Principal fluid writing inks in common

use today:
a. Iron gallotannates such as the blue-blacks popularly
advertised as “permanent”
b. Synthetic dye inks, such as the frequently observed aniline
blues usually marketed as “no-permanent”
c. Carbon blacks, including india and drawing or lettering
inks.
Other inks:

Black ink – from nutgalls and a solution of some salt of iron

and consists of gallate of iron(indigo sulphate)
Blue ink-solution of Prussian blue and methylene blue with
potassium ferric ferrocyanide plus oxalic acid.
Red ink- from carmine(cochineal) and brazil wood with
potassium cosin.
Alphabet

comes from the Greek letters “ALPHA” – beginning or

first letter of Greek alphabet and BETA – second alphabet
of Greek alphabet .

The first form of written communication which started as far as

20, 000 years ago was graphically represented by arranged
and drawings on the walls of the caves and big stones –
ICONOGRAPHS (3500 BC) ------ represent things and sounds
of those things
PICTOGRAPHIC – the picture of sun stood for the word sun
IDEOGRAPHIC SYSTEM

Combining pictures to represent the words of ideas

China- SUN and TREE to represent the word for EAST
Until this symbols and forms which later developed into a
system by the Egyptian tribes – SUMMERIANS which
produced a CUNIEFORM SYSTEM when the conquered
MESOPOTAMIA in 3200 B.C.
 CUNIEFORM SYSTEM
Means wedge- shaped
Metal/wood – thick at the end; thin on the
other
Egyptian writing developed 3 different styles of
symbol system – Babylonians, Assyrians, and Hittites

HIEROGLYPHICS
Characters in any system of writing in which symbols
represents objects and ideas
Greek term “Sacred Carving” – on Egyptian movement. Ex.:
tomb of Queen Amonherkhepsef

HIERATIC
There is pen/papyrus, employed simpler form to depict
draw/portray the same figure
DEMOTIC
A highly cursive form of hieratic developed about 700 B.C. – used I
Egypt
PHOENICIANS
Are created with the spread of the first alphabet bet from 1, 200 to
900 BC
Adaptation of Greek Letters
Minuscules – a Greek new form of handwritten design emerged in
the 7th and 8th century AD
First latin alphabet consist of 21 greek letters – ETRUSCAN
Until Y, Z are added and other latin letter, U, W
J – total of 26 letters
ROMANS developed the alphabet through centuries until the
creation of small letters and the capital
everyday writing in private and business dealings
there is Hebrew alphabet, Cyrillic alphabet, Arabic
Early Writing Instruments
1. Roman metal pen - metal writing instrument devised by the
roman in ancient times; It is the ancestor of the modern
metal pen which appeared in the 19th century.
2. Cane pen – instrument that was used from antiquity through
the middle ages to write on papyrus and parchment.
3. Quill- large feather with a hollow stalk that is sharpened to a
point and dipped in ink to write.
4. Egyptian reed pen – small reed that is sharpened to a point
and used to draw hieroglyphics on clay tablets or to
write in ink on papyrus.
5. Steel pen – curved point mounted on a handle and it is
dipped in an inkwell to write.
 6. Writing brush – natural or synthetic bristles set into a
handle and dipped in ink to write; it has been used for
Chinese calligraphy for 4,000 years.
The goose-quill – is a pen made from a large feather of
a goose. It is used in medieval times to write on
parchment.
7. Fountain pen – instrument with a metal nib that is
attached to a body containing an in reservoir, usually
in a form of a catridge. Nicolas Bion French inventor
(1652-1733), often called bion pens.
8. Sharpened stone – among the document writing
instrument, sharpened stone were used by prehistoric
people to engrave symbols with caves on rocks.
9. Roman beaver – roman scribed this into thin sheets
of wax when they no longer need the writing, they
rubbed it out with the flat end.
CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
EXAMINATION

Criminalistic examination – for the

detection of forgery, erasures, alterations
and obliterations.

Handwriting identification- to find out who

is the author of a writing.
HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION
WRITING – record of a motion and mature writing by many
repetitions/ combination of certain forms which are the very visible
result of mental and muscular habits – arises the importance of
physiological basis and development of handwriting

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS – forming letters begins in the

cortex which part of the brain he controls our 5 senses. – Group of
muscles “FLEXOR” and extensor which moves our thumb, index and
middle finger to make stroke.
* DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING
Handwriting – is visible effect of bodily movement which is on
almost unconscious expressions of certain ideas associated
with script form
1.FIRST STEP- begins to learn the art of handwriting through
drawing. – imitations
2. SECOND STEP- execution of each letter
3. THIRD STEP- more or less automatic – attain maturity in
writing- which modified by education, training, personal taste,
artistic ability.
Movement of Handwriting
1.Finger Movement- thumb, index and middle fingers are used exclusively
in the writing of letters.
Characterized by the ff:
•lack of clear cut, smooth and regular lines
•contains numerous broad curves
•irregular connection between letters and letters letter parts.
1.Often appears slow and labored and lacks rhythm.
•Shading is pronounced.
2. Hand Movement- involves action of the hand as a whole with fingers
playing but a minor role . pivot of lateral motion is the wrist.
3. FORE ARM MOVEMENT – muscular – both hand and arm and also finger
*clear cut
*slight shading in produced
*even base line
*uniformity in size of letters
*smooth, regular long strokes and curves
4. WHOLE –ARM MOVEMENT – involves the action of the entire arm
without rest and in employed in very large writing, ornamental writing,
blackboard writing
Causes of Modifications of Handwriting
1. SIMPLICATION – discarding of unessential
details and may go to the strip (long narrow
piece) the letter to the skeleton making –
clear- cut and precise

2. ELABORATION – decorative strokes are

added to the plain letter- too ornate character
(elaborate- ornate)
3. LINEAR PATTERN – shows no concern for
form so that lines and angles predominate.
WRITING CHARACTERISTICS:
Form- this refers to the shape or design of the individual.
•mere similarities in form are not alone sufficient indication or
identity.
•Basic differences in form of letters are indications of two
writings being made by different writers,

System – refers to the particular style or system of writing

practiced or learned in childhood.
•a. National as well as system similarities are not indicative of
identity when considered alone.
•National or system differences are very significant indications of
non-identity between two writings.
Muscular habits or co-ordination- the pen in writing is usually held between
the thumb on one hand, and on the other, the index and middle fingers which
function as a single unit holding the pen against the cushion of the thumb

Straight lines- in writing, many lines of strokes are supposed to be straight lines
but this is not always true to many writers due to different causes, the principal of
which is lack of muscular coordination.

Curves-writings produced with smooth muscular coordination will show, aside

from straight lines, uniforms and regular curves.

Angles – usually serve as junction between straight lines and curves in writing
strokes.

Retracing- some writers execute letters with upward stroked moving over or
retracing downward strokes and this characteristics of retracing is very slight, in
others quite considerable and pronounced.

Connections- refers to the strokes of links which connect a letter with the one
followingFrom the character of connecting strokes, writing can be classified in the
following division:Circular, oblong elliptical and angular
Size- may be insignificant.

Slant- refers to the slope of writing in relation to the

base line.

Spacing- spacing between letters in words depends

upon the length of the connecting strokes or links.

Proportion- individual characteristics in relative

proportions of letters- proportion of a part, of a
letter, or the relative height of one letter to another
letter can be found in different writings.
Individual Handwriting Characteristics
PEN POSITION – emphasis/ shading. Impossible to hold the
metal pen in one any position.
Pen Pressure – the proportion of the strokes to each other in
width as affected by shading and by Unconscious emphasis ---
- unconscious variations of width, due to variations of
pressure, of fine and delicate lines.
“forged writings system show too many pen lifts
at the wrong places.”
Terminal Strokes and Initial Strokes – the pen is usually raised
from the paper while in a motion with a “flying finish” referred
to as “vanishing” “tapering” or “flourishing” terminal stroke.
Initial – putting of the pen on the paper at the beginning with a
“flying start.
End – vanishing point
TREMOR – “deviation from the uniform strokes of
the lack of smoothness perfectly apparent even
without magnification.”

Characterized with:
1. Lack of uniformity of spread in making pen strokes
2. pen stops
3. involuntary horizontal and vertical movements
Zigzag character

VERTICAL TREMOR – refers to the involuntary up

and down movements/charging pressure which
produces a line of varying width
Kinds of Tremors:
1. GENUINE TREMOR such as: of age, illiteracy ad weakness
– showing too many or few tremors, wrong portions of the litters,
depends by the momentum of the hand, otherwise “natural”
Through weakness: shows unusual and erratic
movements
Illiteracy – shows lack of skill and a mental uncertainly so
to the form general clumsiness due to
unfamiliarity with the whole writing process

OLD AGE – indicate lack of muscular control, does not

show fine, rough strokes
2. TREMOR OF FRAUD – actually drown/imitated
Show hesitation at the placer and tremor wrongly
placed
Rubric/ embellishment – refers to additional unnecessary
strokes not necessary to legibility of letter forms –
decorative purposes usually added to signatures for pleasing
appearance of “security” to make a signature more difficult to
imitate/forge

RATIO – The relation between the tall and the short letters is
referred to as the ration of the writing.

*DIVIDED TWO GROUPS:

a. SHORT – letters written entirely between the
lines are referred to as a, c, e, m, n, r, s, u, v, w, and x
b. TALL – letters with upper/lower loops or other
projected portions will be classed. b, d, f, g, h, j, I, p, t,
y, z
Kinds of handwriting characteristics:
1. CLASS – are identifying details
which are common to a group
2. INDIVIDUAL – which are highly
personal and peculiar and are unlikely to
occur in other instances

EXAMINE OF COMMON CLASS: - which

conform to the general style acquired when
one was learning to write,
style taught to the child/by the parents
INDIVIDUAL STYLE OR FORM OF WRITING.
Every individual writes in some form style which
id distinct from others despite its close
resemblance. The preceding are descriptions and
illustrations of individual style or form of writing
which describe the foregoing statements.

1. Script Writing – any disconnected style of

writing in which each letter is written separately.
2. Cursive Writing – the writing is flowing,
running and the letters are joined
3. Block Style – letters of the alphabet are
capitalized
OTHERS DIFFERENT INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Body – the main portion of the letter which remain when the
upper and lower projection, upstrokes and terminal strokes
and diacritics are removed.
Ex. : the oval of the letter “Q” is the body, minus
the downward strokes and the loop

2. Diacritics – are elements added to complete a letter; “t”

crossing and dots of the letters “i” and “j”. The matrix of the
Indian script are also known as diacritic signs.

3. Eye/eyelet – a minute or small loop or curve formed inside

the letter, inside the oval of the letters “a”, “d”, or “o”.

4. Foot – the lower part which rests on the baseline. The small
letters “m” has three feet and the small letter “n” and “h” have
two feet.
6. Baseline – an imaginary line where the letters are
supposed to be aligned; the rules or imaginary line upon
which the writing rests.
7. Hiatus or Pen Jump – a failure to complete a junction
of a connecting stroke without lifting the pen; a gap
occurring between a continuous stroke without lifting the
pen such occurrences was due to speed.
8. Hook – it is a minute curve or angle which often
occurs at the end of the terminal stroke. The terminal
curves of the letters “a”, “d”, “h”, “u”, id the hook. In small
letter “w”, the initial curve is the hook; or a hook is a
minute involuntary talon-like formation often found at the
commencement of the initial stroke or a terminal stroke.
9. Initial stroke – the first element of a stroke
10. Loop – an oblong curve such as found in small “f”,
“g”, “l” and letters “h” and “j”. A loop may be formed at the
upper or lower part of the letter. It can be blind or open
loop. A blind loop is usually the result of the ink having
filled the open source.

11. Oval – the portion of a letter which is oval in shape.

The small letter “a”, “d”, “g”, and “q” contain oval; the
portion of the letter which form an oval design

12. Retrace – any part of a stroke which is super

imposed upon the original stroke; any stroke which goes
back over the same writing stroke.
13. Shoulder/Hump – outside portion of the top curve; the
garland form of the letter as in small letter “m” has three
shoulders and the small letter “n” has two; the small
letter “h” has one shoulder.
14. Staff or Stem – any major long downward stroke of a
letter that is the long downward stroke of the letter “b”,
“g”.
15. Spur – short horizontal terminal strokes mostly found
on a small letter, short initial or terminal stroke
16. Arc/garlanded – a curve formed inside the top curve
or loop, as in small letters “h”, “m”, “p”
17. Beard/Embellishment - a preliminary embellish initial
stroke which usually occurs in capital letters
18. Buckle/bucket knot - – a loop made as flourish which
is added to the letters as in small “letters “k”, “f” or in
capital letters “A”, “K”, and “H”.
19. Terminal stroke – the last element of a
letter

20. Patching/Retouching – going back over

a defective portion of a writing stroke.
Careful patching or retouching is a
common defect of forgeries

21. Pen lift – an interruption in a stroke

caused by removing the writing instrument
from the paper.