Grade 10 12 Biology Notes Nutrition

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ECZ GRADE 10 - 12 BIOLOGY SUMMARISED
NOTES (NUTRITION)
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G10 TO G12 BIOLOGY
ESKULU ZM 6/15/19
(NUTRITION) NOTES
Content
UNIT 2: NUTRITION------------------------------------------------------------------------------3
2.1.1 INTRODUCTION ABOUT NUTRIENTS------------------------------------------------3
2.1.2 CARBOHYDRATES------------------------------------------------------------------------3
2.1.3 LIPIDS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.1.4 CONDENSATION REACTION-----------------------------------------------------------5
2.1.5 PROTEINS----------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
2.1.6 DESCRIPTION OF FOOD TESTS--------------------------------------------------------7
2.1.7 MINERAL SALTS AND VITAMINS -----------------------------------------------------8
2.1.8 ROUHAGES (DIETARY FIBRES) AND WATER---------------------------------------11
2.1.9 BALANCED DIET--------------------------------------------------------------------------11
2.1.10 TYPES OF NUTRITION------------------------------------------------------------------13
2.2.1 NUTRITION IN PLANTS-------------------------------------------------------------------15
2.2.2 PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS-------------------------------------------------------15
2.2.3 PHOTOSYNTHESIS EXPERIMENTS-----------------------------------------------------17
2.2.4 MINERAL REQUIREMENTS--------------------------------------------------------------21
2.2.5 FATE OF GLUCOSE------------------------------------------------------------------------23
2.2.6 FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS--------------------------------------------24
2.2.7 STRUCTURE OF A LEAF------------------------------------------------------------------26
2.2.8 ADAPTATION OF A LEAF FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS----------------------------------29
2.2.9 IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN THE ECOSYSTEM-----------------------30
2.3.1 FEEDING PROCESSES IN THE ALIMENTARY CANAL------------------------------31
2.3.2 OVERVIEW OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL IN HUMANS---------------------------31
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2.3.2 OVERVIEW OF ALIMENTARY CANAL IN HUMAN---------------------------------

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2.3.3 PERISTALSIS AND EMULSIFICATION--------------------------------------------------34
2.3.4 CHEMICAL DIGESTION------------------------------------------------------------------36
2.3.5 THE SMALL INTESTINE------------------------------------------------------------------37
2.3.6 DIGESTION OF PROTEIN----------------------------------------------------------------38
2.3.7 DIGESTION OF STARCH-----------------------------------------------------------------39
2.3.8 THE LIVER----------------------------------------------------------------------------------39
2.3.9 MECHANICAL DIGESTION --------------------------------------------------------------43
2.3.10 DENTITION--------------------------------------------------------------------------------45
2.3.11 TOOTH DECAY----------------------------------------------------------------------------46
2.4.1 SAPROPHYTIC NUTRITION--------------------------------------------------------------47
2.4.2 IMPORTANCE OF SAPROPHYTIC NUTRITION--------------------------------------49
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UNIT 2: NUTRITION
Classes of nutrients in human
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION ABOUT NUTRIENTS
a. Nutrients are essential to living organisms. Eaten in the right amounts and
types, it leads to good health. A diet, which contains sufficient nutrients can
be said to be a balanced diet.
When a diet does not have enough nutrients, it is said to be deficient.

Dietary deficiency means the lack of nutrients and leads to several diseases.
b. Nutrients serve to one or more of the following:

i. Supply energy
ii. Promote body growth
iii. Regulate body functions
iv. Repair damaged tissues
c. Nutrients can be classified into seven; carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,

vitamins, mineral salts, water and roughage. (dietary fibre)
1.1.2 CARBOHYDRATES
 They contain elements of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 1 : 2 : 1
 They can be obtained from potatoes, rice, honey, sugar cane, etc.
 They are made up of basic unit called monosaccharide, which are soluble in
water and taste sweet. Disaccharides are formed by a combination of three
or more monosaccharides. They are insoluble in water and do not taste
sweet.
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 General usages of carbohydrates are to provide energy. The energy helps

to maintain body temperature and is used in metabolic reactions of the
body.
Carbohydrate Examples Sources Uses

1. Monosaccharide Glucose Honey To provide energy
(simple sugar) Fructose Fruits during respiration
Galactose Milk and to be converted
into glycogen for
storage.
2. Disaccharide Sucrose Sugar cane Breakdown into
(complex sugar) Maltose Beetroot monosaccharides
Lactose Milk and excess is stored
as fats
3. Polysaccharide Starch Potatoes Store energy for
(complex sugar) plants
Glycogen Bread Store energy for

animals
Cellulose Cereal Material of cell wall
1.1.3 LIPIDS
 Lipids are organic compounds that include fats, oils waxes and steroids.
Typically, lipids do not dissolve in water.
 Lipids are primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Some lipids
contain phosphorous.
 Fats are compounds made up of combinations of two types of basic units,

fatty acids and glycerol. This combination is also an example of
condensation reactions. Fats include the compounds called oils that are
liquid at room temperature. Fats are used for energy storage and heat
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insulation in adipose layer under skin.
 Phospholipids are lipids that contain phosphorous in the form of

phosphate. Phospholipids are major components of cell membrane.
Phospholipids help control the movement of materials in and out of cells.
 Steroids are lipids composed of four-linked rings of carbon atoms, e.g.

cholesterol and vitamin D. Cholesterol is a major component of animal cell
membrane. Vitamin D is a modified steroid. Some steroids are hormones
(which are special chemicals produced in one part of a body that control
the function of other parts of the body).
 Waxes are compounds composed of fatty acids and certain alcohols. They
are solid at room temperature. A waxy coating helps to make many
organisms waterproof.
1.1.4 CONDENSATION REACTION

 Chemical reactions in which small molecules such as water are released
when simple molecules are called condensation reactions.
 The following diagram illustrates a condensation reaction.
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1.1.5 PROTEINS
 They contain elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, and in
some cases sulphur and phosphorous.
 They can be obtained from lean meat, fish, eggs milk, cheese, soya beans
and cereals.
 They are made up of basic units called amino acids. Dipeptide is formed by
a combination of three or more amino acids. The polypeptide coils and
folds to form a protein molecule, then acquires the specific function.
 Functions of proteins:
i. Movement
ii. Structure of cells and tissues
iii. Metabolism
iv. Transport
v. Regulation
vi. Defence
 Lack of proteins leads to Kwashiorkor.

Signs of Kwashiorkor:
i. Retarded physical and mental growth
ii. Loss of weight
iii. Scanty brown hair
iv. Constant diarrhoea
 Lack of body building nutrients (proteins) and the lack of energy giving
nutrients (carbohydrates and lipids) leads to Marasmus
The following are some signs of marasmus, generally called Protein-
Carbohydrate-Malnutrition (PCM)
i. Underweight and under size for one’s age.

ii. Skin hanging in folds (loosen skin).
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iii. Very poor appetite.

iv. Child has “little old man’s face.”
1.1.6 DESCRIPTION OF FOOD TESTS
Testing for Proteins:
Testing for Fats:
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1.1.7 MINERAL SALTS AND VITAMINS

 Mineral salts are inorganic chemical elements, while vitamins are organic
compounds.
 Both are required on small quantities for the regulation of body processes.
 They are not stored in the body and quickly used or lost.
 In vitamins, there are water-soluble vitamins (B and C) and fat-soluble

vitamin (A, D, E and K)
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Nutrient Function Some Sources Deficiency

Thiamine (vitamin Part of an enzyme needed for energy cereals, legumes, Wasting of muscle
B1) metabolism; important to nerve function nuts and seeds Beriberi (shortness of breath, and leg swelling)
Riboflavin(vitamin Part of an enzyme needed for energy Milk and milk Ariboflavinosis (sore mouth, ulcers, anemia and fatigue )
B2) metabolism; important for normal vision products; leafy
and skin health green vegetables
Niacin (vitamin B3) Part of an enzyme needed for energy Meat, poultry, Pellagra (inflammation of the skin (dermatitis), vomiting,
metabolism; important for nervous fish, mushrooms diarrhea, headache, fatigue, and memory loss)
system, digestive system, and skin health
Pyridoxine (vitamin Part of an enzyme needed for protein Meat, fish, Poor growth and anemia.
B6) metabolism; helps make red blood cells vegetables, fruits
Cobalamin (vitamin Part of an enzyme needed for making fish, seafood, Weakness, memory trouble and fatigue.
B12) new cells; important to nerve function eggs, milk; not
found in plant
foods
Ascorbic acid Antioxidant; part of an enzyme needed Citrus fruits, Scurvy (connective tissue defects
(vitamin C) for protein metabolism; important for peppers, (e.g. gingivitis, internal bleeding, impaired wound healing.))
immune system health; aids in iron tomatoes.
absorption
Retinol (Vitamin A) it is important for growth and Cod liver oil and Night blindness, dry skin and frequent infections
development, for the maintenance of Eggs.
the immune system and good vision.
Vitamin D To absorb calcium and help keep bones Sunlight and fish. Fatigue, muscle weakness and
strong and healthy. increased risk of death from cardiovascular disease
Vitamin K for complete synthesis of certain Spinach and Easily getting bruised and
(Phylloquinone) proteins that are needed for blood parsley. sudden bleeding in the brain of babies.
clotting and which the body also needs
for controlling binding of calcium in
bones and other tissues.
Vitamin E Prevents oil from oxidation. It is Vegetable oil nerve problems. (although very rare)
(tocopherol) important to vision, reproduction, and
the health of your blood, brain and skin.
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Macro minerals:
Minerals Function Sources Deficiency

Calcium Important for healthy bones and Milk and milk products; Rickets (children)
teeth; helps muscles relax and canned fish with bones Soft bones
contract; important in nerve (salmon, sardines); fortified
functioning, blood clotting, tofu and fortified soy
blood pressure regulation, beverage; greens (broccoli,
immune system health mustard greens); legumes
Phosphorus Important for healthy bones and Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, Weakness
teeth; found in every cell; part of milk, processed foods Soft bones
the system that maintains acid- (including soda pop)
base balance
Magnesium Found in bones; needed for Nuts and seeds; legumes; Poor coordination, muscle
making protein, muscle leafy, green vegetables; spasms and loss of appetite.
contraction, nerve transmission, seafood; chocolate;
immune system health artichokes; "hard" drinking
water
Micro minerals:
Mineral Function Sources Deficiency
Iron Part of a molecule (hemoglobin) Organ meats; red meats; fish; poultry; Too few healthy red blood cells
found in red blood cells that shellfish (especially clams); egg yolks; in the body (anemia )
carries oxygen in the body; needed legumes; dried fruits; dark, leafy greens;
for energy metabolism iron-enriched breads and cereals; and
fortified cereals
Zinc Part of many enzymes; needed for Meats, fish, poultry, leavened whole Growth retardation, loss of
making protein and genetic grains, vegetables appetite, and impaired immune
material; has a function in taste function.
perception, wound healing, normal
fetal development, production of
sperm, normal growth and sexual
maturation, immune system health
Iodine Found in thyroid hormone, which Seafood, foods grown in iodine-rich soil, Goiter
helps regulate growth, iodized salt, bread, dairy products
development, and metabolism
Copper Part of many enzymes; needed for Legumes, nuts and seeds, whole grains, iron deficiency anemia, fatigue
iron metabolism organ meats, drinking water and weakness
Manganese Part of many enzymes Widespread in foods, especially plant impaired growth, impaired
foods reproductive function, skeletal
abnormalities
Fluoride Involved in formation of bones and Drinking water (either fluoridated or fractured hips in the elderly,
teeth; helps prevent tooth decay naturally containing fluoride), fish, and tooth decay
most teas
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1.1.8 ROUHAGES (DIETARY FIBRES) AND WATER

 Roughages consist of carbohydrates, mainly cellulose and lignin found in
plants. They are not digested in the human body. The sources of roughages
are fruits, vegetables, bread and cereals. The functions of roughage are to
stimulate peristalsis through the alimentary canal and to prevent
constipation. Constipation is the condition of having difficulty emptying
your bowels. It may result colic cancer.
 Water is the most important substance in living things. Water makes up

60 – 70% of body weight. Water can be lost in urine, sweating and
breathing. If lost water is not replaced, the body gets dehydrated.
Function Mode of action

Transport Main constituent of blood and tissue fluid
Medium for transport of nutrients, hormones and wastes
Reactions Solvent for chemical reactions
Hydrolytic reactions during digestion
Lubrication Constituent of synovial fluids in joints and mucus
Homeostasis Sweating cools the body (heat of vaporization)
1.1.9 BALANCED DIET

 A balanced diet must contain;
i. enough carbohydrates and fats to fit our energy needs,
ii. Enough proteins of the right kind to make new cells and tissues for
growth and repair
iii. Vitamins and mineral salts to maintain normal body function and
iv. Roughages and water
 Whatever mixture of carbohydrates, fats and proteins makes up the diet,

the total energy must be sufficient for basal metabolic rate (BMR) and
physical activity. BMR is the energy required to maintain the heart
pumping, the breathing, body temperature and the body cells alive. BMR
varies by sex, age and state of health of the individual.
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 Special needs:
o Pregnant women need extra:
 Proteins for the development of the baby’s tissues
 Calcium and vitamin D for bone development
 Iron for formation of haemoglobin in baby’s blood
o During lactation women need:

 Proteins, vitamins and calcium to produce milk of adequate
quality and quantity to the baby.
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o Growing children require:

 Proteins for making new tissues as they grow
 Calcium and Vitamin D for growing bones
 Iron for their red blood cells and
 Vitamin A for disease resistance
 Many people eat too much of the wrong kind of food. This causes illness in
middle age and old age.
o Too much sugar causes one to become overweight and have tooth
decay
o Too much fat causes arteriosclerosis (fatty deposits in the arteries)
o Little fibre causes constipation
o Too much of everything causes obesity, high blood pressure,
coronary heart disease or diabetes
1.1.10 TYPES OF NUTRITION

 There are two principle methods of obtaining food, called autotrophic and
heterotrophic nutrition.
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 Saprotrophs decompose dead organisms to make nutrients available for

absorption. Saprophytic bacteria help in recycling of carbon and nitrogen.
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2.2 Nutrition in plants

2.2.1 NUTRITION IN PLANTS
 Photosynthesis is the way plants make their food.
They combine carbon dioxide and water to make sugar.
To do this, they need energy from sunlight, which is absorbed by
chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll converts light energy to chemical energy.
 The word equation to represent photosynthesis is
Plant leaves are adapted for the process of photosynthesis by being broad
and thin, with many chloroplasts in their cells
2.2.2 PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Light reaction: Chlorophyll absorbs light energy and using the energy,
water molecules split into hydrogen and oxygen. This process is known as
photolysis. The hydrogen will be used in the next reaction and oxygen
released to the air.
water + light  hydrogen + oxygen (Equation 1)
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 Dark reaction: without light, by several enzymatic reactions, the hydrogen

produced in light reaction combines carbon dioxide from air to form
glucose. This process is known as carbon fixation.
hydrogen + carbon dioxide  glucose (Equation 2)
 (Equation 1) + (Equation 2) is equal to:

water + carbon dioxide + light  oxygen + glucose
(NB: This is the same as the word equation for photosynthesis)
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2.2.3 PHOTOSYNTHESIS EXPERIMENTS

2.2.3a Testing a leaf for starch
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2.2.3b Showing whether light is necessary for photosynthesis
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2.2.3c Showing whether chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis
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2.2.3d Showing whether carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis
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2.2.4 MINERAL REQUIREMENTS

 From the sugar made by photosynthesis, a plant can make all the other
substances it needs, provided it has a supply of mineral salts like nitrates.
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 In daylight, respiration and photosynthesis will be taking place in a leaf; in

darkness, only respiration will be taking place.
In daylight, a plant will be taking in carbon dioxide and giving out oxygen.
 In darkness, a plant will be taking in oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide.
Experiments to test photosynthesis are designed to exclude light, or carbon
dioxide, or chlorophyll, to see if the plant can still produce starch.
 A starch test can be carried out to test if photosynthesis has occurred in a

leaf.
2.2.5 FATE OF GLUCOSE

 Some of the glucose, which a leaf makes during photosynthesis, is broken
down in respiration to release energy. The rest cannot be stored in the leaf
for two reasons;
1. Glucose is soluble in water and may therefore affect the movement

of water in and out of the cells because of osmosis.
2. Glucose is also reactive and may interfere in some chemical
reactions. Therefore, glucose is changed into starch and stored as
starch grains in plant cells.
 In addition; plants use glucose to make other substances such as sucrose,

cellulose and oils as summarised below.
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2.2.6 FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 The rate of photosynthesis may be restricted by light intensity and

temperature. These are ‘limiting factors’.
A limiting factor is something present in the environment in such short
supply that it restricts life processes.
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 Greenhouses can be used to create optimal conditions for photosynthesis.

Nitrate ions are needed to make proteins; magnesium ions are needed to
make chlorophyll.
There are three main external factors affecting photosynthesis:
 The rate of the light reaction depends on (1.) light intensity.

The rate of the dark reaction depends on (2.)temperature
and (3.) concentration of carbon dioxide.
The main effect of carbon dioxide is to slow down the rate of oxidation of
sugar by a process called photorespiration and this produces the same
effect as an increase in photosynthesis.
 Any one of the external factors such as temperature, light intensity or

carbon dioxide concentration, may limit the effects of the other two.
The factors hence depend are called limiting factors.
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2.2.7 STRUCTURE OF A LEAF

 Leaves have a structure which adapts them for photosynthesis.
Plants need a supply of nitrate ions to make protein and magnesium ions to
make chlorophyll.
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a. Waxy cuticle: reduces the loss of water by evaporation
b. Epidermis is transparent, does not contain chloroplasts and protects

inner issues from infection and physical damage
c. Mesophyll layer, palisade cells contain lots of chloroplasts for

photosynthesis and are closely packed
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d. Mesophyll layer, spongy cells contain chloroplasts and are loosely

arranged for providing much air spaces
e. Stoma (plural: stomata) is the place where gaseous exchange takes

place and are located mainly in the lower epidermis
f. Guard cells surround stoma, contain chloroplasts and control the

opening and closing of the stoma.
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2.2.8 ADAPTATION OF A LEAF FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

 When an organism adapts, it makes itself more suitable for a specific
function.
The following are the adaptations of the structures in a leaf
1. The large spaces between cells inside the leaf provide an easy
passage through which carbon dioxide can diffuse.
2. There are many stomata (pores) in the lower surface of the leaf.
These allow the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen with the air
outside.
3. There are more chloroplasts in the upper (palisade) cells than in the
lower (spongy mesophyll) cells. The palisade cells, being on the upper
surface, will receive most sunlight and this will reach the chloroplasts
without being absorbed by too many cell walls.
4. The branching network of veins provides a good water supply to the

photosynthesising cells. No cell is very far from a water-conducting
vessel in one of these veins.
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2.2.9 IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN THE ECOSYSTEM
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Nutrition in Animals
2.3.1 FEEDING PROCESSES IN THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
 Unlike plants, animals obtain their food by eating. This type of nutrition
is holozoic nutrition. To be of any use to the animal, the food will pass
through the following processes;
a. Food molecules are taken into the gut (or alimentary canal) through the
mouth.
b. The food molecules are broken down into small, simple and soluble
substances.
c. The soluble products of digestion are absorbed into the body.
d. The absorbed substances are up taken into the cells and used in
metabolism.
e. Components of the food, which cannot be digested, are got rid of through
the anus.
2.3.2 OVERVIEW OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL IN HUMANS

Key definitions
1. Ingestion is the taking of substances such as food and drink into the body
through the mouth.
2. Mechanical digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without

chemical change to the food molecules.
3. Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble molecules into small

soluble molecules.
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4. Absorption is the movement of small food molecules and ions through the
wall of the intestine into the blood.
5. Assimilation is the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of

the body where they are used, becoming part of the cells.
6. Egestion is the passing out of food that has not be
In the head:
Structure Function
Teeth Physical digestion by cutting and
grinding the food (mastication)
Salivary glands Produce saliva and take part in
chemical digestion of starch into
maltose by salivary amylase
Tongue Mixes food with saliva and take part in
swallowing
Epiglottis Prevents the food from going down
the wind pipe
Oesophagus Move food down to stomach
peristalsis (see below)
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In the upper body:

Structure Function
Stomach 1. Store food for 2 – 6 hours.
2. Secretion of hydrochloric acid to

kill bacteria and provide acidic
pH for functioning the enzyme
pepsin.
3. Chemical digestion of proteins

by pepsin.
4. Mucus protects stomach and

wall from acidic gastric juice.
5. Absorption of water, alcohol,

drugs.
Pancreas 1. Secretion of digestive enzymes
for starch, protein, fat into
duodenum
2. Secretion of insulin into
bloodstream for stimulating
glycogen synthesis
Liver 1. Production of bile, which
emulsifies fats
2. Bile salts provide alkaline pH for
functioning the enzymes trypsin
in duodenum
Gall bladder Store bile. Bile passes through the bile
duct then is released into duodenum
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In the lower abdomen:

Structure Function
Small intestine Secretion of digestive enzymes for
protein/peptide and
starch/disaccharide
Ileum Absorption of digested substances
Colon Absorption of large amount of water
Rectum Store faeces before defaecation
The following diagram shows the human alimentary canal:
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2.3.3 PERISTALSIS AND EMULSIFICATION

 The alimentary canal has layers of muscle in its walls.
The fibres of one layer of muscles run around the canal (circular muscle)
and the others run along its length (longitudinal muscle).
 When the circular muscles in one region contract, they make the
alimentary canal narrow in that region.
 A contraction in one region of the alimentary canal is followed by

another contraction just below it so that a wave of contraction passes
along the alimentary canal, pushing food in front of it. The wave of
contractions, called peristalsis, is illustrated below.
 Like a detergent, bile breaks large fat molecules up into many small
droplets, which are more easily digested by lipase. This action of bile is
called emulsification. Bile is not an enzyme so emulsification is not an
enzymatic reaction.
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2.3.4 CHEMICAL DIGESTION

 Digestion is mainly a chemical process and consists of breaking down large
molecules to small molecules.
 Some food can be absorbed without digestion. The glucose in fruit juice, for
example, could pass through the walls of the alimentary canal and enter
the blood vessels without further change.
Other types of food must be digested. E.g.

starch  maltose  glucose
protein  peptide  amino acid
 The digestion along the alimentary canal is also known as extracellular

digestion because it takes place outside the cells although the digestion is
carried out inside the body.
Functions of Hydrochloric Acid in Gastric Juice in the Stomach

 The hydrochloric acid, secreted by cells in the wall of the stomach, creates a
very acidic pH of 2.
 This pH is important because it denatures enzymes in harmful organisms in

food, such as bacteria (which may otherwise cause food poisoning) and it
provides the optimum pH for the protein-digesting enzyme pepsin to
work
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2.3.5 THE SMALL INTESTINE

 The absorption of end products of digestion takes place in the small
intestines by diffusion and active transport.
 The small intestine consists of the duodenum and the ileum. A digestive
juice from the pancreas (pancreatic juice) and bile from the liver are
poured into the duodenum to act on food there.
 Nearly all the absorption of digested food takes place in the ileum, along
with most of the water.
 Small molecules of the digested food such as glucose and amino acids
pass into the bloodstream, while fatty acids and glycerol pass into the
lacteals connected to the lymphatic system.
 The structure of the small intestine is adapted for its function in

several ways:
i. It is fairly long and presents a large absorbing surface to the

digested food.
ii. Its internal surface is greatly increased by circular folds bearing

thousands of tiny projections called villi (singular = villus) These
villi are about 0.5mm long and may be finger-like or flattened in
shape.
iii. The lining epithelium is very thin and the fluids can pass rapidly
through it. The outer membrane of each epithelial cell has
microvilli.
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iv. There is a dense network of blood capillaries in each villus.
 Each villus has a dense network of blood capillaries where

monosaccharides (glucose) and amino acids are absorbed into it. These
capillaries join together to form a larger blood vessel called the hepatic
portal vein, which carries the food substances to the liver.
 Each villus also a lacteal, which is the part of the lymphatic system. Fatty
acids and glycerol are also absorbed into the lacteals.
2.3.6 DIGESTION OF PROTEIN

 There are actually several proteases (or proteinases) which break down
proteins. One protease is pepsin and is secreted in the stomach.
 Pepsin acts on proteins and breaks them down into peptides.
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 Another protease is called trypsin. Trypsin is secreted by the pancreas in an

inactive form, which is changed to an active enzyme in the duodenum
breaking down proteins to peptides.
 The small intestine itself does not appear to produce digestive enzymes.
2.3.7 DIGESTION OF STARCH

 Starch is digested in two places in the alimentary canal:
a. by salivary amylase in the mouth and
b. by pancreatic amylase in the duodenum.
 Amylase works best in a neutral or slightly alkaline pH and converts large,

insoluble starch into, soluble maltose molecules.
 Maltose is a disaccharide sugar and is still too big to be absorbed through

the wall of the intestine.
 Maltose is therefore broken down to glucose by the enzyme maltase,

which is present in the membranes of the epithelial cells of the villi.
2.3.8 THE LIVER
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 The liver plays an important role in metabolism, homeostasis and excretion.

After end products of digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are
absorbed in the villi, they are transported to the liver through the hepatic
portal vein for assimilation
 What is Bile?
o Bile is a green, watery fluid made in the liver, stored in the gall-
bladder and delivered to the duodenum by the bile duct.
o It contains no enzymes. Its green colour is caused by bile pigments,

which are formed from the breakdown of haemoglobin in the liver.
o Bile also contains bile salts which break fats up into small droplets
with a large surface area, which are more efficiently digested by
lipase.
o Bile is alkaline as it contains sodium hydrogencarbonate and, along

with pancreatic juice, has the function of neutralising the acidic
mixture of food and gastric juices as it enters the duodenum.
o This is important because enzymes secreted into the duodenum need

alkaline conditions to work at their optimum rate.
 In human beings, the liver is the largest organ.
 The basic structure of the liver is a Lobule.
 The lobule consists of hepatic cells containing networks of the hepatic

portal vein, hepatic artery, hepatic vein and lymphatic vessels.
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 The functions of the liver can be classified into five major groups;
o Metabolic function
o Circulatory function
o Excretory function
o Protective function
o Haematological (blood related) function
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Function Mode of action

Metabolism of glucose i. Used in cellular respiration
ii. Convert excess glucose to
________(a)________ to maintain constant
glucose level in the blood
iii. Excess is stored as fats in adipose tissue.
Metabolism of amino i. Used for synthesis of proteins, enzymes and
acids hormones.
ii. Excess amino acids are deaminated to
produce ammonia, which is further
converted into _____________(b)_______
Metabolism of fatty i. Part of them is stored as fats in the adipose
acids and Glycerol tissue under the skin to act as energy storage
and heat insulation.
ii. Used for synthesis of cell membrane
Production of bile i. Breakdown old red blood cells and makes bile.
Synthesis of plasma e.g Prothrombin and fibrinogen; they are used for
protein blood clotting
Detoxification Destroy poisons, alcohol and bacteria
Storage of minerals e.g. Iron, copper, potassium
Storage of vitamins e.g. Vitamin A and D
Production of heat There are many chemical reactions in the liver that
produce a lot of heat, which is used in maintaining
the body temperature
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Exercise:
Fill in the blanks in the table above
answers:
(a) glycogen (b) urea
2.3.9 MECHANICAL DIGESTION

 The process of mechanical digestion mainly occurs in the mouth by means
of the teeth, through a process called mastication.
 Our canines are more pointed than the incisors but are not much larger.
They function like extra incisors.
 Our premolars and molars are similar in shape and function. Their knobbly
surfaces, called cusps, meet when the jaws are closed, and crush the food
into small pieces.
 Small particles of food are easier to digest than large chunks.
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Tooth Structure:
 The part of a tooth that is visible above the gum line is called the crown.
The gum is tissue that overlays the jaws.
 The rest, embedded in the jaw bone, is called the root. The surface of the
crown is covered by a very hard layer of enamel.
 This layer is replaced by cement in the root, which enables the tooth to grip
to its bony socket in the jaw. Below the enamel is a layer of dentine.
Dentine is softer than enamel.
 Inside the dentine is a pulp cavity, containing nerves and blood vessels.
These enter the tooth through a small hole at the base of the root.
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2.3.10 DENTITION
 Dentition refers to the type and arrangement of teeth in an animal.
Teeth arrangement in an animal is specially modified and adapted to the
type of food.
 Dentition of a mammal can be represented conveniently by means of a

dental formula. This shows the type and number of teeth in one half of
each jaw.
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Herbivore Omnivore Carnivore

Type of Plant Plant and animal Animal
food
Goat Human Dog
Example of 0 0 3 3 2 1 2 3 3 1 4 2
𝑖: 𝑖: 𝑝𝑚: 𝑚: 𝑖: 𝑐: 𝑝𝑚: 𝑚: 𝑖: 𝑐: 𝑝𝑚: 𝑚:
Dental 3 1 3 3 2 1 2 3 3 1 3 3
Formula
Rat Cat
1 0 0 4 3 1 3 1
𝑖:𝑐: 𝑝𝑚: 𝑚: 𝑖: 𝑐: 𝑝𝑚: 𝑚:
1 0 0 4 3 1 2 1
Diastema They have a diastema Absent Absent
between incisors and
premolars
Feeding Jaws move in circular Jaws move up and Jaws move up and
action and sideways motion down. down
Grind food with
lateral movements Scissors-like action
(side to side) of lower
jaw
2.3.11 TOOTH DECAY

 Decay begins when small holes (cavities) appear in the enamel. The cavities
are caused by bacteria on the tooth surface. The bacteria feed on the
sugars deposited on the teeth, producing acid, which dissolves the calcium
salts in the tooth enamel.
 The enamel is dissolved away, exposing the dentine to the acids. Dentine is
softer than enamel and dissolves more quickly so cavities are formed.
 The acids produced irritate the nerve endings and cause toothache.
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 If the cavity is not cleaned and filled by a dentist, the bacteria will get into
the pulp cavity and cause a painful abscess at the root. Often, the only way
to treat this is to have the tooth pulled out.
 Refined sugar (sucrose) in the diet contributes to decay. The best way to
prevent tooth decay, therefore, is to avoid eating sugar frequently.
 In addition, plague builds up where the teeth and gums meet and can
cause a space to form between the gum and bacteria in this space damage
fibres, which hold the teeth in place.
This causes the teeth to become loose and fall.
Prevention Mode of action

Taking foods rich in calcium, Forms strong teeth
phosphorous and vitamin D
Drinking water or using tooth paste Hardens tooth surface. Making them
with added fluoride less susceptible to acid
Brushing teeth regularly Removes food particles in teeth
Reducing sugar in the diet Reduces bacterial infection
Regular dental check up Monitors health of teeth and gums
Flossing teeth Removes food lodged in between
teeth
2.4 Saprophytic nutrition
2.4.1 SAPROPHYTIC NUTRITION
 Some heterotrophs obtain their food from organic material of dead
organisms. This mode of nutrition is called saprophytic nutrition. The
organism that uses this type of nutrition is called a saprophyte.
e.g. bacteria, fungi, yeasts etc.
 Rhizopus is a mould that forms a network of small strands on its food. It

grows on different kinds of food substances such as bread, fruits and
nshima.
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 The mould grows when these substances are left in warm, moist conditions
for some time. To the naked eye, Rhizopus is seen as a greyish white mass,
which later turns blackish.
 Rhizopus has a filament called hyphae (singular = hypha), which secrete

digestive enzymes onto the substrate to carry out extracellular digestion.
 Then the complex food substances are broken down to simple soluble ones.
A horizontal hypha called stolon, while vertical one is called a
sporangiophore. The one that grows into the substrate is called a rhizoid.
 Rhizopus bears spores at their tips in sporangia (singular = sporangium).

This type of reproduction is called formation, which is a kind of sexual
reproduction.
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2.4.2 IMPORTANCE OF SAPROPHYTIC NUTRITION

1. Saprophytic bacteria help in the recycling of carbon and nitrogen due to the
action of decomposition of dead organisms.
2. In our daily life, some moulds such as Penicillium are used in the production of
antibiotics, penicillin.
3. Saprophytes are also used in baking, production of dairy products like cheese
and brewing of alcohol.
eskulu.com 49

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eskulu.com STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

2.3.2 OVERVIEW OF ALIMENTARY CANAL IN HUMAN---------------------------------

When a diet does not have enough nutrients, it is said to be deficient.

b. Nutrients serve to one or more of the following:

c. Nutrients can be classified into seven; carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,

 General usages of carbohydrates are to provide energy. The energy helps

Carbohydrate Examples Sources Uses

Glycogen Bread Store energy for

Cellulose Cereal Material of cell wall

 Fats are compounds made up of combinations of two types of basic units,

insulation in adipose layer under skin.

 Phospholipids are lipids that contain phosphorous in the form of

 Steroids are lipids composed of four-linked rings of carbon atoms, e.g.

1.1.4 CONDENSATION REACTION

 The following diagram illustrates a condensation reaction.

 Lack of proteins leads to Kwashiorkor.

i. Underweight and under size for one’s age.

iii. Very poor appetite.

1.1.6 DESCRIPTION OF FOOD TESTS

Testing for Proteins:

Testing for Fats:

1.1.7 MINERAL SALTS AND VITAMINS

 In vitamins, there are water-soluble vitamins (B and C) and fat-soluble

Nutrient Function Some Sources Deficiency

Minerals Function Sources Deficiency

1.1.8 ROUHAGES (DIETARY FIBRES) AND WATER

 Water is the most important substance in living things. Water makes up

Function Mode of action

1.1.9 BALANCED DIET

 Whatever mixture of carbohydrates, fats and proteins makes up the diet,

o During lactation women need:

o Growing children require:

1.1.10 TYPES OF NUTRITION

 Saprotrophs decompose dead organisms to make nutrients available for

2.2 Nutrition in plants

 The word equation to represent photosynthesis is

2.2.2 PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

water + light  hydrogen + oxygen (Equation 1)

 Dark reaction: without light, by several enzymatic reactions, the hydrogen

hydrogen + carbon dioxide  glucose (Equation 2)

 (Equation 1) + (Equation 2) is equal to:

2.2.3 PHOTOSYNTHESIS EXPERIMENTS

2.2.3b Showing whether light is necessary for photosynthesis

2.2.3c Showing whether chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

2.2.3d Showing whether carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis

2.2.4 MINERAL REQUIREMENTS

 In daylight, respiration and photosynthesis will be taking place in a leaf; in

 A starch test can be carried out to test if photosynthesis has occurred in a

2.2.5 FATE OF GLUCOSE

1. Glucose is soluble in water and may therefore affect the movement

 In addition; plants use glucose to make other substances such as sucrose,

2.2.6 FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

 The rate of photosynthesis may be restricted by light intensity and

 Greenhouses can be used to create optimal conditions for photosynthesis.

 The rate of the light reaction depends on (1.) light intensity.

 Any one of the external factors such as temperature, light intensity or

2.2.7 STRUCTURE OF A LEAF

a. Waxy cuticle: reduces the loss of water by evaporation

b. Epidermis is transparent, does not contain chloroplasts and protects

c. Mesophyll layer, palisade cells contain lots of chloroplasts for

d. Mesophyll layer, spongy cells contain chloroplasts and are loosely

e. Stoma (plural: stomata) is the place where gaseous exchange takes

f. Guard cells surround stoma, contain chloroplasts and control the

2.2.8 ADAPTATION OF A LEAF FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS