Detailed contents

TopiC 6 Metals 95
•
Sub-topic I C.enera.t properties of mda.ls _ ... _~ •
%
•

-
Sub-lOpic 2 Reactivity and the dectrochemkal ~ril."'i 98
SU1HOI'1c 3 Alloys •
103 •
Sub-IOI,it" 4 (~Ion 105 •
,
Surnm:lry
Re<.'ision ('"erd~
107
108 • ,
,
Assessment ('''c~
,.
108
, • I
• I
• 1
SUb-topiC 1
Sub-wpic 2
Coener.Jl propE'ttles of non-Illl"tah
Il}'"drogen
'0
0' •
• ,
1
Sub-topic 3 Ox}'Xffi 07 • •
--
Sub-topic i Nitrogm
Sub-topic 5 Carbon and ~tes
122
12'>
Coo I o:>&ioI, • 1
• ,
136 -.L...'
RevIsion v;e!tiws 137
Assf5smcnl n:~ 138 Starter activtty
Topic 8 OrganIc chemistry 139
AIlsw... tl~ fOI~~
Sub-topic I Saturattd and unS:lluratoo h}'drocarbons then diSC"uss as a
141
SUb-t0l'k 2 HomologQUs Sol'ries I. l~tM" whe:,,~, tIIi
156
SutHuI'IC 3 AlcoholS (alka/lo!sj tht·l'l'rlodicTab
Sub-t"l'k 4
Sub-topic S
Carboxylic acids (alkanoic adds)
£SIers ('1lkaUO<Iles)
'"
162
2. USI some uf the III
at home and diSC'll
Sub-topic 6
SUnlTllaJ')'
MacromolC"ClJles (polymers) ""
168
176
metal was u'K'd to
3. Gl\"l' a f('ason wll)

-
~i~ l'xe,cisn uS('d In a thl'tlIlOll
177
Asse\YIlO'flt ('xen:ise; aluminium me-..al
".
-I. Name' 5OTJll> factor
t~ ~ 01. roppr
copper ~ out at
and ttw doIIM pr:il

94
 Metals

Geo.....
pIllp81ies of
.• 00
• ibe ~ r1!pn!S1!l'1tat gf I)Ule melab.
title the ph)3ieal properties 01 metals.
metals • Describe Itle cte,lical properties 01 me&aIs.
96 ReactMty and the • 0 ·ibe Ihe reac:tMly series of metals.
98 e'8 bochemic:al • Explain the lIIPP\1IellI ~ 01 ak.minium.
>03 series • Demonstrate an order of 1UaC1Mty. .
'OS • Des: ibe the eftects of heat on hydroJcides, carbonate$,
>0, nitrates of metals and III' .'lOllium compcunds.
• 0 i ibe the 8Xti aetiol, 01 ooppeo, mn and ~ Irom their
'OS ~
'OS • Describe the uses 01 QOPPeO". iron, zinc and aluminium.
0,' • Explain the harmful effects of some metals.
Describe allays.

'"
113
DesQibe diagranvnatic rapreseotatioos of alloys.
Explain the advantages of using a1~ over pu:lI metals.
Identify cornmon uses of alloys.
'"
'22 • Describe COfI'OSion.
• Relate cOlTOsloo 10 the ,eactivity of metals.
'"
036 • Describe dlfterool mtlthods of preventing COITosion.
m
'38 Starter activity
AIls""'" til., follo'~illg questions In pairs, and
Ihffl di~"" as a d.;lss:
'"
,,.
'56
I. I~bo- wrn.-re Ihe mtlills are located on
Illl' f'niodj(" Imle.
2. l.is!: some of the mf'taJ ob~ you han"
,.,
'62 al IKnnc.> and d&uss why you thlnt
mnal was used to maU each objKt.
'68 3. GhT a l'l'a:lOfl why tlM' meuI mm:ury is
076
ll'nl in a ~et md wily
,,.
111
aluminium metal is USoN for moldrin\;
~

4. KaIIX' wme f<><:tors !hilt can IntllK't1O'

thl' prke of copper. (Hint: Consider all 1M 5te'p'i in'"Oh..-d from getting 1hC'
C"op(l'er ore out ofw ground 10 pl'OC15Sing it, the intemalkmal d@mand
and thE' dollu pl'ia.)
SUB-TOPIC 1 General properties of
metals Chemical pr
During ....m-miQ.! n-
Over 8O'I'l> of the ~l"IDI'TIU in rhl' lTrioc!lc Table Remember ttndtrKy to ool1.3tt ,
art' rnttm. Th")' ~ <:ill~riscdiIS Ihfo alblJ
mnals, 1m, alblinr ~als and 1M tnnsition The oonizalion elagies af 1. Reaction of n
t'lemcnls.. metaI:s are otA ....... &d to the \lnals rean "i1h or
olI.- lS, andtt.e.....
In Gr~ 10, ~ ~amllhal a\orns of metals >ey lillie eroergy is needed to
ha~"" a -se. of ~Ioalizrd cl<'ctrons· which mQ'\"l!' H 5! their ,aIeolOll Mg tuns wi:t'l.
about ~y mlOIlS tbf: mt'taJ. atoms. ~ white~

.....-
t't b.....
driocaliud I'lKtrons an" n-spom.i~ f(lf lNny of K burns vig:a;
tM chmllal and ph}'5k:;Ll prope'ltif'5 01 mMals..
2. Reaction of ..
Representations of pure metals ~ltUls It'aCt with "'....
ThO' mrtalllc laulU" consUts of >om surroundf'd by thl' dd<x,t.liud I'IKtrons. 1hest'
flff t'lKtrons act as an -electmnk glUI!'" ....hlch hol<b the atoms togl'too. A Mg hot water te
m~allk bond is formed by th....I«troslatk fOIC'l' bctWa-II the dekxalized
el«(roM (nO?gati\'e) and th.. c"liom K coklwa:er
(posltlvt». The strength of th.. reaction 1$ ,
metallic bond depends on the nz... 3. Reaction of n
uf the lnNal's atomic radius and the ~ietals ,<'an with diJ;
nlllntX'r of valence elertrons that
have ~11 deJocalizoo. Figure 1 A representation of a pure metal
Mg dilute hydn:
acid (vigen:
Physical properties of metals Fe dilute hydn:

Metals us~l1y haw thl' following physkal properties; 'l,-C"C~ acid (V'lIfY'
~. 1)iJut< ")'droxhlan<
• Tht')' are shiny when potWin!. b)'dro!:<"> is <»:idi.>!d to ..
• They ~rt' sonorous (tbey mal:<> ~
rlnging sound wilen they Hf' 4. Reaction of [j
stl\ld.:). A mort Il'anivt mt!I
• They ~rt' ~~bk- {they c:m IX'
holl1Unffed into !Ju.pe wi!bout
bre~king apart).
• They Me ductilt- (thq- c:m IX'
dawn out into wires).
fIgIn 2 Gold is a typical metal: it is
• they "Il! load rooductoo of beat ~ lII'ld remains unchanged lot
mel el«tooty. many ~ This is one of the main ,-_•••••
• They rn.~ high ~11in8 poilus it Is used ., jeweIlefy.
and high boiling points (they lift' Ans...-n thr quntloo
~"soIkbH room IUIll't'''IUft', n:cq?f for mf«Ufy). tquat>ons for 1m- =
• Many mttaIs lift quitt dtnst, Iurd lIIId tough. but thtrt lIrt 5OI1It txetptions.. I. zin.. mel dilut.. l
z. ..aJctum and "-al
96 ·"opic' ~
 Chemical properties of metals
During a dlpmi<;al reaction of a Illt'!al with other compound~, tIll.' metall1as the
WIld,·ncy to <lonate elKlrons to form a positive ion.

-" .
,.edtolhe
"""'~
.ededto
1. Reaction of metals with oxygen
:-Ietab react willl oxygen to J''''don' na'tal oxi<lt'S.

Mg ooms with a brilliant

white flame
magnesium oxide 2Mg (s) • 0o(g) -. 2MgO(s)

K burns vigorously with potassium oxide 4K (s) .. 02 (g) ---'> 21\.0 (s)
a purple/lilac flame

2. Reaction of metals with water

).,Ietals {('art with water to fOfm metal hydIOxld", or oxid"', and hydrogen gas.

:o«trom. nwse
Mg hot waler (only) magnesium oxide Mg(s) .. 11,0(1) ..... MgO(s) .. H,(g)
~.A

-' 1-;0--1 _+,'""d=""Yod=rog",oo",g"~=c-t.oc

K cold water (the potassium hydroxide 2K(s). 2H,O (I) -, 2KOH (aq) .. I-I,(g)
_--"reaction is vio~l) and hydrogen g'~'-_L__

3. Reaction of metals with dilute acids

~·letal< react with dilule acids 10 form saliS and hy<!w!:(,ll.

, .. pure metal
M9 d,I\lIO hydrochlonc magnesoum chlolide Mg (s) + 2HCI(aq) .... MgCl (aq) + H, (g)
2
!;-;:-_Eacid (vigorously) and hydrogen gas
dilllle hydrochloric ironQI) chloride and Fe(s) + 2HCI (aq) ---> FeCI (aq) + H~(g)
2
b~Jacid (very slowly) hydrogen gas
, "' t~lut. hyd"xhloric OJ rulphurk" >oei<:l' con I>< "..-d. I>u' no' "Iuk" .cld. \\1'h "Ihk ...·Id. ll~
'tlrog.n I> oxlili70<! ", .....,.

4. Reaction of metals with metal salt solutions

A. mOT<' "oactiv<· metal displa<'<-os a I"", J'<'an;ye metal from a solution of ils saIl.

copper from a copper Mg{s) + CuSO. (aq) .... MgSO. (aq) + Cu (s)
'Io;:-_+',:,ul:phaIO solution
Fe copper from a copper Fe (s) .. CuSO4 (aq) .... FoSO. (aq) + Cu (s)
sulphate solution
..-t;ilis
¥dfor
_ main reasons ~ Properties of metals
Answer the questions that follow on YOut own. W,ite balance<! chemical
equations for the reactions betw""n:
• e'Xc<:ptions. 1. zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid
2. ~'alcium and wal"r :1. copper and oxygen
SUB-TOPIC 2 Reactivity and the
electrochemical series
A rl'X1i~"t" ~mm.t Is Oft(' th.lt "'act.\ easil)' with OIhcr .. lmHnts or <U01pounds $0 l,Exparim
th<lt Its atOlD.'O @In slabit' (lillt'd) nut....- shrils. MMal. In t~ numbc=d groups in
Materials
IlK' ~Tabk' hi\,. \ ~ Iml are tM loOIJllf' illS Ihfo ~p nurnlx't", but IIw
transition IIl<'tah mo,,. '~hk ,,,k-ncWs. rou ..ill nffd:
• 2 .. Its! 1Ube\
• test lubr hoIdes'
The reactivrty series of metals • test Iubl' r.Kk
The Old..... of reactivity uf lIl('lals nn IX" d<'1{'nnint"d by stud)'ing n-anionS of • 6uII:;en burne:
metals in the lahoralory with oxygen, waIN, dilul(' adds, and aqUl'OUS solutiom of • 2 .. spatulas of
metal sallS. Th", reactivity SC'ries is til{' arrangernrl\1 of 1Ilt-lals in order from Ill.. ' filings
least ,{'atii"," to tlw most r('artl'·... TIl<: more New words • I .. 'l);Itula of
r{'acti,'" the m{'lal is, lIlt' <'a,IN It is for it to form _._.__._ _._.._ ..••._ _ _ _ COPIIN(ll) OX~
Us nmlpound,. and lilt' hard..., It is to breal.: reactiYity series: an ordeIed bl 01 • I .. spatula of
~ _ shows whicI'l mel:lIls magll~lum 0
down its compounds. 'nIl' reactivity seri... hdps
........ or Ie$S ~ \har'l the_

- -
- --
us 10 p"..t.Ikt how metals might ",a<1.

I - -- ""7""
6. Ught the Ek..-:J!
O\"t'IIMo f1Ir.M
1. MunIIOI~'C
f11J1U' lmd pUil
.T 8. Iloklle<1 ~
x ./ ./ ot:>sl"n'3lions ..
x ./ ./
x ./ ./ Obs<er\'arioos
x ./ ./ I. Complf'le tht-
x ./
x ./ ./
x x ./
x x ~
x x -_./
x x x 2. hOm your nOC
Fogu'll 3 The reactivity:ieries of metals oa'Urf<'tl, and
Old you know? •
Exception to the rule: Aluminium COoellUion
AUnnum is also an e>«:eptioo,
The ~lion of a1rnnlnium in the ~ivlly to lhe octellVle. Most alOIM bY I. Write a baIa."X'
WTl... Implit'S thai il should ~ quile "'arti,~. \Q ~ or \o$e , ~oOlS during 2. Whi('h three "
lIow.·'...·" it dot'5 no! rt"~ with;o<.ids and it is btwO'll \Q end up wIlh a stable 3. Wrile thr th.'ft'
rt':S!slanl 10 CtJnmk>n h«;I~ of 1M ~ of eighI YaI e ~ elect10ilS, bul 4. If Iht- exprrlml
............. makes <MY SUbIe
a Ihln C'Oi.t1ng of aluminium oxidP (AI,Osl 0"'"" cornpcu1ds wi!h onty sill
...hat do rou ::
liS wtfa<Y. ih.i. oxi& is unr..;ont\... and pro!l'('1\ vaIercIt elect10i .. "....)
lhe.' aluminirnn brio... ils \Utf~.
98 1.."..,. ~_
 TOPIC

_ _ Reactivity order
Carry oUi this '>'T,,>rimeot in groups of four.

..ounds so ): Experiment ~..'1

_poup,in Materials Aim
~ but the •
'·on will n~d: j To ddermille an order of ..,a'1hily in mrrab
• 2 x test tUM
Procedure
• test tube hOlder
• tesl tubt' t;1\"k 1. Labt'J your test tubes A and B and put them in the
• Runsen burner t~t tub•.' holder
1I:DOn' of
. . - )Oluli"n, of • 2 x spatulas of iron 2. PI,,,·e one spatula of iron filings in "aeh t"SI tubt'o

- nom lhe f,lings 3. In lest tub<' A, add on" spatula of COpP"T(IlJ oxide
• I x spatula of and .lWntly mix it Into the iron filings.
<"opper(I1) oxide 4. In I~t tuhe B, add on" spalu;a of magn<.>sium
• 1 x spatula of oxide and gocntly mix it into thoc Iron fdings.
magnesium oxide 5. Copy the tahk und"r ·Observations· (\){'Iowj into
your notehook, and rompl"te the first "ntry for
,..... hoth t<'St IUbes_
6. l.ighl til{' Bunsen burner and hold lest tube A (using til{' t"st tu\){' hold"f)
o'-er the flame for a minute or two. 'Vrite down your ohse"-ations.
7. Monitor any changes in appearance in test tub<' A as rou take it off the
flame and pla,'e it back into the t<'\t lUhl' rack.
K. Ilokl test lubl.· B over th,· flame for a minUle or IWO, write down your
onscrvalions and pla,·e the teSl IUlx' ha,·k into Ihe l<':It lUbe tack.

Obsf'rvatioIU
I. ('",mplete th"tabl,,:
Test tube A -I"T.est tube B

2. From yonr nOles in the table, determine in which lest tuhc a reaction
occurred, and give a reaSon for your answer.

Conc:lusion
. . exception
I. Writl.' a balancl.od I."<jua!iou for Ihe r"action that look pIa,"".

_. ""'
Yost: aloms try
oWdl:"'" during 2. Whi,·h tlm"I.' metals we,I.· uS<."d in Ihis nperiment?
wttn a stable 3, Wrile til<" lluff metals in order of reacthity, from least reactive to mosl reactiw'.
4. If the experim<"nl is re~ated, but using mI<· oxide and lead oxide instead,
~stab'"
what do you lhink would happ<>n 7 (llinl: Refer to Hl';Ulr] on the pI1"\·;ous
,",,"
page.)

Sub·topic 2 K<o< tivity and the .1.,..,wcheo>kll1 _ 99

Effect of heat on some compounds Copper
Ill'al ('llll blt'ak down Cl'rtain rump"und~ qult(' CoppI'r is l"ll:lractel
l'Milr. This P'(I{('5S is l;nnwn "" thermal sulphidl"s, \llka:rl;
d('C()rt\position. ltown...., compounds lhal
ronUIJI ml"tals that ilR' highn" up on lho:-
A'JoCthlily 5t'lks (in <>too ...'Ol<h. th<lo5l" lhal a...
mon' tt'X'tn"t'I, art' ~ stabIl' than lJthcoa and 5(>
.-
br.dI '" doom "'. c:ompolII"Id_

(Jo:, noc drrom(lOW' as NSily ",hffi bl'aII'l1, 1'h<' uhW below sno.."S SODll' t'XiUllpM5.
Thl" extraction me
typl.' of OR'. ~ 01
(IJI lambia '" ,,"'I
Chalrop)'rill', but I
For tJm ..--xl. :b

--
Thl" atl3ction is a
Stq t 1hl" OR' il.
KOH
NaOH
~
no efIec:t
no eflect
decompo mloMgO(sland~O(l)
.,....,.
"'lro<h ..

~ dBc:oo'OPO MloZnO(s)and~O(ll ="""'"

un....antft!
"';~'&-_~_~ '.x :es 10CuO(~and~O\l) 1M W"'·, ~
~CO, no effect
1
("()(II'" Is Cl
N""C03 no eflect St~gt" 2111l' ('(mal
MgCO. OOC:Qo'OPO 50s to MgO(s) and CO.(g) silicon <lir;
znco. de<;:Qmposes 10 ZnO (s) and CO. (g)
2CuF"S.1l
CoCO. decomposes to CuO (s) and CO. (g) Slag<' l AdditiOn.a.
Nitrates KNO~ partially decomposes 10 KNO~(s} and (g) ° 't'hl" result
NaNO partially decomposes to NaNO,(s) and (g) 6, Iron
Mg(N6}. decomposes 10 MgO(s), NO. (g) and 0. (g)
Zn(NO}. easily decomposes 10 znO{s), NO. (g) and 0, (g) !fon Oll" (0< hal::m.
_ _JCCu{NO}. easily decomposes 10 CuO(s), OO.(g) and O~(g) .and olhl"l mlnl'r.al
deriwd snuKl' of I
Thermal decomposition of ammonium salts which is.a th.~'\l
Stage I 111l' roll' I
Although Ihl.")' do not {'(Iolain nK'lals, ammonium sailS shO¥.' a similaI !tend In
Stag<" 211ll" ~'arlIOI
t1."a.c'\iv,ly whl"n hl"atl'l! 10 wry high l('lfipl"ratun'S, Fo. l"xampll':
<":(5) + CO
• Ammonium chklI;dt': NII.Cl (S) ... Nli (g) • !lCI (g)
l Stag<" 3 TIll' nrbol
• Ammonium rulphall': ("'11~)?,-). (s) ... Nil, II) • tl;>o~ (g) Fl"}IJN4
• Ammonium nitron..., NIl~KOI (s) • Np (tl • ZH!O(g) 1'h<"~kp'
oubon ltioxldcl...~
iron ;It lhl' botlom
Extraction of metals l'he liquid imn
Ml'tals O«(Ur nalural.ly in lhe form of om, whkh ilR' a mixtuR' of lhe ~a1llsclf
(1UW1ly in Ihl" form of an o:ddl", (':Irbonall" or $Ulphidl'1 and impurit~ 1lIl'
Zinc
prtI(("Ss oj Illt'la.ll"ll:lrartion imvt\'n laling IhI" ~ frum tM l'arth UK!. ~Iing rid ZJn<, is l"XIlXtnl 11
of Ihl" intpurilil's unlil a pun" rnl'1a.1 rl"mains. both ha''l' to bl' ClI
Metall"XUX'tioon ~ on 1M l\'IIICti'ity of Ihf' mt1.al in lhl' <Ill'. Soml' IIll"tals can OR".II is bumlln I
bf' I"Xlr;l(1:00 by rOOucing the Oft" "~Ih <'arbo>l, OIrbon lIlCJnOXido' <II h)'droRm, Oth= rn.,n n'du«<.llo Col
cannot IX' rt'du«d in this w.ay, and Ih<'r('for(' haw 10 """ l":<lIa<1N b)' ril'ctroIysIs. 10 zin... alld Iill" l7'
100 T<>pk6 M<U!>
-
Copper
Copper is cxtra<;too from ore:; thai may ("ontain
sulphides, silkau:s, <:artxmalCS or sulphat~.
('xl,,,,'i,,,,
TI,,:' ,n'.'lhod dillers dqX'tlding nn the
tYl"" of "'\'. One of the most common ("(>PP"" OJ'<'!;
(in :r.ambia as well) is a sulphid<.> ore, <:alkd
chalcopyrite, hut it contaim If'SS than 1% '~'pp<-r_
for thiS wason, the ow must tirst h(' ooncemrat<'d.
TIll.' exlTat1ion is a thr<'t'-5tage pnx:es,:
Stage I The ore is concentrated using the method
of fmlh llotation. TIll.' chalcopyrite
partidl"S (loat to Ihe tup of Ihe tank (ami
are lUlk'ct<'<ij while mOSt of tl)(' Olher Figure 4 Copper extraction
Wlwantt'<l mim.'rals sink to the bottom_In involves converting copper ore
this way. a lUll("('Otration of almost 3O'Jt, (above) to pure copper metal
(Opper is obtainro. (below).
St4.~ 2111<" ("oJlcl."ntrated (h3kopyrite (nmtaining rupp<.>r(II) ion~) is h"awd with
sHimll dioxide and oxygen 10 obtain ("Opper ~ulph;de (n>I'f".'r(l) ions),
2CuFeS, (S) ... 2SiO, (~) ... 40, (g) -, Cu,S (s) ... 2FeSiO j (s) 350, (g)

. Sta~... 3 Additional oxygen is addNl: (,",S (s) I 0, (g) >2Cu (s}

Iron
-n,e result is n'PIl<'r metal that is arouncl99% pore .
Sll, (g)

Iron Ofe (or haematite) is a rock that n>ntains ir<>n(lll) oxide tog\'tlll'r with sand
and other minerals. TI,e iron is extracted in a blast furnace_ Both roke (a ("001.
d"ri"ed ",mce of carlxJIl) and limeston.· ar<' needed in the extraction procl.'ss,
whkh is a three.stage pnX""ss.
5taxe I TIl<' ."()k(' burns in air to giw 011 heal: C (S) ... 0, (g) .... co, (g)
• trend in
Staj,'" 2 TIl" carbon dioxid... rea.iS with more coke to form caroon monoxide;
C. (s) ... C()~ (g) --) 2C.0 (g)
Stage 3 The .·arbon monoxid., redun>s the iron ore to imn:
FezO J (~) ... :ICO (g) --) 2Fe (I) ... :lCO z (g)
The limcston<.' is prCS('nt a~ a purifier. It bwaks d""n to fonn calcium oxide (and
carbon dioxid,,), which reaet~ with the ",nd to form slag. TIl<' slag lloatson the liquid
iron at th.. bO!1nm of the lllast furn",:e, and can therefore be remo,'ed quite ..asily.
TI,,,. liquid iron must be refined (urth"r lx·fore pure iron is obtained.
lDl'tal itself
The Zinc
~tli"g rid 71n.· is extraned from zin.· or", (<'"ith"r zinc sulphide or <'.inc carbonate, although
bUlh hav<.' to I,.. convert...d 10 tim· oxide first) llluch lih' iron is e.xtract<.'<J (rom iron
_melals{'an or... It is burnt in a fmna.·e with coke to form .·arbon dioxid{' (Stag(' t), which;s
IIFfl. Others then r<.'du® to carbon monoxide (Stage 2). In Stag.' 3, th{' zinc oxide is r<.'du.W
..aIrsi " to zinc and the by-product i~ carbon monoxide.
Sub_top.c Z il<><tivity ",,<1 the c!«troch,·mi,..l ",~i<.. 101
 B-TOPIC 3
Uses of some metals

AluminMn is a Zinc is a eorrosion- Copper is a very Iron is magnetic, Alloys are a hOCl
strong metal with a resistant metal that good conductor of non-m<:1als. Th.,
low density. can conduct elactricity and heat. "rono """But it
malleable. !"operlll'S of tt>.,
So, it is used in: eIectriclty. So. it is It is also strong and also rusts easily.
(onslitu.,nt "'~
• aircraft parts used: malK!able. So, it is wnidl is why It is
Vly of t~ saniI

... --
• food containers • to coat iron to used in the ottsn ga/'oallized
• O\ial 1
E'E ... idtycables
(as it is much
pB.aititfrom
IUSMg
• tugectlei with
-'"
• ' bical wiring
{coated with zh:l or
mixed with ca'tIoI.
to make cast il'On Represern
--~:::::;1
•
coppa to make
the alloy, brass
(an alIoy). Iron is
used in the . Usu.illy, onl)' a s
• to make various manufaetu1'l of: product' an alla,
1ioc compounds • stool (more than (the main rn.,ul
lor use in the Mil of the iron
--., makes stN.'l strlX

---
extracted is used
"""""" .,., • cooking utensils in this way)
whereas lron,.-o

... """"
• cooldrink cans
• coatings 00 COs ...........
~ • hoi water pipes
• pkJg pWls.
..........
/of" gates ;n:t
~ _

Harmful effects of metals

As usdul as thf')' an'. m<:1ah nn also bfo toxl( to humans and the natural
~n"lronmenl. Wh.. n Our .,xposu'", du.. to a!>sorptlon, ingestion or Inhalation _ Is

-
lar great('r than tit., awrage e"posun". th.. t'ff('("ts can range from skin rashes
(mercury or arsenic In small~) to organ bilu.... (mercury in hlght't dusn) 10
GIlICt'r (high dose of lead).lIig.h concentrations of sodium in th.. body has ","",n
found to inc'n"asl' blood pnossu...., w!tile prolongN uposuR' to aluminium has
.-.".
p;o.;,.<1IseeeI
beftllinked to Alzhrim~sd1sl"aSf'.
Add lIliIX' lininagE' is a C'()fl~l1tIK"!' of I1llning ml'lals. Wat~ outflow &om
mining opentlons ha'.... ;o high acidity. and this outflow ront;unlnaln water
resources both allO\.... and below the ground. In south..m Afrin. platinum and
gold mines app...ar to Ix" th~ greatest prod\lct'!'S of add mint' drainage.

~ Extraction of metals
When a for«' is l
Am_r tbe following qu<':l!lons in p;oir$:
which eXplains ..
I. I)('fjll(' the following Imns:
quantity of a <!J:fl
a) di~t1 ..,~Ion I») 1henna.1 dKompositlon.
lattic:-., and tn., l.a
2. Name th., gas that is always gi''('D off when .. ml'Ial nitrate Is heated. ns<', tlK> 1l('W1.,. ,
J. Brit'fly describe tilt' thrff $tage of iron eXlractlon. USf' ba1m('('(l equatlons to
HOW("\...... nm
Illustrate your desc:riptlons.
(as.'S, the alloy r
4. Do som~ rescarch at a library. Oil til" Internet or by intt'rvlewing pt'Ol,le \u
others, the alloy
ml1ect information about the environmental impa('lS of Zambia's mining
sector. 1'rt'smt yom lindlngs to the ..lass.
102 Topi< 6 Metab
 Alloys

AlIo)'S ;t~ a homogm«Ju<l combirution of meuls, or ;J, combination of m011.als and

nQfl-rt>('tals. lbe IDI'U1s:= rJOrTTUJly miXf'd in definite plOponlons so thi-t w
P"OP"'liE's of t~ aIloy hll,,,, a $pE'CifK' (l)Illbination of the plOl'C'nit's of thE'
Wf&ituE'n1 aM1al$. Tll6I' U1mbiNtioos oftm maJ<oo thO' alloy IllO«' usefulthlln
my of the su.nin8 m.alma!l; ,,"IJ\lkl ~ on Ihrit ""'11.

Representations of alloys
US\Qlly, only a small pml'Ortion of th... <additi"" mM"l is added to a main mMal to
produ~... an aUo)' with som~ desired pr~rty. For ..xarnplC', steel;s im alloy of iron
(the main lIl<.'lal) and only a ~mall fr(lt:ti()j\ of ('arbon. "Ibc small fraction of carbon
matI's SIN'I ~t'nngrr and mon' durable. so it i5 suitable for uS(' In construction,
whell'as Iron would be too soft.

p<n """ is ....--... 10

........
-
Il.-Ictce ca>sas some _ 5 6 •
.. !he alomI, . . _

..... .
piI(>o 01 Iron

~--
.......
~J10

10-""
........
- . ..
pi<><:eCf . . . .
I
- + ,. .'}
.. ,. t·- .~"'i:n
. . .,. .,
;~U~ 1' ...... +1

iron cartx:wI no ~ OOCI.Q

atcms 3toms (st.... is. much nOO+96
lItld ~ malIe3bIe l!>3n Iron)
Figure 5 A representation 01 the alloy, steel

,,\'two a f~ is applit'd to a P\lI(' metal, the la}"ffS c,mC'asily slide aVe'r each other,
which txpLains Why metals are malk'able and dU<:tile. 110W1!V\.>r, when a small
quantity of a diffl"rffit matmalls Oldded to the ml'lal, ntw atoms tntl'< the crystal
lattk'r and tht layers can no I<ltl1lft sJkk as t':;ISily (as st'l.'n in FiguL't' 5). In such a
~,~ nt'Wl}' f~ alloy is stlOl1llt'1" t~n 1~ original 1IIt'UJ.
ions to

,.........
mining
1I~"t'I', n<:M all aJJoys n«d to be 5l:rongt'r than I~ original mrtal. In 'iOIIlt'
~ tht' alloy nrm. 10 be lightft' or mort' fkxible thiin tht' main mtUl, and in
othe<s, the alloy nrm. to br _ ronosion-<esistant.

S..MOPi< J A1l<Jr< 103

 B·TOPIC
Advantages and uses of alloys

....
(99.8".-on a1d
0.2"- GalOO ~
•
--
""'-
""""""""
Iv ... '"old
the
("':orro5Km. I
chemical ,,"'..-
prl'W'rK("

-= ofox)~;ux

..... .-
(75" coppel and

....
· """ • ......
"""""""
{'1"t'f}'Whl"f(, <II
MwilOllffinm
th(' on-an a:('

-"'" •
25% zinc)
""" • """"""" Thl"pru<~

m""" oxygl'n
other fmings
llakes _ and w
•
""""""'"
b~,
.
(88% copper and
12% tin)
•
•
•
., """
malleable
~-
•
• -~
appliances
propellers 01
huge ships
unlil the ohit'

Preventi,
...,.,.,- -""'"
-
resistant To pr('V('nl ..OI
• tlop/'lies OX)'g<."n In tht-

""'
llkJnri.nl alloyS
(9025'" altnwIium.
""'" "'" ......
•
•
""
•
('l ... e'age. wi1gs.
with Iht-

1. Let ano1
lDl'U

-"'" ""'" .-
6'" Dnc, 2.5'" COt, . . . . . tails etc.)
, . '3' 'I s..n\1id.a1 pro!
125" copper) ....1I corrode II:
. prm..mon. l:s

--"""
staink= steel • expnuh.... (X ,

E:'~·'::':~
• .."
....., •
• hospltaI and
medieaI
"""""~
tIM' rnA'" Ilw
leani.... lha:'!.
.~- umk"f,lP"Ollnd I
NIS a'" atladl
thtr..hy l''''tl'(
~Alloys Shnlla.l}". Ii
An,wer th<- f()lI"W~;':~:' ,:,:,,,C,C,,C,,C,,C,C,,C"C,:..,C.,:,C.,Cw="C,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - tIl\" hull< of ~h
l. Explain what is mNnt by the term "all"y". .usting. a< lin<
2. Nam.. "n.. advantagt' that an all.". has ov('r a pu,*, llll'lai. dl('ajl('ll') rno
3. Many melab ar.. nI,"(' uwful when mlxN with other elements.
2. Coverins
i1) Whill is the name /ti,... n IV thl'5t' rnixturPS?
b) Which elements i1f(' found In:
Pa.iD.ling
i) brow ii) broila' iii) stainlos .u('('\.
4. (~r 11M' following list of substilllCe: KOkI; iIluminlum; Imll; tIn; MallY iron =
magnesium; I"'iIklum; brus; stainkss st('('\. 10~ all anc
From ltw list. wril(' (J<-n ltw IliIIIH'{S) of tM wbstmc:f'(sl thilt: 1M palnt is ~
:0) an' resistant to C'OT"OSion b) will COflodol' al tM hi&h6t nt('. btlow Ill<:' pail:
to fhrct. to< :l:'
 B-TOPIC 4 Corrosion

Corrosion (or rusting) is a natural pron"Js. It Is th,'

chemical w('a,ing of mdals by atmospheric oxygen in
th,' p'l's<''''''' of moisture. Although the combination
of oxygc'n and moistuT<' is commoll alnu)';t
everywh,'''' on ,'a,th, co"osiun happens fasler in
environments ",h,',e salt", pn's<"nt, tou, So, awas ncar
the ,xx'an an- partkularly Inone to "'Stillg. Figure 6 In a few more
The l'r(lc(!S., causes til<' metal to nak<, off. SO that years, the chain on this
mme oxygen and moistm" can get behind thoS{' gate will rust tllrough
tlakes _ and Wear down the dl"-1x'r larers of metal- compllitely.
unWthe objl>ct rusts through completely.

Prevention of corrosion
To I"l'wnt wr'osioll, it is llC«"SSJ')' 10 ,tul' the
oxygen ill til<' air and water from coming into nmtact
with the metal. There arc two way' 01 doing this:

1, Let another metal corrode instead

sacrificial prote<"tion is the Us<' of another m<'lalthat F.gurc 7 The rectangular
will comxle mOll" easily than thl' metal that n,..-ds objects on the red hult of
protection. Usually, the SJnifl<"l'd metal is less this ship are bars of zinc
expensiw, or does not have the desiI,x1 propl'flit"S of that will protect both the
til<' Illetal that n .......ls prot .....tion. Mat:nl'sium is mn,," propellers and the hull
warti,·" than iron. So, on ~hjl's, oil rigs and f'om rusting.
uml,-rgroumJ pilX-S that ,'onlain n",tal, magn.,.;ium
bars are attachc'<! to the iron to "attract" the ('onosion,
theleby pwt.....ting the iroo.
!;;milarly, zin,' bars a[(' al<o somctimN; attached to
th,' hulf~ 01 shil)$ to [lr<.'\'ent the m!'tal hull from
rustint:, as zinc' is more reaeti\'e than iron (and
chealX'f tn produce). F.gure 8 All the features
in lt1is children's
2, Covering the metal playground have been
painted. Not only does
Painting the paint make the
$ steel.
".fany iron struriuteS at<: painted wit II ordinary paint playground more
tin; attractive, but it protects
to h",'p air and water away frolll the i'on. Ilowe\,('r, if
the meta! bars from the
th,' paint is scratch,...t, ..orr()';iOI1 can <:>IXU' and ,pread
elements.
1)('low th,' paint. Regular dl ..... ks ha\'{' to 1)(' carried out
10 rh""'k tor any "'ratdws in the paimwo,k
S~b·'~p;( 4 0:>",";,,,, 105
Greanngloilillg
'I'he metals In the lJlO\-ing ~ of ma.-hin..ry

._.
are C'O.lltM <'it ...... with oil 01' grf';ci<' to prn~nt
Ihem from coming into cont;>M with air and Summary
Wolttf. This pro!flrti\"\' byn must bO' .....-W
CflI('n.1 proprr.
" A lal'lllIlk bao
CaJvanirillgldcctroplating Fogure 9 The!wl;l wtX1t_ on l'!«twos (n~
This im'Oh~ th.. dipping of t .... k'ss reactl\~ the cables am coaling each
" In gtner.tl, '""'
metal into mollen Zinc-. llll' thin lay..... of tif'l(' is steel cable with grease to
and df'n..... TI1I
morl' Il'aMiw than lht mMal of Ihe nroMU«, ptQl~ it from the sea air.
ha\".. blgh md
(u~ually, this is iron). Thl'1l'foll', the more o Mt'lals rt'al."t W]I
reaMi\... metal slowly mrrodl'S and lost'S uxlde 01 a hydrl
de<:lron, 10 the metal SIIIlCtUII', Ihl"l'by and hydrog'm A
protecting the iron flom COllosion. o A mOTI' n·at ti~
its Sillt.
Corrosion and the reactivity Rc:aod;vity and 1
senes o TIlf" rt'a. th in
hs ..... han" Sl"efl, 1M rill.. al "'hit:h lDI'tals mort' or lessl:t'a
("0Tl"0dr d<pmd3. on lhril posillon in the • Aluminium is ;II
l\';>Mhily s<>lie's. 1l>f trIOR' l"f'aeti\~ rDl'U1s r.. ac1h.... and It'S
rom>tk f'aSily whik thl' Ins l"f'ac1iw metal do • I bC'"ruo.al <k<:.
roguu 10 The n.n obieet is ,. Somf' meuJ I:
I'IQI COI'Ttldo.> e~ty. This a.lloo<os US 10 <:n>at .. "'ars coated completely wittl line.
of protecting 1M easi.ly-<'OTfOded metals. ~ is iIIk! d>ionee !hat , .
,. SonH' meul c
and water wi. ever be in ,. (jenf'filllly,:llIt
(;(ltItact with the iron surface. o (;oppt'r mt'lal is
" Iron and zinc: III
~corrosion
'-'0..:..."';-''-'---- _ moltoxidt.".
Answ.., Ihe following qUl'Stkms on your own: Alloys
\. l)efin(" thl' term "corrosion".
2. Which two subslanc..s all' n'sponsible for tht· mHo,ion of "on melal? o Alloy~are a ho
3. FOl the sacrificial Plotl'ctlon of iron, a "arlety of Illt'lals can be used. metals altd non-
a) Explain the term ·~crifltjal pro1t..."tion", o Usually. only a ~
b) bplain. why copper Cilnnot be u:sed as ~mfirt.al prote<:tion for iron. to IlrodlJ«' an ai
4. (;i\... a possible rl'ason why ",I exhausts t:OlTodI' mter than other steel Common
strucrures in tbt body uf .I. oor_
o (o~t.... is tl:
S. In an experiml'nt, tbrt't' Iron nails,,~ studil'd 0'...... a <:t'Tt.I.in pniod of time.
Thl' fint rntll was WI'iIpprd In o>ppl'T wire, lht strond naiJ "~s wr;tppl'd in presmct' of coi
o To prt'\VIIt ro::c
magnnium wirt. and thO' \asl; rntiI "~s 1m unt"O\"I'TC'd. Uloing }"OUr knoW~
t.....T1b......l pro
of the rnctiYity~,dtt"'"'1ll' whKh nail WOIIld ha",t." ~ till' rt'K$,
..1("( troplat.. II
and "'hkh WOIIId I'IQI N:\.... t."'OITOded much 0'\," thO' gi"lVII period of timl'.
 Summary, revision and assessment

Summary
General properties of metals
• A me-htnk b<md is formed by the e[{'('lrostatic forre bt'tWet'll the delocalized
...... 0' "lectfOn~ (nt'gatiwj and the cations (positive).
iiIIg each
_'0 • In ll"neral, metals are ~hiu)'. sonorous, Illillleable, du. tile, bard, stron"
and deu....,. They are also g<><ld c:ondu< ton 01 heat and <'l.·.·fridly, and
_air.
haw high ",,"U;'ng and boilin.: po;oh.
• Metals wact with oxygen to produC<." an oxid.., with ",at.., to produce ellh"" an
o"ide or a hydroxide and hydro);"n gas. and with dilute adds to produce a ",It
and hydrogen gas.
• A more "'''("Ii ....• melal will dhpl.....• a less reactive mt>tal from a wlution of
its sail.
Reacth'ity and the electrochemical ,,",rie:s
• "111e ~a.-th'ity ,,·ri.., is an ordered list of metals lhal shows whkh m ....talls
more Or less reactiv.... than th" ne"t.
o Aluminium is an ""<X"plion to th" ,eactivity ""ries rule since it Is not very
reacti"" ami r<:-~sts (·onosion.
o .-h,'r",al dl"(·... mpus;ti ...n is the b,<:-aking down of a compound du... to h ....at.
iIIIttct is o Som<:- metal hydroxides thermally dl'<:OmllOW tll an o:<id.... and watel.
-'zinc.
• -.aI air o Somt" metal ('arlxmates dcrompost> to an o:<id('" and carbon dlo:<ide gas .
M. o Generally, mctal nitrat...s d\"("ompose to a salt and o:<yg('"n gas.
• su1ace. o Copper metal is e"tracted from its or.... oy ,<.'<luction with o:<yg'.'l1 .
• Imn and zinc' metals arc extracted from thd' 01"<.':\ br rWu(!ion with carbon
monoxide.

Alloys
• Allor~ are a h"mOI:C'D{'<>Il~ ....mblnation of mC'tah. or a combination of
metals and non_mNah.
• Usually, only a smaH pJOportlOll of Ih\' additiv... ml.'1al is add<.'d to a main m('"tal

-
~.

• of lime.
~in
to 1",>dU("f' an alloy with wme desirf'd propeJ1y, suclt as strength or f\('"xibilitr.

C'.orrosion
• Corrosion is the chemkal w\'aring of m ...tals by atmospherk oxyg....n in th...
pr('S('IIce of moisture.
-.--!t'dge • To l'rev... m corrosion. one can allow another ml.'1al to oorrode inSI...ad
_ most, (=l'rilidal prot"eUon), ("Over lit... metal with paint, oil or greast>, or
I timt'. {'I,"( troplal" (gah'anV"j Ih\' roNal.

ToJri< 6 (Chemistryl Swnm.1l}', ~isi"" and ."""'..,,, 107

 •
Summary, revision and assessment continued I

Revision exercises
l. Gin' ont" word Of Irnn for E'~h doo:'scTlpllon. ~lI\l' til<' propo'l't}' of m~~b
th~l allows tmom 10:
a) Ix- bl-at... l into Ihln shefls
b) produ<~ .. rillKln,lt ~nd when struck.
2. Wh;';:h ODe of thE' following metal:; b Ihl' k"llst N'arth"f'?
(llll.
(I)'" .......
.............
prnpetlies do • [
[

a) (Opper bl potassium c:) gold dl wdium (2)(

1. Which onto olth(' f()lIowll1g metals will nOI dlsplacr hydrogm whtn il
rt"arts with waIN?
HydIogeu • E
,
:;Ill Cu b) Na c) Mg d) <:.;,
4. Choose tll,- ron('<.'t answer. In whkh on... of tl\(' f(>Uowi1l8 reart;onl will
(2)(
··",,
the metal Ion IX' displaced ffUm ih 11'111?
;oJ ZIl+ r:u.so. bl ZU+Al?l. c) Zn+NiSO. til zn+MgSO. (21t
·o [

Assessment exercises
18]
·· ,,
of

I. n...!abI<' lx-Iow showl; Infonn.alion abou1 f<lUl' ditf('f\'f\[ ruetal:5 (1\ B, C;and [)l: ·· ,
[

of
Nltrogen • C

; ~~ ':. -+;:m ~:; ·,

• E
C low -¥
medUn medit.m - +t.Qh medun
••
,,
to rnedUTl j medium j good
Which m.-tal h the most suitable for mal.:lng ('~h of
i medium mediun
Ill,. ih'rns? Sta!'"
•
• [

,,
tWQ
leOlStmS for rour choil'(' in ("M"h ~.
• [
•
a) A metJal
II) A gale (:\)1
(:\)1
•
• ,
c) The metal baS(' l'l a nK,king pl>1 (:1)1 • ,
[
2. )I.·lo1al, aI<' l\<KK.! ItwflnaJ and ~I("("\ri{'a1 {·olldu{1uu.
a) Nam~ the melallhal I, ml',t ,uilabJe tOi maldng el~ri("al wi,,· for ,, •
•
homclmld purl'0"l$.
b) Sugg"'l '''XI f'SSt'ntiall'.op<'rti.... of mt1a~ whleh mak{' Iht1Jl ,,,itahlt'
(1 )( """"""" ,
".,""',"~ •
•
• E
for making 1'1<'<·I.i....1 wi.... (2)5'
<
c) f.xpIain )uur illS'o\\'r in Qur5tion 6b)aoo." in 1<-''''''
of mrtallk" hor\dillg. (2)( • E
d) F.xplain. u ..ng an ~u.alion, ..·hal will haPJlt'f! il Ih;, win" i~ pul ;nll': • [
i) dilul~ h)'drol"ltlork add • [

ii) a ,.h-u niuatt ~tioo.

TOlal: 20 mark.
""
""
•
•
•
,,
[
IDled Non-metals

of mM..ls

Olil.

-""""""
General • Define a non-metal

-=
(II"
properties of • Descroe the physocaI and chemical piopeI1ie$ of non-metaIs.

o<hm it ''" • Demonstrate the labomlory preparation. collection and test fof
hydrogen gas. .
• Describe Itle physical and chemical properties 01 hydrogen gas.
• ns will
(2)(
• Describe ltle Indusllial manufacture of hydrogan gas.
• Describe the uses of hydrogen gas.
• Demonst131e the Inboratory preparation, coIlllctlon and test for
bJ. + MgSO. (2)1 oxygen gas.
lSi • Describe the phy$lcaI and chemical ptopttlleS of oxygen gas.
• Describe the industrial manufacture of oxygen gas.

B, C ..nd 1»:
• E2lq:oU, the in'opc:otalA of !he orone"
• Describe the usa of oxygen in industry and In oan.ral PlOC es
a'Id dangl!ts 01 its depIetiolL
• Oeo'iOi ostIale the cherT....... test for water.

Describe the irIdustriaI

• C/escri)e Importance manufacture or ~~,.~.~'~'~:'::,:;',:;""
of water as a,wage L
• Explain the ctIlnC:I.. istics and mportance 01 nitlogeh gas.
• DeI'lOllSllate me p'epaiatio~ .............lioi' and test for 31'.'10< ... in
the Iaboratooy.
• Describe the menufaettn! or arrvnonoa.
ties ~ ....-
• Describe the pI'IysieaI and chemical pl"""_""'' ...
• Describe the thermal ~ of ammonia salts.
• Describe the uses of ~ .
• Describe the the<maI dissociatioo of ammonia salIS.
(3)(
• Describe the uses of ammonia.
(3)( . " Describe the manufaeturt! of nitlic acid.
(3)( • Explain the impott3llC1I of nitrogenous flll'tllll8l'S.
• Describe the effect of n~rogenous fertilizers on the environment.
Carbon and • Describe aIlO1ropes.
0. carbooates • Describe the physical properties of the allotropes of carbon.
• Desa'ibe the 100000000ion and properties of carbon rnonoJdde.
• Demonstrate the Iabornlory preparaliQro, coIection and lest for
(2)'"
carbon ooQde.
r-ba1<ling. (2)( • Describe the physlcaI and chemical properties of carboo I dicWde.
pur Imu; • Describe !he u:5e$ QII ca1lon dioxide.
()}( • Ops 'ibe IhlI ~ d r.e from Iim8stone.
• Desaibe IhlI uses QII .... and slaklId lime.

''"
Iotal: 20 marl;,,; • Desaibe IhlI uses d limeslone.
• ~lhlIgo .... ~lUUSeer.ect.
 SUB-TOPIC ,1

Starter activity 1 (sub-topics 1 to 3) we lim Ieun: ;III

AnS\'>"ft tll<' folk>wi"8 questiom in p;UD, and tbm discws:as a d;rss.; non-me1ak:
I. Explain,,~ IlK' non-lm'tah art" found on thE' I'\'riodkTab!t. • Non-rnet:ab,;a
2_ fist ten riemmts (their rum", and symbols) that Mt' non-lIl('U'!s. ~l"'I"ption of I
3. Of Ihf' Iisl.l'd ~mlC'tlts in ~ 2, which 0TM'5 :arr. • 1bC')' include ,
a) 50Iids at room tempentur.- solids such iI!>
b) liquid!; at room fl'lDpt'I3tun> • Non-metal ior
c) ~ at 100m temperature forming (n"P
d) found in air (atmusphe","j whl'rt' n is the
e) not found In air (atmosphert') • TI,('$(' el,·m<':'lt
f) diatomk molC(·ul.':I in their natural statl'? s1lells.
4. Name fiw common compounds that contain non.m<.'tals.
S. Compl('\(' the table below by listing .soml' dilfefl."nees b<.'tween thl' physical
plOpertil5 of Rl{'laU and non-metals:

Physical p
Starter activity 2 (sub-topics 4 and 5) 11Ie non-metals:
AnSWer th... following qUl5tions in pailS. and then dlsc'uss as a class: • can he $Olids, I
I. hplain, by means of a dot-and-cross diagram, how a nitrogen mol('("1,dl' temperatuft· all
forms flOrn two nittogcn atoms. • are poor (lxId) ,
2. Name two rummon U~ of ammonia. el«1l1eity (bee;
3. bplain how fertilizm are uSl'ful mo,1ng el«1ro
to fanners and gardalers. • are dull in appo
4. N........ tmet' SOUI'C't'$ of nrbon dioxide'. • ha,'f' low dmsi:
S. Explain tM Unk bl!t~ climate ellaIW' • are britlll' (non
and ca.rbon dlo~dco. • gfflcnlly tJa.,....,
\ow boiling poi

110 Topi<"7-.-ws
 General properties of non-metals

Wt fint karol about 1M non-~ah in Gradfo 10. R«alI W following fKts ~boul
non·mf't~
• Non·mctaIs a", found on th.. far rlght.lund sid.. of tlll' PniodkTOlbk>, with the
nn"ptiOll of hydrogen, which is in Group I.
• Thf')' indud.. alllbt !lases. such as hydrogffi, t1..lium and UXfg('n, but also
wlids such as carbon and a liquld (brominl").
• NmHnf'lal ions form wht>n atoms of non.metals gain rll"<'rons, thereby
fum.ing (negatively charged) anions. Tht' anion i, g<:-n..rally n"1)tesentoo as X'.
wh..'I<'" is the numbe1' of dl."ctrons gaint(!.
o Thl'Se .. ICfIWnu h.. \'t' ~ n four and _ ...., electrons In Ihm outermost
""...
.-
• Nl:II C

au St.
•

'.....====~
Figure 1 The arrangement of me~ non.metals and
metalloids in the Periodic Table

Physical properties of non-metals

The' non-rm1;dl':
• an br:' 5OUd:s. liquids or p5C'5 al room
lt1npnatul\" and prfSSUrt'
• ~ poor (Nod) rondu(1l>n of both heal and Gnlphite. which is a bm of
carbon,l;l(:ItI<b::ls pI lridly
l'll'<"'lricity (bl'<".. u~ (bt')' do not ha\'{' ft«"-
eveo 1hCIOJgh it is a non-metal.

..
~
~'
-,I
moving t'lectrom in th"" structuR"$)
• are dull in aP!X'aralK("
• ha"" low densilj('S
-t'
,
,
,
'
'
• if.. brittl\' (nnn-metal solids loan hrnJ,; t>asily)
• gfm-rally tta\'t' "ery low melting points and
\ .. low boiling points.

SoII>lop;el (_i_..,..,.... <11.-.-_ 111

 SUB-TOPIC 2
Chemical properties of non-metals
11'e non-metals: New words
• are generally electronegative in natuH' Hydrogen is th" II
• fonn acidic and nentral oxides when It'acted electronegative: the abjlity to hydrogen romain
with oxygen (for example, SO, and CO, are gain electrons easily only. It <X<l.tfS nat
acidic oxides of non-metals, while (:0 and "xidizir>g agents: substances
that bring about "xidati"" by (II,) and forms l!l<
N,O are neutral oxides oj nU!l-mt'tals) gaining electrons in a chemical element.
• are wry powerful oxidizing al>'t."nts reaction On earth, hyrl:,
• do nOl form hydlOgen :;as when they react not part of the au
with a<ids occur in watN,!l.II
• furrll rhlorides whkh <-an be solids, liquids or gases.

Hydrogen!
Uses of non-metals Hydrogen <-an be- I
Non-metals haw found a wider uS<' in our day_to..day lives. For example:
• Chlori",- is nSt'<.1 in the l'urifi<-atiull of water and as a hl<>aching agent. l. Reaetiv('" mrt
• Bromine is used in dy'" and l"',tidd"" Exampll': (:a (~J ~ :
• Small amounts of iodin.. are ll{'{'<.led in our hodies to pwvent thl' .<weHing of the
thyroid glaml. H is also nsed as an antiseptic 2. ReaCHv., mrt
• Noon is used for advertizing in Iloon signs. Ex,!rnpJe: !\Ig (s) •
• Helium is nsed for fIlling balloons tx...-aus<· it h light and not ",actin'.
• Some non-metals (such"" nitrogen) are used in fertiliurs. 3. R.,a<1:ive met:
• Oxygen is the key demem in cellular <",piralion in plants, animals and huma'15. Example: 7.11 (s) .. :
• Graphitl' (a lorm of carbon) is u.,e<f to make ['('neils.
The hydrog"n ga'l
ahm-" <'an he co~
dispiarernen t <)f "_
method.

The downward di!

Hydrogen gas is r
pushes the water I
Figure 2 The uses 01 some noo-metals: nitrogen for fertilizers (A), graphite lor 10 tile top 01 the .,
pencils (S) and neon IOf neon signs (C)

mlIlIIIcN_O'--"_-m-,-:ectac'cs _
Answer the follOWing questiom on yuur own:
I. lleserihe whal a non-metal is.
2. Stale fiw physical properties and tl\'e cl'l'miral prop<'Ttk'S of non-metals.
3. Name two nses 01 non-metals.
4. Wilie-h of the following elements ar<' "on-m<'\als: oxygen, lithium, rhlorirw,
copper and sulphur?
\
T
 -TOPIC 2 Hydrogen

- H)'drogffl is Ul(" lighltst l"'Itm.... t. An alom of

h)'dmg.... ronlain, Ollt f'lf'<"I'OIl;md ~
lly.ll OlUlrs rnllurall)' olS a diatomk" moJl'{'Uk'
proton
Hyd:0\jJtii, IPS mal<es '-" _
~" 04 h mass of 1tle un-aa.
.

.....
lII,' ilnd forms mure rompoun<b than any othf'f
. • '.<oJ,
('1(,1llt'1l1.
..,. . ;--
On ...arth, hydrol\('11 Is a,·tually quill' r,l.(" It is
not part of th... air in Ill,' alm~ph"r", bUI it d".."
(X"OtT In wat"r, naturallo:a, and p<'lroh'um,

Hydrogen gas: preparation and collection

1I)'d,ngrn """ ~ ~at In me laboratory by Iht' following rt';>Miom.:

I. Rt~i,'" _etal ......"'Ift' ~ hyd.-o,udt' .. hydl"ogc=tl g;u

f..u mpk-: Clts, .. 211,0(1) ~ Do(Otl).taql" tf~W

of'''' 2. R..~i,·(' )Detat .. ,,('am > metal odd., .. hydrogel} gas

.:Xaml,I(': Mg(,} .. U,olg) ---t MgO(sj .11,0:1

3. R('active metal + dilute: add -~ Sialt .. hydrogen gas

F.xampll·: lll(') + 211Cl(a'l) > %,,(;J,(;I<I) .1l:(xJ

Th.. hromg..n l':'I' I"('pare<! using Rt'a<1ion J

r-ilric aco:l can be ....ed. IlIA ortt l
alxwl' nil be rulI«tl'd by ('ither lilt' downward the I9IldtY8 rnel3I is ,. ""ll' m
di$pb«ml.'nt of watt', or ltw upward <k'I,,~ See noIe on page 97.
m~hod.

The do..nward di$plao .....Iel,t of water The upward deIiYeri method

~oga , gas is insoh He in water w'od HPogen gas isles$ dense than ail'
pushes the water dowr1W3rd!; as it ri$eS and wiI tIoat to the top of the test tube,
to the top or the gas Jil". pushing the 8If downwards.

l!I
L

dtloriM. ,_'Ii';
" ,
The test for hydrogen gas
Physical

--'"
In rerms of p~

-
BMg a I:lo.a'TWlg The .pop. SCUld is produced...men hydIDgelI
'" n.*lurk"'u. U
bu'ns. water is l)I'(lduced by the reac:bOn. as
the mouth 01. '" in5Olubk' In
jar oontaining """"
2H.(g) .. O.lg) .2H.O(ll '" nt'itber ac1d

""-
~ Laboratory preparation of hydrogen gas
Thl! water helps to eXtinguish the bUrning splint. '" Ihe light("',! (

This ",xpl.'rinwnl will be d"l11on~t ralt'd
)faterioW
You "illllC."C'd:
• 1" bl't'hh" wit
• I" ...... tl.'r l»th
In \('TmS of ..ht'
• is 'OIllhustlb
by your h';).t"hn
vapour, aHOI
• r",mov<'$ 0.\\1
equation: ( u
i Aim
1To P"'POlU' h~"dr~n gas and IPSI for the gas
Industrial
-~
~
- .. H)"drognl gas"

- ,..
• I >< thl!dk' funnel - htdi""",· gas

--
1_ Crack... g
• I >< gas jar -~,
• I >< dl'li~'t"ry tul).,
• I >< ronk1ll ~
• SOml3MIICI
• zint" g,anull's
'" I >< rol>ocr st0l'l"'r
•

. ,'"
--- When certain n
into SIlliIller me
(CIl.) Is <'tlld:1'd
\"",ry up(>llsi\'(',
We will le..m
"ith two holes i
granules ""' W
• blue and red litmus : F"0gur9 3 E><perirncnt set-up 2. Elcctroly*
paper : 1"Tocedure A concemr.tt<'d
• matches j I, So:! Ill' lhe appal'3tu~ as shown in FlguU' 3. prodlK"l" h)"drOl!l
.1
.~_.~.><_:,:~_~~I!~~_m.. Z. Allow a f{'W drops of 110 todrop ooto the zinc. t'lK1:roI~s. llv
3. (".011«1 t1H' hydrogm gas In the &as jar. otll<"J IndUStrWI
4. Quickly rrmo'l't" the gas Pir from !hi" " .. u~r bath and pomorm the tl'Sl for chlorine gas a:x
hydrugm. hrdro,ydf'.
S. Test tht' liquid that forms in the gas lar With litmus papt'f. An<."ll"ClricCll
p.lsSl"d Ihtou;;h
O~lItions
ell"Clrooes lhat I
1. What rolour is tht" hydrogen gas In Ihe gas jar? ront.... t wilh tm
2. What did you obS<'rw when til'" burning splint wa~ plact'd ill th'" gas jar? separmNJ hy me
3. Ilid th~ liquid havl' any effect on the rt'd Or blut, litmus papers? memhran('. ·nJC
CoachlSion reactions that IX
I. Which propeny of hydrogen auows us to use this mrthod of collection? electmd... u<' r"i
2. Write down a baIanCt'd l.'hl.'micaJ. ~uation for the tr'aetion that tal>ts piau' the prod",,·U.
in the «>nlc:al flask..

114 'tope 1 _
 Physical and chemical properties of hydrogen

-""'-
;'''';;jo~", as
[n t<"Jm~ of ph}'l'inI1 propt'rtirs, h)'drogl"n gas is:
• roIoo'l......s, taSll'less and odourless
• in~ubk> in ""I('r
• "';Iho:-.;l(id no. alblil1C." whto lo::stf'd ,,'ith litmus pilpl'f
• th., Iighlest of alllh<'@S('S\it is 20 tlml"i lighll'f than air).

'll"S In l..rrm of ~all>rope1't~h}'drogm ~

... 1< combustible in o.~~ and. bums with a sm~ bhw llallK' tu form w;al...
<,,"pour, xrordiDg to tms t"qUalion: Il,(g! + O,(g) ---> U,o(g)
• rmJO<"'l'S OX)'g\"Illrom roppI'f(lIl o"itk 10 fann 50Iid Coppel, alT(ll'dlng 10 Ihis
equation: CuO(sl" 1I,1I! ~ Cu\<I. Il,o(g)

Indusbial manufacture of hydrogen

Ilydrogen gas is lllallUfiK"lurt'd using ont' of Ihl" induslrUI mcthlld~ lhal follow.

--
l. Craciilllg

-- When «'rtain muk..."'IlII"S thaI (ol1\aln ,...bun and hp1rt>K1'" all" nil<"\.;t'd (l)fol:l"n)
into small....- m"l''':\'ll-s, hydmgl"l1 gn is l'",dIKt'd. Fur <'urnl'l.., whl"ll tnl"lhan..
(CH.l is crack<."d, arbon and hy<Jrugl"ll !las are produn...l. HOlWI.'I'I, Ihis pr(~< Is
vl'r)' .."pensin', So it is 11U1 "u'I('nlly uSNI on a lars", seal",.
We willl"'am ",or'" alxml rrad,ln,!; in Topic R

2. Electrolysis of brine (salt water)

New word
A (un(mtralt"d ....lt watl'! sulutiun, I>f hrlm·. <.,m ------"=..:::=-----
electrolysis: the decomposition
l>Iodu<... hydfUj;rn ~s If it und",rgo('S
of a solution by means d an
electrolpi.!;. This prO<"rSS alJO product'S two
-~
oIh<.. industrially useful chemlnl!>:
chlorine ga.~ and JOdium
h}"droxidr.
,,-• "'-
An elmrie ('\frf{"lll is "[
J"'S'I'd through two
rlrctr<:!otlM; 1lu.1 aIr In
("()lltacl with lhe- brinr but

- =-'l_e-~!'1" _- _' '~=; ' ~;~i:;.~r -~

srparatrd 1.»' mr::ms of a
mrmbranl:. Th<: d><:mlcal
reactions that <X.'CW at each

--
*'ttion? rkoctrodl> al'1,' responsible for
Ihto pmdU(!S-
FIgUre 4 The dccbolysis 01 brine produees
hydrogen gas and other products.
3. SteaID rrlOnDing
SUB-TOPIC 3 C

St.
A nalural gas (usually mo:tha~1 Ull<k.-rgoes steam rriQfYtling ill a
two-slOlgl" 1"<Jn"SS. 0Xygm is found ...
1: M~hatl(' and ste-am an" ~ 0'\," a hot nki71 n.lol1y'St at 900"(;. Tlw

--
...anioll p,rodocti <'afbon mooo:tidf' and h)'drogpn ys.
01,00 .. 11,000 ,.-+ C.Ooo" 311,00
Sla&", 2: n... prodlX'U from Stilgt' I an" mixnlwlth m'm:" ~1';1.m and paSS<'d 0\'t'I' a
hoi iron catal)"S1 at SOl) -c_ n... <'afbon mono.o:ldl' ~ ron,~nlIO a.rbon
lbtal~m
OX)l:tfI po II ol1'So
md mmy nrin=lIr

dim:idl', ...hk-h Is n.s.lly Sl'J"U'3tnl flom til<' h}'drogen gas. Oxygen ga

<Xllg)" IIp(g) =..s.. CO,(g) t II, (g) and coiled
The mixtul'l' of <:artxm dloxidl' and hymog,'n l~ passed through very <:old watl'r 011 In Ihl'laboratory,
high pH."SSIII'l' to diS5<J!\,(' thl' <:arbon dioxide. Thl" h)'dmgl'n l-:as bubbll"S out of tht" • th.. thNmal cat
water and Is dri,'(/ as It I'J\WS through silka !,:1"1. IXlIa5sium ch!(l
• th<' d~"mposit

Uses of hydrogen gas The test for 0)

Indostrially, hydrogl"ll KilS is USl.'d:
• In the manufanurl' of ammonia (Ihe lIol1>E'r ' - EI
procns): N,OO .. Il,oo .....~ Z-'\'II,oo

....,
• as;on "wironmentall}'·frit"ndly fuel (whl'll
It hums in oxygen, il forms Wolin, not
,....,-,.
• In the manufactutf' of hrdrochk>ri<" xid:
h)"lirogen ",an, wllh ('hlori....
(11,00" (]~(g) -+ 21l0(glland II... wsulling Activity 4
h)"dIogm chkJrid<:o gas is dlssol\"l'd in waU,T 10 F'ogure 5 Hydrogen fuel eel cars Carry oul lhis exp
fonn a solution of hydrochloric" a<id
• in Ihe hardening of oils In th.. manufaC1UI'l'
of margarine.

~ Hydrogen gas
... _.
a<e a1<eady a reality. In the Mure,
hydIoge.. retuelling stations w1ft
become more common all Ollef
1- Experime,
Mat... ri.ah
You will n<'<'d:
• 2 M tl'Sllubl':;
,\nSWl'r Ih.. tollmving <11lt'Stlon< 00 your own: • I ~ test tu~ s:t
I. Name thr.... ",OUr('E'S of hydrog<,n, • I ~ wooden sp
2. SIal.. four physical pmp,mln of h}'drogl'n. • mal(,~
3. Stall' two chl'minl propl"nln of hydrogen. • 2Omlof~
4. Magnl'$ium r....C1S wllh w:atCT, stl"ilm and adds 10 produa b}'drog<'n. hydrogm. pl'«
solution
Compll.'tl' the following l"qUillions:

-""
• Smlof2M

· - """""
a) ~lg('S) • 11,0(1) - •.• , ••..
b) Mgls) 'Ila(~) ' . (KI) solution
c) Mgl'S) .. 1I.O(g) •••• " ._.

116 Topi<"1 N<&_

 B-TOPIC 3 Oxygen

OX}ogm is found itS a. dbtomil: molcruJe in lliltun:'_

n.... a.\IDCISphfn' ronta.lns iIIJlIlI'OXltNtely 21% 0(
oxygm gas. It Wo <In."UIS In watl!l, sa.nd,. silica.trs
a.nd ma.ny rnirH'nh in 1M form 0I;aJ1 w<.ide_

Oxygen gas: preparation

and collection Rguq 6 Oxygen P is wKSety
In tbt bbor:uory. ox~ is ~ by: used n hospitals. although not
oft... in its p;.,.. form.
• tht thrnna.l nta.lytK d«omposition of
pouassium chlon.lt: KOO, (s) =.' KClO(s)-I- O,(g)
• the dl'cornJ'O'itlon of hydrogen pt'<oxldr (5t'r Acth;ty ;I below).

TIle test for oxygen gas

Place a. glowing The spIim. The correcl combination of fuel, heat and oxygen
splint in a jar relighlSto is necessary lof combustion 10 occur. The
cootaining lhf! prod~. glowing spIim. has enough fuel (the splint rtself)
,~ IIame. and heat bul not et'lO<..gt oxygen is present in
the air for rt to rtHgniIe. Once in the presence of
pure oxygen, the splint easily re-lgnites.

~ Laboratory preparation of oxygen gas

.... cell ears Carry outthi5 rxp<"rimem (on this pag" and tho: n~xl) in pairs.
.. the MUt9,
wl:iIDc:>o os wi. 1- Experiment
.--------
MatetUJs :Ailll
•
You wiIlllft'd: To prepti!' oxygen ps by mullS of tM deoomposit>on
• 2" test rubf5 of hydrogen pl'IO:Ode
• 1" test lube sund
• 1" 1\"'lXXlen splinl P'oced......
• matches t. Pbcr thr test tube ronuinllll the h)'dtogm.

- • 20 ml of 3O'lIo
hydrogen peroxide
solution
• Smlof2M
potilSSiUm ~
(l<J) solution
~ solution in tbt ll'St tube Stand.
2_ U,lIntT 1 lights 1M splint $0 thlt il glows,. but
doe not bum with a. ft;Ime. Lea.1ll('[ 2 ~ ludy
to pour the Kl solution intO the toest lUbe.
3. l.e;mwr 2 quidJy pours the KJ solutkln 1n10 the
toest tube and sunds bad<.
• safety goggles,. g\o'Je 4. Ltanwr 1 bring5 1M gl0win8 splinlto the' mouth
of tbt tl'S1 tube. See Figure 7 on tM next page.

Sub_'opld o..nen 117

 OIn;rn..tiOIU Step 3: Thr air b'
Whal happml"d 10 1M woOOnl splinl whrn
il was broughl rxw lhC' fillt 1f'St tuM?

Conclruio..
I. ExpWntbt'rok"ofthfog)owing
-- rooll.'d :0
ex~ fCE
lr.>ctions.
Il'fl1O\'ft! I
ocher <II: tt
wooden splinl. Sto.'(J 4: The liqtd
2. Explain lhC' rIM d tho:' pllUWum ioltidl:- Ir.>ctionati
~tion; "1tlO il <II rt-xunt Of <II eataIy5t? nitl'l:>gffll
3. Wril~ down <II balann'd chemial bl.'fOl.. IM
njUoalioll for tiM' It'<IlC1ion that <X'CUJTl,'<,l FIgUl'll7 Experiment set-up 5O:panllt'd I
boiting po
are:
,. Nitrog...
Physical and chemical ,. Argon,_
,. ()xrgm ,
properties of oxygen Stl'I,5: Thl' fraetia
In terms of physical pro(M'r1ies, oxyl:ftl ga~ b: ()')jnlk'n'
• colourleM and odourl,,"
• les~ <k-me tl\a;n <IIir
• slW>ttr soIubk' in .....tl'. Uses of oX!
• nrit...... acidic nor <IIlblilll1' IndUSINllr, OX}'ge
• 1.~'l'n1i<1lJ to <"t>l1lbustJ,on. F\gI..ft 8 Oxygen is' eeded tor
this match to bum, but oxygen • in the produc:Jc
itself does oat bum. blown throu:gh I
In trnns of chemini pr~ifos, oxyg..., g:.t$
• II> tnl'1.<Il1 rutti."'&
I'l'acts "ilh: mixf'l.! with OlCer
• non.mM"ls in combustion reartions 10 form <IlCklIc oxidl"S. For nantple: ~y""'~.AI hi!
,. 2C(s) + O,W .2COW Note: l1>e oxygen ~as b Iimitl.'d. bum~ ~tlOnglr n
,. C(s) + O.W • co, (gl NOll" Th.. oxygen!:ilS is In exCl.'Ss. able 10 rul th,...,
,. SIs) + 0, (g) ..... SO. (g) Note' Th.. oxygt"n !:as i~ limit""'. thMn. MNal ",-ri
• m{'lal. to foml ba,k oxide'S. For example: tlw <;,)rnr war.
Dill YOll knovl?
,. 4Na(s) + O,{g) 12Na,D(sj • as all aid to help
,. ZCa(s)+ (J,(gl ..... ZCaU(sj SOd'um oxide (Na,O) is WI
natulal supply Ol
,. JFl'(s) ~20,\g) I ~'e,U.(s) importanl ingrediOOt of glass.
(for uarnple, ho
• as <II fud.
Industrial manufacture of oxygen 1'atunlll~', oxygen ~
OX)'gen b obtainf<! from the <IIir by th.. prOU'Ss <:aUf<! lhe fra<:tiorull dbtillatkm of • tht.' rl'Splnltion a
h'luid air. ~nrbon,
Stf'p 1: n....
<lliI is fiJteted to reil"lO'.~ my dICit p<Ilnidn. • rusting: a Il'actio
St~ 2: It b coolt'd to g<'t rid of water '''pour. and then J""l'l'n5l.'d to a brO""II subs:aI1l
It.''ITK).'., <1111 the nrbon dioxide u>d pollutants. wI10k' numbf'L

118 Topic 7 S<lft.m<ub

 ep 3: 11l<' air is rompressed and then
rookd to -200"C, wher(" it is liquid
"Cl:"pI for the noon and helium
fra<:tions. 'fht'St" 11\"0 fra<:tions are -196"C
relDO'l'ed and separaled from eKh
other al this poinl.
tp 4: 11K' lique6ed air is sml 10 lhe
fra<:tionating column w~ the
nitrogen gas is boikd off first, -190"'C
bef~ the oxygen and argon afe
~ral«l from each other. The
boiling points of Ih<'Sl' hacllons
.~

.. Niuogm:-I96"C
.. Argon:-I86"C - 1&1 "'C

--
.. Oxygn>: -183"C
Step 5: The fractions;lfe storro In gas
<:)'limkrs for futuf(' U'K".

Fogure 9 The fractional distillation 01

Uses of oxygen gas liquid air

InduSTrially, oxygen is used:

" In lhe prodU<1iOll of sleel (oxygen is
blown through molten Sleel to purify ill
" In metal cutting and welding, Ihe gas is
mixffi with act'tylene 10 form oxy-
act'lylene. AI high pressure, Ihe mixture
lJum~ slrongly 10 product' a flame that is
ablt 10 cut Ihrough metals by m<'lling
them. Metal ..-elding (joini~) is dOl1e in
the sa.m<' way.
FIgUre 10 Oxygen is nee:led for
" on an aid 10 help people bftatht when'
metal cutting and weldirlg.
nalunol supply of OX)'gffl is insuffuiml
(to. exa.mple, hospital patients, mountain {limbers and dt'ep-Sl'a di'~J
• as a fueoI.
Natually, oxygen pIays an important rolf'in:
• the ~tion of organisms; this in\'oh't"S the burning of g10C05f' (fuf"I) 10
PIOOua arbon dioxide, watn and ~gy,
• I'IlSting: a reaction taU$ place bet"'ffIllron, water and !he' oxygen in air to lorm
a brown su"'lan~ 1\'llh the <:hemi<:al formula, Ft".O ...dIP, wlH-re x <:an be any
wbole num~.

Sut>.topioc j O:<non 119

Ozone Thete
All own~ mol('('Ul~ ronsisu 01
thr/!t' oxyg~n atoms (0,). Abo~

--
th~ tTOPOSI)h~r~ and bt-Iow the Add a feY.
SITiltospltcrt' Is a la~r of ozone drops of ~
that prol«U th~ earth from the
sun's harmful Ullra\iolet (UV)
radiation. Wllhout iI, too much
"""""',
SUlphate.

UV radiation would J'f'»rh ttwo •

earth, and destroy most lorms of
,,~
llf~.
Man-nude chemicals in th~ "'~

--
almosphen' an dt'plt1~ th1s
b)Tf of ozon~. In tM 198Os, It "'~
~sloundthalsubs~
ronlalnlng c:hJorofluo,oca~ Importa
(CFCsJ. soch as rclrigft-ants and
IIf'fOS01 nos. Wl'n' slowly
dPstl'Ofing th~ 0Z0l'H' b)'ft. • dll okiI".
1lK' CFCs aJ'f' rhmlk"ally
unrnnto.... in Ihrir rontalnen, FI{ItO 11 The dil'letent 1aye's 01 tho ~'lr
all IIo$pli'N e
"--.
• wal«sp
bul art" abk 10 leX! with UV
liptl, whkh spIlts thmt 10 gi\,.lfft dtlorill\" ~ ~ radk:als brf'ak tilt'
~ 00¥.1l 10 OX)'gt"1I g.u..
'The d.a.ngt'fS ot 0Z1ClrW la)'ft ~ indudr skin~. (due 10 100 moch 1.1\'
oo~lion) and 't'Sptratorydiwase sud! as asthma and ..... phywrna.

Water
Water is an oJddlo of hydrogen. "Jb.erdOtt. its ~ chemical nam~ is hydrogen "'ft Ih~ f
OXide. 1_ In whid
Physical properties of water 2. Une l.:lbl
h)"drogt'l
....""tl"f: a) Wlit~
• Is a colourless, odOllrl~ liquid ,,'irh a flat b) Narm
tasl~
c) 110'0"
• is II"-llta] 10 litmus d) What
• h.asa dl'fUily of I gfcm' al"·C Naml" tho
• boils al lOO"i:; and 1I~zr:s al O"C.. of WaIN b.
a) Wltat
F9'1l! 12 A waterl'TlOlecule has b) f.xpll.l
an angular shape. c) NamE'

120 Topk 7 Non·",.,aJ.

 The tests for water

Add a few The white Anhydrous copper{lI) SUlphate is able to

drops of liquid copper/II) incorporate some water molecules into its
anhydrous sulphate turns crystal structun> to form hydrated copper(lI}
copper/II) hlue if water is sulphate:
sulphate. present in the CuSO. (s) + 5H,Q(l} "" CuSO•. 5H,Q(aq)
sample. Hydrated coppet(lij sulphate is blue in colour.
Let a few The blue Cohatt(lI) chloride is also able to incorporate
drops of the cohatt~l) some water molecules into its Cl)'StaI
sample land chlorK::le turns structure:
on some p;nk if water is CoCl,(s) + 6H,O(l} "" CoCl,.6H,O(aq)
cohatt{lI) preseot in the Hydrated cob3Jt(lij chloroe is pink in colour
chlorK::le.
I
samp~_

Importance of water

• drinking and cooking • ilTigation

• washing and bathing • livestock farming
• water sports • extraction of minerals
y • hydroelectric power
• transportation
FI!JUf1'! 13 Water
• processing of food and drink
plays an important
• mamJlaclure 01 chemicals
part in Zambia's
much UV
economy, as a
tourist attmetion.

~ Oxygen and water

All$W.... Ihe following \1"<'5li"n$ 00 you' own:
1. In which gm"p and p"rio<.! of Ill<.' l'{'riodic Table i$ oxygen found?
2. On<' lahmatory 1"{'l'araliOll of oxygen in\'olvM the decomposition of
hydrogen p<:roxid{' u$lng a calaly$t.
a) Write down a halanc<!\l ch{'minl ('\juation for tht: reaction thaI takE'$ plac{'.
b) Name a \'alaIY$1 that can Q{' usoo in thiS f{'<lchon.
c) How would you prow' that Ihe gas PWllafOO i$ oxyg{'n?
d) What do you unMrstand by the term "calalY$t·?
3. Nanl<.' the m{'lhod thaI is u${'lj to obtain oxygen from aif.
4. Wale, is an OXide of hydrogen.
a} What are the boiling point and ff<"Czing point of waler?
.-:vIe has h} Explai" how you wOllld test for the p,osen....' of watN io a substa''''e .
c) Nam{' two industrial uses of water.

Sub.top;.: l Oxygen 121

SUB-TOPIC 4 Nitrogen • !l«aU>t' il 11l:l
into t~ l"r::pIl
• It is abo pu."lII
!,<,trogerl ocwpks around ~ of Ihr loti.l \'01W1lC' of thr ~the
air MOWKl us. rh~ofthe
In lIs f~ Sli.t~, il ~xhts lIS a dialomk moIKUl~ (N,) in . 0°:.
....· hich thl" aloms i.l'l' joinrd logMhrr 1»' a tripl~ ('O\'alml
bond. Thl"St' bonds i.l'l' IlKTedibly $trong. SO nitlog{'n gi.S Figure 14 Nitrogen's
Ammonia
d"o's nm rl"adlly l'l'i.("\ und{'r ordinary ("(",dihans. triple covalenl bond TIt\' ammonia 1ZI
bonded to thrrt'
Industrial manufacture of nitrogen bond~_ Ammoru;
Nitrogcn lias Is obtainrd from Ilw air by fractional dislillalion of liquid air. Se-e atmosl'herc, bftl
pages 118 and I I <l for the deulb 01 this prO<'O'SS. through the d«:I
Physical and chemical properties of nitrogen gas Laboratory
In terms of ph)"SicaI propt'1'l~ nitrogen gas b: Ammonia Is~
'~and~ an ammonium to
• lrss dense than air. Z....' lI.Cllaq}. CI
211,0(1) + 2..'11,1
In I..nns of ctll"tTlical propl"l'tll"s, hydrog= lonk:tll)', the tea.
gas is: 21'1I;(aq) t OH
• gen~rally Ine", although It <Jon r1."art \\ith
wm.... substanCf'S undcr very Sj)('\itil- TIt" salt and all...!
conditi'JIls th" ammonia gas
• "nly slightl)' soluble In water. passing It througl
ammolila ga1 is.
Uses of nitrogen gas
coll('("\ed 1»' the d
• Whm lique6l"d, nilJogm gas is USft.I to it is rollected ~. 1
quick-freeD' foods and liquids. For air dut" 10 liS Io1O',
rx;Implr.
.. ~ foolh u .... hozrn ~ lJ,quid Did JOU kntrtV?
nit~ at lhc fanoril"s whtf.. tlwy an
prodlK'tl'i, so thai they can be
trilnspo"1'd to shops
.. ,II hospitals, liquid nilTO&en Is uK'd 10
kl'Cp tls~ur sampl"" Im:ren The test for at
,. In industrial plant" HIIUid nitrnscn is
use<110 Il"{"('ze liquids in pipPl thaI need
FIgure 15 The boiling point of Bring a damp
revalrin~ - thaI war, th.... pipr I.s repairrd
nitrogen is -195.8 'C, $0 below rf!d litmus paper
without any liquid bo.'ing lost In this lemperature, nibogen exists
theprocm. dose lO the
as a liquid. Uquid ,libogeh is used mouth of a jar
• 1>.nrt>gom ~ that is prt.1!aJ'\'d ~Irially is
USIrd to makeammcnia. IM"e JMb'" 124}. _..-......
lor rapid Tree2ir19 and coolWlg
,.,.
contair*'g II'le

122 T""7~_
 • Ilecau~II Is unreactive, nitrogen gas ran br usm to Pn'\1!11\ fires. It b pumpl'd
into t~ Il'Illpty s~ in oiltank{'fS to avoid any a<ridenlallgnition of vapows.
• It i5 aIso pum~ into food p;acbglng 10 keep the food ft~ for long"_ By
~ tIlE' air (oxygen) in thr ~bgirlf: with nitrosm gas. thEft is 1f5S

.~
•
- --./
f&>0\1*'"
chan<'r of

Ammonia
trwfood ~ dlK" 10 Upc:lS\I<" to air.

? II bond The ammonia molK'Ule contaiIu or'IfI nitrogen Uom

bonded 10 thl'E'(' hydrogrn atoms b)' single 00\...1=1
bonds. Amllloni<l gas is found in lT~ qu.anlili"'i in thl'
almO!'phere, bt<:1l~ It b rele.. ~ into 1m- almosphl'w
through thl.' lIec'ay uf animal and plant matt.... FlQUre 16 1he ammonia
mo!e<:\lle has thme
laboratory preparation of ammonia $ingle covalent bonds.
Ammonia is made In the laboratory by luning
an ammonium salt with an al\;ali. Fur <:'.'taml'le:
2NH,<.1(all) + Ca(Ofl):\aq)-J. caCI,{aq) +
2Hp(l) .. 2NIl, (g)
lonially, lht' rt'aCtk>n is:
2.''11; (aq) + 011 (aqj -+ 2:"11, (g) .. lip (I)
•
The yJl md alklllJ milI:tun' is ~a~, and Ihm
tllf' munon1.I gas IS rolI«ted and drkd by
~ It throogh calcium oxidr prlk'ts. Sino'
aDlII><>IlU. P is solublr in ...aln, II cannot be
--
• --
)'==::;;;; ~-

roll«1~ by thl' displ~l"nl of waIn. InSle~, (J-NH.Cl_~_

---
•
it is colleni'd by thl' downward dhp1.a<'t'menl of
air dul' 10 lIS low densit)·.

Did you knOll/' ~~

Figure 17 A simplified diagram
The ammonia molecule has a
showing how ammonia is
pyrimidal shape.
prepared and colillCled in a
laborala<y.
The test for ammonia gas
. ' - .\.., -
"Bring
_W""a
a damp
red Irtmus paper

mouth 01 1M
contani'lg the
""
tun!; - _.....
......""""
bbI if the
gas is "',.,.... oa.
I Whan ..,.,.... Iia dissot_
- in the walti' on the
Iitml.Js paper, illorms .., ........... hydroxide.
wtlich is a base. The base tun!; red litmus

9= I
Industrial preparation of ammonia
Physical.
TIlE' Ilaber prUO"S5 Is thf" mMhod lhal b usN to
prodoct' ammoll!;a <Xl an lndU-;UiaI~. In tl'rDU of ph
FritzHaber~woe<l a ~ to
Ammonia is;!.D important rommenUl m~-mkOl1. produce 31,."01" on a ~ • hua pungt'
• Is a colourlf
as it Is usN to mala' fl'nilizeon for igl'iru1tull', ..... ~ 1908. This "l8lhod
made it P ) .... 10 proWoa • ~notbc
The Haber process ~ ao>d eq:+ I " " • Is len dl'lUl'
In this pr~ nltrogm gas (from 1M frJoCtioflal
cu,.,... ciaII). turns damp
distillation of air) and hydrogt'n gas (from • Is soIubll' in
rn<"thanl'stl'am 'Morming) alt." l..,mbinl"d to
In terms of cb
form ammonia i" a r('\'frsiblf It."action.
Sll"p I TI,.. mlXlull.' of gases is purilil'\l and • '('acts with
» NH,(g) +
theIl compr('SsN ulItH Ihe l'rl"'surl" hi
rl'adws about 250 almosphl-rf. • waets as a Il
SI'1' 2 Th.. mmp.('SS('d gas mixtu... is l'uml'('C.I
, , In the <'<jual
of ammorUo
Into the COlWfrler .. hamb<'r, whcr<, it
limn o\'er be<.ls of fine iron 1"'1Ieu,
which;><1 as the catalyst in th.. r<'U'Iion. The temperatu~ lnlhis chamoc'
Is kl'pt at a high t..mpentUJ'1." (around!>OO .t.:).
Step 3 TIlE' rt';oction that OITUI'< is KAO + 311:(g)" 2KII,(g), bul only abcoul 12'llo • bums max'
of lh<> mi,llurt.' is connrtl"d to ammonia gas.. So, th.. remair1irIs (Unn'acll"d) wat.. r.
gas m;";tur.. 1s smr through the CQrlwrt{'f again and again. until aU of the » 4NH,(g)·
milctu'l' has bto!'!. n)l'\\Tf1cd.
In terms of cb
Old you know? • rt'aclS with •
BeIore Haber ~ tI'os • for 1'Jta:::lj
"oeU>od or producng ,obClgei ,Iar • Is uSo<'<! 10 pi
use in IetiIizers ao>d ~ • for examl
Itle IOat:l was depa dro II on
~ (bi1:I diopplngs! as a
scuce 01 fertilizers lei use ... Activity 6
agricuR..... Most of tha world's Answer the fol
guaN:I for fcr1ili.!ers came Imm
I. Stale two,
Chile. But once th& Habel
process was lnplemented on an 2. Ammo!ti3
i1duslriaI scale, I!lere was no a) Wrill' a
longer a need 10 mine ao>d ~ hy"""

Nt J +
guano, ao>d ChiI&'s ecollOl'"! b) Naml' I

-
opllat
suffered eJlOll'lO<I!tt' Haber is c) Stall''''
stiI cm:Iilf!d as "" ~ voho
Fogurn 18 A:schematIc diagrarn of the pnx=
...... i'weo>:ed Itle most ~
"'d.Istnal pi'
"",,",.
$ Clf _ 20th 3. Deaibt' t.
<t. Writl' a ~
...~.

S. Ust too: p
124 Topio< 7 _~
 Physical and chemical properties of ammonia gas
tn terms of physical properties, ammonia g"":
DId you know?
• has a rlmgen! smell
• is a colourle-;s and poisonous gas Ammooia is the only known
o does not burn in air alkaline gas.
• is less dense than air and Can easily I", liqu... fi<."d
• turns damp n>d litmus papl"I blue
• is soluble in water and forms ammonia 1001ution.

In terInS of chemical prop"rti...., ammonia gas:

• reacts with hydrogen (Chloride gas to form denS(', while furn('s
» NII,(g)+!I(](g)T"NHFI(s)
• real1S as a reducing 116",nt (so it is oxidiz<:d in a reduction-oxidation reaClion).
In the e<juatlon below, copper oxid... is '<."ducffi to pure ropp"" in the pn'5t'm:e
of ammonia, a reducing agent.
New word
~ reducing agent a substance

,,,. 3 I,) • 2NH, 19) ---+ 3' II

• burns in oxygen to form nitrogen gas and

(s) • 3H,,0 (I) + N, (g) which brings about red...etion
by donating electrons in a
_oil water. chemical reaction, and '" the
process is~seif oxidized
ollh~ » 4Ntl, (g) + 0, (g) ---> 2N, (g) + 6Hp (1)

--
.,.,,,,,
~
fn terms of chemical properti~s, aqueQus ammonia (NlI.OJI):
• reacts with an add to form a salt and watt'r only
" for exampl,,: NII,o1l (aq) + IICl (aq) ---> NII,CI (aq) + 11,0 (I)
• is usro to prepare metal hydroxides when reacted with metallic salts.
" for example: Cu(NO),(aq) + 2NHpil (aq) ---> Cu(OH)o(s) + 2NIf.NO, (aq)

• ~ Nitrogen and ammonia

•
-
"'. Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. State two u:;e:; 01 nitrogen gas.
2. Ammonia can be prepared hy the reaction octw.,.;:n nitrogen and hydrogen gas.
a) Write a balanced cbemical equation for the wa<;tion'h<:tw"",n nitrogen and
hydrogen.
b) Name th" process used to manufacture ammonia.
c) State where the nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas com" from for the Haber
process.
3. Des<.Tibe how you would test a gas sample to set' if it is ammonia.
4. Write a balanced equation to show how ammonia gas and hydrochloric acid
gas react.
S. List fom ph~cal properties of ammonia gas.

SUIHopi.< 4 t<inogen 125

Thennal decomposition of ammonium salts Importa
Ammonium ...:lIs f'ithft
dt'romposco or Sllbli.- (dunges
din'nly from ~ Did 10 ~ psi
when Iht')' ill" healed.
NH.O.'-'_ --- All fco:nilizt't
alllIDOrtU, ,
oonsists~\
So, apan fTc
I. ""lim h..~tf'd, ammonium ph~"""""
chlortd.. mblimes to • potassfun
ammonl.l. gas and bydtog~n • amm"nl~
chlorld~ gas. Wb"n 000100, • ammoni~
till' opposite reaction oc<:urs: Figure 19 NH.Cl sublimes when heated and • ammnnlu
NII,Cl (sl "" NIl, (g)'" IICl (s;) creates depow higher up on the cooler pari • Ufl':a (CO(
Z. Wb"n huti'd, ammonium of the tunnel.
nllral.. deromposo'S 10 prod~
dlnllrogt'll oxide gas (N,ol and wattt
~ll.r.:O.(s) -> N~O{gl'" 211,0(1)
~ n._.
lelilaos {nI
3. \"lwn twatt'd, ammonium nrbonale d«om~ 10 fonn nrboCl dioxide,
-.n.o
..ill"""", ill '"
...,--
¥fatl'l' and mnnonl.l. ~ (NlIJ,c..o,{lIQ) • (;0:00 ... 11,0(1)'" ZNII,OO

Uses of ammonia
Ammonia is ustd:
• In the manufacture or nitric actd (...... ht'low)
.""""'
deIodopi, ...

• In the manufactu of feniHz..rs such as ammooium nitrate (Nll,KO,1 and BecauSr' all tt
amm()Oium sulpha ((NIlJ:SO,1 ollE'Ctl\'elyl
• as a ....fris;eratll !><'cauSl.' il lltlUifi", easily and Is a liquid at -33.34 'C '!'he yield a
• as a househuld cl..aner for so!t("ning wat...r and r..moving grease Slains from the (")imatk Cl
dothes the lota.Iland.
• to malo;e manufacture explosi~ and gunpow<.\t'r. • suppI)'lng t
EartrimtsaIl':1
Manufacture of nitric acid
Nitric and ",XIS wilh ~m.rnonia 10 fonn an Did you know'?
Imporum fftlilfaot", ~mmollium nltr:al... for Ihls
f"~, nitric" add is industrially prepared by the
Nitric add is abo known as a
spm 01 nib'e cw=- .... ~ is a
Ostwald prO<'t'SS. which ocrurs In Ihret' stases.
hV"iY ..... ,O$i ... and tDJ<ic acitt
Stag(' I Ammonia reacts wllh o:<ygen In the

_.
p...'smC(' of Illatinum-rhodium alloy
catal~1 at 9OO·C to Imm nitrogen 1Il0110:<i(\",:
4NII,lg) ... SO:(gl '4NO(g) ... 611:0($1). F"tgure 20 zan,
output: A pow
Stagl': 2 TIl(' nilrogt'n 1Il01lo:<lde Is (ooled and rt"aetnJ "ith mor... oxygo"" to prodlK\'
nitrogen djoltide, whkh l~ a brovl'O gas: 2NO(g)'" O.(g) -4 2NO:l&). rely on 1e<1llile
Stage 3 "lIe nilIogen dio:ddo:' l~ dissolved in watt'l to product' nitrlc Kid and mort'
rtitrogftllllOooxidr': ,1:\'0:00 .",0(1) • 2I1NO,{1IQ). NO(gI. The- 8I.'twlorn 19$().
nitrogen IlIODOXide is ft'USf'd to prod~ _ nitric acid.
popko It Is pn
by 2ll2O. So, th
126 Topic"' ~
 Importance of nitrogenous fertilizers
All f~ th3.t conu!n nltrogm {nlt~ fntilian);or.. ~ from
3.mlJlOllh, which is prod~ using th.. 113.b<"r pt'OC'l5S. This bmiJy of fmUIzc'n
roru.ists o{Jolubll" sa.lb th3.t ("()nUln th.. nsentiaJ. elmlmu for !.><.'tter pbnt gro....th.
• Mi.., , - .
So, apan frbm nitrogen, Ih<"Y also cortlaln the elemental nutrients, potassium and
• P phosphorus. Kumples of nllrogpnous fertilizers includt':
• potassium nitrate (KNO)
• ammonium nitrat.. (NII,NOJ
• ammonium sulplut.. «NIi.lSO.)
• ammonium phospWt.. {{NHJ}'OJ
• tlR'.. {CO(NH):J.

D'id ~"OU know?

The Ihree essantiaI demellb n niboga_

fertile:.<3 (oi1mgen, pot;lS.IUn and
dIoxllk, phosphorus) have specific lu.."tions:
,(g) nitrogen is needed for gOl1(!f<ll plant i\
growth, phOsphorous 'so ~ for fOOt
<:leveIopment and potassiu'n plays a role
It'
in seed formation- )

s..ause allthfn, n\ltrierll$ ~ asrmi.al to the PWlU, th<"Sl' fmiliuTs art' a150
",d (colleni\"riy)....ned 1'.'l'K<»mpound f.. no1~
The yield of crops tlut can t.. grown 0Il11 piK1" of Lmd depmds 0lI til<" soU quality,

"'mfrom
tho.> ctimatic" ronditions llnd t1x' a\'3ibbi1il)' of,,<II.,.
and plant nutIimts.. Only 31% of
thP tol.lllland 11m! of lambill is ......t fur crop prodtK1ion, hut ..... can irlcn'a5Ii' the ~il'Id
by !>.1ppIying m., appropoillt.. mtollnt of nutrients in tix' form of fl"rtilizt'ts. At han'l.'St,
nutrknts are ~,,"l"d from till" soilllJld tll(')' f\l"("(j to I... tt'placed.

F9= 20 zambia depellCls on fe<tili«fs to ensure a good agricultural production

output: A potato farmen, with large commettial farm$, B tomato farmen that use
roprod~ greenhouses and C _ flower farme<$!NIt export their produce to Europe all
.(8). rely QIl fertiliter'S to increase their y;eld$.
~nd mo",.
Tho Ilortwnm 1950 and 2000, th.. wurW popubllon ~35ol"d from 2.5 billion to 6 billion
propil". Jt D pr<"'llictrd that t!x'rt' willlX' mono than 1.5 blllklrl peopll" on the' plan'"
by 2020. So, W lW<'d for mnt'3.SN food production !us t~'l:" bout grt'ilft.
So"'l>pi(. ~ 127
Effects of nitrogonous fertilizers on the environment
NitJOgenom fertiliz<.'rs are very soluble in water, which is why plants easily absorb
the nutrients. But it also means that these fertilizers are easily washw oUl of the

-
soil by the rain, and end up in 'tvater systems. Other consequenc" include:
1. Eutrophication: F.'(<;eSS fertilizer that is washed into rivers ~..uses algae in the
water to grow. \'/hen the algae die, they are decomposed by bact<,ria. This
In nalllr". carlx
diamond and Ii

activity by bacteria uses up the oxygen dissolved in water. As a result, there is

little or no oxygen left for fish or other forms of life in the riwr, so they die
due to lack of oxygen. "Iltis process is called eutrophication.
Z. Soils that are too acidic; lhis damages the structure of the soil, increases soil
.....osion and may kill soil micro-<lrganisms.
3. Crops that are more susceptible to diseases and pests: Too much availa~le
nitrogen in a plant can actually encourage diseas<'" and pests such as aphids.
4. Crop quality problems; With too much fertilizer, the crop grows too fast and Figure 21 Both
too denS<'ly. The overuse of nitrogenous fertilizers reduces the protein content
of wheat, maize and other grains. Excess
potassium in the soil del"leases the
New word Allotrope
vitamin C content of fruits and wg<?tables. eutrophication: the process of 1l00h diamond;
S. Unsafe drinking walef" supplies: The increasing "'./tnents in a water atoms only, hut
surrounding water SOurces bo'comes unsafe body, SO that algal blooms MolecuJt'S that
suffocate the other forms of lije
to drink due to high nitrate <:onc<mlratiom. 8.'Ometrical shlI
in the water as they deplete the
oxygen supply of the water
allotrop('s. litt'
_ _ Nitrogenous fertilizers .-allffi ullotr"Pf
Answ..r the follOWing questions on your own:
1. Write the thr~ reactions that take place in the Ostwald process.
Graphite
Z. list the esSfiltial elements that nitrogenous fertilizers supply to plants. ·nlis form of (';IJ
3. A farmer conducts some trials on his farm. He applies diffetent amounts of cba,,·oal {)l deh
(ertililer to 10 different, but equally_sized, maize fields at the beginning of the and animals.
growing S<'ason. During the harv"t S<'ason, he measures the total mass 'nte <"Moon al
produced on each field. The graph below indicates his results. of six atoms and
a) Using the graph, determine the sllft'tS. The sher
optimum amount of fertilizer
8 2.5
, hd" together b);
that the farmer should apply to slll",1, all' ahle II
each field for the following § The structun
gro"ing season. .~~ t.5 somc of its ph'-
b) The graph is divided into three • is soft and g:;'
sections labelled A, Band C. (; 1.0 abk· to slid'?,
What <:onclusion can the farm"'t
draw from:
~
0.' • h black in co
• conduct, dft
o 2 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
i) section A of the graph dec·tron., in i
ii) section B of the graph? Amount 01 fertih... used per field ('-"!its) thR>t>d'''-1rl''
c) Give a possible explanation for el,,,,·tron whi,
the trend shown in section C of the graph. • bum. slowl}'

128 T,'pk7 N<>o>-meu.i,

 UB-TOPIG 5 Carbon and carbonates
.-..uyabsorb
"out of the
"""",
ulsaE' in the
In natUf(', ,'ar\¥.ln fXcUrs most commonly in olle of two ",lid lorms, nam,-Iy
diamond and graphite.
.na. This
-..Jr, thE're h
.:t thE'Y diE'

.n available
<lIS aphid~.
uoofast and Figure 21 Both graphite (A) and diamond (8) are made of only carbo<> atoms.

- New word
"'<OIrin contE'nt

Allotropes of carbon allotropes: different structural

.- Both diamond and graphite' {"onsist of ,'arbon forms oIltle same element that
"p:ocessof ellisl in the same physical st"'e
. . In a
water atoIlls only, hm their stru,-tuI'-"S are- difl"re-nt .

..-.
Molen,I,,,, that "onsist of atoms 01 one dement, hut haw dilkrent st nKture~ ant!
.torms oIl~e g,..,m,·trical shap'.", (and th.'rdoIl' different physical properties) ar" call('(1
. , dlplete the
allotropc~. The property 01 an ek'm,'nt by which it can exist in t!iffer<mt lorms i~
called allotrop}".

Graphite

...."
-"'llsol
~ingofthe
This rorm of ,'a,blm is commonly found as 1'001.
charcoal or dehy<iratl'd ~~<'"Ietal r<'"mains or humans
and animals.
-=, The carbon atoms or graphit<'" at<' arrangNI in rings
of six atoms and th<'"y at"{' joinoo log<,"ther in law f1al
she<15.l'lw she<1s Ii" On 101' 01 on" anothe-' and arE'
he-ld toge-ther by wry wt'ak Ion:es. "~a r{'Wlt, Ih.....
she<1s a", abl" to slid" O"{'f on" anotht'r_
The structure- of graphite- the-r"fof{' {'xp]ains Figure 22 The physical
SOffi{' of its physical properti{'s. GraphitE'; -structure of graphite
• is soft and !:r~as}" to tOl.ll'h, so it is us{'(\ as a luhri,ant sin..e its nat she.'ts are
abl<' to sliue 0"'" one another
• is bla.. ~ in wlour
• ,'onum1s el""tridly, whii'h is unusual for a non-nll'ta\. ' .. rbon has foUl
£78910 l'!('("trons ill its oulermost shell, but ill graphitE', ead' ,-arhon alom only uses
_1* I'icld (units) thr...... l'!...1rons 10 form thr...... bonds. TherE'lorE' each ,-arbon alom has a fr<...
electron which is fr...... to mo"{' and «\fry an {'le<.1ric current.
• bums slowly in air.
Diamond • lho:' lnrompl
Diamond Is ,.... ry RR', and IhnefOR' ""ry .."'pelIS;'..... II Is formed ..-hen gnphlll' In leis)" O.tI
the ground is subje(11'd 10f'Xlremdy high pressures and lempentw6. ('".arbon ffiOII
This structure is '"l"f}' difffTf'TltlO thaI 01 graphill' In Ihal 1hE- cartxm aloms are
burnt ;rn.:! :l
joinm I~ht'r in a ''!'r)' .strong 1l."tUhrdr;;r,1 arnngt'ml'nf. Agilin, 1M sfrtK'lU", 01 tho:' a'.... ila!lM
diamond exp1ilins :iOIDf' 01 ilS physical propetttts: nrbon dioD
fi~ produa
• l>iilmond is tlH- hilrdl"st I\illurally-om.tring ~. SmilII particif5 of dlilmoorI
UI" nnbedded in a saw 1lIadl', a drill bil or a grinding "'heeI roo- th.. JlU1TIOS'l' of -~
cuning. drilling or grindiflS. h «ill ;oho bI' ground Physical an
imo il po....der and ~ infO a p;>stl' thill is uSC'd
carbon mar
for poIishi,,& or for very finr grinding.
• P'ul'(" diamonds are colourlrss, bul sparkl.. In III l("rms of ph}
lighl. This is <Iu .. 10 III{' lighl ('"nt('"ring Ih .. munoXldt' is:
cryslal rdlt'<.1t"\f from face 10 fact" inside th,- • a culourlrss,
crystal befm,. !>t'lng rellt'<.·Iet! but again. • sllghtly'lOlui
• Diamunds do nOi conduct ,.1("(1ricily. lllis Is • "I'ry pui'lOnCl
l>l'<.<luse illl th.. d ..... uuns in the OUlermOSI shl'll • slightly less.
are usrd in bondillll and SU no".. is left to
transfl"l chang<'. In l .... nns of chi:
• lJiilmond can only bum <If extremrly high monoxitlr ill:
FIgure 23 The physlcal
lempenlure:s. stnJctI.re of gnlphiIe • f1ammal*m
blutflamrlD
Carbon monoxide • 2OO(g)-
• ~ redurlng ..
carbon rnonoxidr (C:OJ Is a ps tNl can ~ toxic 10 tSoI\illr:s df'CI
hwnarn in high COflCftllntions.. Although no! a oxldr 10 oop;
gremhousr gon. II ~ found In rebtiwty high • CuO(s)_t
roncmtratiorn in !he' allll(~ lx'Qusc Ills .... • PbO(s)+(
produced as <I by-pnxlul1 of prtrol and dil5d ""girll's. Figure 24 The triple oovaIent
In a c<lrbon mono.dd('" molecule, th.. <'arbon bond in carbon monoxide Activity 8
alom fOrIm threl' covaknt bonds wilh Ih.. oxygen atom. RUI, sin.... lhe ('albun
alom unly has four val.. ne<' ..1("(1rons and uxygen hil~ six va!cn.... l'lectrons. th ..
Answ{'. Iho:' IoU
I. Carh,," is.
OXygl'Il atom dOnal1'S four ('Iectrons tOlhe bond: IWU ..Ie"'trons form covill"l\I
mass numl
oonds ",1th Ih.. two ...I...·\rons from Ih.. "arhon atom. and Iwo form il coval.. nt
bond on th....ir own. a) Draw tll
b) Slat" tho
Formation of carbon monoxide 2. ca,bun on
CarOOn mono:tidt is formo:d b)~ a) ExplaL>!.
• Ihl' reducrion of (;Irbon dioxide by carbon: CO:(&)-+ C(s) -> 2LU(g) b) !"am.. t!
(:.utlon monoxide (;In bI' Jl«"PUed in a labon.lOry by adding IIU to c:ae::O, (10 c) Slat" t!:I
produ<."l" C;O,J. and lhom pasYnt thr CO, Q\'f:r ho!ated <'arbor! 10 reduoc'!' lhe' ps 3. Qrbon!IX
10 CO. ih<: ps is funhl"l purififlf. to rnnQ\~ any 1r.K"1'S of aJbon dioJtidr b)' a) Slatl' Hr
m";rns of pota.ssiwn hydroxide (KOlil. Cubon monoxide is insolublt in ~I('\", b) 1>Rw tl:
50 1m- fiIlilI gas pruducr i$ collectnl <1\.,.,. "'illff.
130 topK7~
• th<- Inrompl~(' combuslion of carbon:
2C(s) ... O.(g) -+ tCO(g)
cartJon monoxl<k Is fonol"d whmt:'"\"r fut'! is
burnt and ther., is not enough oxygen for all
the avaJlable fuel ('arhon) to ronv\'rt 10
carboo dioxide. So, all cars, ga~ stovt$ and
fir...,; produce some amount of carbon
Il'kInOXllk as a by-pftxhKt. F¥-25A~car
, l o s carbon mollOlCide gas
Physical and chemical properties of i'do the all, """'Plll!ie. but _ can
carbon monoxido lleilhei see nor smell this gas.
In I.,.,-msof physkal properties, nrbon Diel )'tIu kmW?
monoxldl' Is:
• a colourlc:<s, tastell'SS, odourJess gas Carbon monoxide is d3tlgeroos
10 humans bocause ~ combol'lCS
• slightly soluble ill waH'r

--
with haemoglobin in tht blood
• vcry poisonous to form a stable COII~
• ilighlJy less ~ lhan air.
This COII~ piE •• ots the
In lenos of CMmical propntie,;:arbon lo<maticll. oIll11l)'l ..... ,""lIJba~
monoxldt is: ...tic:h b ......... "" CiX7\jiiif1 in the
tmodstJeam. W1lhout II.. Iha
• fbmm.al)/(' in air or oxygen. and bums "ith a oxygen does not Iaadl the
bl..... fulml' 10 lorm ("limon dioxlrJl> gas brain and the person
~ tCO(s} ... O,(g}-+tCO.(g) svtlocatos.
• a r<'du(ing agem, which ml'allS that it
donates eJt'Ctrons in a chemkaJ It'actlon. for exampll', il rOOuc...,; coppl'f(1I)
oxide 10 copper and le-ad(lI) oxid€' 10 I..ad:
~ C.u()(SI + U)(gl-+ Cu (Sl'" CO,(g)
'" l'bO\sj ... C.°W..... f'b{s)+CO.W

~ Carbon allotropes and carbon monoxide

'er thl' follo"dng Questions on }'our own:
1.. Calbon is an t'!...ment on til<' Periodic 1"a.hll' with an atorni(' nomlx'f of 6 and a
mass numlwr of It.
al I)raw Ih.. l'](>("tronic stmclolt' of a carbon alom.
b) Slat.. Ih., group and period to which carbon bl'tonp.
Z. Catbonoccun;rsan~.
iii) Explain w~1 aUotlOpl"S MC'.
b) Sam., th., t"-o most CUIIlmOll allotropl5 of ;:arbon.
c) Stalt' tilret' diffl"rt'nee5 br1v.1'('1\ Ihl' I..Xl all<>Iropes naml"d in Qul"Stion 2.b).
Calbon monoxide is an oxide of calbon.
~ Stal~' thr~ physical plOp<'rtle~ of ,-arbon llwnoxld....
b) Draw Ihe dol_and_c:ross diagram for ,'ulxm moooxidt'.

s..b-ioPr5 cae-._~ 131

 .:.::.
Carbon dioxide PhysicaJa
properties
C... rbon dio:dd~ gas
(CO) Is an ('S5l"Il.tiilJ dioxide
atmosphmc" ~s. f'\?11 tbough il only ocrup;n
In tnms of pi
b !h;tn O.OS% of th~ volume of .m. It is a
nIbon dlou
produn of rl"Spiration and wmbustion, and abo F9Jn! 26 A ~ atom and
a primary g~nhoust' gas. • i. a C<JIou..'1
two oxygen aloms: are covalently tasleless p
In a I..,hl»l dioxide mo!\.'('Ule, Ih,' carbon bonded in carbon dioxide.
atom forms strong doubl.. awal.. nt bonds with • Is on~-and­
h ..aVit'r thol
..ach oxygt'n alom. It i' th(' must stahle oXide of ralhon.
• is slighllr 1
Laboratory prepamtion of carbon dioxido gas • d(l('S 1101 1l
combuSlioi
(""..arbon dioxIdE' can IX" pr<'p;lred in a labor;l1ory using any of Ihe methods Ih'at
follow.
In lennsofd
I. HutiDg carbonat-=< • ....~s"itb
This is 1M
Soul<' a.rtlorul1.'5 will dnvrnpolM wht'n ht'atffi In gh" a solid o"'lde and nrt>on
IIO"O"l"\"l":, •
dioxide.' gu:
prectplta:~
ea<:O,lSl-
• d1»Oh~Ul
for rxamp'
For exam Ill!': • ,..aets Wilh
Note
• CuC.O,(S)='CuO{S)+CO,(lo:) tor examp6
• CacO,(S)='caOls)+CO,lg) Carbonates of potassium and
90dium am very stable The test 10
• 7..nCO,(S)~7.nO(s)"C(),(gj molecules, :w1d $0 will 001
da:u ..pose.

2. Heating m ..W b)'drogen carbonates

lIydrogt'n carbo...... te:'! "ill decomposE' whftl ht'altc! 10
liquid W<lter and carbon dioxkl.- gas:
Ii'" a solid n.rtlorul~, --
81tJb1e the

---
• ......,0<

,-
hydroxide),
hydrog<'l1 n.rbon.ale ~ carbonat~ ~ waler .. n.rbon dioxi~
Uses of ca
fOl ~xampl(': C;u-bon dioxk
• lNaIICtl,ls)~Na.co,(s); lip (I) + CO,lg) I. in fi,r rXI
2. in the rna
3. Rea.,Hn~ .,alcium carbonat., with an add 3. as a ,('(rIg
Marble chips (calcium nulxm.ate) rean with dllut\' hydrochlorlc add 10 rel..ase (transfmr.
carbon diaxi""," tht' R'lW'Ol
Cleo,(S) "" 2HCJ (aqJ --> (;alJ,(~) + 11.0(1) • c.O.W 4. In baldng
CMbon Woxide is ~ de~ than ..ir md soluble in wat...., so in this rtlf"[hod il is fluffy as i,
roIln;tl1'd 1))' lhe up rd dispLtn-mmt of air, as W'l"Il in FIgUn' 27 on tbf' ....xt pag<". S. by plants
132 lopO< 1 ~_ ..
 Physical and chemical
properties of carbon
dioxide
In terms of physical properties,
carboll dioxide:
• is a (0Iour1=, otlourless and
tasteless gas
o is one-and-a-half times
heavier than air
• is slightly soluble in water
• docs not support
j
combustion. Figure 27 The preparation and collection of

"'" carbon dioxide

In t"filS of ch~mical properties, carbon dioxid..:
• r~ach with lime water (calcium dioxide "duliun) 10 give a white precipitate.
This h the identity precipitate lr::;t for carbon dioxide gas. (See below.)
However, if {"xn'ss carholl dioxid.. gas is l"'s~llhrough the solution, the while
!"""ipl!a'... will dissolve to form a {'(,lourl"," solution:
CaCO,{s)'" (:O,(g) ... IIP{l) ---> C..(IlCOJo(aq)
• dissolves in wat<'T to form a weak acidic solution of carbonic alid

-
for ..xampk CO,(g) ... H,o (I) ---> H,cO, (aq).
• rea.:!s with an alkalilw solution to I''''du(p a ,.all and water only
for exampk co, (g) + Na,OJI (aq) .... Na,CO, (aq) + 11,0 (I).

The test for carbon dioxide gas

Bubble the The lime wate.- lithe gas is carbon dioxide, it will react with the
gas throogh turns a milky calcium hydroxide solution to produce a cak:ium
a solution 01 w11rte eoiou-. carbooate, according to this equation:
lime wate.- CO,(g) + Ca(OH),(aq) .... CaCO,(s) + H,o(l)
(calcium Calcium carbonate is a white precipitate thaI
hydroxide). creates the milk;' appearance 01 the solution.

Uses of carbon dioxide Did you know?

Carbon dioxide i~ used; When carbon dklxlOe is cooled
1. in fue extinguishers and compressed, it turns into
2. in the manufa(tun- of (arbonaled drinks dry K:ll. which is used as a
relrigel'ant
3. as a refrigerant l>e<:aus<: it sublimes
(transforms dire<11y from the solid state to
the gaseous state) without leaving any residue
4. in baking (it is n-Ieas<:d by baking powder so that the bauer b<'<'Omes light and
lIuffy as it bakes)
S. by plants to produce oxygen through !Ihotosynthesis.
Manufacture of lime from limestone
I.im('Slont', Chalk and marolt' art' all fonn~ of caldum carbona1\'. 1'h~ w....... Carbon die
formed by diff('"rent mt"thods, but they all $tartt'<! off as shells of sea anImals thaI radiation It
lin'd billions of ~'ean ago. gh"('S oot it
tnppro in!
1c.co,fIi"'-"'' ' in
A
;melh'l'ps I
rffK1 contl

• If the con....
InC[('ased :II
burning fOl

.......
bumFog ;:one:
II, '.<;00,"'1:>

cooIi'>g zone
B
tothe~

SOtnf' of lho
• Ml"ltlng,
• RIsing~.
• Changes
Will(' are
figure 28 A lime kiln prod".,.. ,,*,Idiilie. Figo.n 29 A limestone and • "''<Irm~..
B marble, as found in natln.
Quicklime Is manufactured from fiImostOllf' in a limt' kiln. 1lw.' by-product is ...."''''
• \\'armr.'
carbon dioxidE'. main di~
Calcium carbonate (limestonl")" calcium oxidl" (quicklime) .. carbon dioxidl"
CaCo,{s) .. CaO(s) .. CO.(g) aD
~ arrows in thO' eq..... lion show lhallhe rt"~>on IS InTl1ibk. So, 10 incr~ till"
MnOWlt of IIlIlt' prod'ucM. the oorbon dioJeidt' mUSt bt' It"II1~ con$Umly 10
.
A>uw«'"~
a) Stal
a,'Oid ractlng bad: to calcium carbonate. i)
When caldum oxidt is di»nlwd in watt., caldum hydroxidl" (Ca(Ofl)., auo Ii)
callt'<! slakl"d Hme) is product'<!; (;aO Is) .. 11,0 (I) ..... (;a(0l1). (aq) iii)
b) \\':11
Uses of quicklime and slaked lime
~.
• B<xh ~ USf'd in the III'al~t of acidic soils 10 help crops grow.
0""
• Quid:lirne Is IISE'd as a dr)ing:ag=t In lhe manufaetun' of ammonia.
• QuldJimt Is esmlialln Ihe production of sleoel from iron or('. 2. Nam~'
'"'
• Slaked lime is used to neutraliT.., adds in industrialliqui,J wasles. In a lin
Uses of limestone 3. Stale 11
Urnestone Is ~, •• almal

• to maloa> &tass (il is healed wllh sand and ~um camollale) ~""
up
b)
• lomake~rnt o Do>
• In the Vl:lraction of iron from iron ore in a hiaSI fumaC\'. en"
134 Yopi<' 1 No>o>--w>
The greenhouse effect
Carbon dioxkk', ..,..ttl' \'3pout and otht'l' gaSoI"S in the atmosphom' anm." uv
radiltion from lho:' ~ to pt'M'Int~ and orann tN Nrth. As 1M nnh ~ts up, it
&i''('$ out infr.trnl ndiation ..-Ilich is ~ b)- th~ ~ I:ases.. Th~
tnpped infraR'd Bdl.atlon (in th~ form of h~at) acts as a shl~kl around the ~anh
and l<el'p5 the ~.uth warm. This phenomenon aUed the g r ~ t'ffe<:l.1ltis
d/K'! contributes to climate chang...

11 the cOllcentration of gr('('nhou~ gast'S in the atffitHph<'Tc lncwa=. tlte effeo:·t Is

Inr.·INSl'd 50 thatthc eanh Il<"<:omt.,; .oven wanner. Human aetlvltit'S, such as
bunling f~il fuds and cutting <.lown tlees for fUl'l or farmlan<.l, ha"'.. contrlbutl'd
to 1M inrrl'a.<or of l'3rlJon dimtidl' ~ .. Is, In panirular.

Som~ of tM ~ti'" effects of ctimat~ dt.ang~ are:

• M~hing of the ~ aps ~ts in loss or habitat nur 1M pok'$.
• RisinI: 'Iol'as IIood low-I)'inI: <.ilks and i5lmds.
• Cha~ in r.olnfall p'lltffnS auw drouShts in Did yo:u know?
sonw 0lU'as and tloodirtl: in ()(~.
High ...... d c:.tx.I di<»6de
• Wanner, Wl'Itet" weathft" ~~ Ih~
may i"cr' I llle IIrned10use
•
sprt'ad of diwases sUfh as m.alarla.
Warm..r was mean a loss of planl<ton. the
main dil'! of whaleos and ()th~r aquatif Jir...
........
eIfect and lead to gIoOOI

~ Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and limestone

AnSW('1" Ih.. following qut'Slloru in pairs:
I. CUbon dioxide is formed from carbon monoxid.-.
a) Stal.. r..v:
i) ph~ pt~t~ of GlTbon dioJcitk
ill dll'minl pt~~ of Clrbon dic:l;(idt'
ill) uses of arbon diaxido' ps..
b) Writ.. 00.."'0 a balartcm reaction thaI sh""..." 1M bboQlory ~tlon of
carbon dioxide usinJ; cal<.ium arbonau' and dilule I ttl.
f) llescribe tIM! test for arbon dioxide gas. U'Iol' a chWlical f'<I.uation in your
answer.
2. Name tht' wa<"1ants and produ<:!s that are fonnl'd whell quicl<lime is produced
ill a lim.... kiln.
3. Stat.. two i.ndllStrialllS<'S of limestone.
4. Climat.. change is often linl<o:d to global warming.
a) I~b<." Ih.. greenhouse effl'ct.
b) Explain how the gr~hOWl' ....If...., rontnbut~ to global walUling.
0:) Ikscn~ one negatr.... impan of cIlm.u~ dung.- on "ther humans or the
nnin>nmmt.

S<"b t, pic S eartloa a<>d...-.-. 135

 Summary, revision and assessment

Summary • ( ....ph;
....nuinso(
Geocral properties of the non-metals in rings at I
• l)u..wo4
• 'on m ..l",h i.nd~ ~II e1~mmts on 1m- Pftiodk: T~bl.~ that ~ IlOl: ddint"d ~s
high prrssa
~~ls..
"'hic'h m.W
• Thry rom ~ pses, liquicls (J( wlkls.
• I .. rboo ...
• 1bry M'~ betYffi:'IJ. four MId snom ~k<'trOlU in Ihrir oulrnnosl shdls..
COIlC\"Ilt tIoII
Hydrogta tl1f' inmmpld;
• ( ..rl..." d.
• Ih dr..;.;..... an ~ ~ In the Labor~lory by 1m- following r..actions::
W:>ontol)' b<'
• RI'Kth~ metal .......ter ---> h}"droJddlo + hydrogm gas
""~cting caldl
• Kl'acti'~ DK"I~I. steam ---> meul oxilW. hydrogffl gas
• Ihli.l.l"n ill
• Reactive DK"IaI. dilut.. add ... sail .. hydrogen gas
quicklim.. \0
• Ilydtogen is prepared induSlrillll)' by me~n.s of. 0"" ),.in;:, tlw
...... I,.." .1\ 01 bri ...• or .I",,,n r<'l".l1Ii Ill-:, Revision e)
OXygen I. c.Jea", Un- ~
a) Name ltll
• lh, 1:.'0 can be p.epan:d. in the l~boratory by the following reactions:
b) D\'SCrihr
• the thennal catalytic decomposition of !'ut=lom chlmatc oxygen
• the decompositlun of hydrogen p('roxiu(', 2. [{('Spiralion;
• Oxygen is l',epar{'{,\ industrially by th(' I ",It 0"'1.l1 "hi ill"ti.." .. I ,.;" EXIIL1in hooo
• I)/,,u,,1s an allotrope of oxygen, h is found in lh" ozon" layN in the
aunOSl'hNe, and prOlms the earth from tlte sun', harmful ultraviolet r;l.)'S. 3. TIt" Ilabe:r po
a) Writ~ a til
• \\ ....... is an oxidr of hydrog...n.
m"ans at
Nitrogen bl SIiII.. ,,",'0
of Ih.. Ira
• 'lim.:.... gas is obtained from Ihe air by fractional distillation of liquid ~ir.
0rW' of its mosl important uses is 10 ma~ ","monia- 4. D6cr11Jo.> bril
• \n.morti.. is prrpared industrially by mr;uu of llw 11,.1..,.. I......·". starting ..it!:
• Ammonium.al1S either dKmnlJ'lM or sublinw (cMnges dill'Ct1y from a solid to 5. Carbon is .. I
~ gas) when they are tINted. a) Write doo
• ,,In.....d rl'KtS ..ith ammoni.a to tonn Ih.. tenilir,rr, ammonium nil1'llle, <bo\.' th¥
• Nilric' add is Industrially ~ by the.' Ihl" ,d" pO'''' ...... b) Which pi
• 'il ru;:.'nnn. 1..'1; 1i/t'T'\ conuin lhe.' essrntilll rlrmcnts for brtter pbnt has this ~
growth lpous:sium. pbosphorus ~nd ninogm). c) DWnond
M~lopl
Carbon and carbonates
• ( .. rb.... ru..IWO nuin ..n,,' ...,....: graphlt.. ;ond iliamonlL ... ""'".
d) Qukkli,..

-~

136 lop!<' 7 10I<'<nistsy) Summary, m1...... ...., .............1

 • (, r;.!.h ilo' is <Xmllnon!y found as soot, char<x".! or dt'hydrat<-d skelt'tal
rt'lllaius of hUlIlans and animals. l1,e <-arbon atoms of graph!\{' ar<' arranged
in rings of six aloms and tht')' art' joinro togNht'r in large flal sheets.
• ! li""'o",1 is fOllned wht'n graphit{· in the ground i!; subjectro 10 extremely
dcfinro as
high pressures and tempt'raturf's. It has a very strong tetraht'<!ral slr.uelme,

..... whid' makt'S diamond one of the hard<-:<I sllbstann'S on earth.

• (''''bUlI m""..... i."" is a gas that can IX' IOxic to humans in high
nHKentraliollS. It is formed by the I'<'du{-tion of carhon dioxide by carbon, or
the incomplete t-omb~li{)n of carlxm.
• ( .. rl..." dl ..... lde ga,; is an ",sential atmospheric gas. It can be l;repared in thc
laboratory by hcaling <-arbonates, heating metal hydrogen car!>onat"', or by
r<'at"ling <-akium ,-a<lx",at" wilh an acid.
• I)"i. klilt,.. is prodll<x"<J in a lime kiln, wh,:re limeston" is hurnt 10 form
'1ukklinw (CaU) and carbon dioxid",.

Revision exercises
1. Clean, dry air ,-ontairu; about 79% by volume of nitrogen.
a) Nam'" th'" gaSl'S that make up Ih'" r"'rllaining 210M> by volume of air. (2)1
b) n''St-rilx' th,' tnt that you would ,-any out to confirm th,' pre",,,,-e of
oxygen. (I)"
2. Respirat ion and "'sling aJ"(' chemical proc{'SS\'S that involve oxygen.
Explain how oxygen takes part ill each of these rea<1ions. (2)-1.1'
3. The Haber prOCt'Ss makes use of a 1('V('fsible rea,iio!l to mak'" ammonia.
a) \'/rite a halann"<J !'<JuaUon thai ,how, how ammonia is puxlm'ed by
means of tile IlalJer pro<-..ss. (:1)1
b) 5taW 1WO nmdiliollS whid', tog<.'th"r with pr"""re, also alfe("! the raW
of Ihe "'a<iion. (2) \11
01, fIt>scribe briefly how you would prepaJ"(' crystals of ammonium sulphat"',
starting with ammonia. (]) \1'
_ a solid to S. Carbon is a typical non-fiNal.
a) Wrile down Oil<' physkal prol"'rty and one ch~mkal propt'rty that
• lli!Iat~_ show Ihal the statemenl ab",'" is 1m... (2)(
h) Which propl'rty of carbon is typical of a metal? Explain why ",,11<>11
has this property. (2) \1'
c) Diamond and graphite are allotropes. Explain whal the wrm
Ma!lO!rOpe" means. (2)l
d) Quicklime is used a drying agent in the manufactur'" of ammonia, and is
also needed to produce steel from iron ore. Explain how quicklime I,
pf(l<lu,ro in a lime kiln. fllllStrale }~IUI answer with a ch",mica! equation. (5)\

Topi<" 7 tCh{'fIIi,ny) Summary, revision aod =Olent 137

Summary, revision and assessment continued

6. Coosidn a gh'el ~"Ol\lm~ of watn.

a) "'allH' 1M two fflol1l('Tll5 from "'hkh "llteJ Is nudco. (2)i..
b) T.tp water Is dt;an. but no! pIm'. F~in Whal this m('ans. (2)'
e) NanH' t..... lndustrial ~ of watCT.
d) Dncri.~ th~ ehenuo:;llt~ of 1\'ittCl. '"
(2)i..
1301
Assessment exercises
I. Ilydrogen Ciln be mw in th(' laboratory by dripping dilU1(' ~ulphuric and
onto zinc III a flask.
a) Writ(' a chClTlkal equation for this ,(';action. (2)1
b) Explain whal you would obs<:'rv(' ilt till' flask. (1)1
c) The gas is culltt'tl'd by bubbling illhrough watl'r into a gas jar,
What doe5 this Indicate about th(' properties of thp gil$?
<.I) !><'scrIb!: hoW you would test for h)'drogen gas,
2. II nitrogenous ft'rtiliu>r con.Uins thl'l'l' main ('1('111<'111. that plants nffd
for hl.-allh)· growth.
,I>
,'.
ill) Nam~ tM thl'l'l' elemt'flU.
b) J)1'5cri~ th~ ,o~ neh rieIDffit plays In pUnt growth.
e) Which of th~ thll:'l:' cltments :an pn;r.'idro by th<:' following fl"rtlllzt'n:
;) ammonium phosphat., (1) \.
ii) po{~um nltnf~ (I) \.
iii) ammonium suJphatl'?
d) Writ~ down 1M formula for ~Kh of tM fMiliUTs in Question 2..e). (3) \p
3. £xpWn h",,' roo ....
, ould <k-sign an pxpeTirn<'l1l 10 obuin
from a hydrogt'n peroxid(' solution,
'I, LimC':Stonl' is quarrll'd on a larg(' sca.1~.
~n
(I) \"

(4) \0
-
11o.. d '90' IS

a) Which el('ments dOC'S lime'\ton(' contain? ( I)io.

h) Much of the quarrit'd limeston... I. mn\,('rted to quickIim(' for uS(' in
th(' S!ecllndustry,
i) State th(' "hernical nam.. for quicklime, (1)1
ii) 1)('scrl!J(> how quicklime i~ rnaill' from t h.. IIrn.-ston.., (2) \,.
e) I'owdC'IC'd liml"sIone is uwd 10 impn;r.~ the >\'aWl' quality in ;roCidi/led lam
i) Givt' .. po:sslbk f'USOO why th~ water in th~ lakes would ha\'('
b«ome aciIll6l'd. (I~
Ii) 1)('Scri~, ming a chmlical <,<!Wltion, bow ~ ~ can h~lp in
Wfltding t~ pI! ~ of Kidi6fti watCT bodies.. (3) \"
iii) ExplWl why you lhim.: liInr$Ior>e is usM in 1M ~der"ed form,
nlho:1' Ihiltllurnps.. (I~
Total: 30 marks
 '
TOPIC

S• 1"""1,
"

,
\'
,
, (",
'"'' .. "r
, :
','
Organic chemistry

{2,..
(2)\
(2)( " Sub-topic
(2)" , '
saturated and o Describe an organic comp:>Und.
[30[
unsaturated o Describe a hydrocarbon.
hydrocarbons o Illustrate and I13ITl!lt~ structures of the aliphatic alkanes up
to fiV<! carbon atoms.
o Demonstrate the structures of isomers and their names.
o Describe fractional distillation 01 petroleum (crude oiQ.

,,,
(2)t o Describe the uses of t~ fractions of crude oB.
o Describe the c~mical properties of alkanes.
o Account for the apparent non-reactivity of alkanes as
(2)\1' compared to other organic compounds.
(1)'" • Illustrate unsaturation in alkenes.
• Describe and name the structures of the alkenes up to five
carbon atoms.
• Demonstrate the structures of isomers of alkenes.

-
( l){ • Describe the chemical properties 01 alkenes.
• Illustrate the differences and similarities between saturated
I'" and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
• Describe the chemical tests for unsaturated hydrocarbons
(I) \11 (alkenes).
(1) \11 • Describe the uses of alkenes.
(I) \n
Homologoos • Describe the homologous series.
(3)\1' series • Describe the geooral characteristics of holTlOlogues
(members).
(-1) \n Describe the chemical composition of an alcohol.
Describe and name structures of primary aicohols up to five
carbon atoms.
(IIi>. Demonstrate isomerfsm in alcohols.
• Describe the formation of aloohols.
Describe the chem;cal properties 01 alcohols.

--
Describe the uses of aloohols.
'"
(2)\1' Descritle and name structures of carbollylic acids up to fiV<!
carbon atoms.
Describe the formation ol cal'boxylic acids.
(1)\ Demonstrate the chemical properties 01 carboxylic acids.

..
Describe the uses of carbollylic acids.
Describe and name the structures of esters up to five carbon
atoms .
Describe the chemical properties of esters.
(l)\
Describe the uses of esters and relate the uses to properties.
lO marks

TopiC II {lrgank <homin'Y 139

 • I'1es libe rnacromolecuIlI (poIynws).. E\-ny living ....
• 0 • be S)'111l1Ctie rra:<O,oolecl.les
found In e-""'l
• oescme the fofmatJon 01 poIyaIkenes.
stin 10 Ih..- roo
· 0 'fypl jos
• Oesu ibe the formation 01 nylon and Teryklne.. Ct:lnulnfn ......
• Ditl& Cl,liatt! bel.. OOi I the stJut:tae of nylon and TlW)'lene.
• 0 I • ibe typica!1.I5eS 01 plastic$ and S)'l'1l1fl'lic fibre&.
• Describe the biodegiadability of syntheti<.: fibres.
• Describe natural macrornolec:uIe_
• Describe compr;>$itiOn of carbohydrates.
• Identify linkages in starch, proteins aOO fats.
• Relate linkages in synthetic aOO natural polymers.
• ~ribe hydrolysis of fats (saponification).
---,:0
-,Idanlily the products of the tlydrotys;s 01 starch and proteins.

Starter activity 1
Ans"..". th" following qU<":SlloliS in pairs, and Ihm di'ICUSS a:; a dass:
I. AU thing m.:tU"r b ma<le up of long chains of clibon alOms joined logether.
a) Writ" dm-"Tl Ih... ch<'mi<"al symbol for 11K> eIem..m <'arbon.
b) !low many val~ ~ons doI'5 an atom of cart.>n ha,...?
c) How man}' chMnlal bonds can carbon maL.- "ith other atoms?
2. Carbon and h}xlrogm bond to form U~ ~"" 1ItethaD<". 01,.
Organic «
a) NaIlX' the' t}'JX' of chemKaI bond that forms 1Jo:tv,"l't'll a h)'drogm and a Organic com;>
carbon alom. C<lIrbon, but ~u
b) Desaibt how this bond f<:>mn. Tbt'y foon 11><"
3. What is Ihe dlff.......m ..... ~'A"ffI1 an Ofgilnt<" suhslanc<: and an inOl'gank" orpnlsms.
SUbslarn:t'? C'.aJbon. is f""
Taliit', so it has Ii
thM Ihl" carllo:<l
Starter activity 2 bonds wilh Olhl
ht' single, doublo
Answ~r Ih" following questions in pairs, and Ih<.'n tii\{US'i as a class:
Carbon ato",
1. Loo}; afound you and nutice how many things art'" made hom some type of
otht'T, wflll-It ca
pla:;tic.
ur rtng structu"
a) Nam... some Items that arc mad<- of I'lastll.' that )"OU use ......·ef)" day.
togt'lhl't to for::
b) no you thlnt aillhe plastic prod.....ls are made up of Ihl" .same tw of
Wf" call thiS urn.
I'bSlic matNbl? Gi'.... a reason for YOUI aru'A"1:'I_
Carbon r.l.."l •
cl Why are pla!.tk: produc:tt so much ~ USl'tuI than products I1UIdt' from:
...k'ml'llIS 10 rna.
i) gbss? iiI metal?
molK\l1<"s.. TIl..,
2. Plastic is ill poUulanl.
Imotm organic
a) Wh.at do you und<"lsUnd b)·th\: SUtE'ment abo'I.... ?
cht'mical propr.
b) I low dol'5 plastic wast.. impal"'l on our tn,1ronmoml?
W... cbsslf}' ""

140 Topi<lI OrpRlc<bnr.lolfy

 SUB-TOPIC 1 Saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons
£'"('1')' living organism is madt' up of organic mol<"CUll!$. Orpnic mole<:u16 are .lIW
found in every aspe('1 of our livt's, from thC' prolein, Ihat m:lke up our h:lir :lnd
skin to the fo.,d, that we eat. and from tlJr duthes that we "'ear to the plastic
cOfllaine" "'" ,torC' foooJ in.
New words;
orgarlic~
~ that 0lltUin the
. , . . . cartIon, exceptio.-
carbon oxides or c:.vboililles
catetIation: the ~ of an
element to itself tttrough
covlllent bonds to form chain or
proteins.
""-
• •
F".gwe 1 Olga .. dlemicaI:s are foln:l in every
~ 01 our lives.
·C·
•
... ·c·•
F"1ljlUI'e 2 The possible dot-and-
o;rO$$ diagrams 01 i!I carbon

Organic compounds
Organic compounds all contain the clement,
."""
.lnd a
Glrbon, but udude any oxidn and GlrbonatM.
•
lb<')' form It... building blocb ol;olllivlng
• • • •
...,n."" 0aI.. . . , . _ ......"
arbon is found in Group IV of the ~
nbI<'. ~ il hits four ~ eknrom. 11th means • • • •
that til<' rnrlJon atom will form fourcm-aJent
-C:C:C:C'
bonds wilh other atoms, although the bonds may
I,.. sIngle, double or triple COValt'l11 bond,.
Carbun atoms easily fom] bonds wilh each
• - • •
Fogure 3 Adjacent carbon
othC't, which C;u"l result in 10llg chain "ru<1ures
atoms bond 10 !omllong chain
Of rlng '1ru<1UJn. \\'hen arbon almm lin!o;
strue:tures. In Go'ade 12, we will

-
togedl('1' 10 form 1hC'sr COViIIC'nt l'hairu; or rings, ~ Lewis diaiji_'l$ 10 illustrate
.... call this Iinb.g(' ClIlenation. valence elecbOll$ in 019'" lie
(~rbnn can also form bonds ..ilh otlwr
elements 10 mal:t wry complC'x organic
m.,!N1.lI('5. ThesE' prupl"rtit'S of IhC' cartx>lI atom haw' f('5U\tt'd in Uvt'l 10 mill iun
!o;nnwn organic mO!1'<.1..lies, each with Ih own unJqut' namf'. and ph)',;lcal and
chC'mkal properties.
We classify organic moiKUlC'S Into groups or familiO'S ;w,:nx<!ing to thC'l. slru<1ul'3.
Hydrocarbons Structun
TIH- simpl"l org:anic: 1lI01f,',Il" form ~ famlIy of ('(XnlX'Uf'ds a~ lhe llH- >implesl
h)'dnK:arbo<u. Thc'y ~l\" mU urof only h)-.;Lrogen and arbon ~toms. IlJOknIIa! fo
H}-dnxarbons Me WI)' usduI and pIzy ~ role in ow nTT}WY live.. Sornl' ~ IWO arbon ~
;tl\" gao cyl..illlk-rs of bo.tIanr load propilI'lf' (U'(i fuel), petrol. diesel fufol, Jl'U3ffin oil for
USC' thor fo
~ting and oil lamps, ;md ",ndln (hea"y h}ulQ('illbon paraffin ","ax).
SlI"J1I: !)Mn
~.",
Newwonls
----_ _.- "'~
hydrocarbon: an organic
molecule that oontains ooty
hydI .....g e" and carbon atOll'lS
IlI"OI'I'\3tic hydrocaI'bon: a Slq> 2: ldmt
hydIocabull in whictl the
bond
carbon and 1'rpdI0000l atoms 1ft
d,
.iOi-l to!Jelt* in a closed mg
~
• If I
aliphatic. hfdl _'boie a d,
hydI ...... boi' in wIw;:h the o.

....
carbon and h'JdI """" I atoms are
jDined 1Qgethel in 6tJ <W\tIt

53tur3ted 11yOroc:artlon:
hydrocarbons in whCh the
5t.,. 3: If the
•in thl
FlQUfe 4 Hydrocarbons are the aimplest family of
chain of carbon atoms contains
organic compounds, but one of the most ~ngJe bonds only
important energy sources on earth. unsatur.lted hydrocarbon:
hyOOx:;vbons in wtloch the
Hydrocarbon (ompounds l.f~ classified as chain of carbon aIo:ns contains
afOlDatil; Of aliphatic. Aromatic hydrocarbons at least one dOutolt Qr ~
form ~ ring stnKture. 1lw aliphatic
brdroarbom form Ion8 chaln stL'UCture. """"
alkanes: a faniy aI satln:ed
hydIocabullS that t.w only
llH- aliphatic h}Wocl.!bom an' furtht:r
songIe bends the tJet,.,...
"""'"
---
dusilil>d as SOIturated and unsaturat«l. A
satuntted h)'dro!:arbon cont~ns only singk'
.~
a/kene$; a t.niIy aI
bonds betwffn the carbon ~toms, whik' an
unsatur1lted hydrOQ.rbon ront~lns ~t least one contain at least one 00ubIe
double bonel (or triple bond) between the
carbon atoms.
""'"'""""
alkynes: a family of
unsaturated hydroo::arbons that
The saturated hydroclorbons form a family uf contain at least one triple
cumpoullds (ailed albnn, whlll' th,.
umaturat~od hydrocarbons form two familin of ""'"'""""
compounds' th., a1kenes (whkh contain double bonds) and the otlkyon (which
contain tripl., bonds).

142 Topio<'OIpDi<.! ,,,'

 Structures and names of the hydrocarbons

--,.,
Th", simplest ll1kaM - lDf'thamr ronSIStS of on<' carbon alom and has th..
mol«uW fonn..u... ClI," T1w ~ mmI,,"" of thl$ Iilmily - tt~ - coruim of
two allbon ..toms md has u.., rnc>lof<:'ulllr formula C} 1._
..-noll for u~ the> foUowing urps to namII" any hydronrlJon:
5kp I: Ol'1mnlOf' thl" prmx (thr first 1Mr1) d. till' naIDI!. b y ~thl- numbo' d.
cwboo atoms in thr b1go"U main in thr nrlecuJe. F.-:tl nwnbo.'r d. arbon

--_."'"
atoms tOC.lsptJi""" to a O'flilin prt'fIx. n....lir.>t li\"l' ME' s/loool.... in thr W>W.

~ 2 3 :4._""] 5
.~
~ eth- prop- ~ pent
Step 2: ldl'ntify If thew an' only liingl.. bonds, or if there Is a doublt' or tripl..
bond. n,ls will dc!crminl' lilt' suffix (lh .. last part of tilt· n,,"'<').
~ If tl1('r(' lIt(' only single bonds In Ill'.' chain, the naml' !'nds in .... nl'.
• If th... n- is a double bond In tl1(' chain, th" nam", ends in -ene.
• If 11I('1\' is a triple bond In tll(' chain, til.. nam....nds in »'n... (NoI/:": In
(;radt' 12, W(' wiJl only ronsioo single and double carbon bonds.)
Sl:." 3: If Ihl'ff' is .. doubk> bond In the carbon chain, lhnl number tlw- arbon
atoms In 1m-longest chain. StaN numOOing from tho:' rod tlul will U'!iU11
in 1M doubl", bond bring dmer to thot- start of 1M cb.lln.

"
,- C,H.
~~-"
"
", ",
H-t~-H
CH,CH,

oro_ "" CH,CH,CH,

C,H.
~ ~ ~
H- 4-?-H
~ H H
C.H.. H H H H CH,~CH,CH.or
O-<\-.!--{--<-" CH, ),CH,
~ ~ H ~
Pt!' ,ta Ie H "l CH,CH~.CH,CH.
rwhkh C,H",
o-<\-t{ ,, i'l i'l i'l
orCH J,CH,
~ H ~1r
Slob"'" I »now<d an<I ........._ "rd,o<.. bocu 143
Tht alkanes' moll!CUlar formulas form a palttm that can boo d=lbN by Iht> llte foUCMing u
g~a1 formula, c,,1I:a.r Step 1: Idl'ntif,..

"="'"
Ste·p 2.: Ul"lnnm
Step 3: Idl'nt.....·
""",,w
Stt'p 4: Coum d
for thl' b
St"p 1 ~ Me four nrbon at0ID5 in Ihc longest chain.
w ....
Step 2 The prdix is but_. Stl'p 5: NumhI'J
all.:rl (bIl
Step 3 Only single carbon bonds present.
t"l,d lhat
Step 4 '1111' 5uffix Is -<lrll'.
carhon ..
TherefOl"€', the name is butane.
Stt'p (" ·li> WliI"
of brand
Isomers
l.somen al"(' organic compounds that can have Worked e
the sam(' molecular formula, but have different New words
SIructur3.l formulas. For eumpl", the organic iso<'nen.: ocgan;c cotnpOIM'lds NallW'lhe
l
--
compounds in F,gur" oS <ll"e Isomers bKaw.e both ..mtl tile same rr<lIeO .,.,.
ha,..., th.. moI«"Uw formula, c.n.... but their Iorm.JIa. but diIlto.. ,t $IUCttnI
stmctur'rs al'l" diffetmt. Their diffl'Rnt .tlUCtul'l"S
aU<yl grtq>: a si'lgIIt cartIon
..ill no=lt in each compound having diffrrent
atom or ctm. d WIgle-bond
propnties. Thet' two compounds ~ caIW cartIon aklms that joon up with
;-... amainctm. L Theft';an,
2. Singlt'
~
_ ~ H
Rememllat l. There is a bi
HHHH
H-t-t-.J-t-H
H IH There is aIw3ys a hypllen (-J
bIItween a BJrT1ber and a Jett..- in
-I. Thl' bRndIl
H-t-C-t-H the name_ The name is writtE'n as
S. We numJltoi
it ~ ~ ~ I~ ~ 1\ one WOfd with no !;)ao8S
nrbon-aIl:Jlj
butanu 2-mothylpropane
Rgurc 5 loon-.. of C.H.. are butane and 2·mllthylpropane Activity 1
StTU(\ural isomer.; lleneraUy ILlY(" different chl'mk,ll and physicaf pt"opc'ltln, c."'c.'n
the foH,,",
All~ ..."('r

though tilt")' haw· tht> SlIml' ffi<,k-cular formula. I. I1dine the I~

2. Ura... Ihe s:n
Naming branched chain hydrocarbons a) butanE'
A bnnchN chain ilydrO("<ll"bon fomu whcn u~ of Ihl' hydlogm atums thaI Is 3. Two of thl' s:
bonded to a carbon atOl1l is rrplacnI. by a carbon atom, or a cb&in of carbon ill N~mE' lilt'
atoms. This branch is nlkd an al1.--yi group and b ropresmted by -R In 1M bl t:XpWn'"
S1lUCtunl formula. 1lM' alkyl group or bnnch is na.rnrd b)' replacing thl' suffix-ant"
..ith -)1. The!Jranctl na.ml' Ihm bf'ocomes a prttix to the main chain rnltm'.
 n,., following st~ nn ~ used In ""......... br;mchrd dl~n hy<1rocMbon:
51." I: Identify thl' longest corulnllOUs chain of arbon .,COIm and n>\lnt th..
numoo of carbon aloms In it.
SIC:-p 2: llt't('rmin(' th(' prriix of ,hI' O;tID".
Step :1: Identify If lh",(' art' only single bonds, or if tMw is a douhl(' Or triple
bond, to urlNminl." tht' ~\lffix.
St... p 4: Count tI](' number of lOlrbon atoms In lhp branch. Ol'tem,i"e th(' plcfix
for tht" branch 3CCOCtlin8 10 Ihl' llnmbe'r 01 ""bons and lBI.' -r' as tll..
suffix.
Stop S: Numbn" til(' nIbon ",toms in tho- main chain 10~' 11K' position of th<-
all,'yl (braJl('1l1 gJOUp In 1M main carbon chain. Stan numbmng from Ih..
md lhal ...'ill f=>.ll in tllf' aLL)'1 groups bfoin& on the lOWeR n\lmbrn-d
cuoon aloms on Ih.. main ,"hain.
St..p 6: To wrilt· down th(' ,mmf', w,' start by wfiling duwll til.. position and nallle
of branch.

......,.,
"""""
up with Answl'"r
I. ~ art' four carbon aloms in 1M longest chain: but-.
2. Slnglfolx>mhonly:-~
3. 1llftto is a brand! rom.isI:ing of a ~ c.ubr.wl"tom: mall)"!
4. TM branch 1$ on the S«Ond arbon atom: 2-~hI1-
S. \'IItt num"". from IhIt righiiO get thtt blanch OIllhtt 10...61 numbttrttd
arbon-atom: 2-mt'th)'lbulalH'

~ Names and structures of hydrocarbons

Arn...tt. tm, foUowing questions on ~'OUJ own:
I. 1}Ifbntt t ..... tttnn ·h~-dronrllon·.
2. nnw thtt suunura! fonnw for:

"''' . 31 bu!arH' bl 2-mttthyl-propilK" co) propantt

3. T...o of thtt ~I'\ICtUJttS you. drt·... in Qut-rtlon 2 ~~ isotIII'TS_
~) N~m .. ,hI' ''''0 i'iOm<"O.
h) F.Jl"I~in why tllese two mrnpounds ~r.. l<omE.'rs.
 In summary, the-
Fractional distillation of petroleum o Iht hIgher in I
• thfo IC'n voU.llJ
Fossil fuels
~roIeum is a tonsil fu~1.
This nK'=~ it is Iht rmlaJn~ of pLmU and anlm;o1s tlut Uses of the fI
!h'rd milliorui of }~iiln ~.l.:.oIl md ""Iurlil ps all' ~ f",,"1 furi'lo.

New words
d>osel or gas 01
fossil fuel: a fuellhat was
10rmed millions of years ago mineraVl~

_.
FIgure 6 Fossil fuels are extracled from earth
from the remaios of plants and
through offshonl drilling (natural gas and crude
animals. but wbich is • I n'ble ""'"
.....
oil) or drilled and pumped from the ground
(crude ad) or mined from the swface of the
to tunans lor lXInSUn'Iption in
lhe Pi .1
lraction (c:rucIIe oil): _
Refining crude oil ea'....... 1eflt of aude of that has
COlrt3in dlel.ic:al ald phy$ir;lII
(:rudo.' pl"Irok.>um <>ills a mixture of hundrM of Piopel'ties. ald mo$l;:"
different ~l"'$ of Ol'giilnK rom(X>WIds. MO'lOI of sepat3l:ed from the oct.-
lhew an- hydrtX'1lrbons. TM diffnenl t)"Jl'e5 of
("01Ilpoumh in tht mlXIUI'f' an- called fraction$.
..........
Ii aeticx IS SO that it cal be

EMh hanlon lus iii liS _n phyYc:a1

and chemical pn:>ptrtll'$ and a p;uticular

_..
US(', so il is n~ry to $I:'fIO'Iate the-

fran ions from ont another in the- CT\lde

oll. This is called I'f'lin in~ and it is C1lrtit'<1
t+- peoc:c..
ow by Ihe pro<:ess of franional
dIstillation. C,-C'l Activity 2
Hgur.. 7 shows a .Imp!e refmery 10W(']".
• The firsl Swp is 10 ht'at the CT\lde oil:
""""""
C",-C .. Answ~r
1.
the foIl"""
l)(Ofinelh~t",
the fraction with Iht Jowl'S1 boiling --~
C,Ao 2. f.xplain wh,',
point (smallpst mol«ulf'S) boils firsl, so Ulo'ieal8 oil 3. Gh"t'n the fal:
Its gases ris<' to the top of Ihe 10W('I.
e.-C: dodeca~ Ie"
"""".
...~
• nw bIgI" the molKul~. the 101\...,.. the i1) Ihe ordC'!:.
ga$ riles op lhe to"'...,... TIlt fRnions roh.mn en
fhen ronde~:JI dlfft'Tftll inTis in the b) which all.i
fO"'·fi md:J1l' pumped iiI"':Jy. co) which aJ.I..l;
FIgUnI7 The ler.lii9 plOt:e$$
 In summ:uy, th"larg\"r tho:' molecule of ~ fraction:
• the' high"" its boiling point • theirs. ~Iy It win flow

-...
• 1M Ins ,"Olati... il will be • the 1= ..nily il will burn.

Uses of the fractions

~

liquefied petroleum gas fuel for cooking

-'"
petrol or gasoline fUel for petrol-based vehicles
petrochemicaJs, plastics.

ken: ...... or parafIio , 1-18 """""

)et fuel. peuoc:hernicaIs
dieMl or gas oil
,...,.
''-20 luellor 6 0' hued vehicles

ship fuel, ~ stillioo IS

ca·,ef.~.poIish

road surlaceG, roof_lg

Did you know?

-'
At petrol stations in :tOme countries, you can Choose
betw~ leaded and <mleaded petroL Loaded petrol
contains letraethy1laad, II lead additive. Lead is a •
pollutant !hat is <Jangerous to the environment and
•
CXltJrltries have
Iu'r'Ian&. For ItIIs n!8$OI't, most
bar>rMd the use oIle<1dod pooIn:ll. am so It
eo.w"c""
IS"'"
used to:tay.lambia stopped lIiSO"ljl '-lad
•
.~
.':

petrol r. 2008. By lOll, AlgeRa was the only MIcan

CCIUnlr'y SliI ~ leaded petrol.

~ Fractional distillation of peb oleum

AnsWfT th.. follOl'>inll qU('SI'ons on youl 0"":
I. l)(>fin.. th,. wrm "fractional distillation".
2. F.xplaln why <TIul.. oU must undergo fra("llonal distillation.
3. (ijV"ll the following alkanes: "onall.. (C,II,.,>. triaoontan(' (C",",) and
dod'"<"an(' (C"II"j. dl't .. rrnin ..:
a) th,. order In which thl"}' would llf' wlll'<1oo in II frao:titmal dhtillalion
rolumn (from bottom 10 lop)
b) which ~lbnt' could I)(' usOO in pt'Ifol

- co) whkh ~lbnt' mighf ~ used in Iht' nunuf<>ctu~ of I'I.ulin..

~ubt"'lloo ~ 147
The alkanes
Chemical properties
3. Substitution
""""" -..
bromint (ill). in WI
c:ttIorimted md bnD
...
A1bllt'$ an:' gt'Ol'nUy wln:'attl~"" bKausr UN' bonds 1wt""Hfl tM GUbon alomS a.t lMtfwlt«J1Jlog:o.
subk" and Itw moItrults bel; a sptOfic site of chtmk<tlaIUC!.:. weh;lS a
fwKt~1 group. Bul Ihrir chtmic;Jl proptrtits anow thtm 10 underxo lour t}llts If more chlorim' is ..
of .t'iKlions, as disc:ulo5ell bclow.
,. Combustion New""'"
cnc:king: the p....:ess of
ala}'~dca

4. Steam reforrr
•.

No reac:tion ocnm; when an "ll,:an.. ;'; mixl"d breaI<rog down monl (X)I'nplftx IlydrDgi'n ga.s is a II:lI
with oxygen al mom ternp"!"'''ur.., bulw!len" moleo::Ules inlO $impleI pIOCfiS uses th.. rutI
hrne or spark is added, a highly exolheIll1 ie
combustion rea"lion tal((Os plan' to prooun>
w~tN and ,-a,IxHl dloxid(>: Note
"""""'" p«"Ssures In the- ~
(;11. (gl ... Up (g) ~

~
Alkal1 0, i (:0: .. ",u .. h('al The I'\lJrflt- 01 hydrogen 8t1d
~~~ampl(': f:1I 20, } CO,'" 211,0 I h('at carbon aloms must be
11,... h...atlhal is prodocE'd Is tlK' r('ason why Answ~r the follO'O<inl
conserved in the aacl<irog
albnts make such XOlkl :iOur«':S of fuel. .~
I. f.xplaln "'hy a!Ii:l
othff organic: CllI
2. Cracking 2. Wrlt.. lN.bndtdc
Old you knO\'l?
pmn'Ss of brl'UiI18 down more rompl..,.
1'lI(' typt of rtxtior!
mok'c:uln into simplft ones, I' nlled crKkinll:. n. ~ ........, of petrol .. <::Il.Ide a) ~l1(''' d1JIr
In oil mining. c:rx1:ing Is used to brl'.u: Iongn. oil Is too Wde lO mee1 the b) metlwt sa
demands of the """"d. ~
chain h~"droGuboruinto ~f'f<hain t:) propan m"
ehaon hydi....OOIS havelO b6
h~'liroc:;arbons.. ~loi"," anthe
In this ..... y, som.. llght pE"lrot..... rn produn. ...,;un 01 avaiabIe fuel
.uch as I.PG gas ~ ptIto1 nn bt" produc:nl The alkenes
!10m hea~il"I crud<' 011 fIOK"!;ons, soch as rh(' ga. oils Of bitumen. 110......."('1". singl(' An alkene has a dooiI
unique reactiom do not 'K":'";nlh(' cradlng prOCtsS, lb(' hydmnrbon moltrult'S two carbon aloms.. A
ale broken up in a fairly random way to produce lII;xturt'S of small...,. in which ..ach c:aIba
hyd.ocalbons, some of wllk'h han' earlxm_carlxm dOllbk h()nd~ Som<.1imes (single) bonds to odi
h}'lirogen gas (H,) i. also produ<'ed when a carbon-hydWj.;<"n Ix",d is bmken. alkanes, All:enes ~
Som<" exampl... a...: H H
,
tf----.C-tl •
It
"
;c=C-y-tl
each of the carbon I'
double bond only b.;
~ tl ,11H other aloms.
tl H H tl <J!!!"" ..lOlha", _1.- "The gtneral for=
-?-H-Y-H
HHH tl "'"
~

Fogure 8 PosS'1M products lonned wtlen tlutane Is crad<.ed

..,..,......'
148 10pi< II Otpnlr.-.,
 TOPIC 8
3. Substitution
Alkaoes Wl<k!go oubstinrtlon leactioDs with lhr lWogen p1Il'5, dllorinr (oJ md
bromiIV (BI). in Ihf p'E'5(ocroflN light Of 011 high lempnatuRs. ~ products~
dUorinalrd and brolrl1Ntfd albnI'5. Ftt nmlrW, dllorinr rNCb with n:ces
rnnlwH' (01,) toghv nwth~1 chklrilr (01,0): Ol.(g) .. (]:(g)---> OI,O(g) .. no(&)

If m~ dl1orin~ Is added. a mix~ of products is obtalnrd: CII,a, CII.O",

IlIlCI J • and CO,_
4. Steam reforming
Ilydrogen gas is a useful fu~l. It is made by the PIOC~~ <;If steam reforming. ThIs
procts$ we thl' natural ga:'l methane, (;II., which react:; ",1th steam undn high
prf:SS~ In the presence of a catal~IIO produ~ hydrogen and nmon monoxl~.
(;11. (t) .. 8,0 (g) - , CO (g) .. 3". 19l

~ Reactions of the alkanes

~ the following questions on yow own:
I. F.xpWn why albnes ~ gemn.1Jy describ«l as UIlf'tacti\~ when rom~ed to

--
OIM organic compounds..
2. Write balanced ChemiCa! re..ctlons fOf e~h of thO' foll<l"ing. ;md name the
'w of reaction taking pl..~:
a) cthane .. chlorine .....
b) ffit'thane .. steam .....
c) propane .. oxygen->

The alkenes
An aU,mt' bas a double (O','aknt bond brtwftn Newwonls
twO carbon alOms. A gl1,ll1ltrd ~ Is ~
in which CD carbon itOl!l has four ~nlc sn.nte¢ a'l Oigallc rm"o!le
(single) bonds to other ilona, a:'I "'~ _ In that COla IS criy single carbon
lllbn~ Alkene ~ th~orc uruaturated. 015
nch of the camon aloms invoh'nl. in thC' """'"
unsaturated: . . orgaric:
rnollI<:Ue tNt contains doo..lbIe
dwble bond only has th~ "ff~i~ bonds to and/or triple carbon bonds
other atoms.
The general formula for the alk"nes is C.II",.

II, /11

.1'""',
F''llYnl 9 The double bond in ethtlle

S t ,! I ~ _ _ .. a.. 41\yO>...... b<:w.. 149

Structural fonnulae and name of the alkenes
Earll" in this wb-topic", wr llSl'd a set of rults to n:lml' hydrocarbons -Induding t>ra". one I
a1lLrnes.. tl~",., I final ~I'p lhould ~ addrd If th~ mol«u1~ contalns two (or
mon:') doublE' bonds:
Slrp4: If ~ are !WOOf mon:dwbit' bonds In we:atboo chain, thm Nct1 m\& be
nw.nbcn.'d ..,a<!inf: to tlw Qrtlon atom It Is attadll'd to, and llw' Iftfu:
w- (2), tn- (3) Of tma. (4) ;S indudlI'd \rtunrd.i.ltdr l:ri<n ~ -ell!' Sl.Ilfu:.
FO< ~xampw, but-I,:J..dknr
looks lila> this:
""""'" H,C:CH,
H,~H-CH., -
C,H.

.
POoplll16
Moll"CUlar
C,H.
CH' Branched
buH-ene H,(;;CH-C H,-CH, ,
buI-2-ene H,G-CH=C H CH, C,H. '\c=c-
peot-l·_ H,C=CH-C H, CH, CH, C,H.. H" I

peot-2-_ H,G-CH---c H-CH,-CH, C.H.. ~-

hex-l-ene H,C=CH-<><,-CH,--CH,-CH. C.H"
Chemicc
-'-----------
~ thE' folw,..'ing rumpound: H--¢-"'~
H " /'

A=<~
Ii ~ ~ H
,. Combt
St<:p 1: Tb<'t~ al~ fhT carbon atoms in 1M ~ continuous chain. Thf>a1~
z:
Stt'p The prmx is pmt-. f'nily in aiI I
51rp 3: lbere are two double b<>nds. Th~ wffu: ls~.
fOl' uampw
Strp 4: Numbet" the <2Ibon atoms in the main chain to:sho>-· the position of
C:ll, + 30,-
thl:' funcllonal groop_
2. Additio
H fl
Hate that nurnboring ,""" ,hi:
lclt P'J,,!tIe iI<:>t <Iouble bond
double be
H-t-e--e on .... boo .,om.l.r><!" 1I,'t:auS(' tlw.
~ A i. the>e numbtno ... hlghl:r
VI.., 'l1!rom hrdrocarbon
doubl~ bond
~-
Name: pmt-I,2-di~n~

Isomers of alkenes
AlLenn GlJl h.1l,~ two t}~ of ~
• bran<-hrd i5ornl?n
• positional ~ whnl" tM d<Jubk> bond IS on a iliffrrmt carbon atom in tM
arbon chain.

150 Topic' Orp'* d>emiotry

 - ..
---
Dnw ~

......u
br;andw:1 ;ondL_---"""--C.,7_----""""'----C"'' 'bu--'-.7,_--.--------

-
_b<

c,H.
First draw bul-I·.,,,,- and get the- mol<:Ul1ar formula from Ih., compound:
H

H
H
);=c-¢-~-b-H
~ A AA
H Ii

Molecular formula: C,H",

c,", I
c.". I "'=c--<-l-_
Br:uv:h<.'d OO~
__
Posilion.al i5omn::
Ii H
""<'-l-e-o-l-_
H H

,
c,",
c. 1
H• If' I
H-C-H H
I I
H
I
II
I I t
H H H

C.H••
ell"
Chemical properties of alkenes
All<enes are g<,nl'lally n',u:ti,-l'."1ltis B because the doubt" bond com break to form
slngll' bonds and add on <xh~ al<ml'<_ A1kef\es ('3n undrrgo 1M following
rNCtiom:

1. Combustion
111., au.me an' highly Oammabll', 50 t~ burn
_wonls
{,iSily in aif to form carbon dlo:ddt' :;md walt'r, addition reaction: a ,aaetlOh in
., For ...""mple, eth('l\(' bums;t$ fuUm,os:
C,". + 30, I zeo, + 211,0
which a small moIeculB
attachos ;ts<l'lf 10 the daut>le
carbon bond ot a second
2. Addition reactions across the molecule to form a saturated
double bond molecule that contains the
atoms oIlho first rTdecule
Ileau~ th., alUrws are wlSiltUI<Urd
hpJrocarlJom, IMi, most importmt ....a<:tions ;Uf' addition "'Ktiom;K'W5S I~
doobit' bond.

""
. ,., - ,-?-{-,
""
Figure 11 The ae"'lral equation of addition reactions across a double carbon bond.

Th... type of molt'CUl" thaI l~ being added dl>fines the tYJX" of addition ....action.
;lllhE-
a) Hydrogenation
lIydrogo:::Dlll>on is 1M ~tIon h}-.:hogeD 10 an \iydlogewtioi. is used in
aJhoIw 10 form an albIw. irO.IsIJy 10 harden lTI:53lU'll:ed
pIa1t cis IE> make , •• gaiooe:.
all;;,..o", • II • all;;;,_
Wor1ted
In 11m t)~
"-'"
of ,,,,aet;on,1M daub\(' bond brnks,l",avlng Ihe IWO caibon atOlJlS
with only 111rct' bonds. A hydrogm alom bonds 10 each of the arbon alorru, so
Wrilea~
formula fQll
thate~h has a complete set of four bonds. hydrogen

~--,--,---.,.~c--~~,..,.--.-­
Answ"r
Wrile a balanced rea(tion uslng the stru(tural fomlula for but-I-ene to show
bow il rexts wirh hydrogen gu In the presen~ of a nkkcl catillYSI.
A=.~

H H H H

~
~ ~ 't r
,, ,,
I t I d) Halogeca
=C-C-C-H • H-H ,... ~_~_H

H H H H lIa~oatlon

alkene .. '\
b) Hydratloo
New words Inlhist>1"",at
Ilyd",tton Is I"" addition of waler 10 an aim,,.. moll'rull"l $I>!>!
10 form an alcohoL hydrogenation: the addiIioo. of
camon atoms.
.
all;;("o(' .. U,O ~ . ,......,,, ><l1('ohol
hydrogen to an alk_ to form
~....,

hydration: the addilk>n of water Worked

Again, in Ihis type of reaction, the double hood
10 an alkene 10 tarm an alcohol Write d0"11 cI
breaks leaving the two carbon atoms with only
hydn:>halogenat: the ch\Qrine.
thIe(' bonds. TIle watl'! molet"Ule splils into a addition of a 1'IydI...",.. kaIide to
hydroxyl group and a hydrogen atom. Each of . . alkene to Iomt • l\aIoaIkane
thot allao:h to 001' of thl' urualurated. carbon
atoms. so tlut rao:h carbon atom hu a complete set of four bonds.

,,) Addition I
Alkene molecu
AD>w~

H, I
,,
I ~ 't ~
molt"rul... and
ben>m.. .atur31

,, HJiJ: 1+-0-9-1-9-1-1
C=:C-C-H is (all<'d addi!;
,~
• H-o-H
,,, TIl.. slmpl('51
forms the pol~,
c) Hydrobalog"natioo H, H •
Hydrohalog"n'".>Oo is tM ~rlon of a lWogm halide, IIX (whne X is a, Br or H.P=<H ••
I) to an alkme 10 procluc'IO' a haJoa,~ (allryllull~).
f9n 12 EIher:
aiken" .. JlX • haloall<.aD,..
152 Topic. Oop>i<d ;"ry
 TOPIC 8
Again, tllf' doubl,' bond breaks and the remaining '-arlK>Jl atom~ are left Un5'ltUrdll'd,
nIl" h}~lrogen atom IK>Jld~ to one of the carbo",. and the halog,.n IK>Jld, to th,. <ll h,.r
"arIK>Jl, So that ,'ad] {'arlK>Jl atom hm a comp'''!'' Sl't of fom bonds,

Worked example New words

Write a ha-lanced react ion using the structural
halogenation: the addition of a
fmmula fO! <'tham' to show how it reacts "'ith halogen to an alkene to form a
hydrogeo bromide (lllIr). haIoalkaoo .
polymc-r. a Ioog--chain struelure
AnswCT 01 <><yanic un~s that ITI"Y repeat
~ ~ throughout the structure
H"
'-0
H" ~'H
"H
B,-H - ,,
H-C~C-H ad<!iti<:>n polymeri231ion: the
add~ion of alket\e$)O form one
H Br
"'" ,."""
d) Halogenation
Halogenation is thf' addition of a halog{'n to a" alh'"'' to foml a haloalkane.
alkrn.. + X, ) haloalkane
In this typl" of real-lion, th,' double <:allKm bond breaks and the halog,'n (diatomk
moll'lulf') splits SO that one halogen atom honds to ..aeh of the unsaturatt'<!
<,arbon atolllS. Eadl ("arbon atom then has a l-Olllpl"tl' s<1 of fOUl bonds.

.......
..
_atwater
-"======~-=­
Wnte down tht' balan",.. l reaction using strul1ural fWlnula for prop-I-cne and
<,hlonne.
- .to
.. '-lide
Ans.... er
,,
fI H H ,, ,
Ii Ii It

,,,
~

,,
H---C-C:C Cl-CI - H-C-C-C-H
" H CI CI

e) Addition polyIIlerization
Alkelle molecules can be joined tog~ller by breaking the doubl(' bond in ('ach
mol<'CUI", and I~ti"g those carbon atolU~ bond with oth~r carbon atoms to
he<:ome 5'llUratl'<l. This fOrlM long chain ~lructur,,-"-, called polym('fS. The I'rOC('Ss
is call1'<l addition polymerization.
The simplest alkene that can undergo addition polrmerization is ethene. [t
forms the polymer.po[yethene. This is ho,,· many plastic products are made.
l-l f1 H H H H
ft~ /fl H~ /H H~ /H I I I I I I
.O,Bror Ii
, ;;:c:,.H+H ;;==c:,.H •
;;:c"HH - -C~C-C-C---C~C-
IIIII1
HHHHHH
FIgure 12 Ethene can bond with other ethene units to to<m tt>e polymer, poIyethene.

S<1b.(opl< l Sa'ur.'od ond um.'urOlod hydrocaIbons 153

~ Addition reactions Activity 5
Ans>-w the following questions in pain; t:.arr)' oul this ell
I. For eolCh of the following ",a(1ioll~ (I) draw ~ro('1ual diagrams for all tht'
;\ , Experi
reactan" and prodlKtS, (Ii) st~te the conditions for thr- I<'aetion,. and fill)
naml' all org.mk product•. Mattria15
;I) ethcn and Ha YOIl will net'd;
III prop-I m· ..lid Sr,
• 2 M lC"StlU
c) but .. l..,nt' r... a~,s wllh waler
slol'pt'ts
d) the hydrosmatlon of pem-2-ene
• I x Ie'S! tubo:
2. Name th.. type of addition reaction laldng pLKf' In qllt"Stlons I. a) to c).
• 2x d':,,~=1
• Scm'of
Uses of alkenes <}'<ioh«
• l'Wtks an' ~ from 1M polymmzalion reKtion of all.:ems.. 11K' al~ ~ • Scm'of
produced by crKlcing natural gas and CTUde oil. and aft" Ihm uH'd In thousands • bromitx" ..
of manufacturing aeth1Ii~, from plastic pacJuging and WT.lpplng to clothing
and outdoor equlpml'nl, as 'ieen In Figurt' 13 A. •
• Smaller aiken.. mole<:uIM _ such as those that are formed when r>C'lrol Or
ObKrvatioIU
kerosene are Clad,ed _ are lB<"d a' fll!.'1 and In lamps, such as I",.affm lamps.
• AllWnes a,,~ al:;o lJ$('tJ as raw mat....rials for Ihe manufacture of industrial Now any chana
cheminls. 'lUCh a.s akohob (ml"lhylate<1lpirits) and alckhydM (for paints, I~m from Ihl" rtlOCIlI
and ~). both of "'hkh we will kilm about in till' neJlI f~ 'iU~topi<'s. addl'd. !(e('p till
• 1bt'y nn aho boo: ~ to promote 1M iUtifidal ripming of fruits. As a froit few minutes, .aD
ripl'llS natuRll)", il gh-e off:l t~ ilmOUJIl of l"Ihl'ne. whkh moourilgl'S OIhrr
Conclusion
fruit (on trw- s:lIJ>l' trl'\" 01' in thl' Silml' stOl':lgl' containrrJ to ripm as Wl'1I. l1X"
u~ of l'th('l\l' to ripl'n fruit Ine:o.IU tlat mOl'\" conlrol nIl bl' had O"'ff thl' tim.. 1hl' unsatun:m
and uniformi!}' of the' rlpl'ning. qukkl)" "ith tbI

>,"~"t"~ii,"'''~".-"",
(from brown to
hydrocarbon rei
!B

-;0-; brUJIlhw and de

(Ih~ Is no cokJ
is llOtkNble am

~ 13 Some uses of alkenes: P' tics W. paints (B) and the ,ipel';''!iI of fruit (C)
Activity 6
Saturated versus unsaturated hydrocarbons Two unlabl'llrd to
contain cit...... C)
1hl' unsalurated h~'l1rocarbon is much mort' reaeth'l' than the satutated
I. Whkhmmp
hyurocarbon, U lhe uouble cartxm bonu bwaks eUll)". Il'aving space lor oth...
3. Onr of til.. cc
atoms 10 bond 10 thto hydrocartxm.
the l",m.., of
A :Illturatl'd hydrocarbon ami its con~ponuing unsaturate<! hyunk·arbon
4. Explain ho,,·
cannot e:l$ily be dhtlnguishl'd by comparing thel. physical properties. A chemical
.....maiIueitb
test must be conducted 10 see if an unkr\o'ATl hymunrbon is saturated O' noI.

154 Topic' Or:poi< eliot • ,

 I!!I!m!EII Test for saturation
.....
. QIlTy OUt Ibis upmmmt

1 Experiment
Matftials
In groups of fOUL

: Aim
You Irill na"d: Tn use bromlnl' watl"l to tkterm;nto if a h)"t1ro<:arbon is
• 2 ~ test rubes 1\ith S3luratoo or uns.1tur.llted
SlOppt'n
Prt>C't':d.u",
• 1 ~ test tube rack
• 2 ~ droppers I. PIau" S I'm' of lycloh~xane in one Irs! lUbe and
• 5cn,'of 5 em' of ~lohexen<:, in lhe other. I~l eiKh. of
cydohexene the 101 lubes with tht' markeT Or stld:"'_

r,;::':;:':.,
"ng
• S em l of cydobcxane
• bromi.... water
(IOdropsl
2. l'IalT fiw drops of bromine Wiltl'\' in tach of the
test tu~ Add a stopper ilfld mix by.ru.k.ing W
test tubl!.
• I x "",!1:tr <X 'Itid.:el- 3. 0b5<0n~ ,,'1m h.lppnts and reronl your ob5orr\.,.tiom.

ObsotrvatiOIU

---
l'ott my changfos in roklur In "too t~t IUIx' ·~is~
from Ih.. mommt trno brom;n(' water Is lIai,.,1aDle
keep it away
added. K....-p monitoring ooth test tubes for a
• ~ is higlIy toxic ~
ft'W minul<!S, and ch('Ck again in all hour.
tIhaied. inQes1ad or comes
rno oontaet .... th the ski1.
F'roIonQed $100 contact can
'11\(' unsaturated hydronrbon will react cause bIms. Wa:sh witI1 cloon
(jukU)' 1\"11 till" bromine and dKOlour1Zf' II runring _ if lhe bo..........
(from brown to cWu). whll~ Ihe l.1lutalC'd ~ ycu' skin. S<Dety

hydrOC<lrl>on reacts '''r'f}' slowly with ItHo 9OP' a'ld~gIo¥es

musI be..em. The expeoil'''11
brom~ and d«okJurIsn ntmn~ly slowly """*l be p6b,,0I!Id"3 bne
(IOO\' is 0(1 rokJur chan~ 1mmNi;o1~ly. bul il (:IV·.d.
is ~e M1ft SdJ)(' tlrM).

I!!I!m!EII saturated vs unsaturated hydrocarbons

Two unlahclkd bottles art' foulld in a laboratory SIOrenXlTll. It Is known Ihal thl'Y
rontain ('!th", Cit. or C,lllO" Allswer the followIng qo<·,tions on yoor own,
1. Whkh <:<lmpound Is saturated? 2. Name both compoonds.
3. on... of Ihe ("ompounds has an isom",. O,aw the suuctural foromla and nam...
tIM! isomer of th~ rompuund.
;J. t:XpLain how yuu rouJd use .. broml~ solution to detmnlM which hottl('
ronl;;ul\S eilhft compound.
SUB-TOPIC 2 Homologous series Physica'
The strnttul
Organic compounds are divided illlO separate familil"S or grool's aITOrding to th('ir compound
physical amI <'hemical properties. l1te family an organic compound bt'1()n~ to h strncture, II:
oocrmined by Ille functional group in the organic molKule.lbis is any atom, group As th"!IlI
of atoms or bond Ihal repla«>s 0Ilt' or moT\.' hydrogen atoms Olllhe carbon chain. molecular n
F;.l('h group of compounds With ilS unique functional group f<>rms a 'family'. • the densz,
known as a homologous series. • the boilil1
TIw lahl(' below summarizes the homologous series that we will study in Grade 12. • the solub
are not'll:

alkanes ,, name ends in-ane

The tables b
melting par
,,
-c-c- C.H"",

alkenes '/c==c,.' C.H", name ends in -ene methane

alcohols , C.H,~,OH name ends in .()I

ethane

,
-C-O-H propane

carboxylic acids 0 C.H,.O, name ends in -oic b""~

""
/ 'O-H
oc" pootane
b~

We will also learn about the organic compounds, the est<'IS (see Noll' un llage 1&4). "NMc:Tb.",.
the propaI><' III
point, bUI ,"'"
New words
General characteristics
luJlCtional group: a particular
• Each hom"l"gou.~ serie:; ha~ ifS own w,i,!u"
bond, atom or group 01 atoms
general formula and naming convention, a~ thaI is responsible for the
we have seen with the alkancs and alkene, in parbcular prope<ties lrl that
the previous sub.'opic. group 01 compounds
• Successive memb<'rs of th" series bc<"<,me homologous series: a fami~ of
larger and h ..av;"'r as a carbon alom is added organic compounds that share
a particutar funclional group
each time. aJcohols: a homologous series
• The ph~ical prop<'rti.,.;, ,uch as melting and of comPOUot!s that contain an Answer the
boiling points, and d'm~ity and 'OOlubility, -oH fu"lCtional group 1. l>eftne 1
change as the molecules in a homolo!':ou, carboxylic acids; a
t>omok>gous series of Wilak a) func
Sl.'ric:; become larger.
organic acids that confain a 2. Write do
• The member~ of a homologOU5 Sl.'ric:; have
-COOH funclional group a) C,H,
similar chemical prOp<"rtic:;. This mean, that
3. Comidl
th\'}' will undergo similar t)-pc$ of chemical reactions with other substances.
a) Ho...-
• The distinctive feature of all the members in a homologous series is that eadt
b) '1'0"'-
member differs from the pl'CVious one by only one -Cll.- group.
 TOPIC 8
Physical properties of homologous series
The structu .... of an organic compound influ<'nn:s th(' ph~ical prop<:rtif's of th"

_."
d,," compound. Sin<'e lhe molecules within a homologous wries have a similar
structure, tht'}' have similar physi('al properties.
group As the mole<Ule increases in ('haio 1•.ongth hy the addition of a -CH,_ group. its
molc<-Lllar mass increase5. As the mole<:Ular mass increaws:
-.y. • th~ density increases
• the boiling and melting points increasoc
(.Orad", 12. • the w!ubility of the alkanes in organic solvents decreases. (Not...: The alkan<'S
are not soluble in waler.)

The tables b<clow illustrate how in the alkane homologous wries, the boiling and
.n-ane melting points, and d('ru;i1y increast' as th(' carbon chain gel:llonger:
I
'!'!IN Alkane iiIf"! ,,".' . Formula,.. ISOillng P9int ("ej Meltirig pOtnt ("Cl 1
_n-ene -161 -182
-~ CH.

...:::",-1 """"'" C,H,

C.H.
....5
-4'
183
-188"
""""~
-<).5
. . . -oic ""'~ C.H", ~1'"

pentane
""=,
C,H"
" ~95 "'"
1M).
.
C.H..
"
"N... ~, n", "",llmll pom' 011""\"''''' " h'Rhe. Ih,,, ,h.. of bu.. ne. Th" .,be""",,, <>f 'bo ,b.p< 01
,b. p10l»'" "",\(><.. 1" Mol"",l.. 'hot CO" ~I< " .. t1y '"to. cry;tal I"'~ will h.". 0 Jo.....- "",lIh\/:
poi"'.but 'IKM with odd ,hope; (ti.. ,h.. of p1""''''') ,,,,,d '0 hove >Iigblly highcr "",Iting poin".

--
• knilyol

'~ser>es
-'
:.-~
~ Recognising homologous series
Amwcr the following quesliorn On your own:
t. Ilcfu,e the following:
a) functional group b) homologous xri~

-
-,
-" 2. Write down the name and the g.meral formula for th~ homologous series of:
a) C,H l l b) C,Il. c) C,H,OH d) C,H.o,
3. Consider the organic compound, butanol.
~.
a) Uow many carbon atoms does butanol contain?
_each b) To which homologous series does It belong?

Sub_<opK 2 Homolog....., ""ios 157

SUB-TOPIC 3 Alcohols (alkanols) Isomeri
--------- Alcohol isc
Organic alrohols (or aJkanols) are a homQlogous • branfhir
st'f'iol"$ that a~ chara<'terized b)'the functional • mo\"ing
group .oil. numbt'n
Of aU th\" orpnje alcohols, Iht mOlO!
lmponant is Mh.anol. Ethanol is I'rodun'd wlwn
fruit, wgttabk-s or grains are fenntnll"d. For
('xamplf', 1M uaditlonal alcoholic ~'ffagn FIgUre 14 All over Africa, mlIIet is
such as kaulla, are 1TIiI~ from ftormented grains. ,."",ted
f.. to make trnditional beer.

Chemical composition of alcohols

Much lite Ihl' alunes and
alkenes, akohol.s QfI undergo ,
Gllf'lLOllKm 10 IlUU 1M carbon
clu..in ~. ~ c:hm1ka1
,
-C-O-H

propf11i<'S mnaln similar as 1m, >HlH

duJn grows, but the physlnl (Rlepi entsacaboi,
pmprnk's diff", et..-. of any Ier'lJlh)

Names and structures of alcohols

Tho:' nmling of alrobols is slmllar to uu, naming of a1l:an<"s. The diff~ is Ih.u
AnSWff tbe
thor ~ al the md of IIlC' albm' nmK' Is ft"Jl~ by -d fo< 1M akohol.. Ag;t.in, t1>(-
I. l>n"'l
Ion,vst chain Is numbr1Td so thOlt 1M carbon alom tlon<l«Ilo tM -OH-group is
a) ~h.;
the loowfost nu~ nrbun.

-
2. I)rawa
a) 00:;

~am(' 1m- folloo.1ng ako"ho;:;',,------------------ 3. l)raw ~

H H H H Fonnati
-~-H-<>-"
~ ~ H H
Akohoba
• h)'dr;lltiol
• hydrolys
• ft'rmt'rltil
l. There are four <'<llboll51n longest cham: but- I'l.'Tffit'rl tati<
Z. Therf are only slnglt' bonds in t~ carbon main: -fin 11lt' lim
3. nt,e is one alcohol gUlUp:-uI matt'riall it.
4. ~ carboll atoms m<Ut be numlxud from tht' right to ge1 the lowl'St and Iht' mt
nu'nbe, fOl the -011 groul). CQmpl{'l('. ~

Nam..: bulan.I-o\
 . TOPIC 8

Isomerism in alcohols
- Akohol ;s0rnn3 all form by: Remember
• branching lilt' rompound or
• moving lhl' -OIl groul' to a dlffcft'"nl-
numb<:'n:d C<lJbon iltom in the' longc':U chain.
hIMllhe _Il'deo-
Compounds _ isomeo s if It>ey

IcnnuIa, buts dil'leo.,l

-=-------,,---~-
-Hi+
For butan-I-(>l, dr.Iw .. 00 na~ H
I. a brancll<'d isomE'r
2. a pooosition.J.l 00IIll'L H
AJn"Wtr

I. Branchf'd isomer: 2. I'ositiolW bomn':

~
" " 0
~-H Z-llll'thyl-prop.m-I-oI

,
bulan-2-ol
A I A
"~-

~ Isomers of alcohols
""_>15 that Answ,', the following rluestlom on your own:
win, the
1. Oraw the ~trn(\urall()rmulafor:
f-goup Is
al '?thanol bl pmpanol c) butan-l-ol III pt·ntan-I-ol.
2. Draw a structwal formula for the position,,1 15Omt>. of:
a) butan-I-ol bl pl'lltan-I-ol.
3. Unw a brillKhf'd iiOmcr for JX''ntan-l-01.

Fonnation of alcohols
AkohoIs em ~mack' by:
• hydntion at allrzne (this Is ~~ in Sub-topic I Wlder W rnnlan of .. I~)
• h)"dro/y5is of est~ (thb will hi' dl'iCUSW'd in SuD-loptc~)
• fermmtation.
Fl.'nnentation unly applle 10 f1hanol. No other aIrobol. can br mad!' In Ihls ....y.
~ first stl1l il. to brl'U the' rompk'x al'bohydl1ltes {from an)' suochy pb.nl
lIU.1~1) into simpkt ones by l1C'ali~ thf, starch in bot W3ttt. Y~ast b Ihen;K\dl>d
iond thE' mixtuR' ~ kqlt \Qrm for up to Sof'\'ff.ill cbys Wltil tM f~titton 1$

=,
rompk>t~. Air is ~ out of 1M mhrlun" to pn"''ffit th~ oxkbtlon of till' nhionol

ColI"O~ (s..g...., 2(':",0" (~thanol, 0 2<:0, (.....rooD dioxid..)

_..."..,.J Akohob (O'boob.) 159

 3. Oxi~
Chemical properties of alcohols
Alcohols c
Al«.>hob arr I('Ialiwly ~aetive and enily Did you know? oxygen ate
underlo thr following rractions: AlIt1ol.9' c.bon r!qcOde IS ",ill be OU
re'! 11 e d wI'-.n etI'W'lOl thrfr~
1. Combustion
Ulldeogoes oombu:stIon, elhanoI
Akohols, such as rthanol. and rnrthanoI, an' ~ cooiSKiered a muctH:le ....
7'
mrd n fucls by makin& usr of C'OIIlbusIkm. 1br
alcohol bums in the prrsrncr of oX)'Kffi to
tu.l than 1OSIiIluels, such as
peIn:ll or diesel Tttis is beo=;a,_
"-O-C~
,
.,
the et!l8rloI coones from a
prod~ ollbon dioxidr and ....aler. 11K' rraC1ion
f~ reso::ur:e - plants. .:lhanol ca
is rxothl'rmK, so it rele;Ut$ heat. In this When plants ate cultiVated to an oxidizil
l'xample,ethanol underg<.>cs combustion: make fuel, ..... call it bdueI.
l"".,nanga.
(;,11,011 .. 3U, ,2(;0," 3U,U
4. Ester
Ethanol i~ uS('(! as a petIOI substitut(" In
F,steIificat
oountries Ihat are 10"" In oil resen~ but high in
feafts "itb
crops that can be u'l'd to plodu~ ethanol (s~h
and wale<.
itS wgar cane or malzr).
catalyst is,
2. Dehydration gently.1hi
An al«.>hol undl'fXO"S dehydration in thf Uses Oi
presencl' of a C"ualysl and heat to fonn iln ,llktne and ..-at= 11lt' tNC"t1on rrmm'l"
• Th<=
the -Oil IfOUP hom thr carbon atom and ,I h)"drOgffi atom from an adlxmt
• ~"""
carbon atom in thr sa~ mok<:u~. A double bond fon= bl'tnfell t~ two
Ml'thzn
arbon atoms:
•
alcohol
._. H,""._ H,PO.
>alklMlr .. ",0 """""
The roll' of the add nl<>lyst is to donate,l hydrogen ion 10 th(o, 011 group of the
• """""
"""'~
s",-ab-.a
alcohol, and thm aC"O"Jlt a h)"drogl'n ion from another part of !he <>Icohol. This aU
• """.."~
happens at the samr IImr, so the acid dor:s not appear to tab part in thr rraetion.
is al"" u
Such a cat<>lysl Is called a dehydrating catalyst.

---
Ethanol undetgon a
phosphoric acid.
~
U~
d"L"_yC"'C.C'C'o-n-~C.-~C'CoCnC;Cnc,C"C.-pc,C~CC-~-of7oo-n-,rn-,-,,-,-"'-C---
structural formulas to show how the chemlal reaction
Answer tho
I. F.xplai
2. I:>ra,,'
3. Write
4. Wri:r,
a) p:.:
S~ "'=
Gh~~
6. Statr:
,~ ""'"
160 Topi<IOq;anl<'-i<tJy
 TOPIC 8
3. Oxidation
Alrohols can undergo oddatlon reaction.. Oxidation Mel'S to Ihf addition of an
oxygen atom to ttHo alrohollo form an add. If l"thanol is Iffl sl,lndlng in air, If
,,-illbE' oxidiHd (,,~th fhl' h('lp of N(1('ri", 10 fonn l'thanoir acid (VintgarJ. 1b.is is
thl' ~ason "'h)' wine goes $OI,Ir if it is IMr oIJ"fl for wme Iimt'.

Did you krurtl?

" " ..!!....
~-H "
H-J-i'
II 1'--- The ""'lfd, W>llgIf. comes !rom
HH IIU-H an old Fnlnch tel'm 1tIat ~
f..ttwlol. can Ilf' oxidizN much faSlf'f by adding "3CU w.ne".
an oxidizinJ: agmt. such ~ potassium
prrmangan;ltf', and thm ...... nnlng the' mixlUR'. • ... wonl
4. Esterification esteo j;icatioq; • e:atliIyz.ed
Esterification is a rt'action in which an alcohol reaction n which an IIIcohol
reacts with • c:artloxyk acid In
ructs with a nrl>oxylic add to form an <'$ter form an ester and w.rter
and water, in I~ p'r5l'n«> of a "atalyst. llw
catalyst is concnltrat('d sulphu ..... add. Th... ,....dlnn mlxtllr<' must bE' heated
Kt"lltly. Th.is I"action will be discussed in mort' dMaH in SuIHopie S.

Uses of alcohols
• The smaller alcohol mol.....ules are mainly u~ a' ~ln·nls. Ethanol is the major
mmI'on ...n! of methylate<.! spirits.
• Mcthanoll~ u,,-od as II pl'UoJ addillve 10 improvp ,·ombustlull.
• Ethanol is u=i In the ,",xlra("tion of l'S:;\,IlCl.' from fmits and spk<.'S, u a
d4pc=m for d)"es in !a<"<IU"rs, and;ls" solvent for fragranpl'S in perfurtles.
• Ethanol i. found in alcoholic beverages. I! h used "" an antiseptk in akohol
swalx to di';nfen Ihl' s.kin bl'f01'(' an injection. for example.
• I'ropan_2-01 4" w1\<f'nl in ink-jf't prim('1" ink, cmmrti~ and lood fla\'ourams. II
i. also mrd In d ..aning fluidS for Hems SU("h;lS compact discs.

~AJcohOIS
An...."" u,.. following!:'-:,:_::::"":::O,C=-=.::::-"":.----------------
.
in
1. Explain "..hy lIlrohols III re~ in " ';mil:u w:a)".
2. I","... U,.. mucrural formub for 1M fun<:tionaI group at akohoIs.
3. Wril.. dawn tM gmf'Tal formuLa for Ikuhoh.
4. Writ.. 1M moIrn>IU fonnula 100 dn... thl.> WU<:tt1I1l fonnuJu for.
I) pt"0JI"fl-1 ~ b) Ult'ttw>ol.
S. Suggnt;l w:ay 10 10m t1h1no1 imo <"thaIH'. and Ihnt bM:k 10 <"thanol:apin_
Gi'T rqualkms for I~ I'l'Kliol'lS ;lnd l\llfII.. Ih"l}l'" of ...lI('tion in tlC"h~_
6. 51"1" Ihrtt mn of alcohols.
7. Dncn"lr u... krment;l.liull pro<:tSS.
SUB-TOPIC 4 Carboxylic acids (alkanoic acids)

~ eatboxylk acids ar~ a homologous series of "''i!31.: organic acids, so the')' have a
sour IMtl' lind can tum blu(' litmus papt'r red.
butanoic a

•
I~

Chemic

_.
an\)oxylK
FlgtR 15 EthanoOc acid is reaction, •
responsible lor the sotK faSte of carl)ox,-1l
f.Jlampil
Formation of carboxylic acids
carbox~1
Carboxylil' Kids out' made by the oxidation 01 New_
akohob. as " ... saw in Sub-lopic 3. Bul lhl")' can F.xamplo
also b<.> madr by the hydrolysis of !'SIN'S. This hydrolysis: a deoomposltion
reaction due to the addilioo 01 rarl><.x,-l
reaction If'llU]'('S a dilute acid catalyst and heal wat...
to OCCUI: fxampl<

mr.. + ",0 OK ~'''. ~';I.rbo"'yli<;";Kid • alCOhol Uses a

••
"""" .
• fJtwwi
Names and structures of carboxyfic acids •
Naming Ihe nfboxynr adds is sUnllatlO IhI- alkanes, but ttk"., at th.. ffld of thl" ",.~
aibm' nam(' Is changed to -oil" ariJ. The functional group is a["'ays on th(' first • Mt'tha.. .
bru~hln;
carbon alum ]n tll.- chain and so tlu' numher I, omittoo lrom the name.
• BUlan'"
TIw tabl.. shows the n3m" and ,lructurfS of the first 6"" carboxylic adds. • Cllrlc '"'

methanoic acid ,
Am"'.... :h
10 I>u.....
,, P CH,COOO 2
• ) p«
2. Wrilt'
H-9- C
, '0-,
a) t'lt
to) hu,
l. L)(oscri
 _.
1CiiIS) Name
propar.oic add

~ H
~+-C-'
H"
I
Sttuetural formula

I
H-C-9- C
17
0

'0-"
Formula,
C,H,COOH ,
,
Chain length

butanoic acid
", ", ", P
C,H,COOH

, ,
H-C-C-\-C
'0-"
pootarlOic acid
""" C,H,COOH ,
-c'P
'0--11

...
Chemical properties of carboxylic acids
Carboxylic acids aI<' weak adds anll thus react likt' typical weak adds_ Th('S('
rea<1ions indude:
. . QSteof
<":arboxylic add .. bare --'> salt :and water
Example, CIl,(XX)Jl .. !'.:aOB ---'> NaCH,COO .. 11,0

-- ..
carboxylic add .. carbonat., >-.alt .. water

Exampl..: 201,COOII .. Colen, ---> (CH,C(X)),Ca .. ",0" CO,

~'arboxllic acid .. metal > salt .. h}"drogcn 8'u
~ (Carbon dioxidc

Example: 2CH,C()O!l .. Mg --> "'lg{CII,COO)," H"

Uses of carboxylic acids

• Eth.1noic add is ust"d as a preS<",vative and food flavouring.
• ACftk add i., U$M as l'DaJ.,'l1lam in Ill" manufactun' of roblx'r. It is also U5Cd in
'JI th~ the manufactur~ of various dyes, perfwnes and rayon.
'm • Mcthanok add i~ an add found in ant venom and some plants, su~h as lh~
hrushing ncttk. whkh ~tings you if you toudl it.
• Butanoic add smells very had. It was first isolate<! from ran~id buner.
• Citric add (a ~omplex ~arhoxylk add) is found in ~ltrus fruit.

~ Carboxylic acids
Answer th.. following 'Iuestions on your own:
I. Draw strunural formula.. for 0,.. following carboxy1i~ acids:
a) propanoic acid b) hutanoic acid c) \'\hanoic acid.
2. Write ha.lan,·ed ch.-mical r..a,tiollS fur the fulluwing:
a) ethanoic add + zinc b) propanoic acid + magn~sjum ~arhollat ..
c) hutanoic acid + cakium hydroxid...
3. !)e,;crihc two methuds to rna!:.t' ~arboxylic acids.

S"b."'plc 4 Carboxylic acid> (i1l;;Jnoi< .d~,) 163

SUB-TOPIC 5 Esters (alkanoates) Names a
Th~ name 01
F.stl'f'I all' a group of organic rumpoundi lhill art widely found in ~tUIl'. 1lu' add I~t ""t'I
slmpk est~ lend 10 tu''f' p~asant odouJ'1. MUlufacru,..n of food and ~~ ch.angl'd :0 tI
ottl'n;tdd esttn to milan« tho!' tlan,,\Ir or odour of th<' food or drinl. .suffu: is dl'riI
TIM' table I
, DIll you know?
we say 1haI es!:/lI$1(lIm • IlItI'4'
CJfOlga"'~flIlher
than saying !hat lhey form a
homo "og:M '$ seoes, ThIs is
be<;a! ISe estets are not strictly a
homoIo9ous series, The The nam~ .._
lurdionalgroup in EllIteiS nameaIll"Stl'
OOtlSists of the uniquely
identif.able -COO group, bul OIl
Skpl: Thf'f
E31l'n are produ~"t"d b}' eslerifi~'ation ll';I('lions,
a~ we saw in Sub.topio: J. In this l}"pt' of
either side oIlhis part are two
carbon cl1ains Ihal cao'I be of """"
O~1P
anv length (ard are lhereIore not fu~
rraniun, an akoh<.>l rea<:u with a G1rooX}'llc
triQue to Ihe luooctiOloal ~ mise
acid lu fOnII an !"Ster and ",11~ in Itw ~1'K"t'
of a ntal)"St. whik' the rt'artion mL'Our(' is Sh'p 2: Th('.
gmlly hNted. The' Olta!y$l: tl; «XI.~ntr;l1td sulphurk" add.
Thr- ~ f'<I~lion for an rsttrifl(Ollion rtiK1k>n is: ,-
""'"
al.... hol .. c.rbox)'lic acid'- ."'., est...... ",0 """"
Step 3: 1br.
ntis em IX" ~It'd ming formuln as follows:
Th<~'"
""""
_., R-o-<:.~O
n-o---:;,;'··;···;;.:.:o;..c'? ...... • H-Q-H
Worlced
, ...•.....••..• "A' 'R'

F'!Iure 17 The geoeraI equation of an

esterification reacTion using formulas
Name the fl:
TI'e alcoholloSf's a hrdrogl'Il atom and the
carhoxylic add 1,l5l's its .(111 group. TIlt' Answ,,-r
hydrogen and -011 group Ihe" bon<.! to fornl
W3.tt'f. TIlt' alrohol and Ih~ carboxylic add
St." J (~
('ach now hi"",,
,m 'open' bon<.!, so they bortd lealom ...
with t'ach oth" to form Iht' f'Ste'l. Catenal;ort \mel/l-) _
ocror.; and th~ l5tN dlain ~ in "'ngth.
~'SIure16 Fruitsandno.. ers Step 2 (add
~ many ~ and c:ornpIex
ntRfS. The partkl.IIar~
Step 3 (.lkol
of esters gives eadt fruit or flower
Its characteristic $WMt srneI.
Namr. llle'tt
 TOPIC 8
Names and structures of esters
Thl' nam" of thl' "SIft is dm~~ frum the namC'S ofth.. akol\c)l and lht carboxylic
acid thaI "."... U5I"d to m~ thl' ~1'1'. Thl' part ok>ri\W from thl' a!roool is
changrd \0 u.., flMM of Ihe rorrt'SpOIlding all<yl group:.oI is ~LKed I'oith _~~. The
~ is derh"nl. from lilt> aotbox)lIc Kld:« <>rid is ~ by~.
Th.. ubk ....k>w $ho'.o'S $OtnI' e:umpks of esters :md h.- I~· "\'f'f' l\lI~

ethanol !T'lEIltllW'ooi acid ed'Iyl rnetharaoate

butan--l-01 ettwIOie acid butyl echanoate;;;;"-==:::l
pentan-l-ol ~acid pa""lt)1p1op81_ Ie
Thl' ruuIlE' ~ abo .... WOlkt'li OUI fnxn th" stIuctun. USC" 1M foUowing steps 10
Dame ;to ester, gl\"tn iu SIn.N:tul'f':.
Stl'pl: lbe ntrr \$ di~
bM~lh"eubonand
oxygl'fl In thl.' l'Ster
fuoctional group. Mul;;
Ihis division polm.
SIl'P 2: TIll' acid part comains F'9\lre 18 Tl1f: two parts of an estcr moIe<:uIe:
the ""honyl group acid and alcohol
(double bond oltygt>nj.
Count the num.... ! lIf ("arbon atoms in the chain, and uS\' the suffix, ....... fr.
Step 3: 1111' akohnlls dt'rlwd from lhl' part with the oxygt'n atom In th" cha'n.
Count the numll<'r of carbon atoms In the chain, and uw the suffix, ·,.1.
The naffilO of the compound In Figure 1& is rlhyl bulanoat".

-'------------
Nam.. thr foUowing t$l.rr:

~leIP 1 (aod pa<1J:

3(; _ .. "haot1
Step 3 ~ partl· ( p i _ I .....
1 (; al"'" In ",,->
:~-
lmeth-) ..... " . .1b

Step 2 (acid p:.tnt. \'¥lIh l c:lrbon a1oms, this add " ......Id be propaDQic
Kid. Tlwo~~ pr<>panoote
Step 3 (ilkohol part): WIth I carbon atom, this alcoh<Jl would be m~b ..noL
Therefo~ met h}'l.
NiImr: methr1 propilfl<)llle
 Forl'xampk
Chemical properties and uses of esters
..ompounds
1. Esters undergo hydrolysis to make soaps ..an be rl'pfC
The In'C'l$I" n'ac1ion of esterilintion is hy'drolysk. As ~ Ie~mt in Sub-topic 4, 1a$It" and $:I
hydrol)'SU is ~ Tt"Ktion with watl:!' in which the 't'ac1ing rompound dt'rompost'S. p"""'.
In tlUs case, the estC't: df'('Om~ intO ~ n.rboxylk" ~cid aod an alcohol whm it
rNcts wilh walrr in the pr~n('(' of a weak add.

R-O-C~.' H-O-H ~ R-Q-H • "-o-c~.

F'ogwu 19 Hydrotysi:s is the reverse maction of esterifW::ation
'Tho arT"QW in this equation shows that the reaction is AlYersible.
lIo....'··. .er, when an ester unuetg<l('S hyurolysis In
New words
the pTt"Sen<T of ~ b3se, Ihr pro<TSJ is known as
Ilaponificatioo. ~nd the produn is SOl.p. saponific,ation a F"9Jre20 A
Traditkm.ally. olnimal or ~-ege1~ble fats "'l'T\" deeam...... lio<o ,etdioo,."". to l\aVoUr and ,
boilw. up with <Uh to make- SNp. Toda>', the the additioo 01 water
syntheticall
biodiesel: a diesel replacement
Ilro..~ Is mOrC rmned, but til.. ('hemlstry stays
thai is made tn:m vegetable or
tho' same. The \'t'gl'tabk' rat that is uwd today is a., B-1 eel oits that <:Olltai", a
an ~ter <JI g!)'t'nOl, md aq~s sodium cenan type 01 ester
Answer the
hydroxide (a Wl:le) is USC"d inste~u of ash.
1. Ethyl til
C':'Ier of glY"CI'ol + aq"eou~ NaOIi > gly.... rol + 1>Odium salt (,roap) ~lcohol

2. Esters undergo combustion for use as fuels

In Sub-topic 3, ,,'I' .....w how etlu.ooI. all' be used:u:Ii bIotuet (as a pe1IOI substltute).
II)
....
the.

b) thl"
FSIl'n, h~.."., as.. ~ 10 a differrnt t)'p('of b\oful bk>die;el. Onl)' ~ters thai ..) the I
haW' a long carbon ..hail' on 0"':' sldl>, and either a meth>1, ethyl or propyl group d) tht'"
attached 10 Ih<.' olh..... side of Ihe est<.'r fUlll"tional gro"ll ..an be used in this ....ay. 2. FSlers a
Vt'g<.'t3ble and ~nirtUl fat-ba.sed oils rootain ~t<.'rs, but th~ al'\" ~ ~lWays the II) ~
romct t)-pe of estff. ihrrrlon", lho' oils haV\" to undergo a PhXriS nIlw.
~(icationbefore tho' ~ ~ of estft" Is produad.
Whl'f\ u'it'd in ~ di~l engine, biodiescl rombuslS to fOffil carbon dloxid... and
.....
b) Wntl

~>~
waler _ pnxluCls lhat (despil'" the gre<.'nhouSl." ga~, <"arbon dioxld<.') ar<.' SI ill more c) l"am
elwironmCnlally flkndly than Ih<.' prodU<1s formed whell pe1toleum·based diesel d) \\'h:a!
Is usn!. In th<: e.un<ple below. methyl olNtt" is t~ biodiesel: 3. Named
C:.." ..o. + 270, .19'4::0, + 18",0

3. Esters have pleasant odours

Although natural food aromas contain rombin~tions of organi( (om pounds,
including 1"111'11, syntbE1k I"Itt"t'S ~rE' added to man)" foods md drink>; to make
them tut .. simi;"r to tht" I'\".t.l fl,woorant.
 For ...xampl.... the natur~ aroma of bananas come fro:n a 00"_ _0:
compounds, but tb... dominant fI,,'-our is that of ~ pa."ticu1a - . ...... ..-
can I:ll" reprodu«d in a laboratory, and oitddl'd to foods md clrI:1b to 1DIiIR ......
last... and IDIl"U mo... lil:t a banana -~<'fI jf Ih... full spl"Ctrom of fb,'OW IS.-
1""'"'.

~'9UA! 20 A real banana .... up to 50 diflerent organic c;ompounds that make up its
ftavotK and smell; Banana·t\aVoured if;e etearn rare/y cont<'tins real banana. so the
:
,
em.. « syntheticaIly-pmdueed banana lIavouring ester is addad iMIead.

ICmlllIIII Est.",
Answer th" fOIlOWl~·ng:=qC~:::C.,C.,C"C,C,C"C)C.~::C,CoCw::C"C, - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
I. Ethyl bulannate is an organic compound fnnn<."d in the real'lion between an
akohol and a carl)(lxylir acid. Writ... down the {"Unwinl;:
a) til.. nam.. of tilt' family of organic compounds to which ('thy] butanoat ...
belongs
b) Ill.. nrnMural formula of the fuonional group of lilt' f1lrooxylir add
c) the name of Ihe acid from whkh <."thy! butanoate is made
d) Ihe slnK1ura] formula of ethyl butan();lIC.
2. J'..o;I= ("an I:ll" p.t'pllr~ in th... labor;uory.
;0) Namr on.. USf' of fStefS in t~ food indUSlry_
h) \'1rile down the balanced re<>etlan (using strummol (ormulu) that shows
how an esler is produ«d using 10 drops of et:ha.noI.... add. 10 drops of
I'Ihanol and ~ drop of ron..-mtralOO suiphurk add.
....) Na.rtH' 1M $t'!" l!'Ial is formed.
d) 'Whal is 1M purpost' of the sulphurtl'" arid i:rt 1M .e~?
3. NzJIl(' Ihr following fSttr:

H H "
~e--b-H
~cT
., "I
""

_1Opl< S toIcn talbDootol 167

SUB-TOPIC 6 Macromolecules (polymers) Polyethe
-- TIlt slmpl.e
polymtr. p
In Sub-lopK I, ~ SOlW hoW aIk~ GIn unlkrgo
•
;oddition poI.ymftiUtion 10 form p<>lymt-rs (kln,g
chain structure). In Ibn $l.Il>-topk, ..~ ..ill
inw:sti~t~ this bnnch of ~ dH:'mistry and
:lppre<.U.t~ how much ..'" rt'ty on plauk$ in
><
modern lif~.
Mutics <lIl' mack> from \~ large ~ntbetic
polymer molKules. In poI.)'IIH'r scienCl', we UW' PolypfOl:
the tfOrm, macromolt<:nl/!. 10 dl'!Kribl' a Iarg(' Proptnt::a
molecul.. that consists vi a number of repeating l'olyl'ropn-
uuiU. To dislingulS]1 between the lwO, we wHl mlghl d<.'gt
Figure 21 Pl""tie prodU<;ts ara
the term macromolecule to deS<"ribt' a sillj;lt' part of om everyday lifo.
US(' laboratoryj
molecule, and the term polymer to descrlll<' the
material (pla"k) thaI is made wilh those molecules.
Macromolecules form when many small molecules join together to form a
structun> that TE'peats iuelf ~r and ovu. The small rt'pt'ating units art' nlled
monomn:<.

............ --().()o{)+ _ ........

(0000011I h ....
" ......,........... •

F.gwe22 MooiQIlleiSpn togell"" Igfoml a repeating chain (a .' .... 011· ... oM). The
~.i' ..
maaool· ... ' ' make up !he polymer material that _can use. The ~ granules
in the pictI.e CWl be noelted down and mol'kled inIo:.ry ~ plastic item. " ('"~'::;;J
Formation of polyalkenes New words F~25(

One of the reaC1ions that plodu~ polymers is

rallE"d addition polymt'riUtion.
synthetic, man-made -"""'"
PolyphBl
macromolecule: a 'Iery large
TIll.' monomers ln an addition polymeriutlon molecule that conslsts of many l'ulypht'Il}1
.ca.-tion always have a douhl... bond between the smaller idenlical sut>-uolts monom.-rs.
carbon atoms. So, alkenes can und...rgo addition
polymerization.
~ loin tog"het" Qnly unlkr high-
Pfl"SSUR' conditions an,J if thM'r' .. a otalyst
pfl'Sl"Itt. 1M ~ bond b~ wblm the
linked t09f!lher

_.-
fllOIlf>fT>el _ one small moleo.lle
!hal joins with othln like it to

pair aII< oes: potymers II>at are

made from aI<en& ,.100 IOO'.S
altl.'rnatiT'.J!:
UsM in pac

rnol«ul.-s join togptntor. Sina thne polymft'

mol«uJ.-s aTe' made from ~ ttMoy an' a.bo known ~ pol)'a~. Some of
thE' most important poI)~ at\" inlrodUl'l"d on tIM' Jl('xt page. F~26F

~
 TOPIC 8
Polyethene
Th~ simplest altffie to undl'rgo addition polym<"rization is E1hMl(' 10 form the
pol)'Illl"I,

• --
polyrthellf.", as "''!' '<;Ow in Suh-Iopk I:
H H H H H H
I I I
-c-c-C-C-c-C-
"'111111'"
H H H H H H
I I I

FIgure 23 Moo....' .. s 01 ethene join logetherto form potjelhetle.

11lnl" ~ ""' 00l: Idc~ntil:..1ber.JUSl" ~ dWm ~ n<JC iIlIlM samt length.

Polypropene
I'tupm<." un<k'fgo addition poI)mmntion 10 form ~IM.".
rn()nI;)Inl."rS

rolypropene is a hardy poI}'tIlC'I', so it is oftnt uSl'd "it"", .......1. falij;ue or stres

might ~ anolhPt" t}'Jl'l' <If plank. So. it is used to m.ak.. >Qlff piptS,
Qoor;llo<yapp;>"'lI.ll', ropn 11ll! all}'thing with a p1astk hln~.

-- HHfHH'
I

H
I
, I I
I
eM
I
c-e-c---c---c---c-
I
H
I I
ell lo"
H
I
I
eH.)
n !'.....s

Figure 24 "The 'n' means that any number (up to tho\.Is.al>d,;j of the units can
included in one macromolecule.

Polychloroethene

--
Classification of plastics Fonnatio
Most plastit"3 a,l.' madr frum chrmicals found in lh... naphtha f,action of tnId... oll. 'Ibe diagram \
Thry a.... classlfi.l'd lmo two main groups: lhl'mlOsns and fhnmoplasJics. that join to II
dicatboX)'lk I
nIDoX)'lkxj
P,operties • C· linking betvo ee, Ihe • Nou. '''g:1terunercus diamine(mc
carbon chains ($0 carbon c::hahs my nenwine
molecule is formed) ~- • High molecUlar welght .
functional gr"
• Low moltclJlar w.,~ • Initially. the plastic: Is solid but join to each (l
• Initially, the plastoc .IS liquid or melts when healed and can water. Nylon

,.Ie.
ma"eable. but once It cures be reshaped. Each material bc-n.- of tbl

""'•.
(sets on tteati og). It teI'I'13ins i"I has its own aiticaI
......,,:--::11. solid tehipe al...e.

, ',,}
Advillltages
- •

""
•
•
--
"""" "'"
Highly flexible
Keeps its shape

-- .... --,
......
•
•
•
Cost-effective
""""" bo ..,.,...
• "'""'" bo
•
polyurethane
F\glKe 27 A. si
.-eprewnt ear.
~ Formatiol
The diJlgnm b
~ Macromolecules ~~.

AnS"l'fi t1K' folkJo",ing qU6tklns on yow- "",n: a dioI (an aka

L soo.., howl."tht'nt' ~ addition poIrmt'ti.z;;(tion using structur.ll formulas. join to el('h 01
2. LOOK at tltt' tahlt' abovt' to ansWl"r the following questions. Which typt' of polYf'Stt'r 1>t'CI
plastk (thermoset Of th..,rmoplastic) could be uM'd for:
ill plastlc bags b) l;jtchm bowls
( ,~,
c) underground Wale piP" d) rontaiM'n to staR' petrol~
diol

Fonnation of nylon and Terylene

Nylon and Terylenl.' at... forme<.! by a New word
cOlldensaHon polymerization ......ctkm.
In rondmsation poIymr-malion. two ~ poIj"oe.izatioo,:
dHfem:>t polymO!tS join togt1hn and t'llmirultt' a :a poIymeI" th:at soIteo. when
heated and 1o<Jil:iir_ ........
:small molecule in the Procf'$S- ....,
170 Top\( 8 ()rpnl< <h<'ml,,,y
 TOPIC 8 ,~-:-I.. '

Formation and structure of nylon

The dia1(ram below shows the \WO monomers

_..
lL..x:I of crude oil. New words
that join to make nylon. The monomers al"<' a
dica,boxylic acid (a carboxylic add with h.", polyamide: a macromolecule in
carboxylic acid fun<1:ionaJ groups) and a which the monomer unils are
~

diamine (an organic mola-ule with two -NH, linked by amide bonds
. . criy i'l'.ertv.ioe pol'ye$ter. a macromolecule in
_weight functional grou~). The monomers ar<.' able to
which the monomer units are
....-:: is solid but join to each other by eliminating a moi<.'mi<.' of linked by ester groups
~andcan water. Nylon is dassified as a polyamjd<.'
• Iiach material . functional groups present in
be<:ause of the I':J{CO the macromolelule
""'" r~e
The presence of
NHCO group make.
T~is type of nylon 1$
called nylon 6.6 (>9cau...
.,acl> or the monomers contribure
nylon a poiyamide
6 carbon atoms 10 t~e chain

dica~~~d"YliC ~ n~~o_n_~,6.,J

--
~acturing
"
mille
,-.
-<II~O<::-
"~N-o-11 '\'
-.- c--l:ll-cP
-,.-"
1',1!q.~ OH
_ <:~
N-D-'r,-cII:
H
-:
"1
:1 1
0'

.~
-c~P •
. .;·'oH
water

f1--Q-H

When N ana G bond. Anotner . and anot"'"

dic3rbo~ylicacid diamlne monomer
on., H,O molecule is
monomer can can react nere to
elimlnat.,d
react here ... continue I"" cl>aln
Figure 27 A simplifoed condensation reaetioo that produces nylon. The boxes
represent carbon chains that are not directly involved in the reaction.
Formation and structufe of Terylene
The diagram b<.'low shows the two monomers that join to make Terykne. The
monon\{'rs an' a dicarboxylk acid (much like that ust'd ill the rea(tion for nylon) and
a dial (an akohol "ith t,m -Oil functional grou~). These monomers aft' also able to
.aural formulas. join to ea(h other by eliminating a molaule of water. Terylene is c1assjfie<J as a
polyester b<.'cause of the .COO
. functionalgJoups pr=t in the macromole<:U1e
'YP' "'
( The presence of tne -COOR group mai<e~ Teryfene a pclyester

iol
dicarboxylic
add \. .,Terylene
water

.- ._ ,
M>H ,t
1>;«
o~
C c,p _
0"
'0
(
,
"'
o-c:
_•• _-
0'
-je
,°
OH t
H-Q-H

--
• "'ilN!~tion:

_w""
nO an<l C band,
H,O molecul.. Is
eliminated
Ano/her dicarbo~yilc
acid mOMmer can
rMcl I>ere ...
Figure 28 A SImplified cOfldensatlon reaction that produces Terylene
Sub.topH:';
... and another <1101
mOMmer can reaU I>ere
to continue II>" cl>a;n

M>oomoll'<"Uloo lpolymers) 171

~ Nylon and Terylene Biodeg
Arnwt'r 11K' foUo...ing qUl'St1om in p;aio.: ~sti<'s h.l
I. Ilaw many produc!S ..rf' lhnf' in .. ('Ondt'~Ik>n ~tlon .....~ion? tMya~so:
2. N~ nm ...... )~ in which condm5Oltion- and ~dltion poq'mC'1'lzation diff~ INt ~~:!"
3. US(' a block <fuIgram 10 show Ilx- nrunu", of;
a) nl'lon b) T('I'yk'"nl'. -~
mvironm

Uses of plastics and synthetic fibres

IID:D

-
Plastic pc
human~
I'la~li('S ha"<,, a vari<.'ty of pro]"'rties that allows tlu~m to be uil<'d in many dilll'n'nt ~.
allplklltiu'K PlaStil'S aIt' dasslfu'd into stovt'n K('neral groups. MOSt polymer
I'laslil'S ,"all be l"ff)"C1ed Into otl",. plastic products. . .....
:,~
•
•
•
t-stWt fabric
Sf! ..illY bag filing
:::1
•

--
1'ol}"lDI

-"""'" --
from petll

--
• milk, juice and • refuse twls and bags
Im-ir Iolll
polyethylene (HOPE) • irrigation pipes
100 light!'
• •
• shoppi<>g bags
by """"
,"00 _ created hi
• •

II
Polyvinyl chloride bottles
(PVC. vinyl) • clear trays (toiletnes • door mats de«lmpo!
• garOeI1 fencing ronver.ed

"--- =-
""" 'oodJ • mintrali 1
lo" del ISiIy pot,edL)'Ieo 1ft • • ~binlW1ers MOlE'lII

-- --
"""""'"
<OPE) • from ",1M
•

•
"'"
""'"' ...-- •
•
imgation pipes

...... ,lMlleB ..., -.

biodo!pd

-"""'"
PolyPi ....., ...... • deteoglllil and • botlles and coolliltle $ w;de1y0li

""""' ....
lP"l •
•
..... • coates and boxes Natur

-
(PS)
•
• ""'" """ ""'"
CDboM8S
• prolllCUve packaging

• custom packaging
•
•
•
•
picture frames
curtain rods
seedling trays
1111' main
carhoh}"d

Carboh
Oarb"hyt:
On-lER: Plastics o1tw:lr • plastic type wood
than those IisIed aI:lo'o'e. or • bottles lor citrus juice material formula. '
!tlaI are made of a mixlJ.we • nylon is used for ropes roml' frO!
oIlhe phstics 1 to 6 and other fabrics
Note: f'otjed .... oe is the COllect IUPAC name. but on practice. poryethyIeno is the
'.'i(lIl
coo, ...... , fI;ItIle.. Si'nill.riy, poIytloOflJu Ie is the ...... f\3f11e for poIypmpene..

172 T'-SOIpnlrclkiilbtl)
 TOPIC 8
Biodegradability of synthetic fibres
Mastics haw hondrt'ds of uses in our ewrydar live5. Onl" of the miln fusons why
1--'
dlftl.'l".
they ,,"' 50 useful is bc'a.uSC' th~ an- unn'aMi",. BUI 1h.15 is also a problWl. Plastics
Ilut an" truu...-n ,.... y do not break doo<-n or M """y btfioU$o!' thl")' "It' non_
biodegradable. So, most of tIM' pUl5tics thrown ....... y SO }'f'an ago sllU niSI In the
environment todity.

Old you know?

Plastic: ~ ¢ion aftect:I both the ",w...,. Its and
I"ouman heoIlth. F'tasotIi::s thal ..-.:l up i'l rM!n or the
oceans can suftocate and choke n-.ine rinaIs..
....... laJd alii,. becoo.oelJapped In pt... to s. or
try to eat it. AI of ll'ois afIeeu Ihlllood chain. and
OU" heBIth.. This is why 01 is SO important that
~ pi......... aereeyded instuaof erdng
up poIubng nauar .....i ...' ... 'ts.

Polymer p1iStiCS, which "'"' mainly moi>de New won!

flom pl'1roleum, art not biodt'gJadable becalU"
their long l'0]ym"r mol=..tles art 100 larse and non-biodegrad3b1e: ~ a
too lightly txmdro. togl'lher to \)(> broken apart subistar'lc$ carVIOI he brokefl
by decomJX>S'." mganbms. BUI, S(ientlsls have down naturally by micro-
organisms sueh ll$ b&eleria
created biodegradabl"!'!astics that tan
decompost' whUe In a LandftlL These plaslks arc
converted into carbon dloxldf', wall'r and
minerals by micro-organlsms.
Mort' rea'I1l1y, SCiellllsts have created a pbstic
from wheal 0' cornstarch ....hieh is ellSily
~. This rlMlk" is l'<l1Itd poIy1.ktide (PU),
but beaU5le il is SO 1'XJl'CflSi'.~ 10 rnal.:.e. il ~ nol U5l'd
widely as a petrolE't.lm plastic ~lIIffit.
F9R 29 ~able PtA
Natural macromolecules can be used to make almost <Jrl'f
eYeryday produet, but al II priI.:e.
1ht' main rompOfll:nu of ~l tht food W\, .... I ale
arboh}"dr.lln, protons and fJlts. All Ihr\'\' ~ made up of m.¥TOmOlc:cu1es.

Carbohydrnl:cs
Calboh}W"les conl:ain only aorbon, hrdrog<>n and oxygen. 1b<'y m'"t' a gtm'tal
faranda, (;,11,,.0,.. w~ J( is JI mullipl<' of ~ lbe carbobydratf"l Iml wt' ..al.all
cotIIl' from plana.. P1.... u produce I~ arboh)-drateo; through phol:osynlheis.

.... Th~ use nrbon dioxide (trom the ail). Will.... (from IhI' ground), mngy (from tb..
sun) and chlorophyll (green pigm..m found III an g:r~ planu) 10 ma.... g1Ul."'OS<',"
simpl.. carbohydral'"
The gJucow undef&OC':'l a mndensatkm (X>Iymerizallon reaction to form mort'
rompIu catbohydratn. ~ linkage in tl1ol' IyptS of arbohydnu.·s are ailed Products 4
glycosidic bonds.

...• Ho--GoU
.'.
• If-O-Il
....'hom ..'" ~n •
""Y"'" ~ ' "
that

"""""-
th~ Comlll

so (hal )"OUI bI
FIgUre 30 The po/ymerization of glucose to fo<m ITlOAl complex carbohydrates Proteins: TheI
up (hI" ptol('\.-
Using glucose and minerals from lhe soil, plants
New word Fat&: Th~ 3A1
also produc(' mat"fomolecules of proteins and
3nd munogl\u
fats. glycosicic bond: 8 COIIalenI

--
bond !hal. links 8 carbohydrate
Proteins to another <'JlOIen"" Of In Sub-topic 5.
eIill"r:'l (or ~
~ building bkrls of protrins an' amino acids,
amino acid: a bo.ikIO-oIl block of ~ps_lxn".
and contain carbon, h}'drogm, oxygrn and pICtei'llhal. ........ otaio .. bach -M\ \"'egetablfo oils II
nitrogm. Amino -.ids COlIl!line by rondmsation and -coot-l1\n:ticw\8l {lI"Cq>S
polymt'l'Wllion. Tlw linl.: bm'o'l!m the Jndi<,idual fatty acid: a building block of Identifying t
l1XJnOInt'IS is an :wilde link.. much likt ..~t ..... the fats IhaI _ frod in OUt
bodies and in OUt kIod ThI" pm<"\'5lo at I
have SI:\'Il in tM suuetuR' of n)'lon. products of
<Un; ' ... 1<1 =tino aCId I't"tft<n ..... 1.' ,strp I Boil thI
H .-, H II;'" 'H 0 hydroll
" I qO: ItJ,. I qO .. I,n : I "
...• I/~-~-( ~jl.;::;(N-~-C'O~l ..·_.. ·-t\I:' -~f*-C-'''' H_O_H
" Step 2 i'Iacco",
thebH
Step 3 1'\oQ'iP
FIQute 31 Amino acids undergo condensation poIymeo'iUtion 10 produce proteins.. IOL 11:1
St." -I Plaa til
Your body needs proteins for the ~ blood criIs In )'Q\Ir body. for your s.ldn and

--
StepS Onaa
bones, and for rrw>y ch<"lllical ~ in your body. FISh, rrd DlNI, ctlkkm, Stl'p6 ~d1
milk and ~ an: SO~ aamples of foods rich In pr«riru.

Fats .........
.......
Fats an: eIilom, whkh mans thty an' fOf'lned by an 1I1oohol MId 11 atboxylic acid.
In this c~, lhl' almhol is gl}"«Tol and lhe lldds Me long·dlain acids alled fall}'
acids. Th~ join together by an estl'f linkage ~th(' saml' t)'pl' of linkagl' found in
.""" ~
Activity 14
Terylene - and ag3.in, water is ellmlmlled. In your body, f3.1S 3.1'(' used for l.'Ilergy
and to makl' ml'n.branl's for lhe cells In yOUT bod}". Answer lhl" foUl
1. Explain tIM
"'0;:',0 :
_H
a) amIno"
fatly 'k>-8 _~
fat • water
2. .l.'=pbIn ..-m
acids
...,...u glycerol
10-
;•
~
,0 ,
l""f'I1
3. uescrtbf- th
lhousl

Agure 32 The fonnalion 01' fal$

4. sno... how:
comp~Qt

174 Top!<' 0Ip>i< 0' "'Y

 I>.M _ < < ,.);'+
TOPIC 8, >

Products of hydrolysis
When ...."(' C"at food, Ib~ nrbohydnlts, pnxrin~ and rats ~ brobm down by
..nzymn or acidS- In ~a("h~, tiM' food mlUl undt'tgOa h}'droly$i~ ",action 'lO
thaI the ('O<\$titUPflI nUlnl'll" nn bt mad<- a,'ailablt.' 10 your body for absorption,
~!I Carbohydrnles: carboltydrale$ are broken down illl<J tltpir glll{'O$(' eon~tituem$.
SO that your hody ('an uS(' thp glue{)$(' for energy.
~rates F'rgleins: TIlcS(' ar~' brokpn down im" amino acids, whiclt your body u~ to builo

-'----- up t!\eo prolMnS it needs to bt ht.'althy.

FalS: Th~ at'\" broken down inlO IbMr fally acids
..nd mooogl)TI"l:ilH's (frorn It.. gl)'C'eml).

In Sub-topic S, '"' !foamt "'->1 1M bydrol)'$iS of

We 6r.;:[ learnt IIIboU: pape<

--,
~ ... Gtadelo.
est('f5 (Of sapo::>nifi«llkm) to prod~:IOiIPfo-Th~

r:;;_d
~
soaps .....p buy loday arc mainly lUlIodt.' from
''f'gc1ablt.' oils sucb as roronul oil and palm oil.
Do you ,e"Bnbeo how to
c:aIcUale R, values?

'"'"""
""">d
.~
IdOfitifying the products of hydrolysis
TIl~'l'ron"ss of palX"t ('hromatography can \)(> usc.oU to S('paral.... anoldemify til('

"'"
..a'"
products of hydmlysts of carbohydralC'5 and prot.... in5.
Stl", I Boil th.... Cilrboh}'drat.... or protein with hydrodllonc acid so that Ibe
hydrolysis fl"Ktlon can taU pia«>.
~q> 2 Maa two 01 thtff spot> of the' mixtuI\" on titt' chromatogJalm)' paP'-'" at
ItHo 1NsriInc, and bbel them It. In C.
Skp 3 I'brf'spobofl.noYlTl9.lpn; and aminoadchon IhI> i:litsl'IiM, and IaIJl"i thftn I
10 x. ~ "'iU 1:x> ~ to idl'ntif)' ItHo amino adds and sugars In till" mixtun5.
Stpp 4 MKt" Ih("chromatography palll'f In lh.... sol'"t'ItI, Walch bow th.. w1wnt risl's.
skin amI Stl'll.'i Onc.... <'OIIlI'INr, remow till' papt"r and dry it.
chickpn, Step 6 Sin("{" till' prodl,l(1S at.... colourlrss, tIl(" dri~'<l chromatogram is In'at("(\ with
another l'hrmical to pnx!ua." a roIoured compound. Ninhydtln produCl"S
purvlie spoIs witlt amino acids and n"5OIctnoillroducl"5 roIoufl'd spots with
sugars. C..ompare thl' pmitJons 0( tiM' unl:nown spoo. with thosl' of ttll' blown
spots to identiC}, the amino acids and till' sugars p<neDt itt th.. mi"lurl'.

~ Natural macromolecules
AnSWf'r ttHo foIlO1\'in~ qlM.'StiOlts on your 0""11:
I. f.,..plain the following h"rms:
a) amino add h) gl)'cosldic bono c) carbol1ydral<>.
2. Explain why ill'an be said Ihat nr10n 15 similar to a prnh'in, in c!WlIlk,,1 (erms.
...-o-H water {,\'Ml though 001.' is a natur.ll macromo1rnllo." arId thl' other is a s}"nthl'1ic fib......
3. l"),>,s('rihe the roll" of hydmlpis in digl"Stion uf food.
4. Show how gJUCOilC' undergoes rondt"nsation poiymPIiz.ation to form a more
romplf,x carlIoh)untt', using struc1ural fonnubs.
Sub_topic' ~la<._ .. ~"l 175
 Summary, revision and assessment

Carbol<)-Ii
Summary
• (·arbo..:
Saturatt'd aDd llD.'Mltur.ll.ted hrclronorboDS Ihl' coni
nrl>on I
• ~ bonding of carbon atoms to adi~t arbon atoms with <Uv.lIml bonds Is
ailed (';>.t~... tiOD. • <:atbox1l
• Carbox1l
• It. h}'drG<"aJ'boD Is an cxganX' moI«'l.Ile ronuining only h}-drogm and arbon
~=
,ltoms. 1bry aR' <.ia.s<ilied ~ ~ther.
» aliphatic (str.Ught·dwn hfd.r\X'artlom), 01
» lll'VJDati.. (rings of hydronrbons)
• SD.tar.ttN hyclrocarbo~ront,lin only singk' bonds in 1M arllon chain
~Wtf'n th~ carbon atom~
• Uouatura.ted h}'clronorbons ronlains at Inst on.. daubl.. OIlripl~ bond In
tn.. carbon dtain bo!1"'"ff'f! .... rbon "tom~
• SPltbe
• Th~ numb.-r of Clrbon "t0ll15 determint'S th~ prdix of th... l\ilffi~_
• Alkan .... ha,,,, only singl... bonds in tM.-arbon chain and their naml'$ end in ,''"''''''
·A~
-an~.
identia
• Alkro.-s ha,... a doubl... bond in the ..arlxln chain and th... ir naml!'S ..nd In of'nl'.
• All.:.. n~ ar.. g..n{'rally umeactivl' lle<:,luS(' lheir doubl.. carbon bonds are stahl.. • A mom
!lund to
and (-annUl easily bt' btol.:en
• A pol)".
• bun..·..,. an' otganic molt"Cull'S with the :;.am.. mulN;Ular formulal', bUI diffe~nt
linJ.:ed 1II
structural formulal'.
• Poly.....
• 'lltl' refining of crude oil is Gllril'd OUI by th.. I'tOCnS of fractional dist illation.
form a F
Homologous series Ie"~etlon

• A functional group;s a lNrtkul<lr Ixlnd, atom or group of alomS lhal is • The Il:l.lIl
I~ts. All
rtsponsibl.. for thl' lNrtirular propf'lIin 01 thaI group of compounds.
• The pta
• A homologous seri..s Is a family of orpnlc cornpounth that an be
rt"pl'nmlro by a gl'JlI"ni lonnula, with urn Inl'ffiOO having t1K' saml'
"""''''''
...
functional YOUI' and <Jmllar dlmllal propertin, but diJfl'l'l'Tt1 physial
,.."...
RevisKJ
• As tht" chain ll'ngtb ~<lSe for moleruln ollh.. sam<: holt)Ologou$ S('rie:s, tht"
boiling and mritinl; poinb lnaeaK.

Alcohols (;oIkaJ:>ols)
."'.
1. P'Iopel

a) Wt
bl ....
• The alcobols an' a homolo&<Jus W"rin 0( organic cmnpoun<k conu,ming thl' " 1.
d) D<
functional group: .QH.
• Alcohols are- mati''l'1y rNCIh'l' and Ulldt'fgo IhO' following n'<l<'tions:
.) ....
combustion, nll'rlfication, detl)'dlatlon and oxidation.

176 'lopi<"8 {<-'h<=t>tJyl

Rl

carboxylic acids (alkanoic acids)

• (:arbo"yli<- adds an- a homologous series of organic compounds that haw
the co"d""S<'d sttU(\ura! formula, R_COOH, whkh always occurs on the first
_bonds is carbon in t h" chain. Th" g""",al fommla is Cnll"., COOli.
• Carboxylic acids an- ma,k by th<i' oxidation of alcohols.
• Carboxylic acids ....a(\ with alcohols in th" pr<i'S<i'nc~ of an acid l-atalyst to form
_£XI carbon
l'Sters.

Esters (alkanoates)
• l:St .. n have the fUll(\ional groul), II.·COO-R'. Th... simpl... ~sters tend to haw
plNsant o<lours.
bond in Macromolecules (polymers)
0 SynthcHc compounds are manmadt' compounds that arc form~-d by a
l"hemkal pro,""".
~endin
0 A macromo!cnde is a very large molKuJ... (hal (onsist, of many smallcr,
klenlkal slru<1ural sub-units [inkffi together.
.. ax! in ....ne.
0 A monomer is a molecule that forms til", basi{' unit for po]ymen. MOJlome"
.~ stable
hond tv other mOIl<lmers 10 form a Tl'peating chain mol("{111r, Of p"lym,-..
0 A polymer h a compound consisting uf laIg" mole.;ul...:; that aT<' made up of a
ilat different
linked s<:-rics of {"I",aled simple munumerS.
0 Polymcr;7.aHon h a chemical pr<K"{"Ss that <'(lmbines st'Veral mOnOIDI''"' to
6I:tillation.
form a polymer or polymeric cOIDJxmlld. Therl.' at{- two polymerizatioll
reaction" condensation and addition polymerization.
• Th" main n>mponents of all the food you eat are {'arbohydra1{'S. protein. and
that is
fah. All IhJ'fi" aT'" mad<.- up of macromolecules.
• Th<i' proC<.":lS of thin lay~r or paper chromatography can tw uS('{! to S<i'para1<' and
id<i'ntity th<i' l>rodm1s of hydrolysis of arbohydratl'S and prot<i'ins.

Revision exercises
I. Propene is a hydro,:arbon that Is made by cracking I....trokum. Propane is
_wries, the
a gas that is used in gas cylinders for portabl" stoves.
a) \'lrite down th" lllok'<."lllar formula of propene. (I)K
b) r."plail1 how propane differs from propane. (2)('
c) To which homologou., series do (i) propane and (Ii) propene twlong' {2)C
-.ingthe
d) Draw the structural formulas of propane and propene. (2)Ap
e) K"plain which molf'<'ul<i' (Jl"'l'ane or propene) is unsaturated. (2)AI'

Topic 8 (Cl><:mi,try) 177

Summary, revision and assessment continued

f) Addition r;>aMioilli arC po5IiiblC wIth one of th.. molKUJn. Which Assesslm
moIl1'(UJ.. ('aJl undrrgo OIddilion reactions? lil~'.. a reason for youl
1. Wlit'll hn
anm'er. (2.)Ap
Ethyl haa
g) l'Top<"ne is a r1lOIl<>lm'f in th<" making of <TTtain tYllE"l of plastic.
:I) Wlite.
i) Il<"scrl~ what a monomer Is. (I)K
bl Wrltle<l,
ill Show thrl'<" units In th<" sttuClllR' of the Ions chain pol)'m..r. (l)A.p
c) sa.-:w I
iii) (;i", the nam.. of thC' polymC'r. {11 K
2. ThesUU'l
2.. Consldn' the following organic comlloundS:
A: IICOOII B: <..:Il,COOIt <..:: lIaxx:IiFI-I, A --L
ll: CI1,CIlFOOIl F" CHSII,CIl,o" A
a) Writ.. (\0>,'" the structur;ll fonnul;,. 01 an iwm... of F_ (l)S
h) Writ.. down tllE' JUPAt: (s)'stl'rnatic) "",ne of B. (I)AD
c) Nam.. ttlE' homologous H'rin to which C tx-longs. (I)K
d) Write 00-.,.." the.' rwneot tlle<lfg3Tlic acid USl'd in the p~fation ofe (l)E
a) S~,
to) Writ.. <k,...." the narl"lf' for C. (I)Ap
f) Whi..h compoull<h ~lon1!: to the same homologous SC'I"iel;? Kame the b) Wl-.dl
$ol"TIl"l>.

3. Tllf" polymer mown as NoT (TCT)'Itn<'1 h an pxample of a polyntN.

(2)An
c) "'"'"
To"""
d) Dfz'I< a
Poly('Slers arl' prepaT<"d by Ih.. WndeflS<llion pul)'menution 01 a
.J """"
dicvboxylic add "ilh I diakoholldiol), C'.ompounth X and \' art' tn.. ",,,,..
monomers uS<'<! III make l'ET. o Canpl
Compound X: HOOC'.-C.ll.-<':OOI\
Compound \'; lIo..QI,t:II,-QII
" ....
ii) WlII
gl~
a) Which of rh" "'OnOlllel'S, X or Y, is a diol? Gh~ a r.. aSOn for you. I) ~
answer. (2.1(: ill S-
b) Draw the structural formu].a. 01 the n~o repE'aling units of rhl' polyrn"r
forme<l ill thf' cnndenSOllion rt'oKtion "",,,-..en compound X and
3, Many<qjl
:I) 110'1" dl
,",'mpound Y. (31S
b) Wrlled
c) Wtlle down th.. formula of th<" rnoIKUI.. thaI Is diminal<'d dutlllg th..
~po
",aMi"n. (lIS
,,) Write d
d) E.rpIain. in 1<'I1m of In $IJl.I("1Urt', why PET poJ)'mm all' r{'()'Clable. ;2.IAp
bUt·i ...
..) Cooldrtn\.:s are oft~n sold in I'FT plasli<" bolll<'$. F.Jlplain ",hy thl' uS<" of
r .., ' hoitk's insl..a<! of glass bottlf's indirectly rrou(n greenhOWl' gas
<-missions trom trauspo" fu~ls. (1)E
1301

178 1",,",," lOloooIotr)'l

llinued

Which
byour
Assessment exercises
(2)Ap 1. When hexanoic acid wa<;ts with alcohol, X, <'thyl hexanoate is pnx.luc<'<l.
Ethyl h('xanoate is used ("ooomer,"ially as a fruil flavour.
(11 K a) Write down the JUPAC name for alcohol X. (l~"
'mer. (I)Ap b) Write down Ill", stoK!Ufal formula of l'thyl hexanoate. (2)Ao
(11 K c) Name Oil" uS(' (or till." compound~ in this homologous series. (1)(:

2. Th<: struC1UK~ of some organi(' mokml<.'S at\, shown ""'low:

A ~ B ~777 c 7f,III'7
H_C_H H-C-C-C-C-H H-C-\-C-G-o-H
~ ~AA8 ,L111it1j
(I)S
D E
(l)AD " P
I
H-1-C
(11K
~ofC. (lW " '0-"
{I lAp a) Nanw compound ,\. (lIe
1 :"ame th<' h) Which of tht> o;oml'ounds, A to E, bt'long to the same hOlllOlogous
(2)An wries? . (2)Ap
c) To \'dlich homologous =ies does mmpound n bt'long? (1)(;
d) Draw an isomer of rompound D. (2)Ao
of,
e) /)(>s("ribt' a test that you can perfonn to distinguish bt'tw{'('n
_Tareth"
mmpounds B and D. (4)Ap
r) Cvmpound D can und~rgo addition reactions.
i) Explain why Il ,an undNgo this type of 'Netioll. (2)Ap
ii) Whi,h othe' rt"actant must be addffi to [) to form wmpl:>und C? (1 )S
g) Compounds C and ~; react with ea,h other.
lDir your
i) Name tht> t}'pe of rea<"tion that takes plal'e (I)Ap
(2)(;
ii) Name tht> organk product prooul'oo by the reaction. (2)'>
tbepoJymer
_ " and 3. )',Ially organic {"(lmpolHHb have Slm("(ural isomers
(3)S a) lIow do Iwo "mnural isomers differ from each oth{'"f? (2)('
-.lduri"glhe b) Write down Ihe Slrucrurallormula 01 ONF. slru,IUral isomer ollhe
(l)S ('Hmpound bUl-I.-('n .
.cvdable. (2)Ap 0;) Wrile down th.... gen ral formula lor Ib.... homologous :;eriC'> of whkh
.·the US(> of bUl-l--ene is a member. (lIe
wgas Total: 2S marks
(Ill::
130]

Topic 8 IChcmistryl 179

 The Periodic Table althe Elements

" -j~ " • • " Y,I 'oI1 .... ~

_HE
H
i'''' ,
-.-'0_ Ii' b:'~
,
__.
,~11
I _ •
Ha
21
~
2'
Mg
.Al<oI_
_...",_
.1_",,"_
•Otw_. 1<:__ . . .
L ~-
~
.~-
~-
I,
B

21
AI
,
~
12
C

So
I ,~ I "
1_'
~\:It:>H
f> S ()I
IloI,to'
I ,j
I'~
F
.'~
...
_
~o"
IV
I

, -... _ r.~. _ ,--" ....,

,11 ,~ _ '3 ~. 11 " .'. ,'a
~ ~ ~ q ~ ~ ~ M M ~ . ~ ~ n ' n ~ ~
'!K Ca- _ Sc 1 _11 _ vier Mn F, Co ~ Cu
..... I ' -
Zn
"" -Ga jW---
Gt ~ Sf 8r Kr

. . rr -
_ e 1 _ , _ .... ,~' "~,,, _ ....... -
111 =- :1
'0
-Ii
:0 ~,
lit·.. ,n 1.!O It
I'·~..r
1lI
~ 1 -r ' ,Oi'1-'0f1-1Ot
,~,
,:', '30
'''l
II
110- " ..'
~:
;:
J.l
. 'r'
:If
13'
~IRbSr
II
133
Y

' J1''--Qi_ f'18 !

ZI NIl
,_I_~f_ _
'~."'1'3.1
If' j
t.4o

'~
lQ,Ru,fIl

, ,..' I
'·"-I_I;...l,,ti-~' -
P<l

IlIG -:
AD
~
let'
•
111$- t
If
,Cd
;~
• •
20l
In

200l
"'
Sn
1ft

~i
--
so
1IIe
T,
'''~,"
M
I··
I
--

~
~
-
XlI

fles ta,'tt1,Ta W,Rt,c. i"Pl IW,.Ha T1 Pb Po

e-",
Sa
""''''.-- _I.'.......
itI , ~1
,_",\._, _ _ 1_' ,,4 I_"'&' -..
I Il;Z
.... _
Bi At
""""'1_ -
PI>

, ~ m
O~.~
'. '" I,. ,.
.,.. . 1.- •- • -,-1-
"1 '.. 113 lIS
,,.;;;.., J!t. I."l.
1
Co Ho Tm Vb, 1lI
£.
......
_ --
---- ,-'"
It .." I"
.
"'_,_..11 ,-'-'-'ill

6i
...
I. _"""""'*....- Th
'"- -- .. '" or-
Of Eo
'_If",_ '-
Fm
ill
~