EXCRETION &

HOMEOSTASIS

1
Objectives:
 Explain the importance of excretion in human beings
 Explain the roles of the organs involved in excretion
 Relate the structures of the kidney to their function
 Relate the structures of the skin to their functions; Diagram
required.
 Explain the concept of homeostasis
 Explain the concept of feedback mechanisms
 Describe the regulation of blood sugar
 Explain the regulation of water;
 Distinguish between heat and temperature.
 Describe the regulation of temperature.

2
What is Excretion?
 These harmful by products of metabolism have to be
removed from the body of an animal or plant. This is what
is meant by excretion.
 Excretion is the elimination of waste products of
metabolism from the body. Metabolic waste products are
made in the body as a result of chemical reactions.

3
What is Excretion Important?
 Excretions are toxic and must be removed, because high
concentration would damage the body tissues. For this to
occur the internal environment of the body must be
controlled.
 Excretion also helps to maintain a constant body
temperature by removing excess heat and maintain a
constant internal environment in association with the
other system of the body.

4
What is Excretion Important?
 An excretory product can be defined as a harmful by-
product of a chemical reaction taking place in the cell of
an organism.
 Some by-products are not harmful in themselves but
become harmful when they accumulate beyond specific
concentrations.
 Excretory products are potentially poisonous. Initially,
their accumulation slows down metabolic reactions. If the
accumulation is allowed to continue these reactions can
stop altogether. This is because the buildup of these waste
creates an unfavorable environment for enzymatic
activities. Great quantities of waste products can
eventually lead to the death of the organism.
5
 Excretion vs. Egestion
Do not confuse egestion with excretion
 Egestion is the removal of undigested food from the body,
while excretion is the removal of the waste products of
metabolism.
 Bile pigments are the result of the metabolism of
haemoglobin by the liver cells, so they are an excretory
product.
 However faeces consist of undigested food and dead
bacteria, which are not products of the cells, and their
removal from the body is called egestion

6
Examples of Excretory Products
from Animals
 Carbon dioxide  Excess salts
 Urea  Excess hormones
 Uricacid  Excess bile
 Water  Excess medicine

7
 Excretion in Human
There are four major excretory organs in
human body:
 Lungs
 Liver
 Skin
 Kidneys
8
Excretory Organs of the Human
Body
The lungs remove
carbon dioxide. The liver converts
excess protein into
urea.

The skin provides a The kidneys remove

surface for small unwanted substances
amounts of water and such as urea, excess
salt to move out of the water and salt.
body.

9
 Respiratory Waste Products

 If carbon dioxide is allowed to accumulate in cells and their

associated tissue fluid, it lowers the pH because carbon dioxide
forms a weak acid, carbonic acid, when dissolved in water. Since
enzymes are pH sensitive the gas has to be removed.

 In the case of the lungs, carbon dioxide is transported by the

blood, from the cells where it is produced, to the air sacs. Here it
diffuses from the blood into the air-sacs. It is then eliminated
from the body when expiration takes place.

10
 Respiratory Waste Products

 In simple animals, for example, amoeba, carbon

dioxide is lost by diffusion through the cell
membrane. As the size and complexity of
organisms increase diffusion has to be
facilitated by more complex structures. These
include tracheae in insects, gills in fish and lungs
in humans.

11
 Respiratory Waste Products

 Water is produced as a by-product of respiration

but it is not usually considered a waste material.
 However, the concentration of water in cells must
be kept within narrow limits.
 Too little or too much water can have a negative
effect as it causes changes in the osmotic
conditions in and around the cells. Thus it has to
be regulated.

12
 Respiratory Waste Products

 Some of the energy produced during

respiration is converted into heat energy.
 The accumulation of heat energy increases
the temperature of the body.
 Can you tell the effect of
this?
 At high temperatures, enzymes
can be denatured which means
reactions will stop

13
Nitrogenous Waste Products
 Nitrogen-containing waste products are
derived from the deamination of the
excess amino-acids consumed in food
and also from the breakdown of proteins
and nucleic acids.

14
Nitrogenous wastes
The following are the nitrogenous waste
products produced by animals:
Ammonia
Urea
Uric acid
Amino acids.

15
What is Deamination?
 Deamination is the process by which
amino acids are broken down
when too much protein has been taken
in.
 It Involves the removal of an amino
group (NH2) from the amino acid and
it is then converted to ammonia
(NH3) .
 Ammonia is toxic to the human
system, and enzymes convert it to
urea or to uric acid.
 Deamination takes place primarily in
the liver and also in the kidneys.

16
 Excretion of urea/uric acid via the
Skin
Skin plays an important role
in excretion in humans. It has
two types of glands:
 sebaceous glands that
excrete lipids;
 sweat glands that excrete
cellular metabolic wastes
such as water containing
salts, urea and lactic
acid. This aids in
osmoregulation.

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iv/excretion/excretionindex.php
17
Excretion of Urea
In higher animals, ammonia undergoes
deamination mainly in the liver and forms
a less toxic substance called urea which
is periodically flushed out of the system
of the animal.
Humans eliminate nitrogenous waste as
urea formed during deamination in the
liver mainly, but it can also occur in the
kidneys.
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-ii/excretion/substances-excreted-animals.php

18
 Human Urinary
System

Structure and Function

19
 Human Urinary System

kidney

ureter

urinary
bladder
urethra
20
Excretion in Humans via the Kidneys
 ALL mammals have paired kidneys which,
together with the ureters, bladder and urethra,
form the excretory system.

 In humans, two kidneys in the lower back are supplied

by the Renal arteries which bring blood to the
kidneys, whose special structure equip them to
remove harmful wastes from the blood, thus forming
urine.

21
 Human Urinary System

Give the kidney

functions of
each ureter
structure in
the urinary urinary
bladder
system
urethra
22
 Inferior
vena cava
aorta
renal left
vein kidney
renal
right artery
kidney ureters
sphincter urinary
muscle bladder
urethra
23
Human Urinary System
Parts of the Urinary System
 Kidney – makes urine
 Ureter – takes urine from
kidneys to bladder
 Bladder – stores urine
temporarily
 Sphincter muscle – regulates
urine release from bladder
 Urethra – takes urine from
bladder to the outside of the
body
 Renal artery – takes
oxygenated blood from heart
to kidneys
 Renal vein – takes
deoxygenated blood from
the kidneys

24
 Human Urinary System
 The renal artery bring blood with nitrogenous waste
and other waste products to the kidneys to be
cleansed.
 After passing through the kidneys, this cleansed blood
returns to the hear by way of the renal vein, while the
nitrogenous and other wastes flow down through the
ureter as urine to the bladder to be stored.
 The bladder stores urine temporarily before it is
released into the environment by way of the urethra.
 Sphincter muscles control the release of urine from
the bladder.

25
Location of the Kidneys in the
Body

Right kidney, seen from in front

26 http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookexcret.html
 The Kidneys
 As the primary organs of excretion, the kidneys
perform two major functions. They filter the
blood, removing water, ions, and nitrogenous
wastes and forming urine and in turn regulate the
volume, osmotic pressure, and pH of the blood
and body fluids.

27
 The Kidneys
 The kidneys are attached inside the back of the abdomen and
receive blood rich in waste from the dorsal aorta via the renal
artery.
 The bean- shaped kidney has a depression near the centre of
one side, where a tube called the ureter as well as blood
vessels pass the kidney.
 The outer darker layer of the kidney is called the cortex.
Inside this is a lighter region, the medulla.
 The pelvis is the expanded portion of the ureter, within the
kidney.
 Each kidney contains about a million nephrons, which span the
cortex and the medulla.
28
 External view of a mammalian
kidney
Note the colour, size
and shape of this
kidney.
Internally, a kidney
has the: Renal Cortex,
Renal Medulla and
the Renal Pelvis.

http://www.worldofteaching.com/powerpoints/biolo
gy/TheKidney.ppt#256,1,The kidney
29
Internal view of a mammalian kidney

Renal
Pyramid

Renal
Pelvis
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/
biobk/biobookexcret.html
30
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookexcret.html
 Inside the Kidney
Identify the following:
 Renal Cortex
 Renal Pelvis
 Renal Medulla
 Pyramids
 Ureter

Photo of the inside of

one half of the Kidney,
cut lengthwise.

http://www.worldofteaching.com/powerpoints/biology/TheKidney.ppt#
31 257,4,Cross section
Nephrons, the functional unit of the
Kidneys
The functional unit of the kidney is called the:
 nephrons/renal tubules/kidney tubules/uriniferous
tubules.
 There are typically over 1,000,000 nephrons
in each of the two kidneys in the body.
 Each nephron has a part in the Renal cortex and a part in
the Renal medulla.
 All nephrons empty into the Renal pelvis.

32
33
The parts of the Nephron
Each nephron has a Bowman’s capsule,
convoluted or coiled tubules, a Loop of Henle,
the collecting duct and a capillary network. The
Bowman’s capsule (or Glomerular capsule)
surrounds the glomerulus (ball of capillaries) and
is located in the Renal cortex.

34
The parts of the Nephron

35
The parts of a Nephron
 The glomerulus (network of capillaries), has
blood coming to it by an afferent arteriole
(from the Renal artery); an efferent
arteriole leads blood away from the
glomerulus.
 Bowman’s capsule leads into a Proximal
(near) Convoluted (coiled) Tubule (PCT),
a Descending limb, Loop of Henle, an
Ascending limb, a Distal (far) Convoluted
Tubule (DCT) and finally a Collecting
duct/tubule. The walls are very thin, allowing
diffusion and osmosis to occur.

36
The parts of a Nephron

37
38
Urine Formation
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=es-t8lO1KpA
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctGkLYuUCvU&list=P
LzEG17YbDGhxvcBV9XZYsN8gkBkbqJih-&index=2
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vNvZaGcLzEo&t=308
s
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6HJfr00CIqM

39
Parts of a Nephron
Did you notice how the Descending and Ascending tubules and
the U-shaped Loop of Henle are surrounded by the blood
vessels?
This arrangement of blood vessels around various parts
of the nephron enables materials inside the tubules to be
removed from these tubules and diffuse into the blood
vessels, facilitating osmoregulation.

40
 Ultrafiltration at the
Bowman’s Capsule
 The afferent arteriole which
comes to the capsule has a bigger
diameter than the efferent
arteriole leaving it. As a result,
pressure builds up in the capillaries
of the glomerulus. As blood flows
under this high pressure, the
smaller components of the blood
are pushed out into the Bowman’s
capsule.
 This becomes the filtrate
containing water, hormones, salts,
glucose, amino acids, vitamins and
urea. The filtrate flows into the
proximal convoluted tubule.
41
Ultrafiltration at the Bowman’s
Capsule

42
 Ultrafiltration
 Large molecules such as
proteins (e.g. albumin) and cells
(e.g. red blood cells and
platelets) remain in the blood.
They flow through the efferent
arteriole leaving the capsule.

43
 Selective Reabsorption at the PCT
 Attached to each Bowman’s capsule
is a long, thin tubule with three
distinct regions– proximal
convoluted tubule, loop of Henle
and distal convoluted tubule.
 The first region is called the
proximal convoluted tubule.
‘Proximal’ means that it is near
Bowman’s capsule, and ‘convoluted’
describes its coiled and looped
shape.
 Two thirds of the salts and water
and all the glucose along with
potassium and calcium ions, moves
out of the nephron. These
substances are reabsorbed, that is
they enter back into the blood
capillary which surrounds the
nephron.
44
 Selective Reabsorption at the PCT
 As the glomerular filtrate moves
along to the proximal
convoluted tubule about 80% of
the water is reabsorbed here, as
well as all the glucose and other
useful nutrients.
 Varying amounts of mineral salts
are also reabsorbed so as to
maintain a suitable
concentration in the blood.
These solutes are reabsorbed by
active transport and by diffusion;
water is taken up by osmosis.
 The reabsorbed substances are
passed into the capillaries which
wrap around the tubule

45
Selective Reabsorption at the PCT

46
 Reabsorption at the Loop Of Henlé
 Proximal convoluted tubules
(PCT) connects to the second
region, the loop of Henle. The
loop of Henle is a U-shaped tube
that dips deeply into the medulla
and then loops back towards the
cortex.
 Its primary role is to
concentrate the salt in the tissue
surrounding the loop. The loop
of Henle is described as having a
descending limb and an
ascending limb. These limbs have
different properties and play
different roles in urine formation

47
 Reabsorption at the Loop Of Henlé’
 Descending limb is permeable to
water but completely impermeable
to salt, and thus only indirectly
contributes to the concentration of
the tissue surrounding the loop.
 As the filtrate descends, water
flows freely out of the descending
limb by osmosis until the filtrate
and the tissue surrounding the loop
equilibrate.
 Longer descending limbs allow
more time for water to flow out of
the filtrate, so longer limbs make
the filtrate more hypertonic than
shorter limbs.

48
 Reabsorption at the Loop Of
Henlé
 Unlike the descending limb, the
ascending limb of Henle’s loop is
impermeable to water and
actively pumps sodium out of the
filtrate, generating the hypertonic
tissue surrounding the loop.
 In passing through the ascending
limb, the filtrate grows hypotonic
since it has lost much of its
sodium (salt) content. This
hypotonic filtrate is passed to
the distal convoluted tubule in
the cortex.

49
 Reabsorption at the Loop Of
Henlé- Also Note
 Sodium and chloride ions (salt)
are actively pumped from the
ascending limb of the loop but
water is retained, since the
ascending limb is impermeable
to water.
 This creates a concentration
gradient in the medulla in which
the concentration of sodium
and chloride is greatest in the
region of the bend of the loop.

50
 Nephron at Work- Selective
Reabsorption
 Fluid passing from the loop
of Henle to the distal tubule
is less concentrated than that
entering the loop, but
because of the high osmotic
pressure in the medulla
water diffuses out of the
collecting ducts, producing a
concentrated urine.

51
 Selective Reabsorption at DCT
 The third region of the nephron
tubule is called the distal convoluted
tubule. ‘Distal’ means that it is farther
from Bowman’s capsule than the
other regions. The distal convoluted
tubule is similar to the proximal
convoluted tubule in structure and
function, reabsorbing salt and water.
 Cells lining the tubule have numerous
mitochondria, enabling active
transport to take place by the energy
supplied by ATP. Distal convoluted
tubules from many nephrons all
connect to a common tube, the
collecting duct which empties into
the pelvis.

52
53
Question??????
Which of these
Loop of Henle
belong to a
beaver, human
and a desert
rat?
Give reasons for
your answer

54
ALWAYS REMEMBER!!!
The length of the loop of
Henle is related to the
environment that the
animal lives in.
A longer loop will conserve
more water, so animals in
drier environments have
longer loops.

55
 Nephron at Work- The Collecting
Duct
 The collecting duct has
important functions in regulating
the composition of urine, as
water, ions, and nutrients are
reabsorbed from the filtrate.
 This reabsorption prevents the
loss of useful nutrients, ions, and
water, and provides an
opportunity for tubule cells to
regulate the composition of
blood and the body fluids.

56
 Nephron at Work- The Collecting
Duct
 The collecting duct system begins in the
cortex and extends deep into the medulla.
As the urine travels down the collecting
duct system, it passes by the medullary
tissue surrounding the loop of Henle’
which has a high sodium (salt)
concentration. Though the collecting duct
is normally impermeable to water, it
becomes permeable in the presence of
antidiuretic hormone (ADH). The
collecting ducts open into the pelvis.
 It contains mainly water, urea, and some
salts. This mixture is called urine. It drains
into the pelvis, then by way of the ureters,
into the bladder and is finally expelled
from the body by the urethra.
57
 Urine
The filtrate now called urine
contains the water, salts and
urea that are not needed by the
body. If flows to the pelvis of the
kidney from thousands of
collecting ducts. It then travels,
by way of the ureter, to the
bladder to be stored before
urination.

58
Kidney Damage
 The kidneys are essential to remove toxic substances
from the body and to maintain the correct concentration
of the body fluids.
 High blood pressure or infections are often the cause of
damage to kidney nephrons. Machines have been
developed to connect to the body and purify the blood
by dialysis. As it passes through.

59
Kidney failure
 Kidney failure has serious consequences as it means that
the water and ion balance cannot be regulated, and the
levels of toxic urea build up in the body.
 This would ultimately be fatal if not treated.

60
Treatment of Kidney failure
 One method of treatment is kidney dialysis.
 In this procedure, patients are connected to a dialysis
machine which acts as an artificial kidney to remove most
of the urea and restore/maintain the water and ion
balance of the blood.

61
How dialysis works
 ‘Dirty’ blood (high in urea) is taken from a blood vessel in
the arm, mixed with blood thinners to prevent clotting,
and pumped into the machine.
 Inside the machine - separated by a selectively
permeable membrane the blood flows in the opposite
direction to dialysis fluid, allowing exchange to occur
between the two where a concentration gradient exists.

62
63
Dialysis fluid contains:
1. A glucose concentration similar to a normal level in the
blood
2. A concentration of ions similar to that found in normal
blood plasma.
3. No urea
 As the dialysis fluid has no urea in it, there is a large
concentration gradient - meaning that urea moves across
the partially permeable membrane, from the blood to the
dialysis fluid, by diffusion.

64
 Dialysis summary
 The overall effect of this is that the blood leaving the
machine and returning into the patient’s arm will have:
 Greatly reduced levels of urea – it is ‘cleaned blood’
 No overall change in blood glucose levels
 The correct water and ion balance maintained or
restored (with only excess ions removed).
 Kidney dialysis requires highly specialised and expensive
machinery.
 The patient must be connected to this machinery 2-3
times a week for periods (on average) of between 4-6
hours at a time
65
Dialysis summary
 As the filtration only works when they are connected,
kidney patients must monitor their diet carefully in
between dialysis sessions.
 They need to avoid eating foods with a high salt
content or a high protein content as excess amino
acids are broken down into urea.

66
 Osmoregulation

67
Objectives:
State the importance of water to living
organisms
Define osmoregulation.
Explain what is a hormone.
Describe, with the aid of a diagram, the role of
the hormone ADH in osmoregulation.
State the importance of osmoregulation to
humans.
68
Importance of Water

It acts as:
 solvent / reaction medium
 medium for transport (e.g. blood)
 metabolite (e.g. photosynthesis)
 others like act as cooling agent (e.g. sweating in hot
weather)
 as supporting agent (e.g. turgidity in young plant)
 for sexual reproduction

69
Osmoregulation

70
Do Humans carry out Osmoregulation?
What do you think about that comment in the
previous cartoon? Do humans ever practice
“osmoregulation channeling”?
If so… HOW?

Is it done by squirting out water to prevent that

feeling of being bloated or water-logged?

71
The Nephron & Osmoregulation
Recall that the Descending and Ascending tubules and the U-
shaped Loop of Henle are surrounded by the blood vessels?
This arrangement of blood vessels around various parts
of the nephron enables materials inside the tubules to be
removed from these tubules and diffuse into the blood
vessels, facilitating osmoregulation.

72
The Nephron & Osmoregulation
By the functions of nephrons in conserving or excreting
water, salts, glucose etc., the kidneys regulate body fluid
concentration levels (osmoregulation) as a primary duty,
and remove harmful wastes as a secondary one.
Osmoregulation is an example of a negative
feedback mechanism that causes homeostasis.

73
What is a Hormone?
A hormone is a chemical substance produced in humans
by endocrine or ductless glands.
 Each hormone targets specific cells/organs to influence
growth, development and various physiological processes
in the body and, in so doing, maintain homeostasis.
 The Pituitary is the ‘master control endocrine gland’; it
secretes a wide range of hormones, including ADH.

74
What is Osmoregulation?
 Itis the homeostatic regulation and maintainance of the
salts and water balance of an organism’s body.

 Inhumans, osmoregulation takes place in the kidney units,

and is under the direct control of a hormone called Anti
Diuretic Hormone (or ADH).

75
Osmoregulation Control Centre

Photo: www.umm.edu/.../articles/hypothalamus_000337.htm
76
 Osmoregulation-Water content High
 If the blood gets too dilute, e.g. when
one drinks a lot of water,
osmoreceptors in the Hypothalamus of
the brain detect this.
 They send ‘messages’ to the Pituitary
gland causing it not to secrete any
ADH.
 Because no ADH is secreted, Distal
tubules and Collecting ducts remain
impermeable to water, so much less or
no water at all is reabsorbed from the
filtrate resulting in a large amount of
dilute urine being produced.

77
 Water content of
the blood HIGH

Too much water drunk

Brain (pituitary
Water content
gland) produces
of the blood normal
Less ADH

Low volume of water

reabsorbed by kidney

Urine output
HIGH

(large volume of
78 dilute urine)
Osmoregulation-Water Content Low
 If the blood is concentrated, the osmo-
receptors in the Hypothalamus detect
this.
 Hypothalamus sends a message to the
Pituitary gland to secrete more ADH.
 ADH gets to the kidneys via the blood.
The Distal Convoluted Tubule and
Collecting Duct become more
permeable to water, so the capillaries
reabsorb much water from the filtrate.
 Consequently, a small amount of
concentrated urine is produced.

 Anti Diuretic Hormone controls

water absorption in the Proximal
Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Duct
of the nephron in the kidneys.
79
 Water content of
the blood LOW

Too much salt

or sweating

Brain (pituitary
gland produces Water content
More ADH of the blood normal

High volume of water

reabsorbed by kidney

Urine output
LOW
(small volume of
80 Concentrated urine)
Osmoregulatory Functions of the Kidneys
 Maintain the volume of extracellular fluid.
 Maintain ionic balance in extracellular fluid.
 Maintain pH and osmotic concentration of the
extracellular fluid.
 Excrete toxic metabolic by-products such as urea,
ammonia, and uric acid.

81
 Water content of Water content of
the blood LOW the blood HIGH

Too much water drunk

Too much salt
or sweating

Brain (pituitary
Brain (pituitary
gland produces Water content
gland) produces
More ADH of the blood normal
Less ADH

High volume of water Low volume of water

reabsorbed by kidney reabsorbed by kidney

Urine output Urine output

LOW HIGH

(small volume of (large volume of

82 Concentrated urine) dilute urine)
What is homeostasis?
 The body uses so much energy, even during sleep,
because it must maintain a constant internal environment.
 This process of keeping things the same is called
homeostasis.
 A series of automatic control systems ensures that the
body maintains a constant temperature, and steady levels
of water, ions and blood sugar
 Homeostasis allows the body’s cells to work at their
optimum.

83
The organs of
homeostasis
The organs of homeostasis
The organs of homeostasis
The organs of homeostasis
The organs of homeostasis
The organs of homeostasis
The organs of homeostasis
Why control temperature?
 Environmental temperature is constantly changing. One
minute it can be very hot, the next very coldDespite this,
the body must be kept at a constant temperature of 37
°C. Why?
 This is the optimum temperature for the body’s
enzymes.
 Even slight changes in body temperature can have a life-
threatening effect on health. If body temperature falls too
low, reactions become too slow for cells to survive: too
high, and the body’s enzymes are at risk of denaturing.

91
What is core body
temperature?
 The vital organs located deep
within the body, such as the
heart, liver and kidneys, are
maintained at 37 °C. This is the
core body temperature.
 Skin temperature at the body's
extremities, such as the fingers
and toes, is usually lower than
the core body temperature.
 On a warm day, skin
temperature may be just 1 °C
lower than the core body
temperature, but on a very cold
day it could be up to 9 °C lower.
Finding the right balance
Core temperature is maintained by balancing heat gain and heat loss.

How can heat be gained?

 movement and exercise

 shivering

 vasoconstriction

 wearing extra clothing.

How can heat be lost?

 sweating

 vasodilation

 removing extra clothing.

Too hot…or too cold?
Too hot…or too cold?
Too hot…or too cold?
Too hot…or too cold?
Too hot…or too cold?
Too hot…or too cold?
Finding the right balance
Finding the right balance
Finding the right balance
How is temperature controlled?
 Body temperature is monitored and controlled by temperature receptors in
the skin and brain.
hypothalamus

 These receptors detect changes in the

temperature of blood flowing through
those areas.

 The thermoregulatory centre in the brain is

called the hypothalamus.

If body temperature deviates from 37 °C, the hypothalamus and skin

receptors send out electrical signals that trigger actions or behaviours that
increase or decrease heat loss.
What’s in skin?
What’s in skin?
Why do we shiver?
When core body temperature drops, muscles begin to twitch. This rapid
and contraction and relaxation of the muscles is called shivering.

Shivering generates heat, which raises body

temperature.

Goose bumps involuntarily appear when a person

becomes cold. Goosebumps are caused by the tiny
muscles at the base of body hairs pulling the hairs
erect.

The upright hairs trap an insulating layer of air, which

helps reduce heat loss.
Vasoconstriction and warming up
Why do people go pale when they are cold?

When core body temperature falls, blood vessels in the skin get narrower.
This is called vasoconstriction.

Vasoconstriction is caused
by contraction of the
muscular wall of the blood
vessels.

This reduces the volume of

blood flowing near the skin
surface, and reduces the amount
of heat lost from the body.
Vasodilation and cooling down
Why do people turn red when they are hot?

When core body temperature rises, blood vessels in the skin get wider. This
is called vasodilation.

Vasodilation allows a larger volume of blood to flow near the skin surface,
transferring heat to the environment. This cools the body down.

Additional cooling occurs with the

production of sweat from sweat
glands.

As the sweat evaporates it

transfers heat away from the
body.
Responding to change
Responding to change
Negative feedback in the body
Negative feedback in the body
Negative feedback in the body
Negative feedback in the body
Negative feedback in the body
Negative feedback in the body
Why is water important?
The human body is about 60-70% water.

Water molecules and ions constantly move in and out of cells,

and are essential for all life processes.

Dehydration (loss of too much water from the

body) damages cells.

How is water gained and lost?

 Water is produced by the body during respiration, and absorbed from

food and drink.
 Water is lost from the body in exhaled air, sweat, urine and faeces.
Dehydration and its causes
Just a 1% decrease in body weight due to water loss is enough to cause mild
dehydration.

Mild dehydration can cause dizziness, a dry mouth and concentrated urine.
Severe dehydration can cause death.

What causes dehydration?

 heavy sweating

 low water intake

 eating salty food

 breathing dry air

 caffeine and alcohol

 diarrhoea.
Controlling water levels
Controlling water levels
Controlling water levels
Controlling water levels
Controlling water levels
Controlling water levels
Controlling water levels
Controlling water levels
What is blood glucose?
Glucose is a type of sugar used by the
body to provide energy.

Sometimes there is too much glucose

in the blood, and sometimes there is
not enough.

What affects the level of blood glucose?

 Eating causes blood glucose levels to rise.

 Vigorous exercise causes blood glucose levels to fall.

How does the body regulate blood glucose levels?

Controlling blood glucose
Between meals, blood glucose levels are topped up from stored deposits in the
liver and muscles.

After a meal, blood glucose rises but quickly returns to normal. Where
does the excess go? Why not leave it in the blood?

Excess glucose makes the blood plasma and tissue fluid

around cells too concentrated. This can severely damage
cells, for example, causing crenation in red blood cells.

However, low blood sugar levels can be equally as

dangerous, as it can make cells swell up and burst. This is
called lysis.
The pancreas and blood glucose
 Blood glucose levels are monitored and
controlled by the pancreas.
 The pancreas produces and releases
different hormones depending on the
blood glucose level.
 Insulin is released when blood glucose
levels are high – the liver stores excess
glucose as glycogen.
 Glucagon is released when blood
glucose levels are low – the liver
converts stored glycogen into glucose
and releases it into the blood.

129
Maintaining safe glucose levels
Maintaining safe glucose levels
Maintaining safe glucose levels
Maintaining safe glucose levels
Maintaining safe glucose levels
Maintaining safe glucose levels
Maintaining safe glucose levels
Maintaining safe glucose levels
Maintaining safe glucose levels
Maintaining safe glucose levels
Maintaining safe glucose levels
Maintaining safe glucose levels
Maintaining safe glucose levels