BIOLOGY NOTES

Year 10 - Track 3

Kayden Grech

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Biology Y10 T3 – Study Notes Kayden Grech

Index:

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 Biology Y10 T3 – Study Notes Kayden Grech

Topic 1.A: Chemicals of Life

Animals get chemicals needed for life by eating and plants absorb them from
the soil. These chemicals are needed for energy, growth and repair and staying
healthy.

Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide

Simplest version of
carbohydrates

Can combine Formed when Formed when many

together with
condensation and
create a disaccharide
Ex. Fructose &
galactose
This occurs as both are
easily soluble in water
(readily soluble)
monosaccharides combine monosaccharides
together with condensation combine together
Glucose +glucose = Maltose Glycogen = food storage Polysacc
Glucose + fructose = Sucrose (table substance in animals. harides
sugar) Starch = food storage in are not
Glucose + galactose = Lactose (found plants readily
in milk) Cellulose = in plant cell
soluble
walls
Chitin = exoskeleton of in water
arthropods and fungal cell
walls

Functions of Carbohydrates:
 Energy supply:
- Glucose supplies 17kj/g when respired
- Carbohydrates are the first to be used as an energy supply
 Storage
- Glucose is stored as starch in plants and as glycogen in animals and
fungi.
- Starch and glycogen are insoluble which does not create problems
with osmosis. (unlike glucose)
- A large amount of glucose is changed into fat for storage.
 Structural

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- Cellulose supports the wall by forming a rigid cells wall in plants

- Humans cannot digest cellulose so it is used as fibre which helps food
move along gut.
 Origin of other organic molecules
 Used to build other chemicals (eg. Sugar + nitrate = amino acid
(building blocks of protein)

Sources of carbohydrates include: milk, cheese, biscuits, sweets, chocolates, butter,

honey, bread paste, potatoes and cereal.

Lipids (fats and oils)

Consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Can be obtained from animals (saturated) and plants. (unsaturated)
Saturated fat tends to build up in blood vessels which make them narrower resulting in the
heart needing to pump harder to circulate blood which can increase the chance for a heart
attack.

Functions of Lipids
 Energy supply
- Lipids supply 39kj/g when respired and start to be used when
carbohydrates are not available.
 Storage
- Lipids are important in animals who fly, migrate and hibernate as
they suffer from lack of food for a long time and therefor need an
efficient way of storing food.
- Lipids are better than carbohydtrates because more energy per gram
is stored.
 Structural
- Lipids form part of the structure of cell membranes and nuclear
membranes
 Heat insulation
- Subcutaneous fat is stored under the skin in mammals and acts as an
insulator and helps to maintain a constant body temperature
 Waterproofing
- Skin, fur and feathers made waterproof by oily screations (birds
feathers do not get wet)

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 Buoyancy
- Fish have fats which help them to keep afloat without too much
effort
 Protection
- It is stored around certain internal organs which protects them from
pjyscial damage.
 Source of water
- In cases where no drinking wate ris present (eg. Desert animals –
camel), water is obtained from the burning of fat, which releases a
large ammount of water.

Sources of lipids include: meat, milk, cheese, butter and egg-yoke.

Proteins
Proteins include Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitorgen (sulphur and
phosphorus may also be present)
Proteins consist of chains of simpler chemicals called amino acids:

The Radical is the only part which is different from once amino acid to another
(there are about 20 different amino acids) which can combine together in
different ways to form an infinite number of proteins.
Two amino acids can link up together (peptide bond) to form a dipeptide.
 A tripeptide would have three amino acids
 A longer chain of amino acids is called a polypeptide

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A protein is a polypetide with a particular shape which is a result of cross-

linkages (chemical bonds) being formed between non-consecutive amino
acids.

Heating a protein beyond 50°C causes the cross linkages between it to break
down and the protein becomes denatured (it loses its normal shape). Its
properties will chance and its function will be affected.

Eg. Albumen, the protein found in egg-white, changes from a clear runny liquid to a solid white
when heated.

Denaturing a protein is irriversible

Once it happens the protein cannot get back its original shape and it will lead
to the cells death.

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Functions of Proteins
Energy supply Structural Movement Catalysts Hormones
- Proteins - Proteins form - Varies - Enzymes - Hormones are
supply 18Kj/g main structures structures which control chemicals that
when respired of an related to chemical regulate the
- They are organismim’s movmemtn are reactions inside metabolismof
important in body and are all made up of of cells are are the body (eg.
carnivorse as needed for proteins (eg. proteins Insulin which is
their diet growth and Muscles, a protein)
contains a large repair of worn tendors and
ammount of out/damaged ligaments)
protein tissue
Sources of Proteins
Mostly found in lean mean, egg-white, beans, fish, milk & milk products

Food Tests
Food tests are performed to find out which nutrients are present.

Testing for Carbohydrates (1) – Reducing Sugars

Reducing sugars include monosacharides eg. Glucose / disaccharides eg.
Maltose

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Testing for Carbohydrates (2) – Starch

Testing for Proteins – Biuret Test

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Topic 1.B: Chemicals of Life

Vitamins
Vitamans are needed in small quantities and are essential for health. Plants
make their own vitamins in the leaves while animals find them in other plants
or animals.
Vitamin Vitamin A – Retinol Vitamin C – Vitamin D - Calciferol
& Carotene Ascorbic Acid
Sources Fish liver oil, liver,
cheese,butter Citrus fruits ex.
Carrots, red Oranges & Fish liver oil, butter,
peppers, fresh green lemons milk,cheese.
leaves
Functions & Important for our Keeps innerlining
Notes eyes as it protects of our body
their surface and healthy and Helps with absorption of
helps us see in dim cannot be stored calcium from intestine
light. Too much of in the body so and deposition of
this vitain can be daily intake is calcium salt in bones.
toxic and it is stored required.
in the liver in
humans.
Deficiency Fibres in
diseases and Poor night vision connective tissue Softening of bones

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symptoms of skin and blood

vessels do not
form correctly
resulting in
bleeding of skin
at the joints and
thr gums. This is
called scurvy.

A chemical substance which controls

the speed of the reaction without
going under any change itself.
Enzymes
An enzyme is a biological catalyst. It controls the speed of the reaction without
going under any chance itself.
Most enzymes are huge protein molecules.

The active site is a small area on an enzyme where the reaction takes place.
Enzymes are highly specific and they only work with one type of chemical
reactions. The lock and key mechanism allows this to happen. The substarte
fits into ezyme at active site like a key in a lock.

Enzymes can be re-used as they are not changed by a reaction.

Functions of enzymes:

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o Animals use enzymes in their digestive system to break down food into
simpler components.
o Plants use enzymes to build their food by utilizing sunlight as energy.

Many enzymes are involved in reactions that build molecules  anabolic enzymes

Other break down chemical substances into smaller parts  catabolic enzymes

this is why
organisms may
be killed if put
in too hot
enviorments
 Enzymes are effected by temperature. A rise in temperature speeds up
the reaction while a fall in temperature slows down the reaction

 Enzymes stop working at above 50°C because their shape is changed 

become denatured

 If enzymes are exposed to low temperatures  become deactivated

 The best temperature for enzymes to work at is 40°C  optimum

temperature
Enzymes and pH

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Most enzymes have a specific pH at which they work the best at  optimum
pH
Enzymes work the best at pH 7 inside cells
Industrial/Economic use of Enzymes
They are cheap They do not need high Enzymes can be re-used
temp. to work therefore so only small ammounts
reduce fuel costs are needed

Topic 2: Holozoic Nutrition

The build-up of
food from inorganic Feeding on organic
chemicals compounds present in
other living organisms
(host)

Light provides Inorganic

energy for reactions provide
organic energy for organic
synthesis synthesis

Feeding on solid organic Feeding on soluble

material obtained from organic compounds
other organisms obtained from dead
organisms (fungi and
bacteria feed this way)

o The process of digestion changes insoluble carbohydtrates to soluble

ones so that they can be used by the body.
o This is done by the digestive system  mechanical & chemical action

o Carbohydrates  monosaccharides

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o Lipids  fatty acids & glycerol

o Proteins  amino acids
broken down into

Different phases in holozoic nutrition

Ingestion
Digestion
intake of food
into mouth - Absorption
food is chewed chemical
and broken breakdown of Assimilation
large, insolbule uptake of
down into soluble food Egestion
smaller peices olecules into substances
uptake and use
so that it is smaller soluble of soluble food
ones so that from small
easier to substances by removal of any
food can pass intestine to undigested
swallow and cells of
blood
has more SA into the blood body/liver food (cellulose
for enzyme for plants,
action forms feaces)

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Peristalsis is the movement of the bolus down the oesophagus and the gut) by
wave like contractions

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3 ways ileum is efficient in its job:

 Large SA: long, highly folded, villi, micro villi – diffusion is more efficient.
 1 cell thick lining – short diffusion distance
 Efficient transport system: rich capillary network + lymphatic system

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Chemicals released by the digestive system:

 SALIVA is released at the salivary glands (acts in mouth) and its
function is to make the food soft and slippery so it slides easily
through the throat. Contains water & mucus

 GASTRIC JUICE is released in the gastric glands (acts in stomach)

and its function is to break down proteins (pepsin) with the help
of HCL which provides the necessary pH and the Mucus protects
the inner lining of the stomach.

 BILE is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder and
acts in the duodenum. It contains Bile salts which are not enzymes
but act on fat in the duodenum breaking it down into small
droplets, this is called emulsification

 PANCREATIC JUICE is produced in the pancreas (acts in the

duodenum) and its uses it’s amylase to break down starch, trypsin
breaks protein down into polypeptides, lipase acts on fats and
sodium bicarbonate neutralizes acidity produced by the stomach.

 INTESTINAL JUICE acts in the ileum and contains maltase, sucrose

and peptidases which break up the remaining maltase, sucrose
and peptidases into maltose, sucrose and amino acids.

Emulsification is the breakdown of complex, insoluble fat globules by BILE

into simpler, soluble fat droplets to increase SA for lipase to work on

Herbivores & Carnivores

Herbivores have two problems with their diet:
1. Nutrients found in plants are enclosed within the cellulose cell wall so
the cell wall must be broken open to release them  solved by specially
adapted teeth
2. Cellulose itself has to be digested by an enzyme animals do not produce
(cellulose)  solved by adaptation of stomach/caecum/appendix

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DENTITION OF CARNIVORES, OMNIVORES & HERBIVORES

Type of teeth Canines Premolars Molars

Shape Chisel Dagger Broad tops with bumpy

surfaces
Function Cutting & Stabbing & tearing Grinding/crushing/slicing
gnawing food food food
Number 2 1 2 3

Carnivores Pointed incisors Large, pointed Last upper premolars and

for nibbling canines used for first lower molar (carnissal
meat from piercing skin and teeth) are flattened
bones tearing flesh sideways so that they
slide past each other and
scrape flesh off bones
(scissor action)
Omnivores Flat incisors for Small canines Premolars & Molars
biting all type (cheek teeth) with round
of food tops for chewing

Herbivores Horny pad No Canines. A large Very large premolars &

instead of gap called a molars with enamel ridges
upper incisors. diastema is at top which can move
Lower flattened present which sideways  circular
incisors act like allows the tongue grinding movement
pincers against to manipulate food
it. (used for easily
cropping grass)

Ruminants & Non-Ruminants

Ruminants  cows, sheep and other browsing animals  large stomach
consisting of 4 chambers: rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum.
Non-ruminants  rabbits  only 1 stomach chamber  large caecum and
appendix

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The Liver
BLOOD VESSELS ASSOCIATED WITH THE LIVER

Hepatic Artery Hepatic Vein Hepatic Portal Vein

Carries blood to the liver from Carries blood away from Carries nutrient-rich blood to the
to heart the liver to the heart liver from the small intestine.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER

Regulation Storage of Production Deamination Manufacture Detoxificatio
of Blood Food of Bile of Plasma n
Sugar Substances Proteins

Excess Extra amino acids The liver

glucose is The liver from excess protein converts
taken up by stores cannot be stored in The liver toxic
cells and glycogen, Bile is being the liver so they are makes most materials
stored as fat-soluble made in liver converted into proteins into
glycogen. vitamin A cells and is carbohydrates by found in harmless
This is and D and stored in gall removal of the blood plasma substances
possible iron bladder amino group. This is (ex. Fibrinogen and are then
because of (left over from called Deamination. – imp. for blood excreted by
haemoglobin The produced ammonia clothing)
the the kidneys
of worn-out is toxic so its converted
hormone (ex. unwanted
red blood to urea (liver) and
insulin hormones,
cells) excreted in urine.
drugs)
(pancreas)

Topic 3: Energy and Respiration

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Respiration is the chemical breakdown of food to release energy

not the same

Breathing is the inhaling (taking in) and exhaling (giving out)

vs

Types of Respiration

AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIARTION

Uses oxygen Does not use oxygen

Glucose is completely broken down to form CO2 Glucose is incompletely broken down. No
and H2O oxygen is used.

In plants this is called fermentation and

alcohol and C02 are formed

Glucose  Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide + Energy

Glucose + Oxygen  Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
In animals, lactic acid is formed
Abbreviation: gocwe, gece, gle
(lactic acid is a slight toxin, when your cells can’t keep
up, they respire anaerobically thus you feel muscle
pain)

Glucose  Lactic Energy + Energy

Most efficient Less energy is released so it is less efficient

Produces 38 ATP molecules per glucose molecule Produces 2 ATP molecules per glucose
molecule

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The Chemical Process of Respiration

Aerobic Anaerobic

Mitochondria  power-house of the cell

The second stage of respiration takes place in the mitochondria. They collect at
sites within the cell where there isn’t oxygen.

ATP: The Energy Molecule

The energy released when glucose is oxidised is not used directly and is stored
in another chemical. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide which acts
as the energy molecule.

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Alcoholic Fermentation Process:

 These processes rely on anaerobic respiration of sugar performed by

yeasts.

 Beer and Brewing: Made from variety of cereal grains such as barley,
wheat, oats and rice, which all contain starch that cannot be fermented
directly so it has to be changed into maltose by allowing the seeds to
germinate.

 Whisky and other Spirits: The fermentation process is stretched and

then the alcohol is distilled off to increase its percentage.

 Wines: Made by extracting juice from fruit and allowing the yeast that is
found naturally on the surface of the fruit to ferment sugar to alcohol.
Oxygen or bacteria and fungi can change alcohol to ethanoic acid.

Baking
 Yeasts added to dough to make it rise  enzymes in flour convert flour-
starch to sugar  yeast then ferments sugar  carbon dioxide forms
remains trapped as bubbles inside dough and bubbles expand during
baking

Yoghurt and Butter

 Made by adding selected bacteria to pasteurised milk in order to
ferment it and then warm milk + bacteria is poured into containers and
capped. Then preservatives like sugar and flavouring may be added and
it is held at 44°C which will grow bacteria and it will multiply and
produce lactic acid that thickens milk.

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Anaerobic Respiration in Humans

Anaerobic respiration can occur in human during strenuous exercise.
This happens when the breathing rate is not fast enough to supply oxygen and
the circulatory system is not efficient enough to get oxygen to muscles.
This results in the muscles obtaining energy by anaerobic respiration
This results in lactic acid build up in muscles  causes muscle fatigue

When the exercise stops, the lactic acid is removed by the circulatory
system and it is changed into carbon dioxide and water in the liver. This
process needs oxygen so the demand for oxygen increases for some time
after the exercise has stopped. This is known as the Oxygen Debt.
Glucose = Lactic Acid

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Topic 4: Gaseous Exchange

Gaseous Exchange is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide that

takes place between an organism and its surroundings

Respiration  oxygen taken up and carbon dioxide removed

Photosynthesis  carbon dioxide taken up and oxygen removed

Gaseous Exchange occurs by simple diffusion, from a high conc. to a low conc.

Gaseous Exchange in Protists

Small organisms like the amoeba can exchange gasses by simple diffusion as
their SA:VOL is large enough to handle their needs.  CO2 and O2 only have
short travel distances  no special transport systems required
O2 is at low concentration (used up in respiration)  diffuses into organism for
higher concentration outside
CO2 is at high concentration (waste product of respiration)  diffuses
outwards

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Large SA:VOL RATIO +

thin, semi-permeable
cell membrane for
Gaseous Exchange in Insects easy diffusion

Insects have a smaller SA:VOL than protists so only a small part of body cells
make contact with exterior.
Since insects are very active they need large amounts of oxygen and must
eliminated large amounts of carbon dioxide. Diffusion is not enough on its
own.
To counter this they have a Tracheal System  a system hundreds of
breathing tubes through which oxygen and carbon dioxide can pass

Spiracle is like an automatic

door

No air = closed

Air = open

This is for them not to

looser air and prevent
pathogens from entering

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The process of gaseous exchange in insects (small)

Air enters body
through small air
holes (spiracles) in
exoskeleton along
sides of body
The tracheae
Each spiracle leads branch into
to the trachea smaller and finer
Each spirascle has which is lined with tubes called
a valve that can hard cuticle that tracheloes. These
open and close prevents them haven thin walls
from collapsing that are NOT lined
due to pressure with cuticle for
easy diffusion

The process of gaseous exchange in large insects – ventilation

Ventilation is achieved by repeated compressions of the abdomen

Compression of abdomen = Relaxation of abdomen = air

air being forced out is sucked in
Volume decreases  pressure Volume increase  pressure
increases  air is pushed out decreases  air is sucked in

Summary:
1. Large SA is provided by branching tracheoles
2. Thin epithelium of tracheoles allows easy diffusion
3. A ventilation system helps air move in and out
4. There is a thin layer of moisture on the inner sides of the trachea to
dissolve gasses for gaseous exchange

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Gaseous Exchange in Fish

Bodies of fish are too large for diffusion alone to be enough so they use two
systems for gaseous exchange

ventilation system transport system

A pumping system which A circulatory system
forces water through mouth

Fish have gills which are specifically adapted respiratory surfaces that allow
gaseous exchange between blood and surrounding water

acts as valve during ventilation

Increase surface area for diffusion

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Ventilation in Fish

Summary:
1. Large SA provided by many gill filaments
2. Wall of gill filaments are 1 cell thick for easy diffusion
3. Ventilation system helps water to move in and out over the gills
4. Rich blood supply ensures transport of O2 and CO2

Gaseous Exchange in Flowering Plants

Plants obtain their oxygen from the surrounding air and photosynthesis
Gaseous exchange occurs mostly in leaves:
 Thin lamina to reduce diffusion distance
 Stomata to allow gases to enter and leave the leaf
 Air spaces inside leaf to allow air to circulate

Oxygen from photosynthesis

 Is a cycle
 Products of each process
are used as raw materials
for other processes

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Respiration in plants occurs at a constant rate while photosynthesis occurs

during daytime and varies with environmental conditions (light)

When the rate of respiration equals to the rate of photosynthesis, the plant is
in its compensation point
The amount of glucose used is equal to the amount formed and no gases are
liberated or taken up from surrounding air

Summary:
1. Stomata and air spaces allow diffusion of gasses
2. Gasses need to diffuse across a thin membrane of cells
3. Layer of moisture inside the spongy mesophyll allows gasses to
dissolve
4. Short distance to palisade cells where gases are used

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Gaseous Exchange in Humans

Humans need a specialized respiratory surface because they have a small
SA:VOL and they are adapted to terrestrial life which gives them dry skin
(difficult to absorb gasses through the skin since it’s not moist)

How does the filtering

system in humans work?

Mucus traps incoming

pathogens and particles and
cilia beat upwards to push
mucus towards the mouth

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Ventilation of the Lungs

Inhaling (inspiration)

Diaphram muscles
contract and pull
down lungs
lungs increase in
volume > decrease in
pressure > air is
sucked in
Exhaling (expiration)
Thoracic cavity is
Intercostal muscles
expanded a(and
contract and pull rib
lungs) so that air is
cage upwards and
sucked in through
outwards
nose and mouth

Diaphram muscles
relax allowing
diaphram and lungs Intercostal muscles
to move upwards relax and allow the The lungs force the
rib cage to move air out (elastic
lungs decrease in down under its own material)
volume > increase in weight
pressure > air is
pumped out

Gaseous Exchange in Alveoli

Dark colour as in
no oxygen

Deoxygenated blood is carried to the

lungs via the pulmonary artery. This
blood is low in O2 and high in CO2

Oxygenated Blood is carried to the

heart via the pulmonary vein. This
blood is high in O2 and low in CO2

Colour turns
bright red due
to oxygen
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Summary:
1. Large SA is provided by many alveoli
2. Walls of alveoli are 1 cell thick to allow easy diffusion
3. Ventilation system helps air move in and out of the alveoli
4. A rich supply of blood to ensure transport of O2 and CO2
5. A thin layer of moisture on the inside of the alveoli helps gases diffuse easily

General Characteristics of Respiratory Surfaces

 Large Surface Area: maximum diffusion

 Thin Layer: easier diffusion and/or short diffusion distance

 Ventilation: continuous movement of air on outer side of respiratory

surface ensures that the concentration gradients for both O 2 and CO2 are
maintained.

 Moisture: surface has thin layer of moisture which allows gasses to

dissolve before diffusion occurs

Health Hazards linked to Breathing

 Bronchitis: inflammation of bronchial tubes
 Tracheitis: inflammation of the trachea
 Laryngitis: inflammation of the larynx (voice box)
Diseases caused by Smoking
 Emphysema: repeated coughing causes delicate walls of alveoli to break
down which means less surface area is available for gaseous exchange
 shortness of breath

 Chronic Bronchitis: when a person smokes some small particles of

smoke get trapped in the lining of the trachea and bronchi which leads
to extra mucus being produced (bacteria get trapped in mucus) which
makes the cilia stop beating. If tubes become infected, a person may get
chronic bronchitis.

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