SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 2

Single particle motion I

1. From rLs = v?s /!cs and !cs = eB/ms , where s = {e, i} denotes electrons
and protons, respectively,
rLi v?i mi
= .
rLe v?e me
p
Furthermore, the condition on the kinetic energy corresponds to mi v?i =
p
me v?e . Hence,
r
rLi mi p
= ' 1837 ' 43 .
rLe me

2. (a) The particle is initially accelerated by the electric field on the positive
y-direction. Its orbit is turned by the magnetic field, so that the resulting
motion is a combination of cyclotron motion with an E ~ ⇥B ~ drift in the
positive x-direction. The E ~ ⇥B ~ drift is the outcome of the increase
of the Larmor radius with v? (the velocity in the plane perpendicular
~ in this case v? is the velocity in the x y plane), which takes
to B;
place while vy > 0. From energy conservation it is clear that when the
particle returns to y=0 it has zero velocity. Moreover, since ~v (t=0)=0,
vk = vz is always zero, as there are no forces in the z-direction. The
orbit is schematically sketched in figure 2.1.
(b) In cartesian coordinates, with B ~ = B0 ~uz and E ~ = E0 ~uy , the compo-
nents of the Lorentz force F~ = q(E ~ + ~v ⇥ B)
~ are
8
< max = qvy B0
may = qvx B0 + qE0 .
:
maz = 0

The last equation implies vz = cte. Using the initial condition vz (t=0)=0,
it comes vz (t) = 0.
64 Solutions to chapter 2. Single particle motion I

y
Larger rL

vy=0

Smaller rL
x

t=0; vy=0

vd

Figure 2.1: problem 2

The two first equations can be written as

⇢ q
v̇x = m v y B0
q . (2.1)
v̇y = m vx B0 + qE0

Di↵erentiating the first equation and replacing v̇y ,

⇣ q ⌘2
v̈x = !c2 vx + E0 B 0 ,
m
qB
where !c = m , which is the equation of a driven harmonic oscillator.
Defining
⇣ q ⌘2
⇣ = !c2 vx E0 B 0 , (2.2)
m
so that
⇣¨ = !c2 v̈x ,
and replacing in the equation of the driven harmonic oscillator,

!c 2 ⇣¨ = ⇣
| {z }
v̈x

⇣¨ = !c2 ⇣ .
 65

This is the equation of a simple harmonic oscillator, with solution

⇣(t) = ⇣0 cos(!c t + ') ,
where the amplitude ⇣0 and the initial phase ' have to be determined
from the initial conditions.
From (2.2) the expression for vx (t) is
1 E0
vx (t) = ⇣0 cos(!c t + ') + ,
!c2 B0
while from (2.1)
m 1
vy (t) = v̇x (t) = ⇣0 sin(!c t + ') .
qB0 !c2
Determination of ⇣0 and ':
vy (t = 0) = 0 ) ' = 0
⇣0 E0
vx (t = 0) = 0 ) 2 + =0
!c B0
⇣ q ⌘2
⇣0 = E0 B 0 .
m
The particle velocity is thus given by
E0
vx (t) = [1 cos(!c t)]
B0
E0
vy (t) = sin(!c t) .
B0
Finally, the orbit is obtained as
ˆ t
x(t) = vx (⌧ ) d⌧
0
 ⌧ =t
E0 1
= ⌧ sin(!c ⌧ )
B0 !c ⌧ =0

E0 1
= t sin(!c t) ;
B0 !c
ˆ t
y(t) = vy (⌧ ) d⌧
0
E0 ⌧ =t
= [cos(!c ⌧ )]⌧ =0
B0 !c
E0
= [1 cos(!c t)] ,
B0 !c
where the initial conditions x(t = 0) = y(t = 0) = 0 were used.
(c) From the previous item,
~v = vx ~ux + vy ~uy
E0 E0 E0
= cos(!c t) ~ux + sin(!c t) ~uy + ~ux
B0 B0 B0
⌘ ~vc + ~vd ,
66 Solutions to chapter 2. Single particle motion I

where
E0 E0
~vc = cos(!c t) ~ux + sin(!c t) ~uy
B0 B0

corresponds to an oscillatory motion (cyclotron motion) and

E0
~vd = ~ux
B0

~ ⇥B
to a constant drift (E ~ drift).
Taking the time average over several gyroperiods, h~v i = ~vd = cte.,
since the time average of the sinusoidal functions is zero (hcos(· · · )i =
hsin(· · · )i = 0). Therefore, h~ai = 0 and there is no average acceleration.
The average force q~vd ⇥ B ~ cancels the electric force q E.
~

(d) The drift velocity ~vd is independent of the charge and the mass. Hence,
all the particles drift with the same velocity and there is no net current
in a neutral plasma. The particle’s trajectory for q < 0 is depicted in
figure 2.2

vd

Figure 2.2: trajectory for q < 0 (problem 2).

(e) In this case the drift velocity could be obtained simply by replacing
E = F/q in the previous result for ~vd , and would be

F mg
~vd = ~ux = ~ux ,
qB qB

which does depend on the charge. Accordingly, the drift velocity would
be di↵erent for particles of di↵erent mass and would have opposite direc-
tions for particles of di↵erent charge, resulting in a net electrical current.

3. The electrostatic field created by the electron beam is readily obtained from
Gauss’ law. Considering a cylinder of radius r > R and length l, as shown in
 67

figure 2.3,

~ · ~n dS = Qint
‹
E
✏0
ene ⇡R2 l
E(r)2⇡rl =
✏0
2
~ en eR
E(r) = ~ur
2r✏0
~ = R) = ene R ~ur
E(r
2✏0

R
Bz uθ v

Figure 2.3: problem 3.

~ ⇥B
The E ~ drift velocity is

~ ⇥B
E ~ E(R)B0 ene R
~vd = = ~u✓ = ~u✓ .
B2 B02 2✏0 B0

Substituting values, vd ' 4.5 ⇥ 103 m/s.

⇣ ⌘
4. (a) Since ne (r) = n0 exp kBe Te and @n @r '
e ne
,
✓ ◆
@ne n0 e @ e
= exp
@r kB Te @r kTe
✓ ◆
ne n0 e
' = exp ;
kTe
e @ 1
=
kB Te @r
@ k B Te
= .
@r e
Hence,
~ = ~ = @ k B Te
E r ~ur = ~ur .
@r e
68 Solutions to chapter 2. Single particle motion I

(b) Assuming the electrons have a Maxwellian velocity distribution, their

average kinetic energy is
1 3
K= mhv 2 i = kB Te ,
2 2
1
where each component of the velocity contributes with 2 k B Te to K
2
(equipartition theorem). Since v? = vx2 + vy2 ,

2 2kB Te
hv? i= ⌘ vt2 .
m
Hence, the average Larmor radius is
mhv? i mvt
hrL i = = ,
eB eB
or, equivalently,
eBhrL i
vt = .
m
On the other hand,
E k B Te
vE = =
B e B
2kB Te m m
= = vt2
m 2e B 2e B
hrL ieB m vt
= vt = hrL i .
m
| {z } 2e B 2
vt

The last expression can be re-written as

vE
hrL i = 2 .
vt
When vE = vt the Larmor radius is hrL i = 2 .

Notice that when the magnetic field is strong enough to impose vE ⌧ vt ,

the Larmor radius is much smaller than the characteristic distance for
the variation of the electron density ne , rL ⌧ . In this case, within
a gyroperiod the electron sees a nearly homogeneous plasma and one
need not bother with the fast Larmor motion, which can be averaged
out to leave the slower guiding center drift. This procedure corresponds
to the study of phenomena that occur on time scales ⌧ = 1/! such
that ! ⌧ !ce (⌧ ~ ⇥B
⌧ce ). The former picture is modified as the E ~
drift increases, since the Larmor radius becomes comparable with the
typical length and the perturbation approach may become questionable
(in particular the very use of the orbit theory in constant electric and
magentic fields, as the sources of the fields are changing significantly
within a Larmor orbit).
5. (a) At the equatorial plane the magnetic field points along the z-direction
(see figure 2.4) and, as it falls as 1/r3 ,
✓ ◆3
B~ = B(r)~uz = B0 RT ~uz ,
r
 69

5
with B0 = 3 ⇥ 10 T and where RT ' 6370 km is the radius of the
Earth.

uz

Earth N B

uθ

Figure 2.4: problem 5.

Since the gradient drift is given by

2 ~ ~
1 mv? B ⇥ rB
~vd = 2
,
q 2B B
it is enough to calculate the gradient in the direction perpendicular to
the magnetic field,

~ ?= @B B0 3 3
(rB) ~ur = 3 R ~ur = B(r)~ur .
@r r4 T r
~ ⇥ rB/B
Accordingly, |B ~ 2
| = 3/r and
2
1 mv? 3
vd = .
|q| 2B r

For an isotropic velocity distribution, hv 2 i = 32 hv?

2
i (see exercise 4) and
so the kinetic energy is K = 34 mhv? 2
i or, alternatively,
r
4K
v? = .
3m
Substituting values, and noting that K/e is the kinetic energy in eV and
B(r = 5RT ) = B0 /25,

K 2 K 50
vd = = ,
e B(r = 5RT )5RT e B 0 RT
1
it comes, vde ' 7.85 ⇥ 103 m/s for the electrons and vdi = ved 30⇥10 3 '

2.61 ⇥ 10 1 m/s for the positive ions.

(b) The gradient rB~ points in the direction ~ur , so that B ~ ⇥ rB
~ points
in the direction ~u✓ (see figure 2.4). Taking into account the charge of
the particles in the expression for ~vd , the electrons drift eastwards (i.e.,
along ~u✓ ) while the positive ions drift westwards (along ~u✓ ).
70 Solutions to chapter 2. Single particle motion I

(c) At the distance r = 5RT an electron has to cover a distance 2⇡(5RT ).

The time it takes to orbit the Earth is therefore T = 10⇡R
vd
T
' 7 h.
8
(d) J = ne(vdi vde ) ' nevde = 1.25 ⇥ 10 A/m2 .
6. (a) If there would be no electric field, the electrons would simply describe
cyclotron motion (uniform circular motion around the magnetic field
~ ⇥B
lines). Since there is an electric field, to this motion a E ~ drift is
added. The resulting motion is depicted in figure 2.5.

ExB drift

Cyclotron motion
L

B
E
Re E B

2Ri Ri

Re
E
B Re

Cyclotron motion
ExB drift
ExB drift

Figure 2.5: simplified electron trajectory in the thruster (problem 6).

(b) The electron and ion Larmor radii are given by, respectively,
v?e me 5
RLe = ' 1.14 ⇥ 10 m
eB
v?i mi 2
RLi = ' 2.72 ⇥ 10 m
eB

Since rLe ⌧ L, the electrons are magnetized (i.e.,trapped in the mag-

netic field lines). For the positive ions, on the contrary, 2rLi . L, so
that a part of the positive ions can espace the confinement, by moving
to regions where the magnetic field vanishes (see figure 2.6). These ions
are ejected and communicate an acceleration to the thruster. In this
rough estimation the thruster operation does not seem very efficient,
since 2rLi /L ' 0.2. Notice, however, that the ion acceleration by the
electric field was not taken into account. Moreover, there is another
design for the thrusters, the thruster with anode layer (TAL), with a
short acceleration channel, L ⇠ 3 cm, for which the current estimation
gives 2rLi ' L.
 71

B≃0
B≠0
E

2rL

Figure 2.6: ciclotron motion in the thruster (problem 6).

(c) This exercise is very similar to problem 2, so that just an outline is given
here. Taking the x axis along E ~ and defining the y axis along B ~ (cf.
figure 2.6), the Lorentz force equation reads
8 8 eE evz B
< mv̇x = eE + evz B < v̇x = m + m
mv̇y = 0 ! v̇y = 0 .
: : eB
mv̇z = evx B v̈z = m v̇ x

The equation for vy implies vy (t) = cte. Since vy (0) = 0, vy (t) = 0.

2 E
Substituting v̇x in the last equation and defining ⇣ = !ce vz !c2 B , the
¨ 2
simple harmonic oscillator equation ⇣ = !ce ⇣ is recovered. Therefore,
⇣(t) = ⇣0 cos(!ce t + '), where ⇣0 and ' are constants to be determined
from the initial conditions. Moving back to the original variables and
imposing vx (0) = 0 and vz (0) = 0, the solution for the velocities is
E
vx (t) = sin(!ce t)
B
E
vz (t) = [cos(!ce t) 1] .
B
The trajectory is obtained by integration the velocities on time,
E 1
x(t) = cos(!ce t)
B !ce
E 1 E
z(t) = sin(!ce t) + t ,
B !ce B

where we identify a cyclotron motion with radius rLe = B! E

ce
= m eE
eB 2
and a constant velocity drift along zz. Substituting values, rLe = 1.14⇥
10 3 m ⌧ L = 30 cm.
E
(d) Similarly, rLi = B! ci
=m iE 2
eB 2 = 2.7 ⇥ 10 m L.
On the one hand, the results confirm that the electrons are magnetized,
confined the to chamber, because rLe ⌧ L. On the other hand, since
rLi L, the positive ions can be accelerated and leave the chamber,
producing a thrust and pushing system, as the qualitative analysis of
6b somehow anticipated. However, the e↵ect is significantly larger than
72 Solutions to chapter 2. Single particle motion I

~
estimated in that simple analysis, due to the ion acceleration on the E
field.

7. (a) From the force equation, F~ = q E,

~

8 8 dvx qE0
< mẍ = qE0 cos(!t) < dt = m cos(!t)
ÿ = 0 ; vy (t) = vy (t = 0) = 0 .
: :
z̈ = 0 vz (t) = vz (t = 0) = 0

Hence

t
qE0 qE0
ˆ
vx (t) = cos(!⌧ ) d⌧ = sin(!t) ,
0 m m!
ˆ t
qE0 qE0 qE0 qE0
x(t) = xi + sin(!⌧ ) d⌧ = 2 2
cos(!t) + 2
,
0 m! m!
| {z } m! m!
xi
qE0
x(t) = cos(!t) .
m! 2

The charge as an harmonic oscillatory motion around x = 0, with fre-

quency ! and amplitude |q|E 0
m! 2 , as shown in figure 2.7.

qE0/mω2

-qE0/mω2

Figure 2.7: oscillatory trajectory in problem 7a.

(b) ~ is stronger in the positive direction of the x-axis.

i. The electric field E
This means the “restoring force” is stronger on the upper part of
the trajectory than on the lower part and, accordingly, the center of
mass drifts to the regions of smaller electric field. The trajectory is
schematically represented in figure 2.8.
 73

Figure 2.8: qualitative sketch of the trajectory in problem 7b.

A. Following the suggestions, we have, successively,

x = x0 + x1
dE0
E0 (x) ' E0 (x0 ) + x1 (x0 )
 dx
dE0
E(x, t) ' E0 (x0 ) + x1 (x0 ) cos(!t) .
dx

The expansion is valid if

dE0 dE0 E0 (x0 )

x1 (x0 ) ⌧ |E0 (x0 ) ; (x0 ) ⌧ ,
dx dx x1

which means that the amplitude of the high-frequency oscilla-

tory component is much smaller than the characteristic distance
of the variation of the electric field.
The result follows directly from the force equation, mẍ = qE,
which reads

dE0
m(ẍ0 + ẍ1 ) = q E0 (x0 ) + x1 (x0 ) cos(!t) .
dx

B. Since x1 is a quickly oscillating function, ẍ1 ẍ0 and |E0 (x0 )|

x1 dE
dx
0
(x 0 ) , the equation of motion in the previous item re-
duces to
mẍ1 ' qE0 cos(!t) .
This equation was solved in 7a, with solution

qE0
x1 (t) = cos(!t) .
m! 2
74 Solutions to chapter 2. Single particle motion I

C. Taking the temporal average of the equation of motion†on the

short time interval 2⇡/! (which is analogous to taking the tem-
~ ⇥B
poral average along a gyroperiod in the calculation of the E ~
~
or the rB drifts),
⌧
dE
mhẍ0 i + mhẍ1 i = qhE0 cos(!t)i + q x1 cos(!t) .
dx

Furthermore, from the previous step, mhẍ1 i = qhE0 cos(!t)i,

so these two terms cancel in the previous equation, which re-
duces to
⌧
dE dE qE0
mẍ0 ' q hx1 cos(!t)i = q cos2 (!t)
dx dx m! 2
q2 dE 2 q2 dE0
= E 0 hcos (!t)i = E0 ;
m! 2 dx | {z } 2m! 2 dx
1/2
2
q dE0 q2 d
ẍ0 = E0 = E2 ,
2m2 ! 2 dx 4m2 ! 2 dx 0
where the equality dxd
(E02 ) = 2E0 dE
dx was used.
0

Finally, the charge feels a ponderomotive force

q2 d
Fp = mẍ0 = E2 ,
4m! 2 dx 0
which acts in the direction of decreasing E-field, as described
qualitatively in the beginning of the exercise.
 SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 3

Single particle motion II

1. (a) Let the indexes 0 and R denote the mid-plane of the mirrors and the
reflection points, respectively. Since
1 2
2 mv?
µ= ,
B
the conservation of µ reads
1 2 1 2
2 mv?0 2 mv?R
= ,
B0 BR
where the magnetic field takes the minimum value at the center, B0 =
bmin .
The conservation of energy implies
1 1 1
mv 2 + mv 2 = mv?R
2
,
m ?0 m k0 m
where the condition of zero parallel velocity at the reflection point was
used (vkR = 0).
The limit when the proton escapes corresponds to BR = Bmax .
(b) How long does it take to reach that energy? Suggestions: i) suppose that
the B field is approximately uniform in the space between the mirrors
and changes abruptly near the mirrors, i.e., treat each mirror as a flat
piston and show that the velocity gained at each bounce is 2vm ; ii)
compute the number of bounces necessary; iii) assume that the distance
between the mirrors does not change appreciably during the acceleration
process.
2. (F. F. Chen) A plasma with an isotropic distribution of speeds is placed inside
a magnetic mirror with mirror ratio Rm = 4. There are no collisions, so
that the particles in the loss cone escape, while the others remain trapped.
Calculate the fraction of particles that remains trapped.
76 Solutions to chapter 3. Single particle motion II

3. (F. F. Chen) The magnetic field along the axis of a magnetic mirror is B( z) =
B0 (1 + ↵2 z 2 ), where ↵ is a constant. Suppose that at z = 0 an electron has
velocity v 2 = 3vk2 = 32 v?
2
.

(a) Describe qualitatively the electron motion.

(b) Determine the values of z where the electron is reflected.
(c) Write the equation of motion of the guiding center for the direction
~ and show that there is a sinusoidal oscillation. Calcule the
parallel to B
frequency of the motion as a function of v.
4. Consider a particle moving in a time-dependent electric field E~ = Ėt~uy ,
~
where Ė is a constant, and a uniform magnetic field B = B0 ~uz .
~ ⇥B
(a) Calculate the E ~ drift.
(b) Relate the resulting accelerated drift with a force and verify that the
drift due to that force is the polarization drift.
5. (F. F. Chen) A plasma is created in a toroidal chamber with average radius
R = 10 cm and square cross section of size a = 1 cm. The magnetic fiel
is generated by an electrical current I along the symmetry axis. The plasma
is Maxwellian with temperature kT = 100 eV and density n0 = 1019 m 3 .
There is no applied electric field.
~ field, for both positive
(a) Sketch the typical drift orbits in the non-uniform B
ions and electrons with vk = 0.
(b) Calculate the rate of charge accumulation (Coulomb per second) due to
the curvature and gradient drifts on the upper part of the chamber. The
magnetic field in the center of the chamber is 1 T and you can use the
approximation R a if necessary.
~ = E0 exp(i!t) ~ux ,
6. (?) Consider an electron moving in an oscillating electric field, E
perpendicular to a constant and uniform magnetic field, B ~ = B ~uz .

(a) Calculate the drifts existing on the particle motion and describe qualita-
tively the motion.
(b) Try now to confirm the results you have already obtained, starting
directly from the equations of motion. In particular, show that you
can indeed recover the results from a) for low frequencies of the field,
i.e., ! ⌧ !ce [Suggestion: i) search for solutions of the form ~v =
~vk + ~vL + ~vD exp(i!t), where ~vL is the velocity of the cyclotron motion
and ~vD is constant and perpendicular to B; ~ ii) verify you can obtain an
equation for ~vD in the form i!m~vD = eE ~ 0 ev~D ⇥ B; ~ iii) make the
~
cross product with B and eliminate ~vD ⇥ B]. ~