AnaPhy - Chapter 16
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 4. CHEMICAL DIGESTION
TOPIC OUTLINE
1 Digestive System
2 Two Groups of Organs in the Digestive
System
3 Regulation of Gastric Activity
4 Food Breakdown and Propulsion
5 Functions of the Digestive System Overview
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
à system responsible for the breakdown of food
materials into nutrient molecules that build or fuels
our body’s cell
à controlled by reflexes via parasympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous system
TWO SENSORS
MECHANO RECEPTORS and CHEMORECEPTORS
à sensors to stimuli and respond to either activate
or inhibit:
• the glands that secrete digestive juices or
hormones
• smooth muscles of the muscularis
(responsible for mixing and propelling of
food along the GI tract)
FUNCTION OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1. DIGESTION
MECHANICAL
à e.g., chewing, tearing, grinding, mashing,
mixing
CHEMICAL
à catabolic reactions, enzymatic
hydrolysis of carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats
2. ABSORPTION
à utilization of nutrient molecules by
different tissues/cells
THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS
1. INGESTION
à process of food intake
2. MECHANICAL DIGESTION
à involves food breakdown; physical
breakdown or fragmentation of food into
smaller particles with the use of various
organs e.g., muscular teeth and tongue
à chewing (mouth); churning (stomach);
segmentation (intestine)
3. PREPULSION
à propel of food; the transfer of food from
one place to another
à greatly dependent on peristalsis:
alternating waves of muscular contraction
and relaxation of the muscles of intestinal
wall
à the end result of peristalsis is to squeeze
the food from one part of the system to the
next system
à carried by enzymes secreted by the
digestive glands into the lumen of
alimentary canal
à complex food molecules are broken
down into chemical building blocks
e.g., carbohydrates – simple sugar; protein
– amino acids; fats – fatty acids
5. ABSORPTION
à transport of digestive end products
6. DEFECATION
à elimination of indigestible substances
from the body in the form of stool via anus
TWO GROUPS OF ORGANS IN THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
à performs the whole menu of digestive
system
2. ACCESSORY ORGANS
à aids in the process of digestive
breakdown
ALIMENTARY CANAL
MOUTH
à site of the start of mechanical digestion
à chemical digestion of starch
ANATOMY
à short frenulum (ankyloglossia) results difficulty in
speech
PHARYNX
MAIN FUNCTION: to act as a common passage for
both food and air
ANATOMY
a. subdivided into three:
1. NASOPHARYNX
à lies behind the nasal cavity and
extends from the hard palate and soft
palate to the base of the skull in the
postero-superior direction
2. OROPHARYNX
à lies just behind the oral cavity
à anterior wall consists of the base of
the tongue and the vallecula
à lateral wall contains the tonsils
à superior wall consists of the interior
surface of the soft palate and uvula
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3. LARYNGOPHARYNX à esophagus passes through esophageal hiatus in
à a.k.a. hypopharynx the diaphragm to enter abdomen and connect to
à this serves as the main passage for stomach
both air and food à the abdominal part of esophagus is 2 cm and
à it is present just above the joins stomach at cardiac orifice: to prevent
epiglottis and extends to the larynx regurgitation of food
where the respiratory and digestive
pathways diverge STOMACH
b. contains two skeletal muscle layers
1. INNER LAYER FOUR PRIMARY FUNCTIONS
à longitudinal
2. OUTER LAYER 1. temporary storage of ingested food
à a.k.a. constrictor muscle: 2. mechanical breakdown of food
responsible for peristalsis: aids in 3. breakdown of chemical bonds in food items
propelling of food from pharynx to 4. the production of intrinsic factor:
esophagus compound necessary for the absorption of
vitamin B12 (lack of vitamin B12: pernicious
ESOPHAGUS anemia)

à receives food from the mouth and delivers food to à lies mostly in LUQ (the pain is in epigastric)
the stomach à just inferior to diaphragm
à anterior of spleen and pancreas
ANATOMY à tucked under left lower margin of liver
• about 25 cm long à anchored at both ends but mobile in between
• has four basic tissue layers of its walls
ANATOMY
FOUR LAYERS OF ESOPHAGUS
• CARDIAC REGION
1. MUCOSA (MUCOUS MEMBRANE) à surrounds cardio esophageal sphincter
à inner layer • FUNDUS
à moist membrane consists primarily of à dome-shaped expanded part of the
epithelium stomach lateral to the cardiac region
THREE SUB-LAYERS • BODY
1. LINING EPITHELIUM à main portion of stomach
à absorbs nutrients and secretes TWO PARTS
the mucus 1. GREATER CURVATURE
2. LAMINA PROPRIA à lateral surface; convex
à contains most of the mucosa 2. LESSER CURVATURE
associated with lymphoid tissue à medial surface; concave
à also a loose connective tissue à site of most digestive activity
3. MUSCULARIS MUCOSAE à where ulcer can be identified
à produces local movements of the • PYLORIC REGION
mucosa à pylorus control the movement of food
2. SUBMUCOSA à pylorus usually holds about 30 ml of
à soft connective tissue layer chyme (semifluid mass of partly digested
à contains many elastic fibers to regain food expelled by the stomach into
the shape after food passes through it duodenum)
3. MUSCULARIS EXTERNA à pyloric region is continuous to the small
à a.k.a. just “muscularis” intestines through the pyloric sphincter
TWO LAYERS OF SMOOTH MUSCLE o antrum
1. INNER CIRCULAR LAYER o canal
à squeezes during peristalsis o sphincter
à act as a valve (to prevent à the maximum capacity of stomach is 4 liters
backflow of digestive contents) in à Rugae: longitudinal folds on internal surface; helps
some places in GI tract in the distensibility
2. OUTER LONGITUDINAL LAYER à Muscularis: additional innermost oblique layer;
à to shorten the position of GI tract allows the food not only to move the food alone but
also mix the food
4. SEROSA à stomach is approximately 25 cm (10 in.), the
à the visceral peritoneum diameter is relative
à outermost layer à Gastric wall
à consists of simple squamous epithelium • simple columnar epithelium
(mesothelium) à secretes bicarbonate buffered mucus
à contains a single layer of serous fluid- à releases different gastric juices
producing cells • gastric pits opening into gastric glands

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à secretes 1,500 ml of gastric juices each
day
o mucus neck cells
o parietal cells
- HCL
- intrinsic factor: responsible
for the absorption of
vitamin B12
FUNCTIONS: the acidity of
gastric juice kills
microorganisms present in
the stomach; activates the
enzymes secretion of chief
cells
o chief cells
à when activated, stimulates the
release of:
- pepsinogen (when in
contact with HCL will be:)
activated to pepsin
- stimulated by gastrin:
helps in mixing the
ingested food
REGULATION OF GASTRIC ACTIVITY
CEPHALIC PHASE
à regulated by the CNS
à when the CNS activated the cephalic phase, it is
preparing the stomach to receive the food
à the parasympathetic fibers (under vagus nerve)
of the submucosal plexus innervate mucous cells,
parietal cells, chief cells and endocrine cells of the
stomach
GASTRIC PHASE
à begins with the arrival of food in the stomach
à stimulates stretch receptors in the stomach
à Myenteric plexus: stimulates mixing waves in the
stomach wall
à Submucosal plexus: stimulates parietal cells and
chief cells, as well as the gastric glands (to secrete
gastrin in circulation that aids in digestion of food;
helps in mixing the ingested food forming chyme.
The stomach releases chyme [semifluid mass of
partly digested food expelled by stomach into
duodenum] via pyloric sphincter)
INTESTINAL PHASE
à begins when chyme starts to enter the small
intestine
à ENTEROGASTRIC REFLEX: temporarily inhibits
neural stimulation of gastrin production and gastric
motility and further movement of chyme
• the entry of chyme in the intestine
stimulates the release of
CHOLECYSTOKININ (hormones secreted by
duodenal mucosa; regulates the emptying
of gallbladder and secretion of enzymes by
the pancreas) and GASTRIC INHIBITORY
PEPTIDE (reduces gastric activity; gives the
small intestine time to adjust to the arriving
acid)
FOOD BREAKDOWN AND PROPULSION
à release of gastric, HCl, and conversion of pepsin
to pepsinogen aids in food breakdown
à propulsion: food is propelled to the next part of
the digestive system through peristalsis
à pylorus holds 30 ml of chyme, it does not empty
in just a single peristalsis; each contraction is course
only about 3 ml or less of chyme from the stomach,
the 27 ml will go back to stomach and will undergo
another mixing
à when the duodenum is full and its wall is
stretched, enterogastric reflex will put the breaks on
and regulates gastric activity and slows the
emptying of stomach content (adjusting of pyloric
sphincter for the intestinal process to catch up;
commonly it takes 4 hours to completely empty its
contents; it takes about 6 hours if the content is high
in fat)
SMALL INTESTINE
à plays a key role in digestion and absorption of
nutrients
• 90% of absorption occurs in the small
intestine
à most enzymatic digestion occurs in small
intestines however it is not the small intestines that
will release enzymes, it is the pancreas
à extends from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal
valve
à longest of the alimentary canal with an average
length of 2.5 m to 7 m (8 to 18 feet)
à site where chemical digestion starts
THREE SUBDIVISIONS:
1. DUODENUM
à 5% of length
à is retroperitoneal (stuck down under
peritoneum); others are loose
à receives:
• bile from liver and gallbladder via
bile duct
• enzymes from pancreas via main
pancreatic duct
2. JEJUNUM
à almost 40%
à 2.5 m long
à bulk of chemical digestion and nutrient
absorption occurs in the jejunum
3. ILEUM
à almost 60%
à joins the large intestine in the ileocecal
valve segment (like sphincter that controls
the flow of materials from ileum to large
intestines)
à small intestine designed for absorption
à structural modifications also increase absorptive
area
• circular folds (plicae circulares)
• villi (fingerlike projections) 1 mm
high - simple columnar epithelium:
velvety
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• microvilli - biotin
Lacteals are network of blood and lymph capillaries à water-soluble vitamin
- carbs and proteins into blood to liver via important for glucose
hepatic portal vein metabolism
- fat into lymph: fat-soluble toxins - vitamin B5
à required in the
LARGE INSTESTINE manufacture of steroids
• ORGANIC WASTE
à The colon is a 6-foot long muscular tube that à the bacteria in large intestines converts
connects the small intestine to the rectum benilovin into other products; some are
à lies below the stomach and liver and almost absorbed in bloodstreams, excreted in
completely frames the small intestine urine; other remains in colon
à much larger in diameter but shorter in length • TOXINS
(about 1.5 m/ 5 feet) than the SI à remains in stool that generates:
à it extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus o ammonia
à has tremendous number of goblet cells in the o nitrogen containing compounds:
mucosa: produces mucus that acts as a lubricant to responsible for the odor of stool
ease ta passage of stool o hydrogen sulfide (H2S): rotten egg
odor of flatus
SUBDIVISIONS: • DEFECATION
à at first, liquid state and ultimately it
• CECUM becomes solid (normal because as stool
• APPENDIX passes through the colon, water is
• COLON is divided to: removed; stool is stored in sigmoid until a
à has bacteria and that generates various mass movement empties it into the rectum
vitamin, particularly vitamin K (fat-soluble once or twice a day; it normally takes
vitamins) about 36 hours to stay in the colon
o ascending colon à stool itself is food debris and bacteria.
à right side These bacteria performs several use for
o transverse colon functions: responsible for synthesizing
à continues towards the left side various vitamins, processing of waste
passing below stomach, follows products and food particles. When
the curve of the body descending colon becomes tool of stool, it
o descending colon can place its contents into the rectum and
à left side began the process of elimination
• SIGMOID
à S shape Large intestine is always involved in elimination of
• RECTUM stool or waste. Stool or waste leftover from the
à end of digestive tract digestive process is pass through colon by means of
à FUNCTION: temporary storage of stool peristalsis
• ANAL CANAL
à a.k.a. anus ACCESSORY ORGANS

NOTE: highly specialized organ responsible for 1. SALIVARY GLAND

processing waste so that emptying the vowel is easy à SALIVA is a mixture of mucus and
and convenient. serous fluids which helps in the formation of
bolus: a round mass of masticated food
FUNCTIONS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE ready to be swallowed
• its principal constituents are
GENERAL FUNCTION: REABSORPTION of water and water, mucus, buffers, and
compaction of intestinal contents into stool and enzymes (e.g., amylase)
absorption of important vitamins and storage of
fecal materials prior to defecation FUNCTIONS:

• ABSORPTION • it moistens the mouth

o bile salts • aids in swallowing the food,
o vitamins • minimize changes of acidity in the
- vitamin K mouth
à needed by the liver to • it also contains substances such
synthesize clotting factors as lysosomes and Immunoglobulin
that aids in the coagulation of (Ig) A: inhibits bacteria
blood

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THE MAJOR SALIVARY GLANDS
1. PAROTID GLANDS
à are the largest of the salivary
glands
à lie just under the skin, one in
front of each ear
2. SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND
à lie in a small depression on the
medial surface of the mandible
• has a duct which runs
forward through the
structures in the floor of the
mouth, and opens by an
easily seen orifice at the base
of the frenulum of the tongue
3. SUBLINGUAL GLANDS
à are the smallest of the salivary
glands
à they lie in the floor of the mouth
underneath the tongue
à they have a whole row of much
smaller ducts
• These ducts open into the
mouth along the top of the
little transverse ridge which
is on the floor of the mouth
under the tongue
2. TEETH
à used for mastication/chewing
à human deciduous (baby / milk teeth;
usually begins at 6 months and completes
the full set of 20 teeth by the age of 2 years)
and permanent teeth (wisdom teeth
varies)
3. TONGUE
à mostly muscles
- grip and reposition of food
- forms “bolus” of food (lump)
- help in swallowing
- speech – help form some
consonants
à taste buds contained by circumvallate
and fungiform papillae
à lingual tonsil – back of tongue
4. PANCREAS
à soft, pink triangular gland that extends
across the abdomen from the spleen to the
duodenum
à lies in the retroperitoneal
à it also produces hormones like insulin
and glucagon
à produces 8 cups of pancreatic juice daily
into the duodenum
• pancreatic juice
- are natural chemicals that
help break down fats,
proteins, and carbohydrates
- contains pancreatic enzymes
(helps in neutralizing
stomach acid as it enters
small intestines)
- lipase: breakdown of fats;
protease: breakdown of
protein; amylase: breakdown
of carbohydrates to sugar
à a long, soft organ that lies transversely
along the back of the abdominal wall,
behind the stomach, and extends from the
region of the duodenum to the spleen. In an
adult the pancreas is about 15 cm (6 inches
long) and weighs about 115 grams (4
ounces)
5. LIVER
à the largest organ in the body located
under the diaphragm
à it has 4 lobes and produces bile:
responsible in the emulsification of fats
• BILE – a yellow green, watery
solution containing bile salts, bile
pigments, cholesterol
phospholipids and a variety of
electrolytes
à the liver is situated mostly in the top
right portion of the abdominal cavity just
under the diaphragm
à it can be felt as a hard mass just below
the bottom right rib
6. GALL BLADDER
à a pear-shaped organ, 7 to 10 cm long,
that lies just below the right lobe of the liver
and is attached to the visceral surface of
the liver by the cystic duct.
à MAIN FUNCTION: storage of bile (bile is
only being release during food digestion; it
is being release via common hepatic duct
and bile duct and duodenum)
à in the gallbladder, the bile is
concentrated by the reabsorption of water
from it. When fatty food is digested, the gall
bladder will contract under the action of
the hormone cholecystokinin, thus
delivering bile through the bile ducts to the
small intestines dissolving fats
à small, thin-walled green sac that
snuggles in a shallow fossa in the inferior
surface of the liver
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OVERVIEW
I. MOUTH
à ingestion (food enters the mouth)
CHEMICAL BREAKDOWN
à saliva has amylase which begins the
breakdown of starch
MECHANICAL BREAKDOWN
à Chewing (mastication), grinding, cutting
à Mixing of food with the aid of tongue,
cheeks, and teeth
II. PHARYNX, ESOPHAGUS (PROPULSION)
à swallow (deglutition) the food
TWO PHASES
1. BUCCAL PHASE
à voluntary, tongue pushes the
bolus into the pharynx
2. PHARYNGEAL PHASE
à esophageal phase
- controlled by the PNS (vagus
nerve)
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- closing off of nasal and
respiratory passage
- transports food through the
pharynx and esophagus and
then to the stomach through
peristalsis
III. STOMACH
à cardio esophageal Sphincter relaxes to
allow food to enter the stomach
à When food enters the stomach secretion
of GASTRIC JUICE is initiated by:
I. HORMONAL
II. NEURAL
à Release of GASTRIN (hormonal)
by the PNS (vagus nerve) (neural)
à both stimulate stomach glands
to produce Gastric juice
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl):
contributes to the acidity of
the stomach content
o Activates Pepsinogen
into Pepsin
o Prorenin into Rennin
à mechanical digestion of food
continues until semi-fluid chyme is
produced
III. SMALL INTESTINES
à Enterogastric Reflex – activated when
the duodenum is stretched
- it slows gastric activity and
emptying by inhibiting the vagus
nerve and tightening the pyloric
sphincter allowing time for the
intestinal processing to catch up
à partially digested food enters the small
intestine
à duodenum secretes the hormone:
• SECRETIN - stimulate the liver to
produce bile
• CHOLECYSTOKININ - stimulate
the gallbladder to release bile
- both stimulate the release of
pancreatic juice and bile
o PANCREATIC JUICE:
contains lipase, amylase,
protease. Also has
bicarbonate to neutralize
the acidic chyme
o helps to emulsify fats
IV. LARGE INTESTINE
à the remaining water and indigestible
materials move to the large intestine
à absorption of water and salts and
vitamins made by the “resident” bacteria
(vit. K and B vitamins)
à feces will be delivered to the rectum by
propulsive movements
à mass movements - long slow–moving
but powerful contractile waves to force the
colon contents into the rectum
à feces goes to the rectum stretching its
walls. Defecation reflex is initiated.

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