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development of a spelling assessment tool informed by Triple Word Form Theory
Abstract
Stage theories of spelling development have been widely accepted since their
conceptualisation in the 1970s; but, converging evidence offers support for non‑linear
models of spelling development. Specifically, Triple Word Form Theory (TWFT) suggests
that students are capable of drawing on and coordinating phonological, orthographic, and
morphological skills from quite early in their spelling development. Assumptions about the
nature of spelling development have important implications for the way spelling is taught;
however, many existing assessment systems currently being applied by educators and
systems have failed to consider non‑linear perspectives of spelling development. This paper
presents the Components of Spelling Test (CoST) as a new approach to spelling assessment.
The test is a valid and reliable assessment tool informed by TWFT and developed through a
method of analysis suggested by stage theorists. Data used to develop and test the CoST
were drawn from students in Year 3 and Year 5 across four schools in the Australian Capital
Territory (ACT) (n=198). The results of the testing clearly demonstrated that the CoST can
provide teachers and educational researchers with a means to validly and reliably identify
associated with spelling.
1
Introduction
Spelling is one of the essential mechanics of the written English language. It is the visible
representation of “word‑level language using written symbols in conventional sequences
(orthography) that represent speech sounds (phonology) and word parts that signal
meaning and grammar (morphology)” (Garcia, Abbott, & Berninger, 2010, p. 63). Much of
the English spelling system is also etymologically complex as it derives from culturally and
historically diverse linguistic origins (Invernizzi & Hayes, 2004; Venezky, 2004).
Scholarly research in spelling has not yet reached consensus regarding the trajectory of
spelling knowledge in school‑aged children. This ambiguity has perpetuated a need to
develop assessment systems that reflect evolving perspectives of spelling development.
Effective spelling assessment systems should provide informative, reliable and valid data
and be culturally contextualised; however, spelling assessment tools currently used in many
classrooms do not necessarily provide teachers with comprehensive, valid and reliable data.
This article reports on a study that developed and tested an innovative, valid and reliable
spelling assessment tool that could be used by middle and upper primary school teachers, as
well as educational researchers. This tool, referred to as the Components of Spelling Test
(CoST), was designed to address a gap in pedagogy and in educational research
methodology. Of particular significance, the CoST is the first spelling assessment tool of its
kind to be developed and tested within an Australian context.
A focus on spelling
It is well established that spelling is an important dimension of writing and a fundamental
part of being literate (Berninger, Abbott, Nagy, & Carlisle, 2010; Devonshire & Fluck, 2010).
If students have inadequate spelling skills, they may need to devote conscious attention to
2
the task of spelling rather than on other dimensions required for composing quality texts
(Hutcheon, Campbell, & Stewart, 2012; Puranik & AlOtaiba, 2012). Research also suggests
that as primary school students progress through schooling, they may become less willing to
take risks with vocabulary choice when writing, particularly if they are unsure of a word’s
spelling (Lowe & Bormann, 2012). In addition, proficiency in spelling is known to support
metalinguistic skills, such as phonological awareness (Ehri, 1985) and morphological
awareness (Nagy, Berninger, & Abbott, 2006). These skills, in turn, positively influence
writing competence (Martello, 2001), confidence and general enjoyment and fluency in
reading (Perfetti, 1997; Treiman, 1998). Indeed, Templeton and Morris (1999, p. 103)
describe spelling knowledge as the “engine that drives efficient reading and writing”.
The twenty‑first century is characterised by rapid developments in technology and an
increasing reliance on the use of devices and software designed to facilitate communication
(Zedda‑Sampson, 2013). As writers navigate multi‑modes of text in an age where instant
networking and digital text messaging has generated an additional language known as
‘texting’ (Bushnell, Kemp, & Martin, 2011; Zedda‑Sampson, 2013), and this places demands
on writers to consciously control and manipulate their spelling in order to communicate in a
range of contexts. Applying and adapting spelling systems to different social and cultural
contexts requires autonomous and critical spelling.
Learning to spell
Research has offered various perspectives on the nature of spelling development; however,
evidence has not been substantive enough to provide consensus on whether spelling
develops in progressive and distinct stages, or whether spelling develops in more complex
3
ways. The analysis of spelling errors students make have enabled stage theorists (Bear &
Templeton, 1998; Cataldo & Ellis, 1988; Ehri, 1985; Frith, 1980; Gentry, 2012; Read, 2009) to
produce a linguistic index (a list of linguistic features, such as initial consonants and
digraphs) that has subsequently led to the categorisation of spelling development into
distinct and sequential stages. For example, according to Gentry (2000, p. 324), students
progress through five distinct stages of spelling, namely, “precommunicative”,
“semiphonetic, “phonetic”, “transitional” and “correct” (or “conventional”). On the other
hand, Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, and Johnston (2012, p. 9) label the five stages as
“emergent”, “letter‑name”, “within word”, “syllables and affixes” and “derivational”.
Proponents of stage theories conceptualise spelling development using different
terminology; but, these theories are broadly characterised by similar qualitatively
descriptive categories or stages. Developmental spelling stages derive from ‘Piagetian
theory and the notion that aspects of cognitive development proceed by way of qualitative
stage‑like change’ (Gentry, 2000, p. 319). According to stage theories, ‘spelling difficulties
are viewed as an inability to move on to the next stage’ (Kohnen, Nickels, & Castles, 2009, p.
116). Diagnostic assessments that are informed by stage‑theories, such as the Words their
Way Spelling Inventories (Bear et al., 2012) and Ganske’s (2000) assessment model, are used to
analyse students’ spelling errors and classify them according to a particular stage of
development. Although stage‑oriented assessment tools take into account phonological,
orthographic and morphological aspects within words, accuracy in phonological,
orthographic and morphological encoding is assumed to progress sequentially. Within a
stage‑like assessment framework, instruction for the student then focuses on assisting the
student to progress to the next stage.
4
However, Ehri (2005) describes learning to read and spell sight words according to
sequential ‘phases’, rather than ‘stages’, with the intention to avoid the stringent assumption
associated with developmental stages. According to Ehri, while learning to read and spell
may occur over four ‘successive’ phases (2005, p. 176), namely ‘prealphabetic’, ‘partial
alphabetic’, ‘full alphabetic’, and finally, ‘consolidated alphabetic’ (Ehri, 2005, 2013), she
acknowledges that progression through the phases may indeed overlap somewhat.
Discrepancies in views regarding how children learn to spell highlight the need for further
research.
Although stage theories offer a sequential framework that may be useful for teachers
planning and implementing teaching and learning experiences, the need to reconsider
spelling assessment is critical as evidence of non‑linear models of spelling development is
mounting. Indeed, converging evidence in support of non‑linear models of spelling
development (see, for example, Garcia et al., 2010; Perfetti & Hart, 2002) has emerged in the
last decade or so, suggesting that the development of spelling may be far more complex than
stage theorists assumed in the 1970s and 80s. The view that young students are capable of
drawing on and coordinating phonological, orthographic and morphological skills from the
beginning of spelling development, and that these students gain increasing explicit control
over these skills (Devonshire & Fluck, 2010; Garcia et al., 2010; Rittle‑Johnson & Siegler,
1999) is very different from the view held by stage theorists, who assume that spelling
progresses sequentially from phonology to orthography to morphology (Bear et al., 2012;
Gentry, 2012).
5
Accurate phonological representations reflect knowledge of how to segment spoken words
into the smallest units of sound within a word, as well as knowledge of sound to letter
correspondences in words (Bear et al., 2012; Ganske, 2000). Processing and reproducing
orthographic features within words requires sensitivity to letter sequences, or clusters of
letters within a word, rather than visual features (or shapes) of individual letters (Bahr,
Silliman, Berninger, & Dow, 2012). For example, when students have developed high
orthographic sensitivity, they have come to remember /ough/ as a whole unit (as in the word,
brought) and can automatically encode the unit, as opposed to laboriously encoding each
individual grapheme as /o‑u‑g‑h/. These students are also highly aware that the letter
ordering, or sequencing, within the cluster /ough/ is plausible, and that /uohg/, for example, is
not. Developing this latter kind of orthographic sensitivity is referred to by Treiman and
Kessler (2006, p. 642) as ‘statistical learning’. Morphological knowledge reflects an
individual’s capacity to reflect, analyse and manipulate the morphemic elements in words
(Carlisle, McBride‑Chang, Nagy, & Nunes, 2010).
Theorists who advocate a non‑linear perspective of spelling development argue that
phonology, orthography and morphology develop and interact in parallel throughout the
primary school years. Triple Word Form Theory (TWFT) represents a non‑linear stance and
has been validated in a series of brain imaging studies (Berninger et al., 2010; Richards,
Aylward, Berninger, et al., 2006) and behavioural studies (Berninger, Raskind, Richards,
Abbott, & Stock, 2008; Garcia et al., 2010; Nagy et al., 2006). Originating from studies
conducted on samples of individuals diagnosed with dyslexia and employing instructional
methods and brain imaging (Garcia et al., 2010; Richards, Aylward, Field, et al., 2006;
Richards, Berninger, Winn, et al., 2009), TWFT resonates closely with Perfetti and Hart’s
6
(2002) Lexical Quality Hypothesis (LQH). While Perfetti and Hart (2002) propose that spelling
development is dependent on the integration and interaction of three closely connected
constituents: orthography, phonology, and semantics (Perfetti & Hart, 2002), their LQH is
less grounded by research than TWFT. For instance, several studies in support of TWFT
have involved comparisons of individuals with and without dyslexia diagnoses, providing
converging evidence that unique and common brain regions are activated when individuals
are engaged in tasks, distinguished as either phonological, orthographic or morphological in
nature (Berninger & Abbott, 2010; Berninger et al., 2010; Garcia et al., 2010; Richards,
Aylward, Berninger, et al., 2006; Richards, Aylward, Field, et al., 2006). TWFT assumes that
phonological, orthographic, and morphological word forms are involved in learning to spell
from the early years of learning to write, and that changes occur in the ways in which these
linguistic forms interact (Richards, Berninger, & Fayol, 2009). Moreover, according to
TWFT, increasing efficiency and autonomy in the coordination of the three linguistic word
forms occurs over time, largely, as a result of instructional priorities and approaches
(Berninger et al., 2010).
Assessment of spelling
Further research is still needed to describe and explain the complex nature of spelling
development; however, it seems sensible and logical to develop assessment systems that
consider both non‑linear and stage‑like views of spelling development. Popular
standardised assessment tools, such as the South Australian Spelling Test (Westwood, 2005),
offer a range of words which implicitly encompass phonological, orthographic and
morphological word forms and increase in difficulty; however, they do not provide teachers
with the kind of diagnostic information needed to support students’ improvement in
7
spelling. An assessment system, developed in the US through qualitative analysis of
students’ written compositions, known as the Phonological, Orthographic, and Morphological
Assessment of Spelling (POMAS) (Bahr et al., 2012), conceptualises spelling into the three
word forms. However, the POMAS has its limitations. Unlike the CoST, the POMAS does
not provide teachers with a statistically reliable, readily available, efficient and user‑friendly
way to measure students’ phonological, orthographic and morphological spelling, based on
words spelled to dictation. The underlying purpose of the present study was to address this
issue. Indeed, it has been argued that existing measures of spelling achievement are “not
sufficiently structured or standardised to provide the reliable, sensitive data that teachers
need to plan instruction” (Al Otaiba & Hosp, 2010, p. 4). Moreover, systematic and
standardised spelling error analysis has the potential to yield much richer data than simply
examining student responses in terms of words being correct or incorrect (Al Otaiba &
Hosp, 2010; Bear et al., 2012; Sharp, Sinatra, & Reynolds, 2008).
The spelling of single words presented orally in the context of a sentence, in contrast to the
spelling of words in written composition, provides a reliable medium from which to
measure spelling achievement (Kohnen et al., 2009). Indeed, when students compose whole
written texts, such as narratives, they need to manage the spelling task with several other
selecting vocabulary, reviewing and monitoring (Mackenzie, Scull, & Munsie, 2013). With
this assumption in mind, a dictation spelling test provides an appropriate medium to
measure specific knowledge of the components of spelling, as it reduces other potential
interferences which may subsequently disguise a student’s knowledge capacity of the
spelling system.
8
It has been argued that dictation spelling tests alone do not assure comprehensive profiles of
students’ knowledge of the spelling system (Hammond, 2004; Westwood, 2005). Analyses
of students’ linguistic errors present in prescribed words may yield an effective and integral
source of feedback to teachers or educational researchers; however, if accompanied by other
methods of assessment, feedback is undoubtedly enhanced. Additional methods of spelling
assessment should not be disregarded, and these may include reflective conversations or
self‑reports by students (Critten, Pine, & Messer, 2013; Devonshire & Fluck, 2010), and
analyses of linguistic errors present in students’ contextualised written compositions (Bahr
et al., 2012; Devonshire & Fluck, 2010).
The study
The study described in this paper derives from research which took place during the initial
phases of a larger project examining the spelling competence of 1 200 students aged between
eight and 12 years. The main purpose of the study was to develop and test the reliability
and validity of the CoST.
Method
The development and testing of this assessment tool is best described in two main stages.
The first stage involved designing a tool that was informed by current literature on spelling
development and assessment. Words were selected by reviewing commonly used
assessment tools, such as the South Australian Spelling Test (Westwood, 2005) and the
inventories from Words Their Way Spelling (Bear et al., 2012). Consideration was also given
to common spelling errors made by students in the National Assessment Program of Literacy
and Numeracy (NAPLAN) Language Conventions Test (Willett & Gardiner, 2009), as well as
lists of frequently used words and “demon words” (Roberts, 2001, p. 52). The intention was
9
to compile a preliminary list of words characterised by diverse lexical complexity. This
compilation exercise resulted in about 90 words being identified as having potential utility.
The chief researcher then determined and defined appropriate linguistic features present in
each word by considering the linguistic index associated with stage theory. In particular,
the commercially available spelling inventories developed by stage theorists (see, for
example, Bear et al., 2012) were used as reliable and valid exemplars from which to score
and analyse spelling errors (Sterbinsky, 2007). Specific linguistic features within each word
were then aligned to the three overarching components that underpin TWFT (that is,
phonological, orthographic and morphological). The tentative list of words and their
corresponding dictation sentences were further refined in terms of their linguistic features,
and condensed as part of an expert review process before proceeding to the second research
stage.
The second and final stage of the study involved (i) testing the draft version of the CoST in
several school contexts, and (ii) an empirical analysis and refinement of the CoST. The
following sections of this paper consider this stage of the study.
Sample
The second stage of the study focussed on students in Year 3 and Year 5 from four schools in
the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), Australia. Representation from all three school
sectors (that is, public, catholic and independent schools) was included to ensure the sample
was broadly representative of ACT primary schools (Johanson & Brooks, 2010). Approval to
conduct the study was granted by the university’s Human Research Ethics Committee, the
ACT Catholic Education Office and the ACT Education and Training Directorate. Informed
10
written consent was also obtained from the participating school principals, teachers,
students and their parents prior to conducting the school‑based research. Using
convenience sampling, 163 students from Year 3 and 176 students from Year 5 were invited
to take part in the study. Of these, 94 students from Year 3 and 97 students from Year 5
classes agreed to take part in the study.
Test administration
The chief researcher administered the CoST to participating students during regular class
times and at their respective school sites during Third Term, 2013. For each word in the
CoST, students were required to listen to the word first, which was then repeated in the
context of a sentence, and then restated one more time. Students’ spelling responses were
collected and then individually marked by the chief researcher. It needs to be kept in mind
that some of the words had more than one linguistic feature (item) to be assessed.
Reliability and validity analyses
To test the reliability of each of the three subscales or components (namely, Phonological
were standardised and then analysed using estimates of item difficulty and internal
consistency. Data from the Year 3 and Year 5 cohorts were analysed separately.
The item difficulty index was calculated on each subscale by identifying the percentage of
Year 3 students who accurately spelled each feature (item) of a word. The same procedure
was then repeated with the Year 5 data. Higher percentages (approximately 80‑90%) in the
item difficulty index identified items that were easier, whereas lower percentages
11
(approximately 20% or lower) identified items that were more difficult. Overall, the scores
were lower for Year 3 than they were for Year 5, as presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Descriptive measures for CoST scores
<INSERT TABLE 1 HERE>
The distribution of scores, for each subscale, was then checked by using the Descriptives
command on SPSS, Version 20 (Buckingham & Saunders, 2004). An inspection of the spread
of scores helped to determine if all items in the subscales were adequate measures. If the
results for an item are too similar, it is difficult to know whether the item is adequate or
whether the subscale actually lacks variability (Macmillan & Schumacher, 2006).
Four items, and their related words, in the phonological measure were considered for
deletion due to some evidence of ceiling effects. These included short vowels and final
consonants in one‑syllable words such as tag, stick and gum. Although typically developing
students acquire knowledge of beginning and final consonant letters and short vowel
sounds from the early stages of learning to read and write (Paris, 2005), a decision to keep
these items was made to offer participating students an opportunity to begin the spelling
test with a couple of one‑syllable words containing common sound‑letter correspondences.
Such an approach was adopted to help boost the confidence of the respondents and make
them feel more at ease in a test situation.
The maximum score in the revised version of the phonological measure was 29, recorded in
Year 3, and 31 in Year 5. The respective means were 20.9 and 23.0, as indicated in Table 1.
There was also some evidence of ceiling effects in the orthographic measure. A marked
12
improvement was evident from Year 3 to Year 5 in the morphological subscale, and
respective scores ranged from 2 to 28 and 1 to 39 indicating the greater difficulty of this area.
A test of scale reliability was also undertaken. This test examines internal consistency by
determining whether the items included to measure each construct in all three subscales had
good overall inter‑correlation. To test internal consistency requires a calculation using
Cronbach’s alpha to ascertain how homogenous the items of each subscale are (Colman &
Pulford, 2008). Cronbach’s alpha is an appropriate statistic as the items in the CoST are
dichotomous (e.g. score for each item is either correct or incorrect). According to Muijs
(2004), obtaining a strong case for reliability requires an alpha of over 0.75. Cronbach’s
alpha on each subscale was calculated separately by school year, using the Reliability
Analysis command in SPSS, Version 20.
There was a total of 111 items in the original version of the CoST; however, some items
yielded either negative or low correlations or had an inadequate spread of scores.
Consequently, ten items, and their related words, were deleted from the instrument. For
example, one item classified in the phonological measure as a consonant digraph was
deemed problematic (/sh/ in the word wish) as it did not yield a statistically reliable result in
Year 3. As a consequence, the word ‘wish’ was removed from the revised list. In the
orthographic measure, three items were deleted to strengthen the overall reliability. These
included a common long vowel (/o/ in rope), a diphthong (/ow/ in shower), and an
unaccented final syllable (/er/ in shower). In the morphological measure, six items were also
deleted as they improved the overall alpha. Items included a derivational suffix (/able/ in
innumerable), a homophone (torque), an assimilated prefix (/nn/ in innumerable), and three
root words (/arch/ in monarchy; /psych/ in psychology; and /equi/ in equilibrium).
13
With a revised total of 101 items, the internal consistency results of the finalized CoST were
strong, as indicated in Table 2.
Table 2 Internal consistency of the CoST
<INSERT TABLE 2 HERE>
Content validity was also addressed by designing an instrument based on current literature
regarding the development of spelling and on the nature of the Australian English spelling
system. The structure of the spelling test instrument closely aligns with the components of
spelling that define TWFT. It also utilises an error‑analysis technique that is characteristic of
the spelling inventories provided by stage theorists (see, for example, Bear et al., 2012).
Consulting colleagues during an expert review process further enhanced the validity of the
CoST (Muijs, 2004).
The revised structure of the CoST
The CoST was designed to efficiently assess a whole class of students at one time. It is a
dictation spelling test consisting of 70 words; however, what sets this test apart from other
commonly used dictation spelling tests designed specifically within an Australian context,
such as the South Australian Spelling Test (Westwood, 2005), is in the way it is scored and
analysed. Each word is analysed in terms of specific linguistic errors that may be made by
the student and is informed by TWFT. In the CoST, each linguistic error is scored and
categorised into one of three subscales: Phonological Component; Orthographic Component;
and Morphological Component.
14
Across the three components (subscales), there are a total of 15 linguistic constructs (spelling
features) and 101 individual items, across 70 words. Table 3 presents a summary of the final
version of the CoST’s structure.
Table 3 Summary of the Components of Spelling Test (CoST)
<INSERT TABLE 3 HERE>
The Phonological Component
The Phonological Component in the CoST is designed to measure knowledge of the phono‑
graphic (speech sound to alphabetic letter) representation of initial and final consonants,
regular short medial vowels, common digraphs, and medial blends within polysyllabic
words (Richards, Aylward, Berninger, et al., 2006). The CoST is the first assessment tool that
considers phonological knowledge within the context of complex polysyllabic words. Table
4 presents a summary of the four constructs that comprise the Phonological Component, each
of which measures the spelling accuracy of specific phonological features within words.
Table 4 Phonological Component constructs
<INSERT TABLE 4 HERE>
The Orthographic Component
The Orthographic Component in the CoST is designed to measure knowledge of correct (ortho)
letter sequences within written (graphy) words. The English orthographic system relies on
26 letters of the alphabet to represent 44 phonemes, or speech sounds (Bear et al., 2012).
Therefore, a single phoneme is sometimes spelled with different letter sequences or
15
combinations. The Orthographic Component in the CoST considers the visual
representation of conventional letter sequences as a measure of orthographic knowledge. In
the CoST, the Orthographic Component consists of five constructs (see Table 5), each of which
measures the spelling accuracy in specific orthographic features within words.
Table 5 Orthographic Component constructs
<INSERT TABLE 5 HERE>
The Morphological Component
The Morphological Component in the CoST is designed to measure knowledge of morphemic
elements within words. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning and includes prefixes,
suffixes and roots (Ganske, 2000). A prefix is a unit of meaning that attaches to the
beginning of a base word or word root, while a suffix is a unit of meaning that attaches to
the end of a base word or root. Roots are examples of morphemes that are etymologically
2012; Ganske, 2000). There are two types of morphemes in the English language,
distinguished as either bound or free (Ganske, 2000): A bound morpheme is the smallest unit of
meaning that cannot be used as an isolated word. Bound morphemes commonly include
prefixes and suffixes such as pre‑, un‑, re‑, ‑ful, and ‑es. A free morpheme is commonly referred
to as a base word and is the smallest unit of meaning that can stand alone, such as shout and
march.
As morphemes are combined in various ways to express specific meanings or to function in
certain grammatical roles (Carlisle et al., 2010), spelling is often determined by particular
morphemic elements in words. Some words might contain one free morpheme and one
16
bound morpheme (shout‑ed and knot‑ted), while many compound words contain two free
morphemes (sun‑shine). Other words may contain several morpheme combinations (in‑cred‑
ible).
Six constructs are included in the Morphological Component to measure the spelling accuracy
of specific morphemic elements within words, as summarised in Table 6:
Table 6 Morphological Component constructs
<INSERT TABLE 6 HERE>
Discussion
Reconciling the dichotomy of stage theories and non‑linear models of spelling development
is possible to some degree. By drawing on the assumptions that underlie TWFT while
simultaneously adopting the methods of spelling error analysis developed by stage
theorists, the CoST appears to provide a reliable and valid tool to measure individual
differences in specific phonological, orthographic and morphological skills associated with
the Australian‑English spelling system.
The CoST’s innovation is in its capacity to interrogate student knowledge of the spelling
system without confining an individual’s spelling achievement into one particular stage of
development. The CoST’s linguistic features account for the likelihood that students in the
middle and upper primary school years may be encouraged to experiment with complex
polysyllabic words and homophones when they engage in the craft of writing, and that
17
Some students may demonstrate accurate phonological processing when spelling one or two
syllable words; however, further research is needed to determine whether a break‑down of
phonological processing occurs when the same students attempt to write more complex,
polysyllabic words. Spelling assessment systems need to include valid and reliable
measures of phonological, orthographic and morphological processing, beyond the spelling
of monosyllabic words, yet it is intriguing that the use of polysyllabic words has been
overlooked in existing, commonly used spelling assessment tools, particularly with respect
to phonological processing. Additionally, the inclusion of homophones as a construct in
current spelling assessment tools has been largely neglected, yet this linguistic feature seems
to present ongoing challenges to school‑aged students (Kohnen et al., 2009). Given the
substantial number of homophones in the English language, its relative absence as a
measureable construct of morphological significance is surprising.
The systematic analysis of linguistic errors, produced within individual words, yields rich
data; however, the ways in which linguistic features are conceptualised may challenge
existing assumptions about the nature of spelling development. The CoST categorises
spelling errors as phonological, orthographic and morphological, rather than as
developmental stages, and this is starkly different to a stage‑like approach to spelling error
analysis. Stage theorists assume that spelling develops in a linear manner, yet emerging
research contests this view. A fundamental implication of the CoST is that current
perspectives of spelling development can now be further contested. Curriculum developers
and educators may need to consider that an individuals’ understanding and application of
the English spelling system may not necessarily follow a sequential or linear path. Primary
school students experiment with increasingly complex vocabulary as they learn to write and
18
read. As they do, their phonological, orthographic and morphological processing is likely to
intensify in efficiency and autonomy.
The CoST presents a new methodological foundation for further investigation into students’
spelling achievement; however, this tool is not intended to be used in isolation or as a
replacement for other assessment tools, both in the classroom and in the scholarly research
context. Supplementing the CoST with additional measures is critical to capturing the
complex nature of spelling development. For example, an assessment may also include
tasks that require students to proofread and edit spelling errors that are presented in a given
text. In addition, it will always be important to include analysis of students’ spelling within
the context of written compositions, as it is in this situation that we see the application of
their developing spelling competence. It also needs to be noted that, as with many
dichotomous measures, caution is needed in administrating the CoST to the same student/s,
test results.
Conclusion
The CoST has the potential to offer rich insights into the spelling skills of middle and upper
primary school‑aged students. Although the findings of this study cannot be generalised to
the broader primary school student population, the CoST can be used for future examination
of spelling in other contexts. Indeed, this tool has since become pivotal in a large‑scale
project involving 1 200 students, providing evidence of criterion‑related validity, among
other findings, yet to be published. Replicating the present study using a set of parallel
items, with other student populations, and with the inclusion of an item discrimination
analysis, will further validate and enhance the utility of the CoST. There is also scope to
19
apply the subscales and constructs of the CoST as a framework for analysing spelling errors
present in students’ written compositions. The cultural significance of this assessment tool
lies in its relevance to a twenty‑first century Australian education context. The CoST offers a
means from which to begin uncovering the complexities of students’ knowledge of the
English spelling system in ways that may not have previously been anticipated.
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Tessa Daffern is a PhD candidate and Subject Coordinator in the Masters of Education at
Charles Sturt University. She is an accredited provider of professional learning with the
Teacher Quality Institute, in the Australian Capital Territory, and regularly works with
teachers in schools as a literacy consultant and presenter.
Email: tdaffern@csu.edu.au
Noella Maree Mackenzie is a Senior Lecturer in literacy studies in the School of Education
at Charles Sturt University, Albury. She is a member of the Research Institute for
Professional Practice, Learning and Education (RIPPLE). Noella’s current research focuses
on writing, informed by, her ongoing professional work with teachers in schools.
Email: nmackenzie@csu.edu.au
Brian Hemmings is currently the Sub‑Dean (Graduate Studies) and Deputy Director,
Research Institute for Professional Practice, Learning and Education (RIPPLE) at Charles
Sturt University. He has published widely and his most recent publications appear in
Professional Development in Education and the Australian Journal of Teacher Education.
Email: bhemmings@csu.edu.au
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