Biology - Year 10 - Track 3 The Excretory System

Homeostasis and the

Excretory System
The Internal Environment 3

The Environment Around Cells 3

The Processes Involved in Homeostasis 3

Organs Involved with Homeostasis in Humans 4

Osmoregulation 4
Osmoregulation in Protists (Amoeba) 5

The Excretory System 5

The Need for Excretion 5

The Mammalian Urinary System 6

Structure and Function of the Mammalian Urinary System 6

Changes of Concentration in Urine 7

The Kidneys 8
How the Nephron Works 10

Important Functions and Process carried out by the Kidneys 11

Ultrafiltration 11
Components of Filtrate 12
Selective Reabsorption 12

Part of Nephron where each substance is Reabsorbed 13

Control of Water Reabsorption: ADH 14

Production of ADH 14

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Different Substances in Different Blood Vessels 15

Waste Substances Filtered/Removed by the Kidney 15

Kidney Failure and the Kidney Machine 16

The Kidney Machine - Dialysis 16

The Liver 17

Functions of the Liver 17

Storage of Food Substances 18
Regulation of Blood Sugar 18
Production of Bile 19
Deamination of Amino Acids 19
Manufacture of Plasma Proteins 20
Detoxification 20
Breakdown of Red Blood Cells 20
Heat Production 21

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The Internal Environment

Cells of the body work best when they are at the correct temperature and pH
and supplied with all the substances they need to maintain their activity. This
is the body's internal environment.

Different mechanisms help to keep the environment constant irrespective of

the changes in the external environment.
These processes are collectively known as homeostasis.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment around

the cells using energy in order to keep them functioning properly.

The Environment Around Cells

In unicellular organisms, the environment around the cells is the water in
which they live. In multicellular organisms, the environment around the cells
is the tissue fluid. A constant environment in humans is achieved by
maintaining constant levels of salts, glucose, hormones, excretory products,
levels in pH, etc.

The body has a “monitoring system” (hypothalamus gland in brain) that

checks the level of these factors and corrects them if any vary from normal.

The Processes Involved in Homeostasis

● The regulation of water - osmoregulation
● Removal of metabolic wastes from the body - extraction
● Regulation of blood sugar - pancreas
● Temperature regulation - skin and kidneys

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Organs Involved with Homeostasis in Humans

Organ Involved Factors controlled in the body/blood

Pancreas ● Glucose (regulation of blood sugar)

Skin ● Temperature
● Salt and urea in small quantities
● Water for cooling (not controlling temperature)

Liver ● Glucose
● Temperature
● Bilirubin - from breakdown of haemoglobin
● Urea - from deamination

Kidneys ● Water - osmoregulation

● pH (acidity/alkalinity)
● Salts
● Hormones
● Drugs
● Urea and other nitrogenous waste

Lungs ● Carbon dioxide - metabolic waste

● Oxygen
● Water (not method of controlling water)

Osmoregulation
The amount of water in the body cells must be regulated in order to prevent
shrinking or bursting as a result of water moving in or out the cell by osmosis.
This process is called osmoregulation.

Osmoregulation is the active control (requires energy) of the levels of water

and mineral salts in the body fluids to prevent imbalances in osmotic
concentrations.

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Osmoregulation in Protists (Amoeba)

In Amoeba, the concentration of the internal cytoplasm must balance (be
equal to) the surrounding fluids (the external environment).
● Sea water amoebae do not have a problem as the concentration of their
cytoplasm is equal to that of the surrounding water (isotonic). Therefore
there is no net movement of water into or out of the organsm by
osmosis.
● Freshwater amoeba have a cytoplasm which is more concentrated than
the surrounding fresh water. This results in water flowing into the
organism across the semipermeable cell membrane. Therefore, the
amoeba forms a contractile vacuole which removes the excess water.

The Excretory System

Unlike plants, humans have organs which are

specialised for the removal of certain excretory
products, like carbon dioxide and urine. These
organs include the lungs and kidneys. The liver
also has a vital role in excretion.

Excretion is the removal of the waste

substances of metabolic reactions (heat
energy, urea, carbon dioxide, water and
ammonia), toxic materials and substances in
excess of requirements.

It is important to differ between excretion and

egestion as egestion is the expulsion of
undigested food waste from the anus.

The Need for Excretion

Carbon dioxide must be excreted as it dissolves in water easily to form an
acidic solution which can lower the pH of cells. This can reduce the activity of

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enzymes in the body which are essential for controlling the rate of metabolic
reactions. For this reason, too much carbon dioxide in the body is toxic. Urea is
also toxic to the body in higher concentrations and so must be excreted.

The Mammalian Urinary System

Structure and Function of the Mammalian Urinary System

Structure Function

Kidney Filter the blood

Ureter Tube connecting kidney to the bladder which

transports waste products from kidney

Urethra Tube that connects the urinary bladder with the

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exterior: where urine is released

Urinary Bladder Organ that stores urine

Renal Artery Supplies unfiltered blood to the kidney

Renal Vein Returns filtered blood to the heart

Changes of Concentration in Urine

The colour, concentration and quantity of urine produced in the body can
change quickly:
➔ Large quantities of urine are usually pale yellow in colour because it
contains a lot of water and so the urea is less concentrated (more
dilute).
➔ Small quantities of urine are usually darker yellow/orange in colour
because it contains little water and so the urea is more concentrated.

There are various reasons why the concentration of urine can change,
including:
● Water intake – the more fluids drunk, the more water will be removed
from the body and so a large quantity of pale yellow, dilute urine will be
produced.
● Temperature – the higher the temperature the more water is lost in
sweat and so less will appear in urine, meaning a smaller quantity of
dark yellow, concentrated urine will be produced.
● Exercise – the more exercise done, the more water is lost in sweat and so
less will appear in urine, meaning a smaller quantity of dark yellow,
concentrated urine will be produced

Urea is the chief nitrogenous end product of the metabolic breakdown of

proteins in all mammals

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The Kidneys
The kidneys are located in the back of the abdomen and consists of an outer
region (cortex) surrounding an inner layer (medulla) and have two important
functions in the body:
● They regulate the water content of the blood (vital for maintaining blood
pressure).
● They excrete the toxic waste products of metabolism (such as urea) and
substances in excess of requirements (such as salts).

Each kidney contains around a million tiny structures called nephrons, also
known as kidney tubes or renal tubes. The nephrons start in the cortex of the
kidney, loop down into the medulla and back up to the cortex.

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The contents of the nephron drain into the innermost part of the kidney and
the urine collects there before it flows into the ureter to be carried to the
bladder for storage. The nephron is rich in mitochondria as it requires loads of
energy for active transport.

Each glomerulus (knot of capillaries which surrounds the nephron) is

surrounded by a cup-shaped structure called renal/bowman's capsule. This
leads to a coiled renal tubule that consists of three sections:
● Coiled up section: first convoluted tubule
● U-shape loop: loop of Henle
● Another coiled up section: second convoluted tubule

All sections of the renal tubule are well supplied with blood to allow
substances to diffuse easier.
About twelve renal tubules eventually join into a collecting duct. This passes
through the medulla to open into the pelvis. This structure is called a Nephron.

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How the Nephron Works

● Unfiltered (dirty) blood enters the glomerulus (knot of capillaries).
● It then proceeds to be filtered (selective reabsorption) into the
renal/bowman's capsule.
● Blood cells and proteins do not pass (not filtered) as they are too big to
fit, so they do not form part of the filtrate (glucose, amino acids, salts,
water and urea).
● The filtrate then proceeds at a slow speed (increased reabsorption) to
the first coiled/convoluted tubule which is coiled to increase surface
area for absorption.
● It then proceeds to the loop of Henle which has a large surface area for
water absorption.
● The useful substances are taken (absorbed) back into the blood and the
filtered (clean) blood is returned via the renal vein.
● The urine formed (containing unwanted substances and excess water)
flow on to the collecting duct to be excreted by the urethra.

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Important Functions and Process carried out by the Kidneys

The functions of the kidneys are:
● Osmoregulation
● Excretion

Two important processes which are performed by the nephron are:

● Ultrafiltration - occurs in glomerulus
● Selective reabsorption - occurs in renal tubule

Ultrafiltration
● Ultra filtration occurs in the
glomerulus and is filtration
under high pressure.
● The high pressure is due to the
capillaries getting narrower in
the glomerulus and asit is
coming directly from the renal
artery which is coming from
the aorta.
● This forces out the liquid part
of the blood which includes
dissolved substances like salts,
glucose and urea into
bowman’s capsule, where they
are known as the filtrate.
● The plasma proteins and blood
cells are too large to pass out
or be filtered.
● The filtrate formed continues
through the nephron.

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Components of Filtrate

Component Site of reabsorption

Water Loop of Henle and collecting duct

Salts Loop of Henle

Glucose First convoluted tubule

Urea Not reabsorbed or present in blood

Proteins and blood cells Not reabsorbed as too large to pass

Selective Reabsorption
● Selective reabsorption
occurs in the renal tubule.
● Process by which useful
substances (glucose, amino
acids, vitamins and water)
that have been filtered out
during ultrafiltration are
reabsorbed back into the
blood.
● Only certain substances are
reabsorbed (selective) and
it takes place by means of
active transport - using
energy.
● The nephron is adapted for
this by having many
mitochondria to provide
energy for the active
transport.

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Notes:
● Glucose and amino acids are totally reabsorbed and returned to the
blood.
● If glucose is present in urine, one may rule out diabetes.
● If amino acids are present in urine, the liver may not be functioning well
(problems with deamination).
● Urea is not reabsorbed at all and is totally removed.
● Reabsorption of glucose cannot take place anywhere else in the nephron
as the gates that facilitate the active transport of glucose are only found
in the first convoluted/proximal tubule.

Part of Nephron where each substance is Reabsorbed

Part of Nephron Material Method of Adaptation

Reabsorbed absorption

First Glucose and Active transport Coiled and low

convoluted/proxi most salts Osmosis speed = increase
mal tubule 80% of water surface area

Loop of Henle Remaining water Osmosis Looped to

increase surface
area

Second More salts Active transport Coiled and low

convoluted/proxi More water Osmosis speed = increase
mal tubule surface area

Collecting Duct More water as Osmosis Long to increase

needed surface area

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Control of Water Reabsorption: ADH

Depending on the activity, water has to be reabsorbed at a bigger or smaller
quantity in order to supply a person's needs.
This is ensured by the hormone ADH (AntiDiuretic Hormone) which is
produced by the pituitary gland in the brain.
When present, ADH makes the wall of the collecting tubule (renal ducts) more
permeable to water so that more water is absorbed into the bloodstream
rather than excreted in urine.

Production of ADH
● ADH is produced if water needs to be reabsorbed into the bloodstream.
○ This can be due to hot weather (as water is lost from sweat) or
dehydration.
○ This results in less, more concentrated urine (darker) as less
water diluted it since a lot of it was reabsorbed.

● No ADH is produced if there is excess water, so there is no need for extra

absorption of water in the bloodstream
○ This can be due to cold weather or excess water consumption
(hydrated).
○ This results in more, less concentrated urine (pale yellow) as more
water diluted it.

The concentration of urine can also depend on the temperature (hot = sweat =
more conc., cold = no sweat = dilute) and water intake.

On a hot day, water is lost by the body by sweating. This triggers the release of
ADH into the blood which makes the renal duct more permeable. This
increases water resorption, which reduces the amount of water excreted in
urine. However, on a cold day, no ADH is produced so this allows the water to
pass out of the collecting duct making the urine more dilute.

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Different Substances in Different Blood Vessels

Renal Artery Filtrate Renal Vein Urine

Glucose Present Present Not present -

bad if
Amino Acids Present Present
present

Salts Present Present Present

Water All present as Present Present Present

all enter
Urea kidney to be Present Not present - Present
filtered toxic

RBC’s Not present Present - Not present

as too big to bypass
Proteins Not present
fit glomerulus
and jump to
renal vein

Waste Substances Filtered/Removed by the Kidney

The kidney removes and filters various substances, including:

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Kidney Failure and the Kidney Machine

If the kidneys fail to work properly, waste products which are usually excreted
in urine will not be removed from a person's blood which can lead to blood
poisoning. This can kill a person.

The Kidney Machine - Dialysis

Dialysis is a method of treating people whose kidneys are not functioning
properly.
● Blood is passed via a semi-permeable tube through dialysis fluid.
● This fluid contains water with salts and glucose in the right
concentrations that are required by the blood.
● The absence of a concentration gradient prevents salts and glucose
from being lost.
● Urea and other waste products pass out by diffusion.
● In this way, the blood is cleaned and returned to the patient.

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The Liver
The liver is a reddish-brown organ (largest of the body - excluding skin) which
is located at the top of the abdomen just below the diaphragm. The liver is a
necessary organ for healthy life as it carries out various important processes.
A number of blood vessels are associated with the liver, these include:
● Hepatic Artery - carries blood to the liver from (away) the heart
● Hepatic Vein - carries blood away from the liver to the heart
● Hepatic Portal Vein - carries nutrient rich blood to the liver from the
small intestine

Functions of the Liver

The liver is involved in a large number of chemical reactions that help the body
function properly.
Its functions include:
● Storage of food substances
● Regulation of blood sugar
● Production of bile
● Demaination
● Manufacture of plasma proteins
● Detoxification

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● Breakdown of red blood cells

● Heat production

Storage of Food Substances

The liver stores a number of substances, amongst which are:
● Glycogen that has been converted from excess glucose in the blood.
● Fat-soluble vitamins A and D.
● Iron left over from hemoglobin of worn-out red blood cells.

Regulation of Blood Sugar

Blood glucose levels are controlled by a negative feedback mechanism
involving the production of two hormones – insulin and glucagon. These are
produced in the pancreas.

The excess glucose in the blood needs to be taken up by cells and stored as
glycogen. The hormone insulin causes this to happen when glucose levels in
blood are too high.

The hormone glucagon converts glycogen into glucose (the reverse reaction)
when the glucose level in the blood is too low.

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Type 1 diabetes is a condition where the blood glucose levels are not able to be
regulated as the insulin-secreting cells in the pancreas are not able to
produce insulin. This means that blood glucose levels are often far too high.

Production of Bile
Bile is continuously made in the liver cells to emulsify fats (increase surface
area for lipase). After being made in the liver, it is stored in the gallbladder.
Bile contains bile salts which emulsify fats and bile pigments which give the
faces a brown colour.

Deamination of Amino Acids

Extra amino acids resulting from excess protein in a diet cannot be stored in
the liver so they are converted into carbohydrates by the removal of the amino
group. The amino group (-NH2) of an amino acid is removed, together with an
extra hydrogen atom. The molecule which contains carbon is stored as
glycogen. This process is called deamination.

The resulting ammonia (NH3) formed is highly toxic and cannot be left to build
up in the blood, so it is converted into urea, which is less toxic.

This urea is transferred to the kidneys by the blood and excreted in urine.

Deamination of an amino acids to produce ammonia (converted into urine)

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Manufacture of Plasma Proteins

The liver makes most of the proteins which are found in blood plasma.
Fibrinogen, which is made in the liver, is a protein which is important for blood
clothing.

Detoxification
The liver converts various toxic materials into harmless substances which are
then safely excreted by the kidneys.
These toxins include:
● Waste products of bacteria in large intestine
● Drugs and other medicines
● Unwanted hormones

Breakdown of Red Blood Cells

Since red blood cells stop functioning properly (efficiently transporting
oxygen) after about 4 months, they have to be broken down in the liver.
The unwanted haemoglobin (contents of rbc) is broken down into pigments
and iron which is stored. The pigments (biliverdin and bilirubin) are mixed with
bile and excreted with faes, which gives the faces their characteristic brown
colour.

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Heat Production
All the chemical reactions taking place in the liver release heat which is then
distributed around the body by circulating blood which helps in maintaining a
constant body temperature.

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