet valve seat on a direct
20 injection diesel engine. They studied four different configurations of “swirler” including one
21 straight and three arc designs and tested the optimized device on an actual direct injection CI
22 engine. The results displayed that the “swirler” induced intake swirl efficiency and improved
23 the fuel economy at optimized swirl ratio. They have reported 11.9% lower specific fuel
24 consumption (sfc) with swirler when compared with original diesel engine with no swirler.
25 Mahmud et al. [65] also guided the entrance airflow around the intake valve. However, they
26 put their device, named “variable countercurrent distribution control”, inside the intake
27 plenum, just before the intake valve. They have tested the device using simulation and
28 experimental methods. Simulation results showed that the device produced more streamlined
29 rotational velocity when compared to a standard CI engine model during the intake stroke.
30 Experiment conducted on a naturally aspirated, five-cylinder, CI engine in a Mercedes Benz
31 Ssangyong car found that the soot concentration was reduced drastically as well as the
32 acceleration of the car being 97% faster than that of the standard configuration i.e., without the
33 swirl device inside the intake plenum. They concluded that this improvement was due to the
34 additional turbulence created by the swirl device which increased the flame propagation speed
35 to have better combustion.
36 These studies are done with diesel as the fuel but shows the importance of having vanes to have
37 more turbulence inside the combustion chamber to improve the performance and reduce the
38 emissions. The next sections illustrate the effect of vanes on the performance of CI engines
39 with HVFs. Among other designs to increase the turbulence inside the combustion chamber,
40 the method of vane in the intake runner is the simplest. The guide vane is simply a static device
41 placed inside the intake manifold without involving any major modification of the intake
42 manifold and combustion chamber. Based on the simplicity and ability of the guide vane, many
43 researchers have patented their guide vane devices [66-74]. Some design of the guide vane
44 from various studies is illustrate in Fig. 2. It is evident from Fig. 2 and literature that the guide
45 vane design depends on five main parameters: angle, height, length, shape and number. These
46 parameters are presented in Fig. 3. From now on in this paper, vane height will be presented as
47 H, length as L, angle as θ and number as N. The intake runner radius is presented in Fig. 3 as
48 R.
49
50
51 Figure 2. Example designs of guide vane [64, 65, 69, 74].

52

53
54 Figure 3. Geometry of the guide vane [75].

9
55 These parameters play a vital role to design an effective intake guide vane for the improvement
56 of swirl and tumble inside the cylinder. From extensive literature reviews, it is found that few
57 researchers have examined the effect of these parameters on the performance and emission of
58 CI engines run with HVFs. These findings with HVFs are discussed in the following sections.
59 At the end of the discussion a summary table, Table 5, is included for quick reference.
60 4.1.1 Vane angle
61 Vane angle is one of the most important parameters to improve the in-cylinder airflow
62 characteristics. Different researchers have investigated the effect of vane angle on air-fuel
63 mixing and reported their results in literature. It is reported in the works of different researcher
64 that the guide vane angles vary in-between 3 and 60 and termed as twist angle (TA). Similar
65 work is also reported by Bari and Saad [76]. They have created 11 guide vane models with
66 different twist angles ranging in-between 3 and 60. With CFD simulation they have simulated
67 the in-cylinder air flow characteristics and compared with a base model (without guide vane).
68 From simulations, it was found that to improve the air-fuel mixing to aid combustion, turbulent
69 kinetic energy (TKE), swirling strength, vorticity and velocity were the important effective
70 parameters. They have reported that 35 TA was the optimum angle for this type of guide vane.
71 To validate their simulation results, they chose 5 models from simulations and fabricated those
72 and installed them into the intake runner of a diesel-generator-set and ran the engine on
73 biodiesel. From the experiment, it was also found that the 35 TA model performed the best
74 compared to all others. The BSFC with the vane-angle of 35 model improved by 1.77% in
75 comparison to the biodiesel-base (B-based) run. In the case of engine efficiency, vane angle of
76 35 displayed the highest improvement of 1.81% compared to B-based run. In the case of
77 emission improvements, 35 vane angle was able to reduce 1.73% of CO2, 8.85% of CO and
78 7.49% of HC in comparison to B-based run.
79 4.1.2 Vane Shape
80 In the previous research, the researchers did not consider the shape (cross section) of the vane.
81 They have used a rectangular cross section of the vane. It would be interesting to see the effect
82 of the shape of the blade. Bari et al. [77] investigated the effect of the shape of guide vane by
83 computer simulation. In their study they have designed a guide vane model with 90 angle of
84 attack and 40 TA. They have only studied the performance by CFD analysis. They have found
85 that in-cylinder pressure and temperature were higher with the curved vane model than without
86 vanes and evidently, this was due to better mixing between air and HVF. It was also found that
87 with vanes, the cross tumble and tumble were higher than without vanes. As this research was
88 not validated by experiment, therefore, more investigation with experiments need to be
89 conducted and it could be an interesting avenue of research.
90 Another work with HVFs was conducted by Dhingra et al. [78]. They have investigated four
91 different aerofoil shapes of the vane by computer simulation which are shown in Fig. 4. At
92 first, they have investigated the performance of these vane models by CFD analysis. From
93 simulation, they have found that the fourth shape (Fig. 4 (d)) in the figure was the optimum
94 design. To validate their result, they have manufactured the fourth model (Fig. 4(d)) and
95 installed the guide vane in the intake runner of a single cylinder diesel engine. From the
96 experiment they have reported that this guide vane was able to reduce CO2, CO and unburned

10
 97 HCs. It was explained as due to the presence of guide vane, the air and fuel particles mixed
98 properly.
99

100

101 (a)
102
(a) (b)
103 (b)
104

105 (c)
106 (c) (d)
107 (d)

108 Figure 4. Different types of aerofoil and guide vane model by using them. [78]
109

110 4.1.2 Vane height

111 The effect of vane height on the performance of a diesel engine was investigated by Bari and
112 Saad [79] with biodiesel. At first, the vane height was optimized by computer simulation using
113 ANSYS CFX software. Ten models with varying vane heights of 0.10 to 1.00 times the radius
114 of the intake runner, R (Fig. 3) were studied and named as 0.10R, 0.20R etc. The simulation
115 results of in-cylinder TKE, swirling strength, vorticity and velocity were compared with the
116 base model (intake runner without any guide vane) to find out the optimized vane height. Vane
117 height of 0.70R showed the highest improvement of turbulent kinetic energy and velocity, and
118 partial improvement of swirling strength and vorticity among other vane heights. These
119 measurements were done at crank angles staring 5 before the injection to 5 after the end of
120 injection. It was reported in their work that 0.70R was able to improve the TKE by 35%. This
121 model was also able to increase the in-cylinder air velocity to a maximum value after 347 ° CA.
122 It is worth to mention here that higher velocity during the fuel injection is desirable for
123 homogeneous air-fuel mixing. During the vane height optimization, the other parameters like
124 number, height and length were kept constant. The vane height of 0.70R i.e., 28 mm was found
125 to be the optimum height.
126 After simulation, they fabricated the vanes, and experimented with a four-cylinder diesel
127 generator run with biodiesel. For the experiment, to reduce the costs and time, five models
128 were fabricated out of ten models done in the simulations. The fabricated guide vanes are
129 presented in Fig. 5. The experimental results also showed that the vane height of 0.70R
130 performed the best, showing reductions of BSFC by 1.77%, CO by 3.97% and HC by 7.49%
131 compared to the performance without vanes running with biodiesel. The brake thermal
132 efficiency increased by 2.80% due to better air-fuel mixing and the presence of oxygen
133 molecule in biodiesel. However, like many researchers, they also reported higher NOX by 3.9%
134 compared to no vane due to the oxygen molecules present in biodiesel.

11
135

136
137 Figure 5. Photograph of the guide vanes of varies vane height [79]
138

139 4.1.3 Vane Length

140 Another important parameter of vane is the vane length (L). Researchers have studied the effect
141 of vane length on CI engine performance run on biodiesel. The length of the vane needs to be
142 long enough so that the momentum of the air created by the vanes during the intake stroke is
143 sustained during the injection and combustion periods. This will ensure breaking of heavier
144 molecules of HVFs and help mixing with air to complete combustion. On the other hand, longer
145 length will create more frictional resistance to the airflow that will diminish the overall
146 improvement. Therefore, it is important to have an optimum length where the gain of having
147 vanes is more than the loss due to frictional resistances. Researchers [80] have varied the
148 lengths ranging from 1.5R to 4.5R, where, R being the radius of the intake runner. The other
149 variables like vane number, height and angle were kept constant to isolate their effects on
150 length. Simulations with ANSYS CFX showed that 0.30R i.e., 120 mm height vane had the
151 highest improvement of TKE, swirling strength, vorticity and velocity during the crank angles
152 in-between 341̊ CA and 365̊ CA covering the entire injection period with 5̊ CA before the start
153 of injection (SOI) and 5̊ CA after TDC.
154 This simulation results encouraged the researchers to fabricate the models and test in a 4-
155 cylinder diesel generator run with biodiesel. They have made 5 guide vane models of lengths
156 of 2.0R, 2.5R, 3.0R, 3.5R, and 4.0R, R being the radius of the intake runner. The fabricated
157 models are presented in Fig. 6. From the experiment, they have found that vane length of 3.0R
158 (120 mm) reduced the BSFC by 1.77%, improved the efficiency by 1.81%. They also reported
159 that this model reduced the CO2 emission by 1.73%, NOx by 0.84%, CO and HC by 7.49% and
160 8.78%, respectively. Thus, it can be concluded that 3.0R was the optimum length of the guide
161 vane similar to what was found with simulations. These improvements are again due to the
162 extra turbulence created by the vanes to have better evaporation, diffusion and mixing of
163 biodiesel with air.
164

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165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175 Figure 6. Photograph of the guide vanes of varied vane length [80].
176

177 4.1.4 Vane Number

178 Higher the vane number in the intake runner higher will be the turbulence generated in the
179 intake air. However, the higher number will also create higher obstacle to the intake air.
180 Therefore, it is required to find the optimum number of the vanes. Optimization of the number
181 of vane is found in the work of Bari and Saad [81]. They have conducted simulations on vane
182 numbers (N) which varied from 3 to 12. They found the optimum number of vanes to be 4;
183 lower than 4 number could not produce enough momentum and turbulence to improve the
184 performance, and higher number greater than 4 created more resistance to reduce the gain from
185 the turbulence created by the vanes. To verify their results, they have fabricated 5 guide vane
186 models with 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 vanes. These vanes were fitted into the intake runner of a 4-
187 cylinders diesel generator running on biodiesel. From the experiment, it was found that the
188 thermal efficiency was increased by 1.8% for 4 vanes. It was also reported that the emissions
189 of CO2, CO and HC were reduced by 1.75%, 0.5% and 8.78% respectively, while using 4
190 vanes.
191

192 Table 5: Summary of effect of guide vane to improve performance of CI engine with HVFs
Guide vane Optimized Efficiency Emission improvement compared to baseline biodiesel
Parameter Parameter improvement performance
compared to
baseline CO2 CO HC
biodiesel
performance

Vane angle 35 1.3% 1.73% 8.85% 7.49%

Vane height 0.7R (28 mm) 2.8% - 3.97% 7.49%
Vane length 3R (120 mm) 1.8% 1.73% 7.49% 8.78%
Vane number 4 1.75% 0.5% 8.78%

193

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194 4.2 Throttling the Intake Manifold
195 Throttling the intake manifold means simply closing the intake manifold by using a butterfly
196 valve, plate or gasket. Generally, a part of the manifold will be mostly closed in the case of a
197 single intake manifold and sometimes one of the intake manifolds will be closed in the case of
198 a dual intake manifold. When part of the intake manifold is closed, it will create greater
199 turbulence in the intake airflow by deflecting the flow. This higher turbulence would enhance
200 the engine performance of CI engines with HVFs as described earlier. Generally, throttling the
201 intake manifold has been used in various types of IC engines including gasoline and diesel
202 engines and this is known by various names.
203 Floch et al. [82] named their device for throttling the intake manifold as ‘intake generated swirl
204 and tumble’ and used a baffle to achieve this. They closed the intake manifold by three stages,
205 namely, low, medium and high, from both left and bottom sides of the manifold on a four-valve
206 SI engine and investigated the best arrangement for providing the highest swirl and tumble.
207 They found that the burning rate of the low bottom closing gave the highest results among the
208 other arrangements. Samimi [83] also throttled the intake manifold but he only closed its left
209 side by about 50–70% compared to the standard configuration. The results showed that by
210 closing 70% of the intake runner, the swirl was about five times higher than that of the standard
211 configuration. Similarly, Reeves et al. [84] also closed about 25% of the intake runner from the
212 bottom side and found that the in-cylinder velocity was higher than it would have been without
213 using their ‘barrel swirl breakdown’ device. They investigated the in-cylinder velocity on an
214 optically accessed engine by using particle image velocimetry. The ‘barrel swirl breakdown’
215 made by them was actually a gasket placed between the intake runner and cylinder head of the
216 engine. Another study was undertaken by Lee et al. [85] who conducted an experiment on a
217 four-valve SI engine coupled with a high speed camera for which about 50–80% of the intake
218 port entry was closed. The image captured from high speed camera at 5°CA after ignition had
219 shown a round and larger flame by half closing the intake port entry compared to the standard
220 setting with 80% closed.
221 These studies actually involved the static throttling of the intake manifold. Static throttling can
222 be considered as quite a simple method as it just puts a baffle in the intake manifold. However,
223 some flaws have also been reported by researchers using this method [82, 85]. Considering the
224 engine runs at various loads and speeds, it also needs various intensities of turbulence to suit
225 dynamic driving conditions. To solve this problem, other researchers have developed variable
226 throttling device.
227 Liu et al. developed the ‘variable inclined swirl system (VISS)’ which can control the opening
228 of the butterfly valve from fully opened to 80% closed and placed it on the fourth cylinder of
229 a four-cylinder, 16-valve, SI engine. Unfortunately, no specific reason is given by Liu et al. to
230 justify why they put the VISS only on the fourth cylinder. Based on their research, they found
231 that controlling the angle of the VISS was very challenging when seeking to satisfy the required
232 turbulence intensity for various engine loads and speeds: hence, the optimum angle for their
233 VISS was not concluded.
234 These studies from the literature, even though not exhaustive, portray the flavour of throttling
235 the intake manifold and are representative of other studies [86-89]. Figure 7 illustrates the
236 sample designs of throttling the intake manifold from various studies in the literature. Basically,

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237 this method can increase the turbulence intensity by means of swirl and tumble. Because of
238 that, many patents are published by researchers [85, 86, 88, 89].

239
240 Figure 7. Various designs of the throttling the intake manifold method [84-86, 89].

241 Despite the advantages of this method for increasing the swirl and tumble, it also has a major
242 drawback. This drawback is the significant increase of resistance of flow due to partial closing
243 of the intake manifold. As a result, the volumetric efficiency of the engine is reduced.
244 Therefore, one would need to compromise between higher swirl and tumble, and lower
245 volumetric efficiency in order to use this method.
246 The above techniques to improve the swirl and tumble have not been tried in CI engines with
247 HVFs, however, they have the potential to improve the performance with HVFs as found with
248 guide vanes as described earlier.
249

250 4.3 Design of Combustion Chamber

251 It is well known that design of the combustion chamber can generate higher swirl and tumble
252 inside the combustion chamber during the compression stroke [45]. Wedge-shape and bowl-
253 in-piston are the popular designs used to promote swirl and tumble. As the piston moves
254 towards TDC, air will be compressed, and the shape of the combustion chamber enhances the
255 swirl and tumble. Small engines with diameter less than 100 mm usually use indirect injection
256 and swirl combustion chambers [45]. This type of indirect injection combustion chamber has
257 spherical swirl chamber. This swirl chamber imparts turbulence to the air during the
258 compression and this turbulence increases as the piston approaches TDC. The fuel is injected
259 at the peak vortex speed of the air. Combustion starts first in the swirl chamber and a swirling
260 stream of burning fuel continues in the piston crown to continue combustion. Another indirect
261 injection combustion chamber design is known as pre-combustion chamber. In this type of
262 combustion chamber design, an auxiliary chamber is used at the top of the cylinder. This

15
263 chamber is connected to the main combustion chamber by an orifice. Usually, this pre-
264 combustion chamber contain 40% of the total volume [45]. These swirl combustion chambers
265 are presented in the Fig. 8.
266

267

268

269

270

271

272

273

274

275

276 Figure 8. Indirect injection combustion chambers (a) Swirl combustion chamber (b) pre-
277 combustion chamber [45].
278 Wei et al. [90] proposed a new swirl chamber combustion system for direct injection diesel
279 engines. The objective of this study was to improve the spray spatial distribution and enhance
280 the mixture quality by improving the airflow movement in the combustion chamber. They used
281 AVL-FIRE code to simulate and investigate the mixture formation and combustion progress in
282 the cylinder at several different swirl ratios. They have concluded that swirl ratio of 0.8 gave
283 the best air movement in the combustion chamber and reduced NO and soot mass fraction.
284 Krishna and Mallikarjuna [91] prepared three designs of the piston crown which are flat-
285 shaped, dome-shaped and dome-cavity-shaped and studied the tumble flow on an unfired
286 engine. They have used particle image velocimetry to understand the turbulence created inside
287 the cylinder. They found that flat piston top was able to improve 23% tumble ratio compared
288 to dome and dome-cavity pistons, respectively. Tumble flow is more effective than swirl for
289 efficient dissipation of the inertia and kinetic energy of the piston into turbulence at the end of
290 the compression stroke.
291 Similarly, Payri et al. [92] studied on the shape of the piston-crown in order to generate higher
292 turbulent intensity. Payri et al. [92] modified the piston bowl providing five configurations and
293 developed computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation using PISO algorithm to investigate
294 the effect of in-cylinder airflow on the turbulence generated inside the cylinder. They
295 concluded that the bowl-shaped played a substantial role near TDC and in the early stage of
296 the expansion stroke by controlling both turbulence velocity and ensemble-averaged mean
297 field. Prasad et al. [59] also modified the piston crown to increase the in-cylinder swirl by
298 cutting grooves onto it. Three different configurations of the piston crown with three, six and
299 nine grooves, as shown in Fig. 9 (bottom left), were used in the experiments on a single
300 cylinder, CI engine with direct injection. They revealed that with nine grooves, the brake power
301 was the highest and it also provided the lowest exhaust temperature as well as lowest amount

16
302 of smoke particles from the engine. They described that these effects were due to more swirl
303 being generated which improved the evaporation, mixing and combustion processes and also
304 increased the rate of heat transfer.
305 The example designs of this method are illustrated in Fig. 9. When comparing this method with
306 the previous method (throttling the intake manifold), both can enhance the swirl and tumble
307 intensity. However, this technique can be considered as more complicated than the previous
308 methods since the shape of the combustion chamber such as the piston head needs to be
309 redesigned thus, increasing the cost.
310 The methods described in this section are used to enhance the in-cylinder swirl and tumble to
311 improve the air-fuel mixing and entrain more air. The methods are investigated in CI and SI
312 engines with diesel and gasoline fuels, respectively. Looking into the benefits of more swirl
313 and tumble by changing the combustion chamber design, it seems that this technique can be
314 applied to CI engine with HVFs. However, it might be a costly approach and can only be
315 considered when the CI engine runs on HVF continuously.
316

317
318 Figure 9. Example design of combustion chamber.

319

320 4.4 Design of Intake Manifold

321 A well-designed intake manifold will reduce the flow resistance as well as increase the swirl
322 intensity [93]. Krishna et al. [94] investigated the intake manifold inclination using particle
323 image velocimetry to find out their effect on the performance of a single cylinder CI engine.
324 They inclined the intake manifold at 30°, 60° and 90° from horizontal and compared their
325 performance with each other. They found maximum turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) with 60°
326 manifold angle in comparison to other manifold angles. Kang et al. [95] also used this method
327 to increase the in-cylinder tumble generation. However, they only compared 30° manifold
328 inclination with the conventional inlet manifold design for a four-valve transparent SI engine.
329 The transparent engine was coupled with a laser Doppler velocimetry to measure the

17
330 development of tumble structures and turbulence under motored conditions. According to their
331 findings, a stronger tumble flow was found with the 30° inclined intake manifold when
332 compared with the conventional intake manifold design.
333 Besides the manifold inclination, the helical intake manifold was used by researchers in the
334 literature to enhance swirl and tumble. Elkotb et al. [96] studied four different inlet port
335 configurations: tangential port, helical-tangential port, direct port and helical-directed port on
336 an open combustion chamber diesel engine. They measured the flow by using a hot wire
337 anemometer on a steady flow engine model. They found that the swirl ratio was highly affected
338 by the exit part of the inlet port, whereas adding a helical part to the inlet manifold improved
339 the swirl ratio by triple. Paul and Ganesan [97] investigated three different manifold
340 configurations: spiral, helical and helical-spiral manifolds, by using STAR-CD commercial
341 CFD software. Their study revealed that the highest swirl was generated by the helical-spiral
342 inlet manifold.

343
344 Figure 10. Example design of intake manifold [91, 95-97]

345 These studies from the literature are examples studies to the efforts of improving the swirl and
346 tumble by modifying the design of the intake manifold [98, 99]. Figure 10 illustrates some of
347 the intake manifold designs from the literature. Basically, inclining the inlet manifold will

18
348 direct the flow to the inlet valve and the flow will be deflected. This deflected flow generates
349 the swirl and tumble. In the case of helical inlet manifold, the airflow was guided to flow around
350 the manifold and this generated enough momentum to sustain the flow inside the cylinder.
351 However, the manifolds needed to be modified to fulfil the objective of improving the in-
352 cylinder swirl and tumble.
353 Again, the above-mentioned studies are conducted on CI and SI engines with diesel and
354 gasoline fuels, respectively. However, these techniques can be applied to CI engines with
355 HVFs. In terms of cost, these techniques are better than the technique of changing the design
356 of combustion chamber.
357 5. Conclusions
358 It is undoubtedly proven that alternative fuels are going to play an important role to mitigate
359 the energy crisis and harmful pollutions to the environment. This is the thriving force for the
360 researcher to search for different alternative fuels. In recent years, it is found that HVFs (both
361 biodiesel and vegetable-oil-based fuels) are one of the best options for CI engines. These fuels
362 have better environment friendly properties as well as can be used in the existing CI engine
363 with minimum modifications. However, the performances of the engine running on HVFs are
364 not at par with diesel. The main reasons of these are the higher viscosity, density and heavier
365 molecules present in the fuels. As a result, researchers have used various techniques such as
366 blending HVFs with lighter fuel, preheating the fuel or air, changing the injection pressure and
367 timing to improve the performance of diesel engine running on HVFs. The main objective of
368 these techniques is to improve the properties of the HVFs closer to diesel fuel.
369 Beside these, another technique to improve the performance of CI with HVFs is to improve the
370 in-cylinder airflow characteristic in terms of swirl and tumble. Improving swirl and tumble of
371 air in the combustion chamber can improve the performance of CI engines with HVFs. It is
372 found that higher swirl in the engine improved 4-12% heat transfer inside the cylinder. Guide
373 vane in the intake manifold is an effective technique to improve the swirl and tumble in the
374 cylinder. The vane geometry (shape, vane height, length, angle and number) can be optimized
375 to get the best performance. It is reported about 1.3 to 2.8% efficiency can be improved by
376 optimizing the vane geometry than that of CI engine running without guide vane with HVFs.
377 This is a very simple and inexpensive technique and can be retrofitted in any CI engine.
378 Combustion chamber and intake manifold modification are another two techniques to improve
379 the swirl and tumble inside the cylinder. However, both these techniques are complex and
380 expensive to apply.
381 It is proven for diesel fuel that the in-cylinder airflow characteristics have significant impact to
382 improve the performance of CI engines. Therefore, the authors believe that by improving the
383 in-cylinder air flow characteristics, it is possible to improve the performance of the CI engines
384 with HVFs. In addition, it is possible to incorporate these techniques along with other
385 improvement techniques such as blending, preheating, injection timing and pressure
386 adjustment to further improve the performance of HVFs in CI engines.
387

19
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