water

Article
Flood Effect on Groundwater Recharge on a Typical
Silt Loam Soil
Guohua Zhang 1 , Gary Feng 2 , Xinhu Li 3, *, Congbao Xie 1 and Xiaoyu Pi 4
1 China Irrigation and Drainage Development Center, Beijing 210054, China; zgh311133@163.com (G.Z.);
xchb@263.net (C.X.)
2 USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Starkville, MS 39762, USA; Gary.Feng@ARS.USDA.GOV
3 State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, Xinjiang, China
4 The Water Service Bureau of Chaoyang of Beijing City, Beijing 100026, China; zgh2pxy@163.com
* Correspondence: lixinhu@ms.xjb.ac.cn; Tel.: +86-099-1788-5428

Received: 30 March 2017; Accepted: 10 July 2017; Published: 14 July 2017

Abstract: Floods are of great concern as the global climate changes, and investigations of flood water
infiltration and groundwater recharge are important for water resource management worldwide,
especially under conditions of global climate changes. However, information on the relationship
between the flood water and groundwater recharge is limited. The objective of this study was to
determine the relationship between the flood water depth and the height of groundwater rise using
lysimeters and numerical modeling in the floodplain of the Tarim River in northwestern China.
The experimental results suggested that the rise in height of the groundwater table was closely related
to the flood water ponding depth, and the groundwater depth decreased quickly after flooding
due to the high infiltration rate of water originating at the Tarim River. The water table falling
velocity was significantly less than the water table rising velocity. If the initial groundwater table was
deeper, the variation in the water table rise depth was smaller and the water table falling velocity
was slower. The numerical simulation results showed good agreement with the observed data, with
a determination coefficient (R2 ) of 0.87 and a root mean square error (RMSE) of 63.91 cm. A good
relationship (R2 = 0.789) between the initial groundwater table depth (H0 ), initial soil water content
(W 0 ), flood water depth (h), and height of the water table rise (H) was established. Considering
that natural and artificial flood frequencies are related to flood time interval (dt), a relationship
(R2 = 0.892) was developed between them. These results can enhance the understanding of flood
recharge characteristics in the floodplains of inland rivers.

Keywords: arid land; flood; groundwater recharge; inland river; lysimeter

1. Introduction
Floods are important sources of groundwater recharge in most of the world’s arid lands [1]. With
appropriate management practices, floods can benefit the ecology of arid and semi-arid areas [2].
Flood spreading (due to river overflows) is one of the methods used for flood management and water
harvesting that increases the groundwater recharge [3]. Recharge is the portion of infiltration that
reaches the water table after passing through the soil profile [4]. In arid environments, stream beds of
ephemeral rivers are largely composed of permeable, coarse alluvial sediments that promote relatively
rapid infiltration of flood water, which then recharges the local alluvial aquifers [5]. Several methods
including direct observation [5,6], mathematical modeling [7], and stable isotope studies [8,9] have
been used to estimate flood water infiltration and groundwater recharge.
Groundwater is an important source of water for the growth of natural vegetation in arid and
semi-arid areas [10]. As drought, climate change, and increasing potable water demands from an

Water 2017, 9, 523; doi:10.3390/w9070523 www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2017, 9, 523 2 of 15

increasing population take their toll on water resources, better management and ways to store and recharge
groundwater are paramount, and underground water storage could be a much-needed solution [11].
Groundwater depth is a critical feedback variable that determines vegetation dynamics [12]. Many
studies have focused on the natural vegetation responses to groundwater change [13,14] as a result of
artificial watering in arid areas. Change in the groundwater table can influence the development and
composition of vegetation, which in turn affects the fragile ecosystem [15,16]. Therefore, the successful
conservation of riparian forests will require knowledge of groundwater and stream flow [17].
Direct infiltration and groundwater recharge in arid environments are relatively low due to the
rarity of rainstorms, low mean average precipitation, and high potential evaporation; therefore, in many
desert areas, direct rain infiltration is regarded as nonexistent [18]. Water resource management in arid
environments currently rely on quantifying flood water infiltration and percolation, which recharges
the shallow alluvial aquifers [5]. Flood water infiltrates ephemeral channels, recharging local and
regional aquifers, and is the main water source in hyper-arid regions [1], while also being an important
water source for mountain-front recharge and interbasin flow [19,20]. Furthermore, understanding and
estimating the recharge from overbank floods is important [4] as the infiltrated flood water provides the
water resources necessary for maintaining human settlements, riparian vegetation, and wildlife along
the rivers. Therefore, an understanding of floods and their associated recharge of alluvial aquifers is
crucial for better management of valuable water resources [1]. It is also important to characterize the
flood by quantifying the water volume involved in the event and not only at the height of the flood.
This can be done by measuring the flood discharge during, after, and before the event, as mentioned by
Tazioli [6]. Managed aquifer recharge, a more scientific term for the process of purposefully refilling
aquifers with surface water to more effectively manage water supply, is also being studied in Arizona
using 19 recharge basins as part of the Tonopah Desert Recharge Project, where researchers allowed
surface water to slowly refill the underlying aquifer and carefully monitored wells to measure its
progress [11].
The episodic recharge of aquifers during overbank floods is one component of the water balance,
and is distinct from bank storage [21–23] or river losses, but involves vertical infiltration from overbank
flows. Long-term development and management of groundwater in arid regions, especially in alluvial
aquifers, depends on the establishment of a balance between the amounts of recharge and withdrawal.
To accomplish this goal, recharge components must be carefully assessed [24].
The flood water infiltration process and its effect on groundwater recharge were measured in field
experiments and simulated in previous studies [1,5,25]. As the volume of recharge during flooding
is highly variable between catchments, it is difficult to quantify in the field [26]. Lysimeters play an
important role in the understanding of soil water dynamics and allow a better understanding of the
role of soil in the regional water balance [27]. Therefore, a study to investigate the flood effect on
groundwater using lysimeters may provide a better understanding of the dynamics of flood water
recharge of groundwater.
The relationship between hydraulic conductivity and pressure head is highly non-linear, and the
direct measurement of these properties in the laboratory, as well as in the field, is often time consuming
and expensive [28]. Therefore, this study applied the Richards equation model to simulate the process
of groundwater flood recharge. In addition, the numerical model that was applied also assisted in
providing a better understanding of the processes regarding the flood water recharge of groundwater.
The Tarim River is the largest continental river in China. More than 90% of the existing floodplain
forests along the Tarim River rely on floods [29], and these forests provide a wide range of ecosystem
services and functions. Groundwater is the main water source to maintain the regeneration of natural
vegetation [30–32]. Planned or controlled flooding is an effective method for rehabilitating rivers and
reversing ecosystem degradation [33]. Historically, the Tarim River was a mobile stream before the new
embankment project was established, and was dominated by trees of Populus euphratica that mainly
relied on groundwater and flood water to survive and grow. However, a new embankment project
reduced the natural river flooding of the Tarim River. To recover the degenerated natural vegetation,
Water 2017, 9, 523 3 of 15

ecological water
Water 2017, consumption was artificially regulated by an ecological gate in the Tarim River
9, 523 3 of [34,35].
15
The purpose of the ecological gate was to provide river water (similar to natural floods before) to plants
alongrecover
the Tarimthe degenerated
River. Ecological natural vegetation,
gates controlledecological
the riverwater consumption
flooding was artificially
of the Tarim regulated
River. Artificial floods
by an ecological gate in the Tarim River [34,35]. The purpose
have been used in many regulated streams and rivers to maintain plant communities [36]. Theof the ecological gate was to provide
planned
river plays
overflow wateran (similar
important to natural
role infloods before) to plants
the maintenance along
of plant the on
cover Tarim
the River. Ecological
land adjacent to gates
the Tarim
controlled the river flooding of the Tarim River. Artificial floods have been used in many regulated
River. Therefore, it was necessary to investigate the flood effect on the groundwater in floodplain soils.
streams and rivers to maintain plant communities [36]. The planned overflow plays an important
Existing literature [12–14] has found that a groundwater depth required to maintain growing
role in the maintenance of plant cover on the land adjacent to the Tarim River. Therefore, it was
vegetation
necessaryshould be less than
to investigate thesix meters
flood in on
effect thethe
low reaches of the
groundwater Tarim River.
in floodplain However, the groundwater
soils.
level is usually deeper than six meters, therefore impeding local vegetation
Existing literature [12–14] has found that a groundwater depth required to maintain growth [37]. Previous
growing studies
have vegetation
investigated the effect of the Tarim Basin overflow on the ecological
should be less than six meters in the low reaches of the Tarim River. However, the characteristics of riparian
vegetation [10,38,39].
groundwater level Li et al. [35]
is usually found
deeper that
than six flood
meters, water could
therefore percolate
impeding into
local the floodplain
vegetation growth soils
due to[37]. Previous
a high studies have
infiltration rate. investigated
Other studies the described
effect of theinTarim
ReferencesBasin overflow
[10,13,40]onreported
the ecological
that river
floodscharacteristics
contributedoftoriparian a rise invegetation [10,38,39]. level
the groundwater Li et al.
in [35] found that flood
the floodplains water
of the could
Tarim percolate
River; however,
into the floodplain soils due to a high infiltration rate. Other studies
the process of a flood affecting the groundwater was not clear. Previous studies have also shown that described in References
[10,13,40] reported that river floods contributed to a rise in the groundwater level in the floodplains
flooding could raise the groundwater table in low reaches of the Tarim River [31]; however, information
of the Tarim River; however, the process of a flood affecting the groundwater was not clear.
on the relationship between the flood water depth and height of the groundwater rise is limited, where
Previous studies have also shown that flooding could raise the groundwater table in low reaches of
there the
is aTarim
lack ofRiver
measurements
[31]; however, andinformation
data abouton the relationship
the relationshipbetween
between thethe groundwater
flood water depth leveland
and the
floodheight
heightofisthe unknown. As mentioned above, whether or not the height of
groundwater rise is limited, where there is a lack of measurements and data about the groundwater rises due to
floodrelationship
recharge can reach the
between an optimal
groundwatergroundwater
level and thetable
flooddepth
heightthatis could
unknown.maintain natural above,
As mentioned vegetation
survival [41] isorofnot
whether greattheconcern
height of in the inland rivers
groundwater risesofdue
aridtoregions.
flood recharge can reach an optimal
groundwater table
Determining depth that could
the relationship maintain
between the natural vegetation
flood ponding survival
depth and[41] is of great
change in theconcern in
groundwater
the inland rivers of arid regions.
table in the river floodplain of the Tarim River is critical in assessing the contribution of natural or
Determining
artificial planned the relationship
overflow betweenrecharge.
to groundwater the flood This
ponding
study depth
aims and
to change in the groundwater
(1) investigate the flood effect
table in the river floodplain of the Tarim River is critical in assessing the contribution of natural or
on groundwater using lysimeters and a numerical model; and (2) determine the relationship between
artificial planned overflow to groundwater recharge. This study aims to (1) investigate the flood
the flood water depth and height of the groundwater rise.
effect on groundwater using lysimeters and a numerical model; and (2) determine the relationship
between the flood water depth and height of the groundwater rise.
2. Materials and Methods
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.1. Study
The studyAreawas conducted at the Akesu National Water Balance Station (40.37◦ N, 80.45◦ E,
1028.0 m a.s.l.), located
The study wasinconducted
the upperatreach of theNational
the Akesu Tarim Basin in Balance
Water the Xinjiang Province
Station of northwestern
(40.37° N, 80.45° E,
China1028.0
(Figure
m 1). Mountains
a.s.l.), located intothe
the upper
north, reach
west, of
and
theeast encompass
Tarim Basin inthe
theTarim Basin,
Xinjiang and the
Province of vast
northwestern China (Figure 1). Mountains to the north,
expanse of the Taklimakan Desert dominates much of the Basin. west, and east encompass the Tarim Basin,
and the vast expanse of the Taklimakan Desert dominates much of the Basin.

Figure 1. The schematic map in the Tarim River basin.

Figure 1. The schematic map in the Tarim River basin.
Water 2017, 9, 523 4 of 15
Water 2017, 9, 523 4 of 15

The
The average annual precipitation
average annual precipitation ranges
ranges fromfrom 200200 mmmm to to 500
500 mm mm in in the
the mountainous
mountainous areas,areas,
from 50 to 80 mm on the side of the basin, and only 10 mm in
from 50 to 80 mm on the side of the basin, and only 10 mm in the central basin. Precipitation the central basin. Precipitation
increases
increases from
from thethe west
west to to the
the east
east inin the
the plain
plain area,
area, and
and the
the temporal
temporal distribution
distribution ofof precipitation
precipitation
throughout the year is strongly heterogeneous. More than 80%
throughout the year is strongly heterogeneous. More than 80% of the total annual precipitationof the total annual precipitation
falls
falls between
between May May and October
and October in theinhigh
the high
flow flow
season,season,
and lessandthanless 20%
than of20%theoftotal
the occurs
total occurs
from
from November
November to the to the following
following April
April [42].
[42]. Precipitation
Precipitation and andtemperature
temperaturehave have been
been increasing
increasing
persistently
persistently since the 1980s and significant increases in precipitation and temperature were
since the 1980s and significant increases in precipitation and temperature were observed
observed
10 m3 from 1957 to 2005 with
after
after the
the 1990s
1990s [43].
[43]. The
The average
average annual
annual runoff
runoff at at the
the inlet 3.98×
inlet isis3.98 × 10
1010 m 3 from 1957 to 2005 with

snowmelt
snowmelt and and precipitation
precipitation in in the
the surrounding
surrounding high high mountains
mountains as as the
the main
main sources
sources of of water
water [44].
[44].
The groundwater depth was 2.53 to 2.06 m from 1958 to 2000 in the
The groundwater depth was 2.53 to 2.06 m from 1958 to 2000 in the upper reaches, and 6.0 m to 9.87 upper reaches, and 6.0 m to
9.87
m inm theinlower
the lower
reachesreaches
of theofTarim
the Tarim
River River
[45].[45]. The population
The population of this of area
this area
was was approximately
approximately 8.73
8.73 million in 2000 [46], and the major land uses were grassland, unused
million in 2000 [46], and the major land uses were grassland, unused land and wetland, woodlands land and wetland, woodlands
and croplands [47–49].
and croplands [47–49].InIn thethe
aridarid desert
desert climate,
climate, desertdesert
shrubs shrubs and semi-shrubs
and semi-shrubs are dominant
are dominant while
while large herbaceous plants, shrubs and trees grow on the floodplains
large herbaceous plants, shrubs and trees grow on the floodplains and low terraces along both and low terraces along
both riversides
riversides [50]. Woodlands
[50]. Woodlands are dominated
are dominated by Populus
by Populus euphratica,
euphratica, and major andshrubs
majorinclude
shrubs Tamarix
include
Tamarix spp., Lycium
spp., Lycium ruthenicum,
ruthenicum, Halimodendron
Halimodendron halodendron,
halodendron, etc., etc.,
andand herbs
herbs arearemainly
mainlycomposed
composed of of
Phragmites australis, Apocynum venetum, Alhagi sparsifolia, Karelinia caspica, Glycyrrhiza
Phragmites australis, Apocynum venetum, Alhagi sparsifolia, Karelinia caspica, Glycyrrhiza inflata, etc. inflata, etc.

2.2. Experiment Design

2.2. Experiment Design
The lysimeters were built at the Akesu National Water Balance Experiment Station. Three lysimeters
The lysimeters were built at the Akesu National Water Balance Experiment Station. Three
(each 960 mm in diameter and 3700 mm in height) were separated by the observation well (1200 mm
lysimeters (each 960 mm in diameter and 3700 mm in height) were separated by the observation well
diameter and 3700 mm depth). The lysimeter casings were made of fiberglass reinforced plastic with a
(1200 mm diameter and 3700 mm depth). The lysimeter casings were made of fiberglass reinforced
wall thickness of 12 mm (Figure 2), and each column was a lysimeter.
plastic with a wall thickness of 12 mm (Figure 2), and each column was a lysimeter.

Figure 2. The lysimeters used in our experiment at the Aksu National Water Balance Station,
Figure The lysimeters used in our experiment at the Aksu National Water Balance Station,
2. China.
Xinjiang,
Xinjiang, China.
The soil column was 3200 mm in height, and a filtering layer (200 mm) underlain by gravel was
placedThe soil columnbeneath
immediately was 3200the mm in height,
water table atand
theabottom
filteringoflayer
each(200 mm) underlain
lysimeter to preventby gravel
fine was
particles
placed immediately
of soil from flowing out beneath thedrainage,
during water table
thenatthe
thesoil
bottom
was of each lysimeter
packed with bulk to prevent
density fine g
of 1.54 particles
cm−1 to
of soilmm
3200 from flowing
from out during
the surface of thedrainage, then which
gravel layer, the soilleft
was300packed
mm from withthebulk density
soil surface ofto
1.54 cm−of1
thegtop
to
the3200 mm from
lysimeter the surface
for ponding of the
water. No gravel
plants layer, which left
were allowed 300 mm
to grow from
at the the soil
surfaces ofsurface to the top
the lysimeters. A
of the lysimeter
porous pipe (20for mm ponding water. was
in diameter) No plants were
installed inallowed
the layer to of
grow at the
gravel surfaces
which of the lysimeters.
connected the water
A porous
supply pipe (20
(Figure mm polymethyl
3). The in diameter)methacrylate
was installed in the layer
container of gravel
served which container
as a leveling connectedtothe water
obtain a
supply
constant(Figure
water 3). Thebefore
table polymethyl methacrylate
irrigation. container
The leveling served
container as a leveling
could be moved container
up andtodown
obtainbya
constant
means ofwater tablewhich
a pulley, beforewas
irrigation. Thealeveling
fixed with container
hand crank. Thus,could be moved
the water tableupin and down
the soil by means
column was
of a pulley,
adjusted inwhich was fixed with
correspondence a hand crank.ofThus,
to fluctuations the water table
the groundwater in the
table ofsoil
thecolumn
naturalwas adjusted in
surroundings.
correspondence
A neutron probetotube fluctuations
made ofofaluminum
the groundwater
with a table of theofnatural
diameter 45 mmsurroundings.
was installedAinneutron probe
the center of
tube made of
each soil column. aluminum with a diameter of 45 mm was installed in the center of each soil column.
Water 2017, 9, 523 5 of 15
Water 2017, 9, 523 5 of 15

Figure
Figure 3. A3.diagram
A diagram
of of
thethelysimeters
lysimeterswith
with the
the capability
capabilitytotoregulate thethe
regulate groundwater table.table.
groundwater

The leveling container had a water outlet for collecting excess water in a percolation container
The
that leveling
reached thecontainer
bottomhad a water
of the outlet
lysimeter duefortocollecting
water tableexcess waterThe
recharge. in awater
percolation
table incontainer
the soil that
reached the bottom of the lysimeter due to water table recharge. The water
cylinder and a leveling container were maintained at the same level almost simultaneously. The table in the soil cylinder
and agroundwater
leveling container were maintained
control operation was similar at to
the same
that level almost
described by Schendelsimultaneously. Thecontainer
[51]. The leveling groundwater
only
control adjusted was
operation the initial
similargroundwater table and
to that described bywas closed[51].
Schendel by a The
three-way
levelingvalve that wasonly
container opened
adjusted
before the flood experiments. The groundwater level was measured by a sighting
the initial groundwater table and was closed by a three-way valve that was opened before the flood pipe.
The lysimeters
experiments. were set inlevel
The groundwater the pit using
was a crane. by
measured During the lysimeter
a sighting pipe. construction, when a layer
of approximately 0.3 m of soil was added, the soil was wetted to saturation. During the construction,
The lysimeters were set in the pit using a crane. During the lysimeter construction, when a layer
soil moisture probes and the neutron probe access tube were installed. When all the soil layers were
of approximately 0.3 m of soil was added, the soil was wetted to saturation. During the construction,
in place, up to the top of the soils, the excess water was allowed to drain to the bottom of the soil
soil moisture
cylinder forprobes and and
two days the neutron
was pumped probeoutaccess
with atube
vacuumwerepump.
installed. When all the soil layers were in
place, up Five
to the top of the soils, the excess water was
flood depth treatments (1, 3, 5, and 10 cm) and threeallowed to initial
drain groundwater
to the bottomlevel
of the soil cylinder
treatments
for two days
(200, 250,and
and was pumped
300 cm) out with aThe
were performed. vacuum pump.content was measured by a neutron probe
soil moisture
Five flood depth
(CNC503DR, treatments
Keyuan) (1, 3, 5,(10,
at 14 depths and30,1050,cm)70,and90,three initial
110, 130, groundwater
150, level
170, 190, 210, 230,treatments
250,
and 270 cm). The soil surface was 0 cm; the soil column bottom was 370 cm.
(200, 250, and 300 cm) were performed. The soil moisture content was measured by a neutron probe
(CNC503DR, Keyuan) at 14 depths (10, 30, 50, 70, 90, 110, 130, 150, 170, 190, 210, 230, 250, and 270 cm).
2.3. Soil Properties
The soil surface was 0 cm; the soil column bottom was 370 cm.
Silt loam soils (0–100 cm), which are the dominant soil type in the region, were collected from
2.3. Soil
the Properties
upper reaches of Tarim River (Figure 1) and tested in the experiments. All soils samples were
mixed and dried before placing into the lysimeters. The silt loam soil consisted of 41.53% sand and
Silt loam soils (0–100 cm), which are the dominant soil type in the region, were collected from
53.62% silt, therefore the experiment represented most soils in the overflowing area of the Tarim
the upper reaches of Tarim River (Figure 1) and tested in the experiments. All soils samples were
River. The soils contained 4.094 g kg−1 soil organic matter, 0.267 g kg−1 total nitrogen, and 0.604 g kg−1
mixed andphosphorus.
total dried before Theplacing intoathe
soils had pHlysimeters.
of 7.54, anThe silt loam
electric soil consisted
conductivity of 0.362ofms 41.53%
cm−1, sand
and and
53.62%
1.053 g kg solute salts. The saturated soil water content was 46%, and the bulk density was 1.54 gRiver.
silt, therefore
−1 the experiment represented most soils in the overflowing area of the Tarim
The soils
cm−1.contained 4.094
The soil water g kg−1 curve
retention soil organic matter, 0.267
was determined g kg−1 totalusing
(six replications) nitrogen, andPressure
a 15 Bar 0.604 g kg −1 total
Plate
Extractor The
phosphorus. (1500F1,
soilsSoil
hadMoisture Equipment
a pH of 7.54, Corp,conductivity
an electric Santa Barbara,ofCA,0.362USA),
ms cm − 1
and the, andresults
1.053areg kg−1
soluteshown
salts. in Figure
The 4. Particle
saturated size distribution
soil water content waswas46%,
determined
and the using a Malvern
bulk density wasMastersizer − 1
1.54 g cm S laser . The soil
diffractometer (Malvern Instrument, Malvern, UK) that measures the volume percent of
water retention curve was determined (six replications) using a 15 Bar Pressure Plate Extractor (1500F1, particles in
100 size classes from 0.02 to 2000 μm.
Soil Moisture Equipment Corp, Santa Barbara, CA, USA), and the results are shown in Figure 4.
Particle size distribution was determined using a Malvern Mastersizer S laser diffractometer (Malvern
Instrument, Malvern, UK) that measures the volume percent of particles in 100 size classes from 0.02
to 2000 µm.
Water 2017, 9, 523 6 of 15
Water 2017, 9, 523 6 of 15

Soilwater
Figure4.4.Soil
Figure waterretention
retentioncurve
curveand
andparticle
particlesize
sizedistribution
distributionof
ofthe
thesoil
soilused
usedin
inthe
theexperiment.
experiment.

2.4.Numerical
2.4. NumericalSimulation
Simulation
Soilwater
Soil watermovement
movementin inthe
theexperimental
experimentalfield
fieldwas
wassimulated
simulatedusing
usingthe
theRichards
Richardsmodel,
model,which
which
numericallysolves
numerically solvesthe
thegoverning
governingflow
flow equation:
equation:

θ ∂   ∂h
∂θ h  
  

=
 K
K +  11  (1)(1)
∂tt ∂z
z   ∂z
z 
where θθ is the volumetric soil water content (cm33 cm
where cm−3−);3 );hhisisthe
thepressure
pressurehead
head(cm);
(cm);and k(θ)isisthe
andk(θ) the
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function (cm day −1 ). The left-hand side of the Richards equation
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function (cm −1 ). The left-hand side of the Richards equation
wasexpressed
was expressedininterms
termsof
ofmoisture
moisturecontent,
content,rather
ratherthan thanin in terms
terms ofof the
the hydraulic
hydraulic head.
head. For
Forthis,
this,we
we
referredto
referred tothe
the Hydrus-1D
Hydrus-1D model
model [52].
[52].
Soil hydraulic
Soil hydraulic properties
propertieswere
weredescribed
describedusingusing
the van theGenuchten–Mualem
van Genuchten–Mualemanalyticalanalytical
functions
in Reference
functions [53]:
in Reference [53]:
θr + θs −θnr m ; h < 0;
(
θ(h) =  [θ
1+|αh| ]
s  θr
(2)
 θ rθs ; h ≥ 0 m
; h  0;
h1  
αh 
n
θ h     m i2
K (θ) = Ks Se0.5 1 − 1 − Se1/m (2)(3)
θ s ; h  0
( θ − θr )
Se = , m = 1 − 1/n, n > 1 (4)
( θ s − θr )
2
S e0.5−31);θr 1isthe  water content (cm3 cm−3 ); K
m
K  θ  (cm
where θs is the saturated water content  K3s cm
− 1 
 
S e1/residual
m
 s is
(3)
the saturated hydraulic conductivity (cm day ); and α and n are the shape parameters.

S 
 θ  θ r  ,field
The soil water dynamics in the experimental
m 
were evaluated as a one-dimensional movement.
1 / n, n3.2 m
 1was 1 in height), which was discretized
The depth of the simulation profile ewas 3.2 m (soil column (4)
into a grid of 0.01 m.
 θs  θr 
where θs is condition
(1) Initial the saturated water content (cm3 cm−3); θr is the residual water content (cm3 cm−3); Ks is
the saturated hydraulic conductivity (cm day−1); and α and n are the shape parameters.
The change
The of the
soil water soil moisture
dynamics content
in the with depth
experimental under
field the evaluated
were initial condition was defined as:
as a one-dimensional
movement. The depth of the simulation profile was 3.2 m (soil column was 3.2 m in height), which
θ(z, 0) = θ0 (z) (5)
was discretized into a grid of 0.01 m.
where
(1) θ0 (zcondition
Initial ) is the initial measured soil water content.
(2) The
Upper boundary
change of the conditions
soil moisture content with depth under the initial condition was defined as:
The atmospheric boundary conditionθwas
z,0assigned   
 θ zat the upper boundary [52]:
0 (5)
∂θ ∂q
where θ ( ) is the initial measured soil water content.
=− (6)
∂t ∂x
(2) Upper boundary conditions
where q is the surface water flux at the time of flooding.
The atmospheric boundary condition was assigned at the upper boundary [52]:
Water 2017, 9, 523 7 of 15

To simulate the level and flux of ponding water at the top of the lysimeter, the upper boundary
was as follows:

 h(0, t) = zxjl (i ), 0 < zxjl (i )

zxjl (i ) = zxjl (i − 1) − ( RS(i ) + E0 ) × dt(i ), zxjl (i ) < ZXNL (7)
 zxjl (i ) = ZXNL, ZXNL ≤ zxjl (i )


where zxjl (i ) and zxjl (i − 1) are the depths of ponding at i and (i − 1) (cm); ZXNL is the retention
capacity (mm); RS(i ) is the infiltration intensity (cm min−1 ); E0 is the water surface evaporation
intensity (mm) observed by evaporation pan (E601); and dt(i ) is the time step (min). Ponding may
occur as ZXNL exceeded zxjl (i ), which might be caused by the retention from runoff under excess
infiltration capacity. The infiltration process is considered as pressured infiltration when there is
surface water in the soils, and the hydraulic head equal to the ponding water depth [54], otherwise
ponding produces surface runoff when the ponding water depth reaches the maximum value, which
is equal to the retention capacity.
(3) Bottom boundary conditions
The bottom boundary condition at z = Z0 was defined as:

∂h
= 1, z = Z0 (8)
∂z

(4) Evapotranspiration model and parameters

If no ponding water occurs on the soil surface, the solution methods were referred to those used
for the Hydrus-1D model [52], where the evaporation intensity E(t) [55] was calculated by Equation (9):
(
E(h0 ) = − E0 exp(2 × 10−4 (h0 − he )), h0 < he
(9)
E(h0 ) = − E0 , h0 > he

where h0 is the negative pressure at 10 cm below the soil surface (mm H2 O); he is the critical negative
pressure equivalent to the negative pressure of the field capacity (with the negative pressure of the soils
in this experiment being −2580 mm H2 O at field capacity); E p is the potential evaporation intensity;
and E0 is the water surface evaporation intensity (mm). The model parameters are shown in Table 1.
Parameters Ks and θs were measured, while parameters θr , α, and n were estimated by the soil water
retention curve. The length interval of the simulated domain was 1 cm, and a variable time interval
that was automatically adjusted in terms of the convergence of iterative process was used (0.001 d–1 d).
The code was edited by Matlab 7.0 (Portola Valley, CA, USA) for Windows.

Table 1. Soil hydraulic parameters of the van Genuchten–Mualem model in the experiment.

Residual Soil Saturated Soil Saturated Hydraulic

Parameter Exponent
Water Content Water Content Conductivity
θr (-) θs (-) α (cm−1 ) n Ks (cm·day−1 )
0.16 0.48 0.0026 1.64 61.68

(5) Limiting assumption and uncertainty

In operation, the model assumed that: (1) the soil properties were homogeneous; (2) soil was
bare without a vegetation cover, and the plant root was sparse; (3) the study area was far away from
the river so the increase in the groundwater table due to lateral water flow was neglected; (4) the soil
water movement was assumed to occur in honogeneous media so the impact of soil macropore flow
 Water 2017, 9, 523 8 of 15

In operation, the model assumed that: (1) the soil properties were homogeneous; (2) soil was
bare9, without
Water 2017, 523 a vegetation cover, and the plant root was sparse; (3) the study area was far away 8 of 15
from the river so the increase in the groundwater table due to lateral water flow was neglected; (4)
the soil water movement was assumed to occur in honogeneous media so the impact of soil
macroporeand
was neglected; flow(5)was
the neglected; andponding
influence of (5) the water
influence
on of
soilponding water
structure andon soil structure
porosity and
was neglected,
porositytowas
and changes theneglected,
parametersandof
changes
the VGtomodel
the parameters of the
by ponding VG model
water by ponding
pressure water
were not pressure
considered.
were not considered.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
The experimental results showed that the flood water depth significantly contributed to
The experimental results showed that the flood water depth significantly contributed to
groundwater recharge and that various flood water depths had different effects under different
groundwater recharge and that various flood water depths had different effects under different
initial initial
groundwater
groundwatertables (Figure
tables 5). 5).
(Figure Under
Underflood
floodwater
waterdepths
depths ofof1,1,3,3,55and
and 1010 cm,
cm, thethe groundwater
groundwater
table rose
table rose 15.1, 48.6, 76.9 and 142.5 cm, respectively when the initial groundwater table was at
15.1, 48.6, 76.9 and 142.5 cm, respectively when the initial groundwater table was at 200
200 cm;
the groundwater table rosetable
cm; the groundwater 9.5, rose
36.5,9.5,
69.5 and69.5
36.5, 108.1
andcm, respectively
108.1 whenwhen
cm, respectively the initial water
the initial table
water was at
table
250 cm; wasandat the
250 groundwater table rose 0.0,
cm; and the groundwater 23.7,
table rose64.6
0.0,and
23.7,87.1
64.6cm,
andrespectively, when thewhen
87.1 cm, respectively, initialthe
water
initial
table was at water
300 cm. table
Whenwastheat flood
300 cm.
water When
depththeincreased,
flood water thedepth
heightincreased, the height of
of the groundwater the rise
table
groundwater
increased. table that
It was found rise increased.
there was It was found
a strong that therebetween
relationship was a strong
the floodrelationship between
water depth andtheheight
flood water depth and height of the water table rise, and2 the determination
of the water table rise, and the determination coefficients (R ) was 0.997 when the initial groundwatercoefficients (R 2) was

0.997 when the initial groundwater table was at 200 cm, 0.967 when the initial groundwater table
table was at 200 cm, 0.967 when the initial groundwater table was at 250 cm, and 0.900 when the initial
was at 250 cm, and 0.900 when the initial groundwater table was at 250 cm.
groundwater table was at 250 cm.

160

1cm
140
3cm
5cm
Height of water table rise (cm)

120 10cm

100

80

60

40

20

0
200 250 300

Initial goundwater table(cm)

Figure 5. The height of the groundwater table rise under different initial depths of groundwater table
Figure 5. The height of the groundwater table rise under different initial depths of groundwater table
and amount of flood.
and amount of flood.
Similar results were reported by Sorman and Abdulrazzak [24], who suggested that flood
runoff results
Similar volumewereand reported
duration by were the dominant
Sorman factors influencing
and Abdulrazzak [24], whothe cumulative
suggested thatinfiltrated
flood runoff
volume volume and recharge
and duration were ofthe
shallow groundwater
dominant factorstables. Morin et
influencing theal.cumulative
[1] showed the importance
infiltrated of the and
volume
role of large and medium floods in aquifer recharge; the relative contribution of high-magnitude
recharge of shallow groundwater tables. Morin et al. [1] showed the importance of the role of large and
floods to groundwater recharge also increased, whereas medium and small floods contributed
medium floods in aquifer recharge; the relative contribution of high-magnitude floods to groundwater
relatively less. Lange [56] reported that high-magnitude floods were mostly significant for
recharge also increased,
groundwater rechargewhereas
under the medium
Kuiseb and
River.small floods contributed
The above-mentioned relatively
research less. Lange
was similar to our [56]
reported that high-magnitude
research results. floods were mostly significant for groundwater recharge under the
Kuiseb River. The above-mentioned research was similar to our research results.
The slope of the relationship between the flood water ponding depth and height of the water
The slope
table rise of
atthe
therelationship betweentables
initial groundwater the flood water
of 200, 250,ponding
and 300depth
cm wereand13.99,
height10.85,
of theand
water
9.65,table
rise atrespectively. These results tables
the initial groundwater indicated that 250,
of 200, the height
and 300 of cm
the were
water 13.99,
table rise wasand
10.85, closely
9.65,related to
respectively.
These flood
resultswater depth;that
indicated if thethe
initial
heightwater table
of the was deeper,
water thewas
table rise variation
closely inrelated
the depth of the water
to flood water table
depth; if
the initial water table was deeper, the variation in the depth of the water table rise was smaller. Sorman
and Abdulrazzak [24] also reported that the relationship between the ground water recharge and flood
inflow volume could be represented by linear regression equations, with the correlation coefficients of
0.76, but the slope was 0.302, which was still lower than the slope related to flood recharge infiltration
in our research. Note that Sorman and Abdulrazzak [24] experiments were conducted under conditions
of possible surface water runoff, while our experiments were conducted in lysimeters with ponding
water, with no occurrence of outflow.
 ground water recharge and flood inflow volume could be represented by linear regression
equations, with the correlation coefficients of 0.76, but the slope was 0.302, which was still lower
than the slope related to flood recharge infiltration in our research. Note that Sorman and
Abdulrazzak [24] experiments were conducted under conditions of possible surface water runoff,
while
Water our
2017, 9, 523experiments were conducted in lysimeters with ponding water, with no occurrence9 of of15
outflow.
A recharge process following a flood event is usually comprised of three processes stages: the
A recharge
rising processprocess following a flood
of the groundwater event
table; the is usually
peak comprised
part of the of three
groundwater processes
table; and the stages:
declining the
rising process of the groundwater table; the peak part of the groundwater table; and
part or recession process [57]. Figure 6 clearly displays the temporal changes process of the water the declining part
or recession
table; theprocess [57]. Figure
groundwater 6 clearly
table rises displays
rapidly the temporal
after flooding, changes
reaching processvalues
maximum of theafter
water table; the
4.0–10.5 h
groundwater table rises rapidly after flooding, reaching maximum values after 4.0–10.5
with a mean value of 6.16 h (SE of 0.82 h) for all tests, indicating that the groundwater responded h with a mean
value of 6.16
quickly tohfloods
(SE ofin
0.82 h) for
these all tests, indicating
experiments, which were thatconsistent
the groundwater responded
with results from Doblequickly to floods
et al. [26].
in these
Dobleexperiments, which
et al. [26] also werethat
reported consistent
overbankwith results
flood fromwas
recharge Doble et al. from
distinct [26]. hydrostatic
Doble et al.loading
[26] also
reported that overbank
(the pressure at any flood
depthrecharge was distinctpressures),
due to hydrostatic from hydrostatic
which isloading (the pressure
characterized at any
by a rapid depth
rise in
groundwater. Dahan et al. [5] observed that a flood caused the water level to
due to hydrostatic pressures), which is characterized by a rapid rise in groundwater. Dahan et al. [5] rise after 5.5 h and
reachedthat
observed peak water caused
a flood level in the
the hyper-arid
water levelarea of the
to rise Arava
after 5.5 Valley, which is peak
h and reached also inwater
agreement
level with
in the
our research.
hyper-arid area of the Arava Valley, which is also in agreement with our research.

0 0
Water table at 200 cm Water table at 250 cm
1 cm
1 cm 3 cm
3 cm 5 cm

Groundwater table (cm)

5 cm 10 cm
Groundwater table (cm)

100 100
10 cm

200
200

300
300

0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

Days after flooding (d) Days after flooding (d)

0
Water table at 300 cm
1 cm
3 cm
5 cm
10 cm
Groundwater table (cm)

100

200

300

0 1 2 3 4 5

Days after flooding (d)

Figure 6. The response of the groundwater table to flood depth over time.
Figure 6. The response of the groundwater table to flood depth over time.

As soon as the flood ceased, the infiltration process stopped, the vadose zone was partially
As soonand
drained, as the
thegroundwater
flood ceased,level the started
infiltration processtoward
to decrease stopped, thewater
a new vadose zone
level thatwas
waspartially
higher
drained, and the groundwater level started to decrease toward a new water level that
than the initial one [58]. When the groundwater table reached a maximum value after a flood waterwas higher than
the recharge,
initial onethe
[58].water
Whentable
the groundwater table reached a maximum value after a flood water
started falling due to evaporation, and the water falling velocity was recharge,
the significantly
water table started
smaller falling
than the duewater
to evaporation,
table rise and the water
velocity. falling
In our velocity even
experiment, was significantly
when the
smaller than the water
groundwater tableatrise
table was velocity.
a depth In m
of 3.2 our(the
experiment, even when the
highest groundwater groundwater
table), evaporationtable
waswas
stillat
a depth of 3.2 m (the highest groundwater table), evaporation was still present. This was the reason
why the evaporation rate was much lower than the ponding water infiltration rate. The soil used in
our experiment was a sandy loam with a high infiltration rate (saturated hydraulic conductivity was
61.68 cm d−1 ); however, the measured water surface evaporation rate ranged from 3.1 to 15.7 mm d−1 ,
with a mean value of 6.3 mm d−1 during the experiment. Xu et al. [59] also reported that groundwater
rise velocity was larger than the water falling velocity after flooding in the lower reaches of the
Tarim River, and the water rise velocity was slower for deeper water levels, which was similar to our
research results.
Water 2017, 9, 523 10 of 15

If the initial groundwater table was deeper, the range of change in the groundwater table
was smaller (Figure 5), which indicated that the flood ponding water had less impact on deeper
groundwater tables. Wu et al. [57] discovered that when the groundwater table was shallow, flood
water percolated into the groundwater relatively quickly, which was consistent with our results.
For example, in our experiment, the elapsed time of the water table reaching peak water level was
3.6 h at an initial groundwater table depth of 200 cm; however, it was 10.1 h at an initial groundwater
table depth of 300 cm.
When the groundwater table was very deep, the variations in the recharge rate became
imperceptible [57]. Our results partly supported this conclusion; however, we observed that a relatively
small amount of flood water still slightly recharged a deep groundwater table. For example, the deepest
groundwater table was 3.0 m in our research, and if the flood water depth was 1 cm, a rise in the
groundwater table was not observed; however, if the flood ponding water was 10 cm, a rise in height
of 87.07 cm was measured. Though groundwater tables deeper than 3.0 m were not examined in our
experiment, Xu et al. [59] reported that the groundwater table increased from 9.87 to 3.16 m after a
flood in the Tarim River.
If the initial groundwater table was deeper and the water table drop was slower, it may have
been due to less evaporation of the deeper water table. Warrick [60], Gardner and Fireman [61]
and Thorburn et al. [62] found that the relationship between the depth of the groundwater table
and the amount of evaporation from soils was an inverse power relationship, indicating that deeper
groundwater tables had smaller water consumptions due to evaporation. This provided a good
explanation as to why the deeper water tables had slower falling velocities. The water table fall was
more rapid at the initial stage and then dropped slowly (Figure 5). This was explained by the fact that
the water table was initially higher due to flood water recharge; in turn, the higher groundwater table
experienced more evaporation, which contributed to the rapid falling; as a result, the groundwater
table dropped to a deeper level, evaporation was reduced, and the groundwater falling velocity
was slowed.
Dahan et al. [58] reported that the rising rates of the groundwater level were 1.38 and 1.4 cm h−1
for two floods in the Kuiseb River. Our results showed higher rising rates, which may be due to the fact
that our experiments were conducted in lysimeters containing homogeneous soil and water movement
was a one-dimensional process with homogeneous soil. Dahan et al. [58] conducted their experiments
under larger-scale field conditions, which were likely affected by lateral flow within a layered profile
of alluvial deposits with possible preferential flow.
Numerical simulations based on a system of Equations (1)–(9) showed good agreement between
the simulated and measured groundwater levels with an R2 and an RMSE of 0.87 and 63.91 cm,
respectively, which suggested a high consistency between the simulated and experimentally observed
processes (Figure 7).
Similar to our results, Rennolls et al. [63,64] and Barnes et al. [65] employed regression models to
estimate the infiltration recharge of groundwater at relatively shallow water tables. The rise in the
height of the groundwater table—as affected by flood water depths under six initial groundwater
tables—and four initial soil water contents were simulated, and the results are shown in Figure 8.
By considering the influence of various hydrological characteristics, regression equations have been
suggested to estimate the groundwater recharge [24]. Therefore, a regression equation between the
initial groundwater table, initial soil water content, flood water depth and water table rise was fitted
using the results of the numerical model:

H = −10.639H0 + 23.552w0 + 23.989h − 90.439, ( H > 0) (10)

where H is the groundwater height rise; H0 is the initial groundwater depth (cm); w0 is the initial soil
water content (cm); and h is the flood water depth (cm).
Water 2017, 9, 523 11 of 15
Water 2017, 9, 523 11 of 15

Figure 7. Observed vs. simulated ground water table and 1:1 line.

Similar to our results, Rennolls et al. [63,64] and Barnes et al. [65] employed regression models
to estimate the infiltration recharge of groundwater at relatively shallow water tables. The rise in the
height of the groundwater table—as affected by flood water depths under six initial groundwater
tables—and four initial soil water contents were simulated, and the results are shown in Figure 8. By
considering the influence of various hydrological characteristics, regression equations have been
suggested to estimate the groundwater recharge [24]. Therefore, a regression equation between the
initial groundwater table, initial soil water content, flood water depth and water table rise was fitted
using the results of the numerical model:
= −10.639 + 23.552 + 23.989ℎ − 90.439, ( > 0) (10)
where is the groundwater height rise; is the initial groundwater depth (cm); is the initial
Figure
soil water content (cm); and7. ℎObserved
Figure vs. vs.
7. Observed
is the flood simulated ground
simulated
water ground
depth water
watertable
(cm). and 1:1
table and 1:1line.
line.

Similar to our results, Rennolls et al. [63,64] and Barnes et al. [65] employed regression models
Initial groundwater depth at 200cm Initial ground water depth at 250cm
to estimate the infiltration recharge of groundwater at relatively shallow water tables. The rise in the
height of the groundwater table—as affected by flood water depths under six initial groundwater
tables—and four initial soil water contents were simulated, and the results are shown in Figure 8. By
)

)
e rise hei ght (cm

e rise height (cm

considering 0the influence of various hydrological characteristics,

0 regression equations have been
suggested to50 estimate the groundwater recharge [24]. Therefore, a regression equation between the
100
initial groundwater
100 table, initial soil water content, flood water depth and water table rise was fitted
Groundwater tabl
Groundwater tabl

using the results

150 of the numerical model:

m)
200
m)

94 116

(c
t (c

93 115

nt
200
= −10.639 +9123.552
92
+ 23.989ℎ − 90.439, ( > 0) 114
ten

(10)

nte
113
on

co
90 112
rc

300

er
250
te

89 111

at
12
wa

10 10 lw
where is the groundwater
8 height rise; is the initial Fgroundwater
8 depth (cm); 88 110 i
is the initial
oil

so
6 6 87 109
ls

Flood 4 lood p 4
al

pondin
ℎ ondin 108
ti a

2 2
tti

86
soil water content (cm); g and is the flood water depth (cm). g heig 0
Ini

heigh 0
Ini

ts (c hts (c
m m) )

Initial ground water depth at 300 cm Initial

Initial groundwater depth at 200cm Initialground
groundwater
waterdepth
depthatat400 cm
250cm
ht (cm)

) )
ht (cm

0
)
e rise height (cm

ht (cm

0
0
e rise heig

0
heig
heig

100
e rise

100 50
r tablrise
Groundwater tabl

100
200
r table

100
Groundwater tabl

wate

200
(cm

138 300
m) )

137 180
(c cm
wate

150
nt

136 200
m)

nt nt (
undund

94 178116
nte

135 400
t (c

93 115
nte te
co

176
Gro

co con

200 134 92 114

ten

300
er

174
Gro

133 91 113
on
at

500
er r

14
at ate

12
lw

132 90 172112
rc

250 10 300 25
lw w
i

8 20
so

te

6 131 89 111
oi i l

12 15
wa

10 170
l s l so

4
al

8 130 88 10 10 110
2 Flood
tti

8 5
oil

Flood 6 0
tti a ti a

Flood ponding he
Ini

87 6 0 168109
pond
ls

Flood 4
Ini Init

pondin ing height 2 pond ig 4

ing he hts (cm)2 108
ti a

86
Water 2017, 9, 523 g heig s (cm 0 0 12 of 15
Ini

hts (c ) ights
m) (cm)

Initial ground water depth at 300 cm Initial

Initialground waterdepth
ground water depthatat 500
400 cmcm
Initial ground water depth at 450 cm
ht (cm)

(cm)

0
0
table rise height
rise heig
)
e rise height (cm

)
e rise height (cm

0 0 100
100
Groundwater table

100 200
100
Groundwater
)

200
(cm

138 200 300

m)

137 180
200
t (c
t
Groundwater tabl

ten

136 178
Groundwater tabl

400
ten

135
on

300 176
on
rc

300 134
300
rc
te

133 174
)

14 500
wa

te

12 132 198 400

)

172
wa

(cm
(c

10 25 218
co soil

8 131 196 20
6
il
nt

400 15 170
so

4 216
nt
l

194 10
tti a

nte

2 130 500 Flood

nte

5
al

Flood 0 pond
Ini

192 0 168
tti

pond ing he 214

co

ing he
Ini

500 ig hts (c
er

ights 190 600 m)

er

(cm 212
at

30 188 )
at

30
lw

25
il w

20 25
20
i

15 210
so

186
so

Flood 10 15
5 Flood 10
al

pond
al

0 184 pond 5
ing he
tti

0 208
tti

ing he
Ini

ig
Ini

hts (c ig hts (c
m) m)

Figure 8. Numerical
Figure 8. Numerical simulation
simulation results
results of
of the
the groundwater
groundwater table
table rise
rise height
height as
as affected
affected by flood
by flood
ponding heights under different initial groundwater table depth and soil water content.
ponding heights under different initial groundwater table depth and soil water content.

The R2 and RMSE values were 0.789 and 80.80 cm, respectively. Sorman and Abdulrazzak [24]
reported that larger contributions may occur as a result of high initial soil moisture content
accumulated from sequences of flood events and a shallow groundwater table. Our regression
equation showed that was positively correlated to ℎ and , but was negatively correlated to
; therefore, our results fully agreed with this conclusion.
Water 2017, 9, 523 12 of 15

The R2 and RMSE values were 0.789 and 80.80 cm, respectively. Sorman and Abdulrazzak [24]
reported that larger contributions may occur as a result of high initial soil moisture content accumulated
from sequences of flood events and a shallow groundwater table. Our regression equation showed
that H was positively correlated to h and w0 , but was negatively correlated to H0 ; therefore, our results
fully agreed with this conclusion.
The frequency of overbank flooding also determines the significance of this recharge to the water
balance [26]. When planning schemes of groundwater recharge, it is especially important to know
the maximum volume of water that can recharge the groundwater in a given period of time [7]. This
is of great concern in planned or regulated flooding (e.g., ecological gates) for determining the time
of artificial watering and the amount of artificial flooding in the Tarim River. Therefore, the artificial
watering time interval was also considered in our study. The relationship between the flood time
interval, initial groundwater table, initial soil water content, flood water amount and depth of the
water table rise was fitted using numerical model results:

H = −0.168H0 + 2.532w0 + 1.415h − 0.990dt − 14.131, ( H > 0) (11)

where dt is the time interval (day). The R2 and RMSE values were 0.892 and 115.964 cm, respectively.
Our results were obtained on a silt loam with a high infiltration rate; Li et al. [35] reported that
the infiltration rate was high in the entire floodplain of the Tarim River. Glenn et al. [66] found soils
that contained 49.23% sand and 14.23% clay in a US riparian zone; Ghazavi et al. [25] observed soils
composed of 62.05% sand and 8.17% clay in a floodplain in Iran; and Dahan et al. [58] reported soils
consisting of 90.82% sand and 1.80% clay at a depth of 0–6 m in Israel. In general, soils with low clay
and high sand proportions showed high infiltration rates [67]. All these reports suggested that soils
with high infiltration rates were common in hyper-arid river floodplains. Our model demonstrated a
good performance for sandy loam in the Tarim River; however, as this model was applied to other soil
types and regions, it required local input parameters (θs , θr , Ks , α, n) of the VG model. If soil texture
was different across the various layers, those parameters were measured in the different layers, and all
input parameters were associated with given soil layers. A fixed space interval was recommended
(e.g., 1–3 cm). In contrast, a variable time interval that could be automatically adjusted in terms of the
convergence of the iterative process was suggested. Therefore, our research results could serve as a
reference for other floodplains in hyper-arid regions across the world.

4. Conclusions
We studied flood water infiltration and groundwater recharge using lysimeters and numerical
models in the floodplains of the Tarim River, China. The different flood water depths resulted in different
heights of the groundwater table rise under different initial groundwaters. It was found that there was
a strong relationship between the flood water ponding depth and the height of the water table rise.
The groundwater responded quickly to flood water, and its falling velocity was significantly less
than its water rise velocity. If the initial groundwater table was deeper, the range of change in the
groundwater table was smaller.

Acknowledgments: This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
No. 41571035) and the Youth Innovation Promotion Association CAS (2017477).
Author Contributions: “Xinhu Li and Gary Feng conceived and designed the experiments; Xinhu Li performed
the experiments; Xiaoyu Pi and Congbao Xie analyzed the data; Xinhu Li contributed materials; Guohua Zhang
wrote the paper.” Authorship must be limited to those who have contributed substantially to the work reported.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Water 2017, 9, 523 13 of 15

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