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    Jardine 2016 - Geotechnics, Energy and Climate Change (56th Lecture)

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    Chee Wing Yuen

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    ICE Publishing's pr ofthe Institution of Cw Engineers ob Help Signt etc} ICE Virtual Library | Emer word phrases / DOI ISBN / uber / keyworss/ te | Anywnera > essontalengineaing knowledge Home Journals Books Subjects Information News About Contact Home Géotechnique List of ssues Volume 70, Issue 1 Geotechnis, energy and ciate change: the Sth Rankine Lecture Géotechnique A\ Don't mi ISSN 0016-8805 IEISSN 1751-7656, ester ‘Volume 70 Issue 1, January, 2020, pp. 3-59 Geotechnics, energy and climate change: the Séth Rankine Lecture Content tools Authors: chard J. Jardne™ ‘Ado Favortes ‘Author Alttatons Cite tis pon eao)eo 801 ‘Track Citaons os his san open-access arco atrbutad under the tas o he Creative Commons Atbzion Lia Permissions hen parmes uecece use, dstbuten ane reprocucton any medur provided e oral Werk agommand a ISproperctoa " Keywords: fotngsteundatons lands pls & log ‘lan up for eaters Key: Gil Open access content Subscrmed cantant i Free content Tal conent Full Text \\ // Ve Section: gy ? Abstract Related search Geotechnical nginring has matured suficiotly to contribu to resolving some of soicty’s grand challenges. The s6tn Rankine By Keyword Llctue conedorea one athe mos! pressing global probions: maintaining vial orgy supple wil ako recognising, mitigating and Tedueing the clmate consequences of ora uel consumption. Ths writen vers.on reports geotechnical esearch relating to ese footingatoundatons ‘wide-ranging issues, considering pared topice wihin is tree man parts and llustatng tess with specie pracical examps. Part 1 landslides Toecsos an supposing ollevorehysreearbon prodicon,consaering advances in undorelanding ana soegning the von pies hat Pes & pling Supper mast contnental shelf platonms, fatore moving othe large underwater landslides tnt can affect aseper Wate developments Part 2 doszrbes vestigations ino the geotechnical impact of cimate change na pormarost region ana apealand study that ey Auber Eantibuts to along loos risks oxacaoatd by climate change. Pa oUnes research tats nproving te oconamis of renewable ofishore wind energy fr mul-ple and monople supported turbines, htegratng geology an rigorous anals' wih $vanced laboratory and eld experiment is shown fo e estantal o resting the complex geotcrniel problems consiered, a8 ¢ Eaelu fullzeale checking and montonng, Close cooperaton wih co-workers ftom Industy ard academia was eetral tthe studies desorbed andthe contowtone of mary cllaborstere ars enghaieed. The concluding seston ienvies examples of sgneant ‘questions from each ofthe sxc topcareas thal rema 0 be resolved al GEOTECHNICS AND ENERGY section: war Flchare J Jardine {No search istry Geotectnica nas developed overheat century ino a apne tat engages thousands of potessoal specials wore. Tne Recently Viewsat {est wo corferoncs ole inomatonal Sei "8a Mochrie and Foundaton Enghaong. hls n 1036 and 1946, rath pares —t POF {het ont sgnfeat ovo no praca azsniaton a to seminal conmibuons f Couto (1770), Aarne (1880) andt oa (1820) Terzag (192) Horse (1957) and ahr ea poner. Tremendous avances have folowed since, mary of wich have ries te been corded in tho 8 Rano Loctes delved boore score, ranging fom cial abortoryoxperrmerteorgotus ange tv SOW RAM ‘hoottealinosigatone and em somputr coding Wamp tyough to largest fold wudos. Resotreh mesos have rang ows cre ure surosty sought wo adores gent dustal or sooetal guess; thee assarchers comand sot have Sxonave bosins of nw knowledge. Aa gucci rane, sexier spea recent starsat re Pasech eae tan SCeaitipeoony th aly Cutan and St anvecrman: Amen poy gsstreoreesh srr tenet &_ FW us on Sade ebay nedsion Shecby fe emery ates ta saalomtoas mopar ot ‘eee ahaa ha ebeeenctsrs ate onan ccoaten Seroansie wesoereanparcensess- o> RESCALC Spentodecicy praes kn nya oe Rane sya Paston & Santamarna (2012) present convincing evidence othe social bene of increasing energy srovicon per capt, especialy {he developing wort. Colatng data tom the word's 22 most populous natons, ty show tat postive outzomes, naludig greater, [verags Ite expectancy longer schooling years and nigherinaomes corelata drat wth ie St 10 kWieapta consumption “eng enjoyed by eccnoméaly lacing nations, Negative messures such as infant moralty rates fll graty as anergy consumption levels fio, Conaovation measures ane ote factor aro leading to nergy Uee por capita reducing income advanced nallons (202 9.9, ‘Woe Bark 2018) However, lal demand is curently growing by 20% per decade as hs work loss prosperous populabons tracually achieve beter ing standards. More than 85% of global energy production is derived current rom fossil fuels that produce large masses of carbon exo (CO) by product according to Natural Resources Canada (NCan, 2017). Maintaining or increasing production cannetbe reconciled wth he Intemational acknowledged envronmentalneee to cut gresshouse gas smisionsdrastealy inthe dacages ahead, Each kWh of ‘soctty generated rom soal produces approematey 1g af cabon @oxdo, aepenang on ca! gfade, wl lsh natral ae Tua procuco ess, around 075 ana 0 kg roepoctvel. Meating the ntematonallyagroed greenhouse gas targets calls fra Febataneing of enery preguston away fom coal and towards gas and renewable Soutoes. There remairs tense inematonal debate fon how i achieve such changes without duping energy suaplles, blocking economic growth or lang back developing nations. Enginoors fom all disciplines are contibuting to tho work's ‘grand challange. Geotechnical researchers are actve in areas ranging trom ground energy storage and production schemes through fo assessing the impact of chrale change on foundations, earPworks and slopes. Ths paper covers only areas where ne auhor, woking in conjuncion with several caleagues, nas mage conor. Is ‘Broa main pars conader pales topics rslatng to ho flowing 1. Mainsning safe and afcien offshore ol and gas supplies. 2 Assessing and mitigating the environmental impact of climate warning 3. Improving th oncy and safely of ronowabl ergy production “The paris relative weights themes apply throvahout, {2} The vial noodle intograte geology, experiments, analsis and fel observations when approaching new large-scale Feld gootachalal problom et he balance ofthe author's work andthe itis consiarably longo than tho other. Four overarching (0) How collaborations essantal to achieving fective advances in broad areas. There are grat advaniagssin recognising fd sharing skile wih ndusiral and aeacomie colleagues (6 Tattle etna or ion an naa eed tobe ‘snp a posablé wo encourageaplcton, bt no spl an is nocessary’ to represent eld behav (dh The vate of nterchangig experience ana research developments between the ofshore and mainsteam cil geotecrical Highysigniicant advances are being made internationally across the topics raisin this paper and in afar broader range of rlatod vox. Writ is nal posse within ho spacoavalable toler gonoral ovows of hase dovalopmants, tho Rankine Locives by Brandi (2008), Gens (2010) and Houlsby (2016) prove valuable and relevant perspectves on relate Issues PART 1 MAINTAINING OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS SUPPLIES Secon: —agogg . “The irt part othe paper concems research conducted te heb enable he sale and econamie supply offshore ol ana gas, whieh has helped to balance the inforabonal energy market ever the past 50 years. Prodcon platinm water deptns mereased gradual ana reached around 200m by 1980. Maximisng the nyarocarbon recovery Wom contra shel Tels now involves axenaing production rom exsing, sometimes relatively ok rrasruture as well as developing ew. often smal, elds as economical as posebl. Largs resarves have boon dscovered In Tar degper waters, het iradtonal feed producton plains are nat vale Implementing be development concepts summarised in ro Ted toa stop change banveen 1097 and 2005 In hyerocaroon production ‘water deptha rom the low nundede of metres to more than 2-1 kr, However, the pace of devlopment slowed afer savers dicultes Were encountered and agie accidents occurred The 6400” wale daph Raya-t wel (ofshore Uruguay) appears oe te deopest fitedo date: see OFT (2010) “The pape fre topic concems advancing the undertancing and design ofthe driven pls which underpin most continental shelf il and gas production plattorms, The focus is en improving econemy wile ensuring the foundations’ ably to witstand storm loading and operating conations. The sscone specicaly doop-vatr, tones the analy of gohazarés pose by very arge anésaes, ‘whic are oncountared frequently on the slopes tat run dow fom he conneral sha te th oceans abyssal plans. ‘TOPIC 1.1: IMPROVING THE UNDERSTANDING AND DESIGN OF DRIVEN PILES Secton . sacxgroune Driven steal tubular ples provide the most comman foundation system fried contnenta-shel ol and gas production plattoms. They 249 also omployad in some doep-waterappleatons,incluaing torsion og platforms (TLPs) and subsea facts, as wall as in maj or and brig prjoce, Ther dasign involves making eho«es for etaroter, wall hexnoseos and orbaddod tng 0 Pal he ples Ean be civen winaut damage or undue ‘ius and ul ule servizeabty and ulimats Int state ene. The ples axa, teal and moment oae-disolacemont resoonsos nood tbe assossed in platform plo cesign but eriveablly ané axial capac fond tobe ‘he most erica facta. As decussed late n Par 3, lateral and moment loading are! fata conceth wih monople windtubsne Structures. In mast ntemational stings, platform designers follow the recammendatons and procedures set out nthe svoadly parallel ‘Amoviean Petroleum Inst (APL. 2014) and iteratonal Organization fr Standardization (180, 2007) document Understanding gotogy I ruta to euccessul foundation design. The API and ISO documents have ovoNed slonty rom approaches: developed inal or Gulf of Mexteo project, where consierablethssnesaes of low aversaneczation rao (OC) Quaternary manne ‘lays and sands are encountered. Davies eal (2011) summarise canons inthe UK North Sea sector, where the curet author was Test occupied wih ofsnor gootechrics. Quatomary sols dominato, but the 15 main uns mapped in Fig. 2) compre mulips lial ‘is combined with marine sand ana clay soaments averiing Teta, Cretaceous, Jurassle ar! ada” boarocks. The at fncountared losr fa the seabed in tne south and oer sadimants are enccuntared ont eastom eosetine nat of Tesesdo. The rotors Guatomary sediments become thieker wih stance aay fom tho UKs east coastine (se 9.20) and Yeach tit fraxmam (around 800") nthe conta Norh Sas. Davies ol (2011) damonstate tat repeatod laclatin ook place the North Sea Basin during te Mica ane Late Pleistocene trough ce sheets orgnating mn nortnem Scotian. Sea level uctuated realy between glacial ard nlersaca stages andthe submerged alata! geomorphology i highly variate wth Wequen buried channels ‘moraines, Boulder beds and ater pro-lacil featur. The seclments vary rom vary nar lay tl an extremly dense sands through {olow OCR, very 2 clay buried valley nil. 9.9 provides. as an example, a schematic representation o! te features ini Ior the Cai Rge development west of Shettand by Hampson #¢al (2017), whch willbe discussed again ater n Part 1, belore maving tonto consider deep-water landslides. CConcem thatthe Gut of Mexico approaches to sit investigation and foundation design might not apply to North Sea condtions prompt a sores of incusty-loa rsearcn and development projects Wom to 1980s onwards. Jarno (1885) dosaraos sto Eharactersaton ang insturen design stusos, Tels mentoring ane analy of pilo-roup loadleplacaront haviour wrdortakon for [BPs Magnus toe! jacket, then the largest worldvi, and lao nest TEP (Coneta's Futon TLP), whose norte North Sea te fe dened in Fig 4. Four eeulr groups of rine, 212m da, ples were dren in 186m wate depth to 82m penetaion through tainly hard to very sf ean glacial ils at Magrus, while fur simar groups of eight 183.m da. ples were drven in 148 m of water to 5m panetation tough nar tls ard danse to very dense sands ‘ortho Hton TLP. The Magis ples carea largo compressive Toads and sustained wave and wind moment loading though push-pull plo acton. The Hutton TLP applied enily taste loads, 25 shown in Fig. 5, Suczessil deployment a Hulton ld to multiple TLPs beng instalod for subsequent deepewater projects, nelucing he fxamples shown in Fig Most platform designorsassoss foundation load displacement behaviour trough th API (2014) approaches, which toa sing ples bya Winkle beam=couri approsen: axl and heizontal loading are considerea one-dmmersionaly without any sracve couping. Nonlinear aval shat (#2 lateral (e-y) and axial ple tip (Q-2)‘srings' re speced hat depend principally onthe local el lateral capactios found fem smole ompiical,gonore approaches. As dscussod furor ltr, n Part ito uso is mad of Specie sl sitinss nlormation. Pile group acton is addressed by assuming he interaction ae elas and selecting ‘operational Proles of linear shear siffnss wit dept. Kenly & Sharp (1993) descr the dynamic measurements of axial and lateral load-detlection behaviour maul with accolaomsters Sd sain gag at Magis under siorm conations, wha Jardin o a (1888) doserbo bs highrprocison sil loas-asplacoment measurements made at Futon, wih purpose-designed remete sensor, a the pl groups’ axial and moment olaionstifness. The data gathered a bth sts showed unequivocally thatthe AP approaches, as applied by experencedpractitones, under predicted ‘he ple group stinescos by factors of around 20 , dopenaing on the lading mode Paral! wotk at impor Colge allowed poditions tebe made by modeling the hight non-tinarsiass behaviour 300 rom vory small sans tought falurein eal inerumerted laboratory stess path ess on Magnus il an oer sols: see varans fa! (1904, Fif-clomont (F =) ealelatiens employing the Imperal Caloge inte-elomont program (IC=EP, soe Pols & Zéraveoi, 199, 200%) adapted modilea Cam Clay ans Mon~-Coulomb madl fo the clay tls and sands, respectively, combined with an efectve, Stress ‘nonlinear small-sran'stiessforlaton, similar to tha set out by Jardins ef a! (1986). Shaf-sal sip was captured win intracefalure tora trom ring shea ntotacs tests. Allowance was aso mado forthe efets of ie nstalaton onthe ial Stresses, based ona rovow a al avalbe evidence. Ple group fraction was addessed trough a nonliear procedure de ‘tom the ple FE analyses oped Jardine & Pots (1886, 1999) showod tat th altematve approach lod to Class’ pradicions (Lambe, 1973) that matched the fl ° ‘ual an rotational responses far more clogaly than tho designs convotional APL anaes, An oxampla of ie prodetions and os measurements made ortho Hutton TLP ple groups’ aval snes respanso ls prosanted in Fig. 5. Garena ("984) extended the CFE modeling to cover lateral loading, nding good agreement wih he lateral loag-dellecton measurements gathered at Magnus Undor stom leading conan, witout changing the no-incar mode snp parameters, or spectied ol oloctve sess condone. The conventona (AP!) methods’ marked overestimation of fll ple-goup movements In si to hard Noth Sea ety tite and dense sands nas signieant mplcatons fr th falgue Ives of structural members and fr foundation performance montaring. Neverless, the oftshore dustry nas relaned the standard API approaches for most new desgn work assuming perhaps ta the outsomes Would leat lad to conservatve srutural designs. However, lis now appeciataa hat his snot alvaye Wu and tal ho loae dstrioutions assessed trom ove sf foundation models may lead tothe sections of some members being undersized while others are often unnecessary noavy Jearjean tal, 2015). A pariela concer arose whon assossing fatigue Ives for well conductor, Whe te simplified conservative’ standard API py realmentieated Uneconomicaly shor setvce Ives for deep-water aot clay $tes wren larg, modarablow-ou roventrs are deployed 'o ensure safely. Improvement has ocome an urge ndustal pron ‘special for very high-value deop-ratr wos. Joarvean el. (2017) propose Improvements fr py analyses in clays that employ $ie-apente simple shoarlaporatry tasting Ae noted in Pat 3, advances have alge been mage recent inthe arvalksray trax sires path aborator and FE approazr thal havo Been appod in recon analyses of monopiles under ltsral ana momen: adi, “The ‘smallsral’ FE approach ie genetic and has been applied to many boundary valle problems since the 19806, inclucsng slope {Habit (toportedn Pat 2) and hundreds of utoan projects whore ground movomonts an ell-strelureinoracton ean govern sesign {orfoundatons, retaining valle tunele and deep excavations, Generaly good matches have bean demonsirated between prodetone and fla measurements n muliplo caso Nstories reper wih coleagucs a Imperial College ana the Geotechrical Consulting Group (G6, London); se, for example, Jardine of a (1987, 20080) and Higgins & Jardine (1888), Investiguons nt estat al apactien of pln even sande ance Predicting the aval enact of piles drven in clays and sands is centalto assessing founcation safety and usually a more pressing design concom than improving lead-asplacerent analysis, Database studios by Baud & Tucker (1986), Tang ofa (1990) ana ‘thors raised concoms that tho main text API approachos aro subjoc to wide seater ad possi Bias when assessed aganst oad tests, parcularyn sands. The metods'rlatwaly poo aedictve perfrmances might Inacate petenaly inadequate relaaity fervice when appli in combination wth the faciore recommended inh APT working svees design (WSO) or oad and reitance {actor dosgn (LAF) appeoaenes. The lck of ple lod tees tha opresert North Sea geotecrical conatione led two jin nduiry ‘groups to intate reseaten with nsrumented 762mm outsde ameter (OD) ples (Clarke, 1093). The large-dametr ple LDP” group fan tosis onshore in he UK inst igh OCR Jurassic Oxford clay covered by olacial tia ibrock Grange ann a doop profile of ow (OCR giaco-acustine ety at Ponte. Nel ste fuly matched te most commen Nort Sea conatons, but efahore Toss ware Considered prohibtvly cast. Kolk et (20052) report the paralel =URIPIDES rests run n a roprosentaive dense North Soa sand at Eomshavon inte Nothoranes Paral os0arch at Imporal Colog by the author's group included doveloping instruments (with Cambridge Inst) that could measuro ovutataly the local al onde, pore-water pressures, radal sd shear streases acting on meds! penal Cologe pis (ICP) closed fnded aeplacemont pls. To 102mm ca, upto 20'm long, pls Mutated nF. 7 (desctbed in cota by Bor et al (1991) wore ted to stody nstalalon, equalisation and load testing in ld earpage by Bons (1989) Lohan (1862) and Chow (1987) wh rule ICP installation atthe x ste locations Inlcated in Fig. 2 hn Were serie wth nelp or colleagues athe Buleing Researeh Extablenment (ORE), tne French Laboratore Central des Ponte et Chaussées (LCPC, now IFSTTAR) and Inebiut Frangale 44 Potato (FP) “Tho four UK cay sites at Canons Park Cowdon, Bothkannar and Ponts offered a sproad of marino, glacal, shallow marne-estuarne and gacio-acustine depoatte respecte, and presented a wide range of untained shear stengt, sent ana ll sess alo (YSA) profes. Adationa ICP test and sre cnarateisaton campaigns ware un In France al tie Labene loose dune sand standin dense (pray mare) saat Dunk. Detals of ths ido range of sl’ mocharical charactristes wor established though omprahensve ms ahd laboratory testing campaigns. ‘Tho cP exparmonts reported by Bond & Jardine (1991, 1995), Lehane eta (1985), Lehane & Jardine (19948, 19948) and Chow (1987) provided the basis for tre physical based design procedures proposed by Jarano & Chow (1996) ana extended by Jardine ot 1! (20084), Close goomerrl slaty allonea base fare to be flat direct fo local cone penavation test (CPT) cone vesstanc, ‘% while the mavcoum local shat shea’ stresses tat can be sustlnad onthe shalt Under axa loading tye e's shown tobe governed by an fective stress Coulomb expression ‘tang? ‘where ie te tion angle applying at the eol-stelintraca as measured in oratory ing shear ntrtace tees unto specie procedures (S00 Hamecy ofa, 1988, Ho etal, 2071) and os the radial ffoctve sess al al. Low ultimate & angls (somtimes less than 10°) can develop in clay that frm oatata, polished shear planes close othe pl hats (as wih many si, high-pasicy Uk clays who higher values apply to oan sandy laa is and shor angio (oxceodng 30") nave boon found in tlaromaceous, nigh plasty: ndax clays wah form in marine an lake depos's worlawide, Cetlatons rth paste dex cannot faptue hese vanes, ste-specte terface shear test ae esgental. In clays" mMay be akan as 08 tes the led adel ne fective st055 a, acting fra poe pressure dissipation is complole and ground stossus havo equaltod. The ICP toss showed that og can be expressed asa multple K, of oo, where Kita specied function ofthe cla’s YSA (or apparent overconsoldation rao (OCR), whichis datined as cy yg where ey ith versal yield stress und K, loading) and sensi. Sat any dopth below ‘round level 2s wel a he relative ple tp depth IE, where his the depth of hep below the point in question an Ais an eectve Fads detned for tbula pies as Re = (Rigg — Raa) K, =(2-2+0-O16YSR ~ 0. S70AI,,)YSR™ (h/ Rey" Aly = lo8,0 “hore 1s Hitec to 2 minimum of 8. The radial ffcve stresses that can be developed onthe shalt a any given depth alow ‘ground level docay as HF nereasos,vough acombnaton ol te phonomena outlined by Jardine & Chew (2007) that were termed Feosely ae ttn ati’ Yor lays by Heorsma (1980). In sands oy Maybe akan 8s 2.40" a falar compression, where te component Aj reflects constrained dlaton a the interface that may be estimated as Aas =d20/R ‘where cts he pile shats average peak to ough roughness, Gis the sands shear sfnss (when canbe estimated from cone Fesistanso, qq and Als he pl’ ouside rads. Lower radal shear stesees (and shah fostances) apply wth sands a flue ‘tension, for which oy=09 0-0" +0) wi tubular ples. The ICP toss in sands showed that depends dcly on loc CPT resistance q; and VF", whic has a il stronger inuence in sands than wth cays. The local vereal elective stress (normalised by mosphere ressuro, P,) aso mid iluental, ving ie = 00294. (4yo/ Pa)? (H/o)? ‘again, WF" Inve to 2 minimum of 8. Tess on open-ended tubular piloscven at Canons Park, Comn, Ponte and Dunkk howad thet equatons (2) and (are equally aoploabla fo oot clesed and open-ended pss, povided ther quivlen adh are ‘omployes as detned in oqvaton (2, ‘Jardine o al. (2006a) also show how th expressions may be applied to the steel H ston and solid square section concrte ples that tae oten even for smaller scale onshore ev engineering projects “The ICP design procedures were evaluated further by Chow (1997), who assembled a database of tests ftom sutably characterised ‘Hes idonfied inthe Rerator a well e unpubl research and indutiral reports. Jardin of (20080) ested the eo Eomotise 66 cases in clays and BY In sands, Inetuaing tre LDP and EURIPIDES ant ndusty oxpormnt. Statsteal comparsons Between calclatoa Q, and measured Q, aalcapactiss damarstrated fa beter prediclve elabily tan ts coaventonal API main tee approacn, especialy or sands. Several aternatve approaches have been propose fr pls dvenin sand that aderess some of he physical phenomena observed in ‘ho IOP tests. Tho UWA0S variant (Lchave ot a, 2005) of tho ICP sane method employs, n plac of equation (3) formulation Involving te incremental ting ratio (1°) of the tema ple plug for open-ended tubular pes that defines an fective’ ple area, ‘whic affects both shaft and base capac. Kok eta! (20050) and Clausen o (2005) Invoduced te felted Fugro-08 and NGLOS ‘motrods, which took oor roves to capture the elect o let positon and goomety. Lane otal. (2005) assessed the arate ‘sand’ methods’ prdicve pertormance against an extonded databaso of tsi, onelung thatthe UWA-08 and 1CP-05 mahods give the leat bas ana sate. They topo broadly comparablo elabliy stasis to ‘tains of al (2008a) ard the CPT mathous offered improvemeris over he API main ext approach All four are now includes as abla altomativoapproachos nthe Commentary socton of API (2014). Recent jont studies involving significantly larger ple est alasots and stcter quay citi include a study by Zhang Unwversy (210) ana moral Cotege (CL) reported by Yang 8a! (2015, 2017) and ant industy projet led by tne Norwegian Geotechnical Irate (NGH and reported by Ushane ota (2017), These two independent suaes led to road slg overall conlusone for sands Its important to recognige that most database tess wore conductod relavely toon alto instalation and, a shown fer, ge ator frvinghas @ marked impact on shal capacty i Both clays and sands. Table summarises the GG, satis Tound foe 80 ‘ge fit’ ests nthe ZJU-I0L sand database, in which ony ples lesed at ages of between 10 and 100 days ater ving are Considers, Also shown isthe Vang otal (27) e-avahinton athe LCPC’ CPT mathod employed in France, as ouined by, Bustamante & Gianesell (1982). The lnewidual Qj, rats found forthe restited seta 80 est vad by upto 20-1 Fom those appting to the ill group af 117 cases. This degree of sens to he specie ene i pial of pile dalabazes involving around 100 {ats The statsics become mors sanctve fo ndvidual cares Balog Included or omfteg, ana probably loss mearingtl asthe database populations reduce. Table 1. Joint ZJU-CL databaso test assossmont of approachos fr axial capac prediction n sans ‘moans an coatlonts of variation (CoV) "or 0,0, aos; summarised Wom Yang fal (2017) “Table 1 ndeates ashy more favourable outcome fo the API main tox method than easter stuces. The Yang of a. (20°7) analysis tlsonighghted te ignfcarty poorer state! outcomes when tha -otsnoe vant’ ofthe ICP-o6 and UWA°O8 approaches Speciied nthe API (2014) Commentary sections are considered. Yang of al. (2017) emphasise that is batt rota he full ICP-05 coe procedure racteal dosgn Paral evaluation by Loharo of (203, 2017) havo shown that se charactorsation approaches have a mote ertea impact with ‘lays than apprecated previously andthe stastial outcomes are highly sensitve to wich cases are lea ir out. Tete are urprcingly few high-qualy pi ead tests at sos whore sutcient sarang laboratory andin situ testing has boon undortakon to oa objective comparisons bolwoon a rotesontative spread af motos. Fr example, talabl inetace shear tosing and YSR profles are crus ote ICP-08 approscn, wha CPT methods cannot be aesateed witout igh-aulty profes from soundings cloe= forthe tet pies Despite tors made ovor the last 30 years, appears that omphasis nocd to be plod again on assessing reditvo capabiis for large ls evan in clay. Onl two load ese (bathy a Cowen n Humberside) are present Inte share of a (2017) dataset hal represent the sxtaneva North Sea glacial ile mapoed nig, 2. Abough til was present ove ths upper pat of tha pofla atone other $e (Tibyook Grange) controuted only 30% ofthe LDP" es pil’ hat capacity. “Tho TOP’ clay and sand axa capacyprocoduros have boon appli in offshore foundation design sinco 1985. Ovory (2007) doseribos ‘hair use nine Shell (UK) projects ahd presents pl dving monoring data that demonstrate the advantages over the conventional ~APLcapacty methods. His setincludes th coral North Sea Shearwater A jacket platform, which stands n 2 of watr and has he layout showin Fig. 9 Overy (2007) eegcribos th hard clay and donee sand ste proc and notes tal adopting te IOP design rmetiod allowed the 2-131 aa. pil’ engl to be reducod sigan to giv 51m tinal design penetrations. Conventional APL (eo'4) axl (2 lala (oy) an axial ple ip (C-2) nonlinear sping approaches were retained 'o pred the overall ad~ theplacementresponae of he stucture and ts foundations unde sto oads, Hunt (098) reports how the jacket performed in late Desemur 1888 undor condtions that matched appreximatly the 20 yea retum period storm. An axial push-pull mechanism suppliod ‘the main reacion 0 tne ovsr-tuming momanis imposed by Waves and wind IIs reassuring hat, a6 shown In i. 10, ha orzonl sways recorded by decklovel accoleremetersindcaed afar sifer han expected fold foundation performance. As a Magrus and Hutton, the movements wore soveal mas smallor than prodeled by tho APL procedures, is oaseutng tat tho rocueed ong SheanvaterA ples ncoated no sign of being under-espned Wie te research deseibed above yielded encouraging resus twas recognised that conventional fld mentoring and state ple {eng prow ony Imtea intamation. Tests fale ae usually conductod wit afew days or weeks o nsalaton. Checks onthe dogroe of drving excess pore prossure diss paton aro rarely made bets testng. Noting thal th eliza dasign casos ar Tly to ppl well ate’ avg is complete, delgrors must gauge, oF assume, how soup ad agolog in srvce afet ple egpones. Ths {usaton bacomas most preseng when aeeessing ageing foundations. Thal orignal seign polntaly undarakan many years ear, May nol proviae capactes that moet current ceria, EUaly, foundation loading requirements may have Become more onerous due To {ptde plant or production risers being added. or he elec of structural damage, corresion, szabed scour, marine growth or the Impacto imate enango on storm loading lovel. “The erie! pile loading cases at Hutton, Magnus and Shearwater allinvoled repeated. cyt, storm loading, begging the question as tohow te eels responses may compare wih tase seen unde slow, monotone ple testing, Ile impact of eyli loaang is Sgnfant how can te adsssed and neorporated nto practi design “To address these two questions, twas necessary to considera third: now to characteris the elective stessragime st up inthe round around piles during crving ard aver het sence lve? The extreme stains. namie constons and wide range of pressuree 8nd stress pais involved n pls crivng make the Installation process possible to model accurately with oun numerical or snatyical matnods. Four sands of collavoratve research have been undertaken wit co-workers from several groups te investigate these an other ‘uistanding questions trough four means (a) macro-sale fold ess to establish how india ven piles respond lo ageing an cyte lading (0) laboratory model experments with highly instrumented dsplacemen: pls to scat the local stresses developed on ple surfaces 45d within the slmass under condone that maton the macro-ecae eld taste (6 stese-ptheloment and interface shear experiments tht represent the manctnic an yale condone in theta (ch numerical analyss ofthe installation proses through emerging FE and dscrete-slement method (DEM) techniques. ‘Tho fllowing nine sub-sections rvew the progress made, considering frst agsing an than cys loasng. Space imitations have fod to atenton being focused pimanly hereafter on ples drven nv sand, Gatabase states show ial axa design i stabscaly ss Cetan in sands, whose consttutve behaviours intenscaly harder to model. Problems encountered at san sts range fom severely insult eapacty in same casos to ftusal and buckling on dving at others. However, paral work has boon conductod with clays 00, for example, Karlsrud & Haugan (1965) and Xarsrud of al. (1982, 2014), Jara ef a (2012) and Pusch (2019). Part restores a Aagroe of balance by placing goateramphasis on behaviour clas ard aver goomatorls. “Tho first research sroam involved rtuming to the donee sand test ste at Port Ouest, Dunkirk, northom Franco identifi in Fi. 8 Svan 457 mm OO, sto! ubular pls wore evan in assoaaion with tho GOPAL gfautd ashore ples for alta bang) int industy projec, exe Parker ota (1980), Adatonal CPTu taste were cad ox, acing o aatarintansive sree path laboratory testing at Imperial Cologe along wih in stu prolin, as deserbed by Chow (1987), Kuwano (1988) and Jardine (2073). Stages fe. time tenion fad fst ars on three 181m long ples provided the clear evidence nig. of song growth in hat reistance ver 235 days, without any change in nal aca sine (Jardne tal, 2008) Rests on individual pls lod to more confused and aggored tnds tat fale to demonstrate the samo imorossve capacity gains. Adcing data rom a longor arm test by Chow (1887), fan 2 324mm OD, 217m long, tubular sical ple van saer nearby by the CLAROM (Concel de Liaison des Associabons de FRochorcho sur los Ouwrages en Me) group lad Jardin etal (2008) to conclada tho following, Por (2) End ot diving shat resistances fall=20% bolow the ICP estimates. a (0) Tenslon capaci grow to mateh th ICP estates some days orwooks ater arving (© Shan capacts stabieed around 1 year after ervng at vals around 2-4 tes the ICP estimates. (d)Statictosing to faluredsrpts and sets back tho bonsficial agsing processes. As roted llr, sis bang can either Sopra o” ennanca eapacity growth, depending onthe val aptog| CComparabie, but uly Independent, tse tension test programmes were run wih tubular ples of emir sizes in dence sand diven above the water table at Blessington, teland (Gavin eal. 2018) andi loose, submerged sand at Lark, Norway (Karu fa, 2014). Thor tronds wore brought together by Rmoy ofa (2015) and Gavin otal. (2075) n Fig 12. whore IGP-08 sand shat capacity procictone ae omployed to nermalge foreach se's spect ground pote and cently a ommon overalagong trend. The Benes Sgeingtrende may hap to xplan why ovehore foundation faire are in earvia,deapta tha uneatstactery precva laity Eastes shown in Table 1. However, before reking on agelng in potentially hazardous ashore projects, Ris imporant to know more bout the processes tht contol eapacygromth ang ary condtons that ight be necessary forthe benefits suggasted by Fig. 12 to appl. Jane of a (2008) outinea thee poterttal mocharisms that might contrbut to the pb ageing processes: (a) physiochemical ne corrosion reactions Ivelving the ple sha sand ana groundwater leading to higher statonary radal stresses than gon By ‘Sauaion (6), or higher intrface shoating resistance angles han are ssonin ests employing esh sands and itrlaces; (2) anbanced ation at the intetace boosting the contbution detind by equation (5) through ether adaitnal radial ation do increased sand stipes G;() shat racal stresses sing above hose expected from equation (6) due to stress retribution Inked o creep within the Surounding sand mass. [Chow (1997), Axelsson (2000, Rimay (2073) and ethers reported evidence that concrete and stel pls setup at simlar ates ater fring in te fat, 20 appeared ntkoly that ho aging Vends of navel pis caus bo relalod purely lo chomiel reactions involving tar sna sutaces. In the same way the lls loading rests shown n Fig 1 Indcated that sand sttfass changoe we Unie tobe the min driving facts, Research wae terete concetatad on experments to Investigate purely mechanical related stpocts athe sozond and thé mochansme tn chamber inetrmetad model xperenent a Grenoble ‘The need to know mare about the sess conltions around splacsmant ples In sand edt a callaboratve investigation with holo Protoss Pare Foray’ group atthe Université Grenoble Apes’ 35-n laboratory. Tl largecalbraton chamber was receriguod © flow tonto high intumontod, model plo experments undo loelycontood conditions. Jase of (2009, 20138, 2013). “2h et (2008) and Fimoy ea (2015) deseeae mulsplo experiments with a 38mm aa, 1m long, tales steel min-IGP pl that ‘ould moasure shall shear and normal strases a vo levels. The mniple was jacked into to sand tough a eyete procedure in ‘when the ple head loae was educed to zeo ater each stoke. The standard stoke length adopted was SO mm, athougn the elects of Shorter and longer stokes were als vestigated. Choosing sails stoe forthe le material eliminated ary chemical reactions involving te po ena. As inseato n Fig. 13, dozors of sol sloss sonore wore also deployed within the masees of NE34 and GAG trace sila Fontsinebiea sand that were arplviatod ino the chambot at an average vod rab, y-062 (corresponding to clave donsty 0,=72%, soe Yang etal. (2010). A 150Pa vertcal sass was thon apple for an extandod period to match the average sand tat (voi aio and pressure) applying te the Dunktk el test, NE&4 has a smilar grading and comparable gran snapes to Dune Sand: parall laboratory studsze woe undertaken at Imperial Calloge, incuang intaface shear and igharossure tests hat matched tho rata sess condtons indicated ator instalation by the pe ar calibration chamber stress ombeddod sess-coll moasuremons; 00 Vang ef a (2070), Ala & Jarene 2011), Liu at al. (2017), Ataf et a (2078) and Li (2018). |Afresh 421 sand mass was prepare fo each test andthe ples were lf to age, under pressure or several months between instaltion ad ead testing. Acivona ost were undertaken with C27 devios and olin drvon ples mado of Doth mid ad sinless 'eol ara with afferent ple damotere, chamber boundary eontone al wot and ey) sand sates. Tho experiments provided Now insights nto me stress conditans devsloped around displacement pies in sands and sate and cycic ple loading tests also provided high valuable data. However, tho stanlessslel model posed to mantst te agen shal capacty gains seen ith et: only ‘the mld stoal ple showed siglfeant set-up, and ina was fr lose Impress than to gale ndcatoa in Figs 11 and "2. The madel piles showed no increase overtime in ether tne stalonar shaft ada effectve svosses or the alate ada sass changos invoked Dy loading te faire ‘Seoking to explain te paradox between the field and model ples ageing tends, Rimoy ot a. (2015) suggested that absolute pile flameter may attache ageing mechanism. The theknseees othe eas of crushed sand are found adherng tothe mene shats hy {he Yang ofa (2010) laboratory tests and in fel-drvan ples at Dunkrk by Crow (1807) at Blessington (Gav etal. 2073) and at Eomshavon (whore comentaa ion hysroxdes wore ontied by Kok ofa, (2005a) around the EURIPIDES pls) grow with gran sizo nd relate panstraton depth, but ad not scale up in proporton to ple lamar. Yang sta (210), Pinoy (2049) and Sha 20") note the annular thiekness othe crushed sand zones represen far greater proportion al the m-ples outside pl dhameers than ‘th argor Indust ples. Vang ora (2010) showed ha largo comprossive volume sans occur wlth tha annua erushod sand one wnoee mpact on any sess e-dstrouton mechani mould therefore oe fa mors signseant wh amallamstr ples, The fran crushing and soll sos rodstbuton processes ate also Ilo 9 alected by the open of losed-endod, cones o a Por Die tip geomet ‘vital question was whether lrg ofshore piles gain shaft eapaoty aver ime in sande, Jardine el (20158) ported data from Synamiesrese-nave matahing of accelerometer and sain gauge gals recorded during pl crving n very dense marine sands for the Borkum Fifgruna osha Jackat inthe Gorman Narth Soa. Signal matching was undertaken fr the power wih tho GAPHAP (cass pie wave anaisie program) coda that incorporatas expanded varsane of tha corvanional Sint» (1960) ena-dmansional le frving modeling assumptons. The sol resistance profles may be varied untl a good maten achieved between the predited and ‘moasured stan and accoloration Waces. The structure, whlch stands 24™m of wate, eHtatedn ig. 14a Yeagsuring that the platforms sight (2-13 OD. 38-5 m penetration pls inealoe mean ond-t-riving shat resistances that fl ony 73 bolo sito pectic oP preston, Records rem 2 este est conducted days ater ering indicated 4 aha capacy growth. Ae domensatod lator in Par 3, planned longterm rests on rg’ ples can ge fighly cost-affetva information, especialy when ‘lustre a oleroresteture ae tobe Installed smar ground condone ‘turer observation trom the Barkum Rifguné devin analysis was that he dynamicaly measured base resistances fll wal below those expected by tne ICP-C3, or any one common predictive proach, Bye sal. (2012) report similar ndings: # appears that the Ateplacomonts doveloped during dynamic harmo slows afar below those required to mobi ullbearing fale under the annular Furtner aging research involving driven mcro-ples has een completed recent in ont wor wth the NGI, Unwversty College Dubin and Grenebla 35-7 at he three sos whro larga” ples wore even and for which the resus were poten Fig. 12. Dozone of (50 to {0mm OD. approxinataly 2m ong) mld stool and sainlosigalanise stool micro-plos wor fosled torsion upto 2yeae ator driving. Carlet a (2018) ror tat the mero-ples could only develop signiant set-up trough cortosion reactions thai both roughened the shafts and pushed the eventual shat fare mechani cut nfo te sand mace. Ae wit the larger ple in Fig. 12, the ‘microrploe” stp roaches sable upper Erte ihn a your However oven the corodile mil soe! miterpiles showed legs marke Setup, athe same sts, than the larger ples. Caroll or (2019) conclude: (a) hat phyio-chemical reactions contnbute signfearty {o soo pla setup in sand, while also noting (0) that othr procossss must beat play aa thal ths agoing bohavieur of pls ven in and ie elatoter dependent 38 () instal sea lool and conerato avon ples show snr rats of set-up the Fold. Futhor fvidence tat cther mechanical procssses are iluertal's ven by the Borkum Ftgrud ashore pls" rapid 45% shat capacty fais. h appear unualy thal corrosion rections oulg have made such an mpact win 1 week unde he anoke cantons appying {ens ot metres below the North Soa for. Wille the Granoble calaration chamber modsl ple tts could not recover he imprasiv Fld ageing gens seen with larger ples in Fig, 12, hey gave nw insights inf tho sss condone cevelopec during penevaionn sands and provided indcallone bat support ‘he nypotneis hat radal sess redisvouton may provide a purely mechanical mechanism hat contbutes to he marked ple ageing behaviours frge, open-ended pes sven in sands, Mulla madel ple installations inne chamber ganerted thousand of ermal sires and shaft surlaco sttoss moasuromerts, Jara of (20182, 20130) prosont contour plot for he slesses recorded at ports inal located at 22-20 radial postane trom he ple axe nthe sand mase during ple penstratng and loot pauses between jack stokes, Measurements coud et be made closer (oth ple axis cz, The racial eflactve strse c, rends are summarised Fig. 15, normalsedby thelocal CPT g, values (ypicall 20 MPa) developed in the sand mass and shown in per cent. The racial strassos vary systomatcally wih th rolatve radius rom th pls axis (over the 2<#2<20 range) an relative vortcal stance (-20< [nfRe60) above and balow tha pes 60" conc tie Intense stoss concentration occurs atthe #A=hIA=0 (ip point) or gin, where the average varical tocive stessos o-nq,, asthe rini1CP ple ip has the same georsty and size asa CPT tip. Yang cal. (2010) argu thatthe sand expersnces high-pressure, Tnrgo-siran, Wawa compression fale beneath the tp vith the radial and creurorentalsvesses acNevng mavema ol Ky, where Kg=tan®(4Se 2) rica tate $90" for NE&4 under th cendtons imposed (Akuhaf & Jardine, 2011), giving o-="g=a9 on ‘ho fad axis and svossos that oxcoed those measured by tho nearest sand mass radial strosssonsors, which wote positonod a Ft =2 isto le nsalaion. The asses decay away sharply wih dstance fom tne tp. The asa stresses Measured higher onthe Sal are ony a small iracton ol tie maxima developed when th pit ave atte same depth leaving the sand Healy pe loaded and proshearod asthe pl advances through each horizon. Each ack sok (raving Blow) sls mpoees a fulleycl romal svsts enanges (as shown by the diferent sess dstoutons applying to ponetaing an pause stages) and shaft shea alr, rom downward sip to upward eboune, ‘Adng the one surtace stress measurements allowed the racial sresos to be monitored at nf=1 for xed MA values, The ‘reumferental sess components camat be sensed atthe shaft and are harder ta measure nthe sand Mass. Cylndtcal equliorum "was invoked to dovelop the radial astrbutions of & and o's plotted n Figs 16a) and T6[b). The profs, wrich covert sess conditions applying ater he end of installation, are normalsed by CPT 9, and pated agains for our postive values of IR. The Interpretation made by Jardine o al (20136) assumed that vertcal shear stessesr,, were negligibly small on the shaft and in the sol ‘mass aftr tho eno! jacking, when no pls head load was applied onelp deriva consistent srs asribuons forthe axaly fymmetie system, Howaver iis acknowledged that smal, residual lockedn lp loade were noted experimentally that woul have provokes balancing shat shear stresses, f= ~ i ‘Tho rata svosses measured inthe sand mass arth ond of al jacking excoaded those measured onthe pl shaf with the min pile surtaco strose tansdicors (SSTS), As shown in Fig. “6, tho oad op atrbtons show estinet mama a 2104 roatve Fad (1 trom the plo axis. This inicatos that th plo shafts shiolded by ctcumfrontal arcing in te sand mass, Ary weakening of to Bstching action ovor time duo to ereop ns sand (folowing tno oxrom sess changes imposed by ving) a by madorat load {yeling coula lead o stress reistibuion and radial shaft sts (and capacty) increases tthe ntaace. As argued sae, the agree dt steesreastrbution that could take place inte caloration chamber experiments may have been reduced by th relatively high ‘hiskness of te cused sand 2one compared tothe ple lamar, te rustauion mechan could prove far more important with larga industal-scalo pls. The sand svess dsbutons are also Ikaly tobe afctedby detals of to ple Up geomotes as well 2s Parile-scaloprocesees, suc as gran rushing, local donticaton an shaft abrasion (Vang of al, 2010, ‘The Grenoble experiments provide benchmarks aganst which analyses may be tested. Professor Eina’s group athe University of ‘Syeney was the fet to atlompt precios. zhang o al. (2013) applied an arbivary Lagrangian-Euleran (ALE) FE analysis to model ‘monotone ie pentvaton arin the Grandble eaten chamber shown in Fig. 13, ncorporaing a gra cuahing model calbated1o {he NES sand laboratory tsis reported by Aural & Jarare (2011). Fig. 17 presents tor matches fr (2) te plop base resistances, ay (win eaual a fo the contealy tipped minkICP), as 2 function of penetration depth Sito te chamber, (2) the Aistrioutions of parte breakage, as ropresonte by thr paramstorB, Te analyses predict oncouraging matches wth the ‘xporimontalmoasuroment. Fi. 18 a8es tho anda’ altibutons predicted around tho plas In uot colaborave analyses mado withthe samo authors, models ane goomoty, a raported by Zhang of (20%). Tho ol stoss predictions share many features with ‘the exparimantsn Fig, Including te ating macnansmy te maxima developing at modest ( 200 lea toa pullout fare and apos-ccl alia sae test confmed a 16% loes of shat capacty Jardine (1991 reviewed the near shat sol boundary condone ilutatedin Fig. 23 and noted that under purely axa loading: a he ‘reunforental strane must bo zro close to tho rlatvoly igi shat avo to axial symmoty (8) vortcal stne would bo vory smal ith ‘he si steals unl local sp occurs: a (c) ay raal sang sYsisted by th shou sffress of tho surrounding sol macs (as inceatee by equation (5). He alo noted rom Imited este of CP tts undarakan by Lehane (1092) noaee Labenne sana that _yeling impacts negatively on shaft capacty trough the local stresses unloading and he cal ro, afectve ses paths ating towards interface flue and sp. The Labenne ts nvlved fly dined conatons, so the afte sss changes that led tothe losses of shat capacty must alec tal raal stress reductons developing around tho ole shafts. varine etal (2012) note that he high Knomatcaly constrained naar shal boundary conditions oulined above give ren fo elective stress pass which rosombla hae Soe in constant volume or constant nomalsifnast shear est “The French natonal SOLCYP (comportement as peux soumis 4 des solitons cyeiaues) programme of ressarch ino ple cycle leasing response Incorporated nw eyclIoadng tests simi Flancain and at Laon Plag, about km south ofthe IC® Dune $e. employing a range of aforont pe technologie, ae reported by Puce (2013). The bores pbs tested by SOLCYP respond to tel oeding ra far las sattactry manner han hat aren in ether me mperal Collage ven pl tests summarised Figs 21 Sand 22, ora Imtea programme of eyelets bythe SOLCY? toam on pls crven a Loon Plago.rstalaion mothod clearly avoats ‘ho shat afocive sos path hat dovolop under cyete (an sta) shaftloading. Tho pro-evossing and pro-cyctg mpoeod by

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