SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS Vol. 45, No.

3, 83-95, June 2005

Japanese Geotechnical Society

CONSOLIDATION BEHAVIOR OF NATURAL SOILS AROUND pc VALUE

― LONG TERM CONSOLIDATION TEST•\

HIROYUKI TANAKAi)

ABSTRACT

It has been reported in many research papers that considerable settlements are observed in the Osaka Pleistocene
clay layers, even though their stress levels are less than their yield consolidation pressure (p a) . To study the consolida-
tion behavior around the pc value, Long Term Consolidation (LTC) and Inter-Connected Oedometer (ICO) tests were
carried out. This paper presents the consolidation behavior measured by the LTC, while the companion paper
describes the results from ICO test. The LTC test is conducted using the conventional oedometer, whose diameter and
initial height are 60 mm and 20 mm, respectively. The maximum duration for the consolidation was half a year. The
tested clays are mainly Osaka Pleistocene clays. Test results from these clays are compared with those from Holocene
clays retrieved from various sites across the world. Relationship between the strain and elapsed time measured by this
study has been analyzed in terms of the strain rate theory. Based on test results from the Osaka Pleistocene clays, the
family of equi-strain rate lines is proposed, consisting of three regions. However, in case of other clays, whose OCR is
probably created by stress changes, i.e., mechanically overconsolidated clays, the consolidation behavior is different
from that of the Osaka Pleistocene clays: i.e., a certain pressure exists where no more strain is yielded even after the
strain rate becomes small.

Key words: Holocene clay, intact sample, long term consolidation, Pleistocene clay, secondary compression, strain
rate (IGC: D5)

in the Osaka Bay areas (for example, Mikasa and

INTRODUCTION
According to Terzaghi's consolidation theory, which is
being extensively used for predicting the settlement in
practice, the settlement (volume change) is caused by the
change in the effective stress, as a result of dissipation of
the excess pore water pressure. In laboratory test,
however, a considerable volume change is observed even
after dissipation of the excess pore water pressure is
complete, i.e., under the constant effective stresses. It is
usual in the soil mechanics that settlement yielded by
change in the effective stress is called "primary consolida-
tion", while settlement under constant effective stress is
called "secondary compression". In practice, however,
the settlement is not classified into primary consolidation
and secondary compression, but the final settlement is
simply predicted based on the e -log p relation measured
by the conventional 24 hours incremental loading oedom-
eter test. It is also true that there are many case histories
indicating fairly good agreement between settlements
observed in the field and predicted by the above method.
On the other hand, problems have been gradually
realized that even though the consolidation pressure is
less than the yield consolidation pressure (pc), large
amount of settlement occurs at laboratory as well as in
the field, as especially reported from reclamation projects
i)
Hokkaido University, Japan (tanaka@eng.hokudai.ac.jp)
The manuscript for this paper was received for review on February 20, 2004; approved on January 17, 2005.
Written discussions on this paper should be submitted before January 1, 2006 to the Japanese Geotechnical Society, 4-38-2, Sengoku,
ku, Tokyo 112-0011, Japan. Upon request the closing date may be extended one month.
Takada, 1977; Kiyama, 1991; Mimura et al., 2003;
Tanaka et al., 2004). In these areas, Pleistocene clays
overlaying the Holocene clay layer are thickly deposited.
As the reclamation depth is increasing, the settlement in
these Pleistocene clay layers is becoming more and more
prominent and has given rise to serious problems to
structures constructed on the reclamation areas.
To study the behavior of secondary compression of
these clays, a series of consolidation tests was carried out
by means of the Long Term Consolidation (LTC) and the
Inter-Connected Oedometer (ICO) apparatus, placing
focus on the secondary compression behavior, especially
where the consolidation pressure is close to the pc value.
The test results are presented in two papers, i.e., the
present and companion (Tanaka, 2005) papers. This
paper will describe mainly test result from the LTC test.
Using the conventional oedometer apparatus, the LTC
test was carried out on intact clay samples. Once the
specimen was consolidated under the in situ effective
overburden pressure (pro), it was subjected to long term
consolidation under the constant load, which was decided
based on its pc value (the maximum duration of consoli-
dation being half a year). The pc value in this study was
based on the value measured by the Constant Rate of
Strain (CRS) with a strain rate of 3.3 x 10-6 s -1. The
(formerly Port and Airport Research Institute, Japan).
Bunkyo-

83
84 TANAKA

Table 1. Main properties of Osaka Pleistocene clays used in this study

Table 2. Main properties of other clays used in this study

relationship between generated strain and elapsed time in
these tests has been explained, using the strain rate theory
(for example, Leroueil et al., 1985; Imai et al., 2003).
CLAYS INVESTIGATED
Description of Site and Geotechnical Properties
Samples used in this study were mainly retrieved from
the Osaka basin, where Pleistocene clays are thickly
deposited. In addition, slightly overconsolidated clays
recovered from various sites across the world were also
studied. Main fundamental properties of these clays are
given in Tables 1 and 2. In these tables, IXo, Pc, OCR, ec,
wL, Wp, ivi, and C,1 are the in situ effective overburden
pressure, yield consolidation pressure, overconsolidation
ratio, i.e., pc Ipo, initial void ratio, liquid limit, plastic
limit, natural water content and compression index,
respectively. As the compression index varies with stress
levels even in the normally consolidated state , the Ce1
values presented in the tables are the indices at pressures
large enough to become constant, for example , larger
than ten times of the pc value.
The Osaka Pleistocene clays were obtained from the
construction site of the Kansai International Airport . The
sampling point was about 7 km offshore from the main
land, with the sea water depth of about 20 m. In the
Osaka bay, several marine clay layers are found, and they
are numbered in the chronological order. For example,
the Holocene clay, which is found below the sea bed , is
called Ma13. Except for the Ma13, other marine clay
 CONSOLIDATION,
layers were deposited in Pleistocene age. The "Ma"
indicates that the layer was deposited in the marine
environment, while "D", such as Dtc or Doc5 indicates
that it was deposited in the fluvial environment. More
detailed descriptions on these clays are available in the
following literatures: geological investigation, Itoh et al.
(2000); geotechnical information, Tanaka and Locat
(1999) and Tanaka et al. (2004).
At this site, soil samples shallower than 150 m (until
the Mall) layer) were retrieved using a hydraulic piston
(Osterberg) sampler, whose inside diameter and wall
thickness are 81.1 mm and 4.0 mm, respectively. These
dimensions are a little larger than those of the standard
stationary piston thin wall sampler (JGS1221-1995).
When the sampling depth was deeper than 150 m, a
rotary triple core sampler was used. The dimension of its
inside tube is the same as that of the hydraulic sampler
(for more details, see Tanaka et al., 2002).
It is considered that the Osaka group clay in the Osaka
bay may be normally consolidated from the viewpoint of
its stress history. It may be true that in some periods,
especially during the glacier times when the sea level
lowered, the soil layers were overconsolidated due to the
change in the ground water table. However, such periods
were relatively short in the formation process of the
Osaka group from a geological consideration, and such
an overconsolidation, if any, was soon erased due to the
subsequent sedimentation.
Geotechnical properties of Amagasaki, Yamashita and
Louiseville clays, which are also the subject of study in
this paper, are described, for example, by Tanaka et al.
(2003). The site of Amagasaki is facing the Osaka bay,
and is located between Osaka and Kobe City. The soil at
this site also belongs to the Osaka group and the clay
studied in this paper corresponds to the Ma12 of the
Osaka Pleistocene clays (see Table 1). The ground water
in the Tenma gravel layer, which lies between the Ma13
and Ma 12 layers, was pumped for industrial uses in
1960's, and the resulting ground subsidence caused by the
lowering of the water table had brought serious prob-
lems. Since then, such excessive pumping has been strictly
controlled, and the ground water table has been gradually
recovered to its original level. Therefore, it may be
considered that this OCR may have been created by the
stress change.
The Yamashita site is located at the Yamashita Park of
Yokohama City. This site used to be below the sea level
( -4.8 m from the ground surface), and was reclaimed by
filling with debris of buildings destroyed by the great
Kanto earthquake in 1923. The objective clay layer is fur-
thermore overlaid by a sandy gravel layer and is found
below the 20 m depth from the ground surface. Accord-
ing to the date measured by a geochronometric dating
technique using carbon Cm, this clay layer was deposited
about 8,000 to 9,000 years before the present. Thus, it is
confirmed to be the Holocene clay deposit, the same as
the Ma13 of the Osaka Group as well as the Pisa and
Louiseville clay deposits. The OCR of the Yamashita clay
is about 2 and the reason for such a high OCR is not still
pc,NATURAL SOILS 85
understood. There is a possibility that some amount of
the overburden pressure was removed when the port was
constructed at the end of Edo period (Tanaka, 1991).
The site of Louiseville is located between Montreal and
Quebec City of Quebec province, Canada. The site faces
the Saint Lawrence River. Louiseville clay is a Champlain
clay, which is extensively distributed in this area. This
clay deposit is well known as highly cemented clay, and is
characterized by its sharp bending point at the pc of the
e-log p curve, followed by sudden decrease in void
ratio. Also, it has very small strain at shear failure. It was
believed that such a high OCR was created by ageing or
cementation, rather than by stress change. However,
recent papers, for example Leroueil et al. (2002), have
revealed that the difference between pc and X, is more or
less created by the removal of overburden.
The Rakusai site is located at the suburb of Kyoto City.
It is confirmed that this clay had been deposited in the
marine environment by the existence of abundance of
marine diatoms, which were observed by Scanning
Electron Microscope. This layer has been identified as the
Ma4 layer of the Osaka group, which was deposited
0.8 million years ago (Itoh et al., 2000). Its OCR is
considerably large, which may have been created mainly
due to the release of large overburden pressure as a result
of tectonic uplift activity in the past. Therefore, most of
the OCR is caused by the stress release induced by out-
crop erosion, although there is a possibility of some
degree of cementation or ageing.
Pisa clay referred in this study was provided by Lo
Presti (2002). This clay is Holocene deposit. Geological
as well as geotechnical information may be found in his
literature.
The reconstituted sample used in the study was made
from Honmoku clay in Yokohama. The sample was
thoroughly mixed with distilled water at about two times
of wL and consolidated in a cylinder at 98 kPa. After the
end of the primary consolidation was confirmed, the soil
was swelled at 49 kPa. The pc value of the reconstituted
sample measured by the CRS test is slightly greater than
the consolidation pressure at the reconstitution, as
indicated in Table 2.
Yamashita and Louiseville clays are collected by the
conventional Japanese sampler specified by the Japanese
Geotechnical Society (JGS) (JGS1221-1995). Pisa clay
was retrieved by the Laval sampler. Amagasaki and
Rakusai clays are retrieved by a rotary triple core
sampler (JGS 1222-1995).
e-log p Relation in terms of Void Index for Clays
Investigated
To compare compression properties for clays investi-
gated, their e-log p relations measured by the constant
rate of strain test, whose procedure will be described in
the next chapter, are shown for the Osaka Group in Fig. 1
and for other clays in Fig. 2, in terms of void index (Li)
proposed by Burland (1990). ICL (Intrinsic Compression
Line) and SCL (Sedimentary Compression Line) denoted
by him are also drawn in the figures. The L, -log p
86 TANAKA

Fig. 3. Strain yielded at the preconsolidation stage

Fig. 1. Compressibility of Osaka Pleistocene clays used in this study

significant for highly structured clay. Louiseville clay

possesses extraordinary high structure and reveals strong

non-linearity even in the normally consolidated state.
Rakusai clay also exhibits such non-linearity but it is not

as strong as Louiseville clay.

TESTING PROCEDURES

In order to obtain consolidation properties as a

reference, Constant Rate of Strain (CRS) test was carried

out under a strain rate of 3.3 x 10-6 s -1 (0.02% /min).

The size of the specimen used is 60 mm in diameter and

20 mm in initial height. A backpressure of 200 kPa was

applied to ensure high degree of saturation of the speci-

men. Pore water pressure was measured at the bottom of

the specimen, while the drainage was allowed at the upper

Fig. 2. Compressibility of other clays used in this study
part of the specimen. The effective consolidation stress

(p') was calculated assuming that the pore water pressure

relation in these figures starts from the in situ effective is distributed in the parabolic manner: p' = p- / 3u,
stress. It is revealed that in spite of large Iv, most Osaka where the p is the measured total applied pressure and the

group soils can sustain high burden pressure: i.e., even u is the pore water pressure measured at the bottom of the
though they have relatively large void ratio, their pc specimen. The measured pc values for studied clays are
values are considerably large. It may be said that their given in Tables 1 and 2.
structure is well developed, especially in Ma12, Doc5 and The size of specimens used in the Long Term Consoli-
Mat layers. When consolidation pressure (p) exceeds the dation (LTC) test is the same as the CRS test (i.e.,

Pc value, the I. suddenly decreases, then this reduction diameter and initial thickness are 60 mm and 20 mm,
becomes gradually gentle with an increase in p. Burland respectively). Drainage is allowed at both sides of the

(1990) has insisted that at completely remolded condi- specimen. All consolidation loads are applied by the
tion, the Iv -log p relation can be defined by a single line physical weight, not using actuator with air pressure to
as the ICL. Even at high stress level, however, the Iv for avoid any troubles, for example, unexpected stopping of
most clays in this study is not concentrated on a single power supply. Each specimen was first consolidated
line of the ICL, as Burland (1990) has insisted. For other under its pv' o for 24 hours, and then the objective consoli-
clays aside from the Osaka group, their structure is not so dation load was applied. The longest duration in the LTC
developed except for Louiseville and Rakusai clays. test was as long as half a year. Temperature in laboratory
Particularly, the L -log p relation for Pisa clay is located was kept constant at 20•‹C and the specimen was sub-
relatively low, even below the SCL. This result is unex- merged in water during the LTC testing.

pected to the author, because the Pisa tower has been The volumetric strain yielded at the stage of applying
tilting since its construction was started. The author /X0(evo) is shown in Fig. 3. As an assessment of sample
believed that this tilting is caused by shearing deforma- quality, many researchers have proposed methods using
tion in the subsoil and such a creep behavior should be the order of evo. Among them, assessment criteria of
 CONSOLIDATION, pc,NATURAL SOILS 87

Fig. 4. Relationship between strain and elapsed time for Mall) clay

Fig. 6. Relationships between elapsed time and change in void ratio:

The final stress for all specimens is at normally consolidated state

followingway. The time for 90% of consolidation(t90)

Fig. 5. Relationship between strain and elapsed
clay
Andresen and Kolstad (1979) are well known. Tanaka
et al. (2002) have reviewed the evo for various clays in the
world, retrieved by the Japanese standard stationary
piston thin wall sampler. They have concluded that
Andresen and Kolstad's criteria are rather strict to be
applicable to all types of clayey soils. Nevertheless, as
shown in Fig. 3, the sample quality for all clays in this
study can be judged to be "good" or "fair". The
magnitude of evc,for Rakusai clay is the smallest. This
may be due to large OCR, as indicated in Table 2. The
order of evowill be discussed later again, with influence of
the strain rate at the beginning of the LTC test.
TEST RESULTS
General Description of Strain-log t Relation
The relations between the elapsed time (t) and volu-
metric strain (e) for Mal0 of the Osaka Pleistocene clays
and for Amagasaki clay are shown in Figs. 4 and 5,
respectively, as a typical example. In these figures, the
strain generated by the LTC test is based on the specimen
height after it is subjected to /X0. Time for the end of
primary consolidation (EOP) is also given in these
figures. The time for the EOP (tp) is calculated by the
was obtainedby Casagrande's_II method.As the strain
at the t90(e90)was assumed to be 90% of total strain
generatedduringthe primaryconsolidation,the strainat
the EOP can be fixedas e90/0.9. Time correspondingto
this strain was consideredto be tp. It can be seen that
especiallyfor Ma10,slightchangeof the appliedconsoli-
dation pressure gives great influenceon the e and t
relation. For example,if we comparethe relationsfor
p= 1236and 1275kPa, wherethe stressincreasesonly by
3%, the shape of these relationsas wellas the absolute
valuesof e is completelychanged.
time for Amagasaki Whenthe stresslevel(p) is largeenoughto exceedthe
Pcvalue,the tpbecomeslongerand the relationbetweene
and t in logarithmscalebecomesa very familiarone, as
typically described in the ordinary textbook of soil
mechanics.For example, for the Amagasaki clay at
p= 2540kPa, the bendingpointof the e-log t relationis
clearlyrecognized.Thistime maycorrespondto the EOP
and is verycloseto the tpof 1920s, whichwas obtained
by the fi- method. After this time, the settlementstill
continues due to the secondary compression with a
relatively slow rate. Similarly, the primary consolidation
for p= 1667 kPa of the Mal0 may be over at tp= 866 s,
although the settlement during the secondary compres-
sion is much more significant than that of Amagasaki.
As indicated by cases of Mall) and Amagasaki clays, the
primary consolidation behavior at the normally consoli-
dated state can be describedby ,Vt- as well as log t
method.
Figure 6 shows the normalized e -log t relation for
various clays, where the magnitude of p in these clays is
large enough to completely enter the normally consoli-
dated state, except for Mal0 whose plpc ratio is 1.29. In
this figure, the time is normalized by tp and instead of
strain, the vertical axis shows the change in void ratio
(4 e) which is yielded during the LTC test. Furthermore,
the Ae is normalized by Cci, which is the compression in-
dex at large p, for example, greater than 5 times of the pc
88
Fig. 7. Concept of delayed consolidation proposed by Bjerrum
value (see Tables 1 and 2). It can be seen that the Zie/Cci
yielded during the primary consolidation is dependent on
the ratio of pipe as well as non-linearity of the e -log p
relation. On the other hand, the change in 4 e/Cci after
the primary consolidation increases linearly with
logarithm time and its gradient is independent of the ratio
of p pc, being almost constant for various clays, i.e. , in
the range between 0.023 and 0.034, except for Mal0 clay.
The reason for relatively large 4 e/Cci change in the
secondary compression for Mali) clay is discussed in
more detail, later.
The behavior shown in Fig. 6 may be explained using
well-known Bjerrum's delayed consolidation model
(Bjerrum, 1967). His consolidation model is illustrated
in Fig. 7. His model suggests that if the consolidation
pressure exceeds the pc, the magnitude of the strain
yielded after the primary consolidation (delayed consoli-
dation in his term) is constant and is independent of the
stress level. As the consolidation pressure increases , the
amount of strain caused by the secondary compression
becomes proportionally smaller in the total strain. On
the other hand, as the stress level becomes closer to the pc
value, the strain due to the secondary compression be-
comes more prominent and cannot be ignored in the total
settlement.
When the applied stress is smaller than the pc value, the
primary consolidation quickly ceases and most strain
measured in the LTC test is yielded in the secondary
compression. For example, for the Male, clay, in the case
where the p is less than the pc value, the primary consoli-
dation is over at time shorter than 10 s, as seen in Fig. 4 .
The tp for p= 1275 kPa is only 3 s, which is 1/250 times as
short as that of p= 1667 kPa. In addition to the short tp,
the shape of e -log t curve is completely different from
that at the NC state. Although the strain level at the EOP
for all such cases is less 1%, the strain at time of 3 x 106s
(about 1 month) is more than 10% in case of p= 1275
kPa. That is, the most proportion of strain is caused
under the constant effective stress at the OC state, and
TANAKA
(1967) Fig. 8. Comparison of t90 measured by the Long Term Consolidation
test and calculated from the CRS test
this fact suggests that the amount of the strain during the
secondary compression cannot be ignored in prediction
of the settlement in the field.
Figure 8 makes comparison of t90calculated by the
method in the LTC test (t90 from LTC in the figure) and
by calculation from the volumetric compressibility (my)
and the hydraulic conductivity (k) measured by the CRS
test (t90 from CRS in the figure). The value of my is
calculated by the differential strain from pro to the applied
consolidation pressure in the CRS test. The k value
corresponds to the e0 in the e-log k relation measured by
the CRS test. As can be seen in the figure, the difference in
t90 obtained by two methods is relatively small, and is at
most as much as 10 times. Therefore, it can be inferred
that the determination of tp from the LTC test is accurate
enough to assume that the effective stress is constant after
tp. It can be also recognized from the comparison of t90in
Fig. 8 that the value of tp for the Osaka Pleistocene clays
at the OC state is considerably smaller than that for other
clays. These small values of tp at the OC state are not due
to large k but small m, for the Osaka Pleistocene clays ,
compared to that for other clays (Tanaka et al., 2004) .
The normalized e and log t relation for all Ma layers of
the Osaka Pleistocene clays are shown in Figs. 9 and 10 ,
where time is normalized by the tp in the horizontal axis
and void ratio is done by the Cci in the vertical axis, in the
same manner as in Fig. 6. In these figures, the relations
are divided into two groups in terms of the relative stress
level P-defined by the following equation;
(1)
where, p, IXo and pc are the stress levels applied in the
LTC test, the in situ effective overburden pressure and the
yield consolidation pressure, respectively.
When the stress level is equal to the /X., Pr becomes
zero, while the Pr is unity at p= pc. Figure 9 shows the
relation for Pr of about 0.3, but in Fig . 10 Pr is nearly
equal to unity. It is apparent in Fig. 10 that the e and log t
relation is very similar to that at the normally consoli-
 CONSOLIDATION, pc,NATURAL SOILS 89

Fig. 11. Change in the coefficient of the secondary consolidation for

Mal0 clay

Fig. 9. Relationship between elapsed time and change in void ratio for
relatively small stress increment relatively narrow and its value lies between 0.023Cc1 and
0.034Cc1, as already mentioned. However, when the
stress level is less than or close to the pc, Eq. (2) is hardly
applicable to estimate the settlement caused by the sec-
ondary compression. Figure 11 shows variation in Ca for
the Mal0 layers. As can be seen, Ca varies with time as
well as the stress level. Mesri and Godlewski (1977) have
proposed the method for prediction of Ca using the
constant Ca /Cc rule. However, there are two important
problems in their method. One is the requirement for the
e-log p relation at the EOP. Secondly, the Ca is obtained
by differentiation of the e-log p relation. The predicted
Ca by their method becomes inevitably fluctuated since
the calculation is repeated in order to obtain the next Ca.
It is also found that Ca varies with thickness of a speci-
men, that is, the EOP cannot be uniquely defined in
different stress levels as well as thicknesses of the sub-
jected layer (see the companion paper, Tanaka, 2005).
Fig. 10. Relationship between elapsed time and change in void ratio:
Instead of the approach based on the EOP, the strain
The final stress is close to the pc
rate theory, in which the behavior of consolidation
including the secondary compression is expressed by the
dated state. If we look at the order of Op, however, we effective stress (p'), void ratio (e) and strain rate (0, has
can inevitably notice that the ratio of t/tp at the bending been much more attractive and supported by many
point of the e -log t relation, which may be easily researchers (for examples, Leroueil et al., 1985; Nash,
misunderstood as the EOP, is 104or 1054. Unlike at the 2001; Den Haan and Kamao, 2003; Imai et al., 2003).
NC state, as shown in Fig. 6, in case of the OC state or This paper will try to characterize the secondary compres-
whenthep is nearto thepc, tps obtainedby ,Ft- and log t sion in terms of the strain rate theory.
methods are completely different and it should be kept
in mind that the latter method does not provide a correct Examination of Consolidation Behavior Using the Strain
value for tp. Rate Theory
The coefficient of the secondary compression (Ca) is Many researchers have successfully explained the
extensively used to calculate the strain after the end of consolidation behavior using the strain rate theory or the
primary consolidation (es), as indicated in Eq. (2). Isotaches model. However, their studies have focused
mostly on the consolidation characteristics at the NC
(2) state, although they are treating with the OC state at the
start of consolidation, which is due to the secondary
From the definition in Eq. (2), the Ca is the slope of the compression caused by the previous loading stage.
change in void ratio to log t. When the stress level exceeds Although governing equations for the strain rate theory
the pc value and enters the normally consolidated state, are slightly different by various researchers, their com-
the secondary compression may be predicted well by Ca, mon aspect is that relation among e, e and p' can be
as shown in Fig. 6. This is because the Ca is nearly uniquely defined, i.e., f (e, e, p') = 0.
constant and independent of time. In addition, it is very Figure 12 replots Fig. 6 in the form of the change in the
useful information to note that the range of the Ca is Δe/Cci with the at the NC state. It can be seen that after
90 TANAKA

Fig. 14. Change in void ratio due to change in strain rate for relatively
Fig. 12. Change in void ratio due to change in strain rate: The stress small stress increment: All samples are Osaka Pleistocene clays
state is normally consolidated

Fig. 15. Change in void ratio due to change in strain rate: The final
stress is very close to the pc value: All samples are Osaka Pleisto-

Fig. 13. Change in strain due to change in strain rate at different stress cene clays

levels for Mal0 clay

After this the relation between e and log (a) is not

the EOP, i.e., under constant effective stress, the e/Cci
decreases linearly with log (e) and its slope is in a certain
range, i.e., between 0.017 and 0.030 zle/Cci per log (e)
for all clays.
Figure 13 shows change in the e -log (a) relation for
the Mal 0 clay under various intensities of consolidation
pressure. It should be kept in mind that in case of p=
1667 kPa, in which the stress condition is in the NC state ,
a at the EOP is 7 x 10-6 s-1 so that the change in the slope
of the e -log (e) relation at e larger than 7 x 10-6 s-1 is
caused by the change in the effective stress. Otherwise,
other relations at the OC state are mostly observed under
constant effective stress state, because the primary con-
solidation ceases at a very early stage (see, Figs. 4, 9 and
10). It can be seen that there is a certain e where large
strain starts to yield. In this paper, this e will be called
"yield strain rate" and its notation will be ay. The value
of ay depends on the intensity of p, and ay becomes
smaller with the decrease in p. In case of p= 1236 kPa,
the value of e is suddenly accelerated at ay= 5 x 10' s-1.
linear, but its slope is the greatest just after ay and
becomes gradually gentle. It appears that this gentle slope
is the same as that at the NC state. When p is smaller ,
however, such a change of the slope cannot be recognized
until a of 10-9 s-1, which is the minimum strain rate in
this study.
Figures 14 and 15 are the replots of the data from
Figs. 9 and 10 in terms of the strain rate, as in Fig. 13, but
with the vertical axis plotting of 4 e/Cci. As anticipated
from Fig. 13, in case of relatively small consolidation
pressure (Fig. 14), the value of 4 e/Cci increases linearly
with decrease in log (a), after a reaches its ay. In case of p
close to the pc (Fig. 15), however, the value of ay becomes
large and the e-log (e) relation consists of two lines: with
large and small slopes. It is very interesting to note that
the largest slope of 4 e/Cci /log e is about 0.12, which is
the same as that in case of relatively small Pr as shown in
Fig. 14. In addition, the smallest slope of d e/Cci /log (e)
is about 0.030, which is the same order of the slope
observed in the NC state, as shown in Fig. 12. It is
 CONSOLIDATION, pc,NATURAL SOILS 91

Fig. 16. Relationships between yield strain rate and relative stress level Fig. 18. Strain rate effect measured by the CRS test for the Osaka
(Pr) Pleistocene clays

Fig. 16. This means that even after the specimen is sub-
jected to additional consolidation pressure, the specimen
follows the condition at the start of testing. This interest-
ing finding is discussed again later.

Comparison of Consolidation Behavior from LTC and

CRS Tests
As discussed in the previous section, settlement behav-
ior measured by the LTC test can be explained quite well
by the strain rate theory. Therefore, it may be anticipated
that the consolidation behavior measured by the LTC can
be explained by the behavior obtained by the CRS.
Indeed, Leroueil et al. (1985) have succeeded to make a
correlation of compression behavior measured by the
conventional incremental loading test (i.e., the LTC test
but its duration of each loading step is 24 hours) and the
Fig. 17. Range of strain rate at the end of the preconsolidation stage CRS test in terms of the strain rate. Before discussing the
correlation of test results from the LTC and CRS tests,
dependency of the strain rate for the Osaka Pleistocene
inferred from these test results, that when consolidation clays are presented.
Figure 18 shows the pc values caused by different strain
pressure is close to the pc value, the strain is generated in
the same manner as in the case of small Pr,but as time rates in CRS test. In the vertical axis of the figure, the pc
at each i is normalized by the pc at of 3.3 x 10-6 s -1.
passes, the strain is generated more gently with e and the
slope of e to log (0 approaches the same value as that Although dependency of the pc value on the strain rate
when the consolidation pressure is located at the NC apparently becomes more significant at large 4 in the
state. figure, this may be due to the scatter of the tested speci-
As already mentioned, there is a tendency that as p men. For example, the pc value at 1.7 x 10-6 s -1 is larger
becomes lower, y becomes smaller. Figure 16 shows the than that at 3.3 x 10-6 S-1 for 4 of 50 and 51 in Fig. 18. It
relation between y and Pr defined by Eq. (1) for all Osaka is properly concluded that the rate effect for the Osaka
Pleistocene clays, indicating that y linearly decreases Pleistocene clays used in this study may be identical
with decrease in Pr. From the figure, it can be seen that Ey irrespectively of 4 or deposited age (i.e., Ma layers).
at Pr = 0 (p = IX0) ranges between 10' and 10' s -1. The pc measured by the CRS test at various strain rates
Figure 17 shows the relation between evo and e when the for all Osaka Pleistocene clays is shown in Fig. 19, where
specimen is subjected to the go after 24 hours. In another the vertical axis is normalized by pc value in the same
word, in Fig. 17 indicates the strain rate just before manner as in Fig. 18. It can be seen from the figure that
applying the objective stress in the LTC test. It can be the pc value increases about 1.07 times if the strain rate is
seen that as evo increases, also increases. A more inter- 10 times faster. This rate effect for the Osaka Pleistocene
esting observation is that the range of this strain rate in clays is rather small compared with other marine clays
Fig. 17 corresponds well with the y at p --/X0 (Pr= 0) in (see, for example, Tanaka et al., 2000).
92
Fig. 19. Comparison of the rate effect measured
Long Term Consolidation tests
Fig. 20. Normalization of strain-log p relation
The normalization rule of p 1pc is quite useful to inter-
pret test results from this study. This normalization rule
was proposed by Leroueil et al. (1985) that although the
pc value is varied by the strain rate, the shape of the
e-log p or e -log p curve is not changed but remain
similar to each other, if the p is normalized by the p c
value. It is confirmed in this study that this normalization
is also applicable to the Osaka Pleistocene clays , as
shown in Fig. 20, where the normalized e-plp c relations
with different strain rates are concentrated into a rela-
tively narrow range.
Figure 21 compares the e and p relation at the same E
measured by the LTC and the CRS tests for Doc 5 clay , as
an example. It should be noted that in this figure, the
consolidation pressure is not plotted in the logarithm but
arithmetic scale. To avoid scatter due to heterogeneity of
tested specimens, the equi-strain rate lines are drawn
based on the CRS test at E of 3.3 x 10-6 s -1, using the
normalization rule of plpc, where the pc value increases
1.07 times with increase in 10 times of the strain rate (see
TANAKA
Fig. 21. Comparison of strain-log p relation measured by the CRS
and the Long Term Consolidation tests in terms of the strain rate
by the CRS and the for Doc5 clay
Fig. 19). As can be seen in the figure, the equi-strain rate
line of 3.3 x 10-6 s -1 measured by the CRS test has
already been somewhat different from points obtained by
the LTC test. However, it can be said from this figure that
the equi-strain rate lines obtained from the CRS test
correspond relatively well to points at each e from the
LTC test.
It is true that unlike reconstituted samples , intact
samples always give rise to problems on whether such a
difference is caused by heterogeneity of specimen or
unsuitable assumptions. In order to view the rate effect
not individually in each test but as a whole, the rate effect
from the LTC test is evaluated based on the e -log p
relation measured by the CRS test at 3.3 x 10-6 s-1, by
the manner described in the following way. For example ,
the LTC test with p= 1420 kPa in Fig. 21 shows that the
order of the strain at E= 3.3 x 10-8 s' is 5.5%, while p at
the same strain with E= 3.3 x 10-6 s" from the CRS is
at different strain rates
1790 kPa. In this condition, the rate effect due to 1/100
times of change in the strain rate is 1420/1790 = 0 .79.
Similarly, for the LTC test of p= 1530 kPa , the strain
with 3.3 x 10-9 s' is 11%. The p at e of 11% with 3.3 x
10-6 S-1 is 2000 kPa on the e -log p relation measured by
the CRS test at 3.3 x 10-6 s-1. Then, in this condition , the
rate effect of 1/1000 becomes 1530/2000 = 0.765 .
The variation in the rate effect obtained by such
manner for all Osaka Pleistocene clays is shown in
Fig. 19. In the figure, the rate effect of all Osaka
Pleistocene clays are indicated by the ranges with the nor-
mal deviation ( T-a), grouped by intensity consolidation
pressure of the Pr. The n in the figure is the number of
data sets used. It is apparent that scatter in the rate
effect becomes prominent at Pr larger than 2 .0. This is
because the number of tests conducted with this stress
condition is small. As seen in the figure, except for Pr
larger than 2.0, the rate effect measured by the LTC test
coincides fairly well with that by the CRS test with
different strain rate: i.e., the e —p' relation can be defined
by the strain rate.
 CONSOLIDATION, pc, NATURAL SOILS 93

Fig. 22. Comparison of strain-log p relation measured by the CRS

and the Long Term Consolidation tests in terms of the strain rate
for Louiseville clay

Fig. 24. Change in void ratio at e= 3.3 x 10-9 s-1 for all soils in this
study

Fig. 17), in spite of some exceptions. For the Osaka

Fig. 23. Relationships between strain and strain
clay
Other Clays (Mechanically Overconsolidated Clays)
As an example of clays other than Osaka Pleistocene
clays, Fig. 22 shows the e and p relation for Louiseville
clay at specified a measured by the LCT test and the e and
p relation CRS test at a = 3.3 x 10-6 s'. Figure 23 shows
its relation between a and e. From these figures, it seems
that there exists a certain pressure where the strain is not
yielded any more even under smaller E. In the case of
p= 226 kPa, the Ey is clearly observed at a = 2 x 10-9 s -1,
like the Osaka Pleistocene clays. The order of this a is the
same as the order of a prior to the performance of the
LCT test, i.e., at the end of the preconsolidation stage of
the go. Although it is rather difficult to say whether the Ey
exists in the relation for p= 196 kPa, the Ey cannot be
detected in the relation with p less than 167 kPa. This
experimental fact is completely different from the Osaka
Pleistocene clays, where the ay at the go is very close to
the a before starting the LCT test, as shown in Fig. 16.
Figure 24 shows the relation between the Pr and e at
a = 3.3 x 10-9 s'. This strain rate is not only the smallest
strain rate in all tested clays in LTC test, but also a
smaller strain than that before starting the LTC test (see
Pleistocene clays, the e at a = 3.3 x 10' s -1 linearly
increases as the Pr increases. That is, when the a becomes
very small, the overconsolidation for the Osaka
Pleistocene clays disappears. On the other hand, clays
other than the Osaka Pleistocene clays generate only
negligible strain until a certain Pr. When the consolida-
tion pressure reaches beyond this Pr,large e is generated
in the same way as the Osaka Pleistocene clays. For
example, such Pr for the Louiseville and the Rakusai
clays is about 0.75 (for the Rakusai clay, the Pr seems a
little smaller). Yamashita clay has also the same order of
the Pr (about 0.8), but the order of the e in the range of
rate for Louiseville
stresses smaller than this Pr is larger compared to the
Louiseville or Rakusai clays. However, these strains are
much smaller than those for the Osaka Pleistocene clays.
It is true that the Rakusai clay is mechanically a over-
consolidated clay, as mentioned earlier. Otherwise, it has
long been believed that Louiseville and Yamashita clays
are mechanically normally consolidated and large OCR is
created by ageing or cementation (for example, Tanaka
et al., 2003). However, it is found that such a description
may be suspicious and there are possibilities that these
clays were subjected to larger overburden pressure than
the present /X0 in the past (Leroueil et al., 2002 for Louis-
ville clay; Tanaka, 1991 for Yamashita clay). Indeed, it is
very difficult in geotechnical engineering to identify
whether the OCR of an objective layer is created by
mechanical overconsolidation or other reasons, for ex-
ample, ageing or cementation. If these clays including
Yamashita and Louiseville clays are mechanically over-
consolidated, then the different behavior shown in Fig. 24
between the Osaka Pleistocene clays and other clays can
be easily explained. However, this paper addresses that
the long term consolidation behavior of the Osaka
Pleistocene clays is very different from that of the other
clays, and its reason is a theme of future's research.
94
Fig. 25. Family of the equi-strain rate lines proposed
Equi-strain Rate Lines around the pc Value
Previous researches, who have used mainly reconsti-
tuted soil, have revealed that the equi-e lines are straight
as well as parallel to each other in the e -log p space at
the normally consolidated state (for example, Imai et al.,
2003; den Haan and Kamao, 2003). In addition, Leroueil
et al. (1985) have found that even though the stress-strain
relation changes with the strain rate, these relations are
shifted in parallel pattern in e-log p plot. Their finding is
also confirmed to be valid to the Osaka Pleistocene clays
in this study, as presented earlier (see Fig. 20).
Based on these previous papers and test results from
the present study, equi-strain rate lines around the pc
value can be inferred, as drawn in Fig. 25. In this illustra-
tion, for the sake of simplicity, a family of the equi-strain
rate lines consist of three straight lines in the e -log p
space: at the OC state, at the transit state between the OC
and NC states and at the moderate state when the p
becomes large and corresponds to the state with the Cc1.
The e -log p relation measured by the CRS test at a
certain e may correspond to an equi-strain rate line with
this e.
Let us consider the settlement behavior under the
various load conditions by means of Fig. 25. The location
of the consolidation stresses for Figs. 12, 14, and 15 can
be schematically illustrated by thick downward arrows in
Fig. 25. When the consolidation pressure is large enough
for the Cc to be constant (Pr> 1), the strain monotonous-
ly increases with a decrease in log (E) after the EOP (see
Fig. 12). On the other hand, when the p is around the pc
value, the e -log (e) relation consists of three compo-
nents divided by points of b1 and b2, as indicated in
Fig. 25. Until b1, the strain is very small because this part
corresponds to the OC state. However, when the value of
e is beyond its Eyvalue indicated by the point b1, the value
of e suddenly increases. When the time is elapsed and the
value of e reaches the point b2, the increment of the e to
log (e) becomes moderate (see Fig. 15). In case of
relatively small p, while the specimen yields small strain
until the e reaches the ay (a1 in the figure), the strain
increases with decreases in e (Fig. 14). This behavior is
TANAKA
similar to that in the previous case where the p is close to
the pc value. However, the bending point such as b2
cannot be observed in this case (if the consolidation
continues for a long time, such a bending point might be
seen. This point will be discussed in more detail, latter).
DISCUSSIONS
As indicated in the previous sections, the secondary
compression behavior of the Osaka Pleistocene clays,
which may be the aged normally consolidated clay, can be
explained fairly well by the framework of the equi-strain
rate lines indicated in Fig. 25. In this model, the strain
rate before applying the pressure is a very important
parameter to govern the subsequent behavior. It has
in this study
already been revealed that ay decreases with a decease in
Pr, and Eyat the p.,0 agrees with the e at the p,%, in another
word, before starting the LTC test (see Figs. 16 and 17).
These strain rates measured in this study are between
10-9 s -1 and 10' s -1. These orders are significantly large,
if we consider the 20 m thickness of clay layer, for exam-
ple. The settlement rate of this layer becomes as much as
between 0.17 cm/day and 17 cm/day even before ap-
plying the consolidation pressure. We should inevitably
notice that such strain rate is unrealistic and the test result
from this study, especially the relation between e and e,
cannot be directly applied to the real ground.
One of the reasons for such a large strain rate at the pi,%
may be soil disturbance caused during sampling process.
As already shown in Fig. 3, the order of e, yielded by
applying the p\%to the specimen (i.e., at the preconsolida-
tion stage) is mostly in the range between 1 and 3%.
These figures suggest that the sample quality is good
enough to obtain mechanical properties, including the
consolidation behavior. However, considering the order
of the strain generated in the LTC test, this amount of the
evocannot be ignored and rather we have to say that it is
too large, especially when the applied pressure is close to
the p,,o. It is anticipated that, since the order of ay ob-
tained by this study is much larger than that in the in situ,
the equi-strain rate line may be shifted to much more
right hand side than that indicated in Fig . 25. This
possibility will be clear when the field data are obtained.
Another uncertainty in the present study may be
caused by restriction in the duration of the LTC test .
In this investigation, the longest duration for the consoli-
dation is 0.5 year, and the minimum e attained is at most
in the order of 10- b0s-1. The question is whether results
from this study can be extrapolated, for example, to set-
tlement behavior after tens or hundreds of years, or much
smaller e than 10-ois -1. If the equi-strain rate line
presented in this paper is truly valid, the in situ void ratio
should be lower than that of usual reconstituted sample
in laboratory, because the duration of the secondary
consolidation is definitely longer than in the laboratory .
However, the fact is opposite. As shown in Figs. 1 and 2 ,
the Iv for investigated soils is much greater than the ICL ,
indicating that the strain in the process of the sedimenta-
tion is not generated so much as expected from the model
 CONSOLIDATION, pc,NATURAL SOILS 95

in Fig. 25. It is probably that cementation or sometimes 5) Imai, G., Tanaka, Y. and Saegusa, H. (2003): One-dimensional
called "Restructuring" is playing an important role in the consolidation modeling based on the isotach law for normally
consolidated clays, Soils and Foundations, 43 (4), 173-188.
process of sedimentation. However, unfortunately we do 6) Itoh, Y., Takemura, K., Ishiyama, T., Tanaka, Y. and Iwaki, H.
not have data clearly and qualitatively showing such a (2000): Basin formation at a contractional bend of a large trascur-
role of cementation at laboratory. rent fault: Plio-Pleistocene subsidence of the Kobe and northern
Osaka Basins, Japan, Tectonophysics, 321, 327-341.
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CONCLUSIONS area, Proc. Mt. Conf. Geotech. Engrg. Coastal Development
-

Theory and Practice on Soft Ground- 1, 207-212.

Consolidation behavior, especially secondary compres- 8) Leroueil, S., Kabbaj, M., Tavenas, F. and Bouchard, R. (1985):
sion around the pc value, was studied by means of the Stress-strain-strain rate relation for the compressibility of sensitive
long term consolidation test. The samples used in this natural clays, Geotechnique, 35, 159-180.
9) Leroueil, S., Hamoushe, K., Tavenas, F., Boudali, M., Locat, J.,
study were retrieved from the Pleistocene clays in the
Virely, D., Roy, M., La Rochelle, P. and Leblond, P. (2002):
Osaka bay and Holocene clays recovered from various Geotechnical characterization and properties of a sensitive clay
areas in the world. It is believed that former clays are from Quebec, Characterization and Engineering Properties of
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Geotechnical characterization of the subsoil of Pisa Tower,
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12) Mikasa, M. and Takada, N. (1977): Observation of the settlement
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overconsolidated clays, the consolidation behavior is PC value —Inter-connected oedometer test- Soils and Founda-
tions, 45 (3), 97-105.
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16) Tanaka, H. and Locat, J. (1999): A microstructural investigation of
certain pressure exists where no more strain is yielded Osaka Bay clay: the impact of microfossils on its mechanical
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