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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover page ------------------------------------------------------------------i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ------------------------------------------------ ii

UNIT I INTRODUCTION OF THE SSTUDY OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

MODULE 1 DOCUMENT
OBJECTIVES ----------------------------------------------------------------- 1
What is a Document?
What is a Questioned Document?
What is a Questioned Document Examination? ------------------------- 2
Processes in Scientific Method of Examination ------------------------- 4
Self-Assessments Question #1 -------------------------------------------- 5

UNIT II HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

MODULE 2
OBJECTIVES ------------------------------------------------------------------ 6
PAPER:
INKS --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
ALPHABETS ----------------------------------------------------------------- 9
Self-Assessment Questions #2 -------------------------------------------- 14

CHAPTER 3
VARIOUS ASPECT OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
OBJECTIVES ----------------------------------------------------------------- 16
Classes of Questioned Documents ---------------------------------------- 17
Classes of Disputed Signatures
Photography and Questioned Documents -------------------------------- 18
Purpose of Photographs in Questioned Documents Examination –--- 19
INSTRUMENTS ND APPARATUSES NEEDED IN
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION ---------------------- 20
Self-Assessment Questions #3 -------------------------------------------- 21
 UNIT 1
Introduction
 1

MODULE 1
DOCUMENT

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Define document and questioned document;

2. Distinguish questioned document from disputed document;

3. Discuss how a document becomes a questioned document;

4. Discuss the cycle of questioned document examination

5. Discuss the importance of presenting the questioned document to pertinent

expert document examiner;

6. Define and identify what I questioned document examination;

7. Discuss the two broad classes of questioned document examination;

8. Enumerate the three important phases of scientific questioned document

examination.
What is a Document?
A document is any material which contains marks, signs, or symbols, which are
visible, partially visible or invisible that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning or
message to someone.

A document becomes a questioned document when it is being questioned as to its

originality, authenticity, authorship, source and genuineness and when it is placed under
scrutiny to determine whether or not it is disputed.

What is a Questioned Document?

A questioned document is any document about which some issue has been raised or
placed under scrutiny. It is a document that has been questioned in whole or in part with
respect to its authenticity, identity, origin, or its relation among its parts and to other things.
A questioned document is also defined as any signature, handwriting, typewriting, or
other mark whose source or authenticity is in dispute or doubtful. Letters, checks, driver
licenses, contracts, wills, voter registrations, passports, petitions, threatening letters, suicide
note, and lottery tickets re the most common questioned documents, although marks on
doors, walls, windows, or boards would also be included by definition.
 Questioned documents maybe disputed or not. In other words, not all questioned
documents are disputed.
What is a Questioned Document Examination?
Questioned document Examination has been a profession, at least since, 1870, and is
frequently done in cases of forgery, counterfeiting, mail fraud, kidnapping, con games,
embezzlement, gambling, organized crime, white collar crime, theft, robbery, arson, burglary,
homicide, serial murder, psychological profiling, and deviant sex crime.
The examination of questioned documents falls into two broad classes:
I. Criminalistic Examination – for detection of forgeries, alterations and obliterations.
II. Handwriting Identification – to find out who is the author of the writing.

The Criminalistic Examination of questioned document is similar to other kinds of

laboratory work. Dr. Wilson Harrison, the noted British Examiner of questioned document,
says that an intelligent police investigator can detect almost 75% all of his magnifiers and
measuring tools. The examination of document in the criminalistics laboratory is also a
scientific procedure which can be learned in a very short time.
 Handwriting identification on the other hand is a more difficult procedure and
requires a long study and experience. Because we recognize the handwriting of other person
easily, we think that it is a simple matter to detect forgery in handwriting. This is not true.
The problem s there is no person ever writes a letter exactly the same every time. The
handwriting experts have to learn differences of form and structure by a sort of intuition,
which is not easy to reduce to a science. For this reason, the police investigator or the
laboratory criminalist should confine his work to the detection of forgeries and erasures and
leave the identification of handwriting to a more qualified document expert.

Scientific Handwriting Examination consists of three essential phases namely:

1. Recognition of characteristics (analysis)
2. Complete comparison of all characteristics (comparison)
3. Correct interpretation of characteristics (evaluation)

Processes in Scientific Method of Examination

Analysis – properties or characteristics are observed, measured, and determined.

Comparison – properties or characteristics of the unknown items determined thru analysis

are compared with the familiar or recorded properties of known items.

Evaluation – similarities or dissimilarities in property or characteristics that have certain

value for identification are determined by their likelihood or occurrence.

The examination involves, therefore, the recognition, complete comparison, and

correct interpretation or evaluation of the handwriting.
There are two main problems in handwriting identification. The first is to determine
whether a signature, a line of writing, or a page or more of writing was written by the one
who is alleged to have written it. The second problem is that of determining whether an
anonymous or other writing was written by a certain writer.
Document examination consists largely of comparing questioned handwriting with
known handwriting to determine the writer’s identity: it also includes the examination of
hand printing, forgeries, typewriting, inks, and paper, indented and eradicated writing,
rubber-stamp impressions, charred paper, and related item. No two people write exactly alike;
the writing process is so complex that personal peculiarities always persist in the handwriting
of any given individual. Detailed examination reveals these hidden characteristics, which can
then form the basis for an expert’s opinion.
The partnership between science and crime detection has been strengthened by the
infusion of new technological developments, although major responsibility for solving crimes
continues to rest with traditional methods of inquiry.
Forensic questioned document examination on the other hand is the application of this
science to law or court litigations. Forensic science uses highly developed technologies to
uncover scientific evidence in a variety of fields. Forensic questioned document examination
identifies the identity of a document in question. In the courts of law a witness is not allowed
to give his opinion about a certain matters unless the court has decided that he has the
necessary fitness to qualify as an expert.

Self-Assessment Question # 1
1. What is questioned document?
a.

b.

c.
2. Discuss briefly. How document becomes questioned document?

3. Distinguish questioned document from disputed document.

4. In what cases questioned document examination can be applied?

5. What are the phases of handwriting examination?

6. Explain the two broad classes of questioned document examination.

7. What is a document?
 UNIT 11
History of the three aspect of
document
 MODULE 2
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The discovery and Origin of Paper: the Discovery of Different Kinds of Inks: The
Origin and the Development of the Alphabet

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the Chapter, the student should be able to:

1. Discuss the origin and development of paper;

2. Identify the early mediums of writing surfaces;

3. Identify the different kind and composition of inks;

4. Enumerate the different kinds of inks;

5. Identify thee origin and development of the alphabet;

6. Enumerate the different early forms of Writing System;

7. Discuss the development of the Roman Alphabet;

8. Differentiate Roman alphabet from Phonetic Alphabet.

HISTORIAL BACKGROUND

PAPER: The Origin of the word paper is ‘papyrus’, which as discovered by the Egyptian
more than 40,000 years ago. It is the early form of writing surface mad from grasses
called “reeds”. The first paper was made in China about 2000 years ago from the bark of
the mulberry tree. China introduced paper to Japan ad Central part of Asia. By the middle
of the eighth century, the Arabs were making paper. Later, it spread to Spain, France,
Germany, and finally, England. The use of paper was introduced in Europe by the Moors,
and the first papermaking mill was established in Spain in 1150. In succeeding centuries,
the craft spread to most of the European countries. The introduction of movable type
during the middle of 15th century made book printing practical and greatly stimulated
papermaking. The first paper mill in England was established in 1495, and it as only in
the 17th century when paper was introduced in the United States of America, specifically,
in 1690.
 The increasing use of paper in the 17th and 18th centuries created shortages of rags,
which were the only satisfactorily raw material known to European papermakers. As a
result, many attempts were made to devise substitutes, but none was commercially viable.
At the same time, attempts were made to reduce the cost of paper by developing a
machine to supplant the hand-molding process in paper manufacture. The first practical
machine was made in 1798 by the French inventor Nicholas Louis Robert. Robert’s
machine was improved by the British stationers and brothers Henry Fourdrinier and Sealy
Fourdrinier, who in 1830 produced the first of the machines that bear their name. The first
papers were made of vegetable, silk, and linen and later cotton and wood pulp.
INKS: Another very important aspect of a document is the ink. Man discovered and used ink
as paper was also discovered long before the Christian era. The ancient writing inks were
compound lampblack (carbon) and a gum or glue and were mixed with water used on
papyrus and vellum. Such inks are called India inks and are virtually permanent because
the carbon in the lampblack is chemically inert and is not bleached or otherwise affected
by sunlight. Colored India inks contain synthetic dyes rather than lampblack. India inks
are primarily used for drawing.
Chinese inks were made from soot, lampblack, and glue and other ingredients.
Another ink invented after India ink was the iron gallo-tannate ink. It is made of gallo tanic
acid from the gall nuts obtained from oak trees and iron sulphate both found in Asia Minor
where most of the ancient iron mines were located. Ferrous sulphate and tannn, dissolved in
water with a suspending agent, such as gum Arabic, and a blue dye are components of
permanent ink use over a hundred of years.
Ink containing potassium chromate in saturated logwood is the logwood ink used
since about 1850. It is purple dark in color and turns black in on the paper and can be washed
off chemically. Nigrosine and Aniline inks, first manufactured sometime in 1870 are derived
or made from a coal tar. Basically, aniline inks with improved qualities are used as fountain
pen inks. An ink which is difficult to remove from paper composed of different colors is the
alkaline ink made from alkaline solutions. This is ink has permanency against water soaking.
Inks of various colors are usually made of dyestuff. Blue inks usually contain methylene blue
or suspension of Prussian blue consisting of potassium ferric ferrocyanide plus oxalic acid
which is dispersed in water to give blue solution.
Another form of ink is the indelible ink. This ink is surely used in paper because of its
permanent heavy ink that penetrates the paper and cannot be removed at all. Printing inks are
varnishes which contain pigments and consist of boiled oil with various natural or synthetic
resins. Copying inks are similar to writing inks in composition but, in addition, contain small
amounts of glycerin or sugar. Stamp – pad ink, a slow evaporating ink that dries in the paper
is composed of coloring materials that contain glycerol and glycols.
Another essential ink used by spy organizations in sending messages is the secret ink
or the invisible ink. It is used to write secret notes or codes. Early secret inks or writing fluids
are urine, milk, and lemon juice. Synthetic invisible inks are usually composed of chemical or
vegetable substances called sympathetic or cryptographic inks with cobalt, chloride, citric
acid and lemon juice.

ALPHABET: The first form of written communication which started as far back as 20,000
years ago was graphically represented by arranged objects and drawings on the walls of
caves and big stones known as iconographs. The Ideographs are simple drawing such as
stick figures, Iconograph symbols wire combined with ideographs in providing
information which started sometime after 3500 BC. Early systems of writing used
pictures to represent the sound of those things. Pictographic writing, in which a simplified
a picture of the sun stood for the word sun, was probably the first step towards a written
 language. Chinese began as a pictographic language. To represent non – picturable ideas,
the Chinese writing system combined pictographs. For example, the pictographs for sun
and tree were combined to represent the spoken word for east. This method of combining
pictographs to represent the words for ideas is known as an ideographic system. In written
Chinese today, however, most of the characters for picturable items no longer resemble
specific objects.
Pictographs and ideographs provide an inefficient system for writing: there are simply too
many things to represent. Moreover, a string of pictures cannot reproduce what language
creates a sentence with a grammatical structure. A crucial step in the development of writing
was freeing the pictograph or ideograph from the things it represented and linking it to a
sound. The ancient Sumerians generally receive credit for this advance.
The initial development of writing in any culture has started with several symbols and
forms which later developed into a system. The Egyptian hieroglyphics exhibit elements of a
syllabic system. The Sumerian produced a cuneiform system when they conquered
Mesopotamia in 3200 BC and is perhaps the oldest system of writing. Cuneiform means
wedge – shaped. It was adopted by many Semitic tribes and evolved into different versions
under the Acadians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Elamites, Hittites, and Kassites. The
polyphones, symbol of more than one syllabic value, is the combination of ideographs and
phonetics. Homophones are different symbols with the same phonetic value.

The Egyptian writing developed three different styles of symbol system –

hieroglyphics, hieratic and demotic. Hieroglyphics are characters in any system of writing in
which symbols represent objects and ideas. The word comes from a Greek term meaning
“sacred carving”, which the ancient Greeks used to describe decorative characters carved on
Egyptian monuments. Hieroglyphics prevailed until 500 AD. The introduction of pen and
papyrus around 2000 BC encouraged the development of hieratic writing that employed
simpler form to depict the same figure. Hieratic became the choice of business and private
documents. Demotic, a highly cursive form of hieratic developed about 700 BC, was
generally used in Egypt.
The Cretan, Elamitic, and Indus Valley civilizations, and the Hittite civilization
developed their particular version of Babylonian Cuneiform and later replaced by more
cursive or pictographic systems. Semiphonetic forms in China date back to 1500 BC.
Japanese writing is similar but has great dissimilarities in pronunciation with Chinese. These
languages and their writing systems had virtually no influence in the origin and development
of the first alphabet and its evolution.
The Phoenician, are credited with the spread of the first alphabet from 1,200 to 900
BC. In 350 BC the writing system in all Greek states was standardized and Athens has
adopted a fixed form for Greek letters. Later, to facilitate the freehand executions of forms,
the Ionic Greek alphabet was modified.
There were two classes of writing that have evolved: calligraphy and tachygraphy.
Calligraphy is for book hand forms and tachygraphy is for document hand forms. After 250
BC, rounded form permitted ligatures to link letters and gave writing more speed. Minuscule,
a Greek new form of handwritten design emerged in the 7th and 8th century AD. The uncial
form and the minuscules merged between 1000 and 1400 AD. Minuscule are small letters in
the alphabet.
A derivation of Greek alphabets was the Etruscans alphabet in Northern Italy which
combined Semitic and Greek letters. The Latin alphabet of the Roman Empire was developed
in the first century AD. Another derivation of Greek alphabet was the Messapian alphabet,
developed in 800 BC when people lived in the heel of Italy. The first Latin alphabet consists
of 1 Greek letters from the Etruscan alphabet. After 600 years of changes the Roman alphabet
was established. In the first century BC two more Greek symbols were added: “Y” and “Z”.
Three Latin letters was also added: “U”, “W”, and “J” bringing the total to the current 26
letters.
The Romans developed the alphabet and enhanced different forms of letters. The
small letters and the capitals developed through the centuries and became the everyday
writing in private and business dealings. Development of handwriting was encouraged by the
development of writing materials all geared to produce writing speed and efficiency. There
were numerous writing systems in 800 AD: The Uncial System; the Semi – Uncial System –
which died around 1000 AD; the Minuscule in 400 AD; and the Lombardic Minuscule in the
tenth eleventh century.
Other forms or systems of writing were Merovingian Script (France), Germanic Pre –
Caroline (8th – 9th century in Western Europe), the Insular or Anglo – Iris Hand, developed by
the Church during the Middle Ages, the Italian Gothic and the German Gothic developed at
the start of 850 AD.
Self-Assessment Questions #2
Enumerate the common problems /questions relative to Inks in Questioned Documents.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Different examples of alphabet:

Figure 1: the Hebrew alphabet consists of 22 characters, all of them consonants, some of the
characters can also represent vowels.
Figure 2: Ancient and modern Greek are both written in the Greek alphabet, which consist of
24 letters. The word alphabet comes from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, alpha
and beta.

Figure 3: The Cyrillic alphabet is used for writing Russian and, with modifications, for
writing Bulgarian, Serbian, Ukranian, and other languages. It developed from the Greek
alphabet but contains additional letters to represent sounds not present in Greek.
Figure 4: The Arabic alphabet has 28 letters and is based on 18 distinct shapes plus dots
written above or below those shapes. Arabic is written from right to left, and the letters are
joined in writing.

Figure 5: Tomb of Queen Amonherkhepsef

In ancient Egypt, scribes used hieroglyphs to record state documents and important historical
events. Hieroglyphs with religious purposes also were painted on tomb walls and wooden
coffins, such as the hieroglyphs from the tomb of Queen Amonherkhpsef, located in Valley
of the Queens.
Self-Assessment Questions #3
Identify the following:

1. The first form of paper used by the Egyptians made from grasses called reeds.
2. The first paper was made more than 2,000 years ago in ______.
3. Inks made from soot, lampback, and glue and other ingredients.
4. Inks made of gallo tanic acid from the gall nuts obtained from the oak tree.
5. Ink containing potassium chromate in saturated logwood used since about 1850.
6. inks manufactured sometime in 1870 derived or made from a coal tar.
7. Inks made from alkaline solutions.
8. Inks that are usually composed of chemical or vegetable substances called
sympathetic or cryptographic inks with cobalt chloride, citric acid or lemon juice.
9. The first form of written communication started about 20,000 years ago which is
graphically represented by arranged objects and drawing on the walls of caves and big
stones.
10. Perhaps this is the oldest system of writing. The name is coined to mean wedge –
shaped.
11. It is a highly cursive form of hieratic developed about 700 BC which was generally
used in Egypt.
12. Refers to forms of writing using characters in which symbols represent objects and
ideas. The word comes from the Greek term meaning “sacred carving”, which the
ancient Greeks used to describe decorative characters carved on Egyptian monuments.
13. They are credited with the spread of the first alphabet from 1,200 to 900 BC.
14. 14 a Greek new form of handwritten design emerged about 7th and 8th century AD.
These are small letters in the alphabet.
15. The first Latin alphabet consists of _________Greek letters from the Etruscan
alphabet.
Important events in the history of forgery
• 80 BC – Romans prohibited the falsification of documents that transferred land to
heirs.
• Middle Ages – Forgery become prevalent in Europe.
• 1562 – England passed a statute prohibiting forgery of publicly recorded and
officially sealed documents, specifically those pertaining to titles for land.
• 1726 – False endorsement on an unsealed private document became a crime
punishable by pillory, fines, imprisonment, and even death.
• 1819 – England issued one pound bills inscribed on ordinary white paper with a
simple pen and ink, resulting in massive forgeries and the arrest of 94,000 people,
7,700 of which were sentenced to death.
• 1823 – The United States enacted the principal federal forgery statute that prohibited
false making, forgery, or the alteration of any writing for the purpose of obtaining
financial gain.
• 1962 – The American Law Institute’s Model Penal Code simplified and defined the
elements of forgery and became the standard for defining the crime of forgery.

Important events in the history of document examination in the USA

• 1812 – The earliest record of expert comparison testimony in America was in Sauve
v. Dawson, where a signature on a promissory note was proved genuine. However,
handwriting identification did not become popular until much later in the 19th century.
• 1814 – In Homer v. Wallis, 11 mass. 309, the court permitted the submission of
writings and the evidence of witnesses on the comparison of a disputed writing.
• 1914 – Congress enacted the Statute of 1913, which accepted such comparisons to be
used as competent evidence in court to prove or disprove the genuineness of a
person’s handwriting.
• 1867 - The first significant forgery case was tried in Massachusetts involving the
traced signature of Sylvia Ann Howland of New Bedford. The most significant
testimony came from Dr. Benjamin Piece, a Mathematician from Harvard who
testified on the mathematical probability of identical strokes being made in two
different signatures. He claimed that the likelihood of 30 strokes occurring in two
separate signatures could occur only once in 931, 000,000,000,000,000,000. His
methodology was subsequently proven to be inaccurate.
• 1894 – Handwriting identification became sufficiently well-known that two New
York experts published books on the subject: William E. Hagan published Disputed
Handwriting and Persifor Fraser published A Manual for the Study of Documents
(re titled Bibliotics or the Study of Documents).
• 1900 – Daniel Ames wrote Ames on Forgery, one of the first books on document
examination. Around this time, handwriting experts who were mostly calligraphers
began to testify in court as expert witnesses
• 1900 – Roland B. Molineux was convicted for first degree murder. Molineux mailed a
bottle labeled Emerson’s Bromo-Seltzer’ but had powder containing cyanide of
 mercury. It was ingested by an innocent victim who died by poisoning. The landmark
case involved at least 17 handwriting experts, including Albert Osborn.
• 1902 – Albert T. Patrick was convicted for conspiring to murder his millionaire client,
William Marsh Rice. The Rice Will Case required handwriting testimony to prove
that Patrick forged Rice’s name on several checks and a will after he had murdered
Rice. Albert Osborn testified in this case to the fact that the checks and will were
traced forgeries. He was allowed to use photographs on transparent paper to show that
the four questioned signatures were identical.
• 1904 – John H. Wigmore wrote The Law of Evidence, which revolutionized the legal
profession regarding expert testimony.
• 1910 – Albert S. Osborn published his seminal book Questioned Documents, the first
comprehensive book on the subject and considered as the “bible” of document
examination. The principles of handwriting identification that he described are still
the basis for the comparison of handwriting today.
• 1930 – The first scientific police laboratory was established
• 1932 – The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) opened their laboratory with one
document examiner.

Historical Cases of the Twentieth Century

• The Dreyfus Affair in 1894
• The Bobby Franks Kidnap and Murder in 1924
• The Lindbergh Kidnapping Trial in 1935
• The Clifford Irving and the Howard Hughes Biography in 1972
• The Mormon Will in 1978
• The Hitler Diaries in 1983

Self-Assessment Questions #4
Identification. Write the answer on the space provided before the number. Strictly avoid
erasure.
________________1. The year when the Romans prohibited the falsification of documents
that transferred land to heirs.
________________2. The year when the American Law Institute’s Model Penal Code
simplified and defined the elements of forgery and became the
standard for defining the crime of forgery.
________________3. Year when England issued one pound bills inscribed on ordinary white
paper with a simple pen and ink, resulting in massive forgeries and
the arrest of 94,000 people, 7,700 of which were sentenced to death.
________________4. The year when the FBI opened their laboratory with one document
examiner.
________________5. Year when the first scientific police laboratory was established.
________________6. The year Albert Osborn published his seminal book “Questioned
Document”.
________________7. Year when Albert T. Patrick was convicted for conspiring to murder
his millionaire client, William Marsh Rice.
________________8. The year when John H. Wigmore wrote The Law of Evidence, which
revolutionized the legal profession regarding expert testimony.
________________9.The year when the England passed a statute prohibiting forgery of
publicly recorded and officially sealed documents, specifically those
pertaining to titles for land.
________________10. Year when the United States enacted the principal federal forgery
statute that prohibited false making, forgery, or the alteration of any
writing for the purpose of obtaining financial gain.
________________11. Year when false endorsement on an unsealed private document
became a crime punishable by pillory, fines, imprisonment, and even
death.
________________12. Year when Congress enacted the Statute of 1913.
________________13. The year when the first significant forgery case was tried in
Massachusetts involving the traced signatures of Sylvia Ann
Howland on New Bedford.
________________14. The year when handwriting identification became sufficiently well-
known that two New York experts published books on the subject:
William E. Hagan published Disputed Handwriting and Persifor
Fraser published A Manual for the Study of Documents.
________________15. The year when the American Law Institute’s Model Penal Code simplified
and defined the elements of forgery and became the standard for
defining the crime of forgery.
 MODULE 3
Various Aspects of Questioned
Document Examination
 MODULE 3
VARIOUS ASPECTS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT
EXAMINATION
Various Aspect of Questioned Document; Classes of Questioned Document;
Classes of Disputed Signatures; Photography and Questioned Document; Purpose of
Photographs in Questioned Document Examination; Instrument and Apparatus Needed in
Questioned Document Examination.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the Chapter, the student should be able to:

1. Enumerate the different aspects of questioned document examination;

2. Enumerate the different classes of questioned document;
3. Enumerate the different classes of disputed signatures;
4. Differentiate the different kinds of forgery;
5. Discuss the importance of photography in the examination of questioned
document;
6. Identify the different equipment and apparatus used in the examination of
questioned documents;
7. Explain the value of photographs in the questioned document examination and
during court litigation.
Various Aspect of Questioned Document Examination
The examination of questioned document principally covers the following:
1. Examination of Handwriting ( which includes signatures) and hand printing for
purposes of determining their genuineness or source;
2. Miscellaneous aspects such as detection of alteration, decipherment of erased writing,
restoration of obliterated writing, determination of aged of documents, identification
of stamps, seal and other authenticating devices, currency bills and coins and the like.

The identification or so called “verification” of signature is treated herein as specialized

branch of handwriting identification.

Classes of Questioned Documents

 Documents with questioned signatures;

Commercial or legal papers (checks, notes, receipts, drafts, orders, contracts,
agreements assignments, wills deeds and other similar documents)
- traced forgery and forgery produced by simulating or copying process.
- sufficient number of handwriting characteristics of signatory
- absence of sufficient number of characteristics of genuineness
- presence of divergent characteristics
- color and character of ink
- torn, crumpled, soiled or discolored

 Documents containing alleged fraudulent alterations;

Alterations of words, part of a word, figure or part of a figure either by mechanical or
chemical erasures.
 Holograph documents;
Holographic document is a document completely written prepared and signed by the person
himself without the assistance of any person even a lawyer.
 Documents questioned as to their age or date;
Date the document was executed, date the paper was manufactured, date of the ink ….. the
specific date of the ink cannot be determine even thru chemical analysis.
 Documents questioned as to the material used in their production;
Kind or types of writing material, paper, ink and pencil or graphite.
 Documents involving typewriting and are investigated or examined for purposes of
determining their source and date, whether or not it contains fraudulent alterations or
substituted pages;
o PICA – characterized by 10 letters per inch.
o ELITE – characterized by 12 letters per inch.
o TELETYPE – characterized by 6 letters per inch.
o SPECIAL TYPEWRITER – characterized by 14 to 16 letters per inch.
  Documents which may identify a person through his handwriting;
Anonymous letter, poison letter, threat letter, ransom letter and the likes.
 Genuine documents erroneously and fraudulently attacked or disputed.
Writing which was executed in an abnormal writing condition such as over fatigue, under
pressure old age, stress, ill, in moving vehicle and the likes which may affect the normal
manner of writing.

Classes of Disputed Signature

 Forged signature where no attempt has been made to make a copy or facsimile of the
genuine signature of the person purporting to have signed the document. This is
commonly referred to as simple forgery;
 Forged signature which closely resembles the genuine signature since they have been
produced by tracing process referred to as traced forgery;
 Forged signature which resembles the genuine signature written freehand, commonly
known as copied or simulated forgery;
 Forged signature of fictitious persons;
 Genuine signature that the writer is honestly unwilling to accept as genuine;
 Genuine signature that is obtained by trickery;
 Genuine signature deliberately written illegibly or in an unusual manner to avoid
identification.

Photography and Questioned Documents

Photography is very necessary and useful in every questioned document examination,
especially for those who are required to present the facts in a court or any investigative body
or agency. With the help of photography, it is easier for an expert witness to convince the
court or investigative body about the result of his examination whether the questioned
document is disputed or not.

Purpose of Photographs in Questioned Documents Examination

 Photograph serves as a record of the initial condition of a questioned document.

 Photograph makes clear what otherwise may be hidden or indistinct.
 By means of photograph, a writing in question can be accurately enlarged so that
every quality and characteristics of it can be clearly and properly interpreted whether
the facts so shown point to genuineness or to forgery.
 Any number of accurate reproductions of the documents could be made through
photographs, thus affording unlimited opportunity for study, comparison and
evaluation by a number of examiners that would not be possible by using the
documents alone.
 Photographs can be cut apart as maybe desirable and the various parts classified for
comparison.
  Photographs are also useful in showing delicate discoloration due to chemical
erasures or other fraudulent changes, which may otherwise be overlooked, denied or
misinterpreted.
 Erasures by abrasion made by an ordinary rubber eraser can sometimes be shown very
clearly and recorded in permanent form by a photograph taken with the paper placed
obliquely to the plane of the lens and plate inclined at just the right angle of reflection
so as to show differences in the reflected light from different portions of paper
surface.
 Transmitted light photography is useful in the examination of watermarks,
determining the identity or the difference in papers by showing arrangement of the
fibers and the marking of the wire gauge and dandy roll; showing continuity of
strokes; determining retouching or patching of a writing by showing clearly the
presence of added ink film and the uneven distribution of ink in interrupted strokes.
 Stereographic photomicrograph shows condition of writing in three dimensional
enlargements and is useful in showing sequences of cross lines or showing writing
across a fold preceded or followed by the folding of a paper.

INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUSES NEEDED IN QUESTIONED

DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
Practically, all problems in handwriting examination are thoroughly determined with
the aid and special application of scientific instruments that are suited to this line of work.

The following are the instruments or devices used in the examination of

questioned documents:
1. Magnifying lens;
2. Shadowgraph;
3. Stereoscopic binocular microscope (where a tri – dimensional enlargement is
possible)
4. Measuring test plates (transparent glass)
5. Table lamps (with adjustable shade, like the available Goss neck lamps) for controlled
illumination, needed in side light examination (light placed at a low – angle, in a
position oblique to the plane of document);
6. Transmitted light gadget ( light comes from beneath or behind the glass on which the
document is placed);
7. Ultra – violet lamp;
8. Infra – red viewer;
9. VSC – Video Spectrum Comparator;
10. Camera with micro and macro lens;
11. Enlarger and other developing equipment like film and developing chemicals.
Self-Assessment Questions #5
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What are the various aspects of questioned document examination?

2. What is simple forgery? Traced forgery? Simulated forgery?

3. Discuss how simple forgery is being made.

4. What is the importance of photography iin questioned document examination?

5. Kindly give additional instrument and apparatus and briefly discuss its functions.

6. What is a holograph document?

II. True or False:
Write T if the statement is true and F if the statement is false.
1. ___ Questioned document is always a disputed document.
2. ___ Criminalistics examination determines whether or not the
writing was written or not written by one person.
3. ___ Questioned documents examination involved the examination
of type prints.
4. ___ Holograph document is a document which was processed by the computer.
5. ___ Simple forgery resembles the genuine signature.
6. ___ Questioned document examination cannot stand alone without photography.
7. ___ Handwriting examination involves the recognition, complete comparison, and
correct interpretation or evaluation of handwriting.
8. ___ A questioned document is any signature, handwriting, or other marks whose
source or authenticity is in dispute or doubtful.
9. ___ Disputed document is not always a questioned document.
10. ___ Transmitted light photography is useful in the examination of cross lines.

III. Fill in the blanks.

1. ____________ document about which some issue has been raised or under scrutiny.
2. ____________ any material containing marks, signs, or symbols, whether visible,
partially visible or invisible that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning or
message to someone.
3. ____________ to find out who is the author of the writing.
4. ____________ a noted British examiner of questioned document.
5. ____________ recognition of characteristics.
6. ____________ correct interpretations of characteristics.
7. ____________ forged signature written free hand.
8. ____________ useful in examination of watermarks.
9. ____________ useful in determining retouching.
10. ____________ a document completely written by one person.
 UNIT III
THE STUDY OF HANDWRITING
 MODULE 4
BASIC TERMS IN HANDWRITING
Basic Terms in Handwriting; the Different Kinds of Handwriting Characteristics; The
Development of Handwriting; The Physiological Basis of Handwriting; Recognition of
Writing Characteristics.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the Chapter, the student should be able to:

1. Define the different operational and basic terms in handwriting;

2. Differentiate the two kinds of characteristic of handwriting;

3. Discuss briefly the development of an individual’s writing;

4. Discuss the different operations in the process of writing;

5. Identify the different factors affecting the handwriting of a person

6. Enumerate the different elements of handwriting;

7. Identify and illustrate the different elements of handwriting;

8. Identify the different muscles involved in the process of writing.

Basic Terms in Handwriting
Writing - is the result of a very completed series of acts, being as a whole a combination of
certain forms, which are very visible results of mental and muscular habits, acquired by long,
continued, painstaking effort.
Handwriting – (as further defined in Wigmore’s Principles of Judicial Proof) is a visible
effect of bodily movements, which is an alomost unconscious expression of certain ideas
associated with script form.
System of Writing – is the combination of basic design of letters and writing movements as
taught in school.
Natural Writing – is any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to
control or alters its identifying habits and its usual quality of execution.
Disguised Writing – is a way of writing in which the writer deliberately tries to alter his
usual writing habits in hope of hiding his identity.
Cursive Writing – is a style of writing in which the letters are for the most part joined
together.
Hand Lettering – is any disconnected style of writing in which the letters are written
separately.
Holograph Documents – is a document which is completely written and signed by one
person.
Signature – is one’s name written by himself on a document as a sign of acknowledgement.
Writing Habit – is any repeated element or detail that may serve to individualize writing.
Significant Writing Habit – is a term applied to any characteristic of handwriting which is
sufficiently unique and well – fixed to serve as a fundamental point in the identification of the
writer.
Characteristic – is any property or mark which distinguishes and, in questioned document
examination, commonly refers to identifying details.

Two Kinds of Characteristics

1. Class Characteristics are identifying details which are common to a group.
2. Individual Characteristics are characteristics which are highly personal and peculiar
and are unlikely to occur in other instances.

Development of Handwriting
The following are the different steps in the development of a person’s handwriting:
Step No. 1 – When a person first begins to learn the art of handwriting penmanship copybook
form or blackboard illustration of the different letters is placed before him. His first step
is one of imitation only or a process of drawing; painstaking, laborious and slow copying
of the letter forms. The forms of each letter, at first, occupy the focus of his attention.
Step No. 2 – as the person progresses, the matter of forms recedes, and the focus of attention
is centered on the execution of various letters, that is, they are actually writing instead of
drawing.
Step No. 3 – The manual operation in the execution of letters, after more progress, is likewise
soon relegated to the subjective mind and the process of writing becomes more or less
automatic. As the person attains maturity in writing by many repetitions, writing
becomes an unconscious coordinated movement that produces a record. Attention is no
longer given to the process of writing itself because the subject matter to be written now
occupies the focus of attention.
The manner in which writing is produced is shown by itself, that is, the appearance of
the writing strokes will indicate where attention was focused in the writing process. Where
the writing is more or less automatic or unconscious, as attention was focused on the subject
matter and not on the writing process itself, the careless abandon in the writing process will
be shown by free, coordinated strokes. On the other hand, a forgery of simulated or copied
class is produced by a method similar to that employed by a person learning how to write (a
pupil in following a copy).

Physiological Basis of Handwriting

The impulses to form a letter begin in the cortex. This center is akin to brain areas that
control vision, hearing, talking and walking, and it guides the muscles of the hand as they
weave through the complex movement that makes the words. Since writing begins in the
mind, emotions and attitudes influences how we write just as they influence how we walk and
talk. In writing, the pen or other writing instrument functions as an extension of the hand. The
fingers transmit to the pen the directive impulses and the variation in the muscular tension
that, according to the nature of the writer’s nervous organization, occur during the act of
writing. Hence, as each writer has his own way of holding his hand, manipulating the pen,
and exerting pressure, the same pen in different hands will produce entirely different strokes.
This center near the motor area of the cortex is responsible for the finer movement
involved in handwriting. The importance of this center is that when it becomes deceased as in
Agraphia, one loses the ability to write although he could still grasp a writing instrument.
Thus, the ability or power to hold a pen or pencil to form symbols and words can be said to
emanate from this cortical center.
The hand contains two group of muscles which function in the act of writing. A group
of extensor muscles pushes up the pen to form the upward strokes and ease the tension
produced as a result of flexion by a group of muscles called the flexor muscles which pushes
the pen to form the downward strokes. This flexor and extensor muscles are combined with
lumbrical muscles to form the lateral strokes.
 Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing. Those which
operates the joint of the fingers, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. The delicate way in which the
various muscles used in writing work together to produce written forms is known as “motor
coordination”.

Self-Assessment Questions #6
1. Differentiate the following:
a. Natural writing and disguised writing.

b. Cursive and hand lettering

c. Signature and holograph

d. Class and individual characteristics

2. Discuss briefly the 3 stages of handwriting development.

3. Give the function of the following:

a. Writing instrument

b. Extensor muscles

c. Flexor muscles

d. Lumbrical muscles

4. What is motor – coordination?

 MODULE 5
Recognition of Writing Characteristics
Before one could make a comparison and proper evaluation of the characteristics of
handwriting, he must know first how to observe or recognize these writing characteristics.
Following are the writing characteristics commonly involved in the examination of
handwriting:
1. Form

This refers to the shape or design of the individual letters. In connection with the
factor of form, the following points should be taken in consideration:
a. Mere similarities in form are not sufficient indication of identity.
b. Basic differences in form of letters are indications of two writings being made by
different writers.
Individual concept of letter form is introduced in handwriting for the following reasons:
a. The endeavor to attain a highly individualized handwriting;
b. An effort to make writing simpler and easier;
c. To acquire greater speed.

2. Slope or Slant

It is an angle or inclination of the axis of letters relative to the baseline. Each

individual has different slopes in writing. Most people slope their writing forward; others
distinctly backward inclination, while the rest have upright or vertical sloping. Deliberate
alteration of slope will affect rhythm and fluency in writing. A slight but persistent difference
in slant or slope in two writings are by two different writers, while a pronounce difference
might be the result of intended disguise. It is improbable that one would attempt to disguise
writing by a change in slant by not more than 10 degrees and it is exceedingly difficult to
make a uniform divergence of this small amount.
3. Size
 Size as a writing characteristic is somewhat divergent under varying condition and
may have but little significance when applied to only one example, or to a small quantity of
writing like a signature unless the divergence is very pronounced. But if a number of
signatures which are claimed to have been produced at different times are in question (or
even two or three are under scrutiny) and they are like each other in the matter of size,
divergence becomes significant in proportion to its extent, the number of divergent examples
and the number of standards.

4. Proportion

Individual characteristics in relative proportion of letters or proportion of a part of a

letter or relative height of one letter to another letter can be found in different writings.
Proportion of letters is one of the hidden features of writing. It is unknown even to the writer.
A person not cognizant of such proportion peculiarities cannot be expected to discard
them completely in an attempt to disguise his writing, or to assume or imitate successfully
those possessed by writing being simulated. The average height of a letter remains constant
relative to that of other letter even if the size of writings is changed.
To change deliberately the size of writing maybe a simple matter. For this reason
proportion characteristics become significant as a factor of identification.
5. Ratio
For the purposes of comparison, letters of the alphabet are divided into two groups
namely:
a. Letters written entirely between the lines are referred to as short. Ex. A, c, e, I, m,
n, o, r, s, u, v, w and x.
b. Letters with upper or lower loops or other projected portions will be classed as
tall. Ex. B, d, f, g, h, j, l, p, t, y and z.
The relation between the tall and short letters, the ratio is described as “high”, if opposite, the
ratio is “low”.
 When the ratio of writing conforms to the ordinary copy – book form, it is considered
as common or style characteristics. Therefore, when the specimen signatures have similar
ratio, this fact alone cannot be considered to have one authorship. On the other hand, when
two specimen signatures have widely different ratio, they are unlikely to have been written by
the same person.
Ratio in handwriting, once fixed, is very seldom altered for experience has shown that
it is extremely difficult to deliberately change the ratio without losing the fluency in
handwriting.

6. Connecting strokes – this refers to the strokes of links that connects a letter with the
one following. In signatures, it is common practice among many writers to write their
signatures with the initials and connected without lifting the pen. In writing, many
writers habitually drop the connection before certain letters (particularly small letters
within words). When such dropping of connections occur habitually, it would be
difficult for a writer to break such writing habit. This particular peculiarity in
disconnections may occur in connection with any letter and when this shows
consistency in certain writing, it assumes an importance of high significance in
writing identification.
From the character of connection, writing can be classified as:
Most writers have fixed habits as to the nature and placement of their connecting strokes and
they are of evidential value when they diverge widely between two signatures.

7. Terminal strokes and Initial strokes

When a letter, word or name (signature) is completed in a free, natural writing, the pen is
usually raised from the paper while in motion with a “flying finish” (or what is also referred
to as “vanishing”, “tapering”, or “flourishing” terminal strokes) and with many writers, the
motion of the pen also slightly precedes the putting of the pen on the paper at the beginning
with a “flying start” so that the strokes at the beginning and end of words gradually diminish
or taper to a “vanishing point”.

8. Pen – Lift
 It is an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the pen from the paper. Pen – lift
or disconnections between letter combinations are maybe due to lack of movement control.
In case for those who write clumsily or with difficulty, the pen is raised frequently to a new
adjustment to make a fresh start. Words may be broken after almost any letter regardless of
where it is in the word.
Generally, pen – lift has little significant value because their frequency and location is
largely governed by several conditions such as:
 Slow and carefully executed writing may have so many pen – lifts.
 Writing, done rapidly, will exhibit no pen – lift except those at the end of the words.
Similarities in this particular alone are not significant indications of identity of two writing
except in combination with other characteristics.
Numerous dissimilarities in this practically unconscious characteristic are strong evidence of
lack of identity.
Pen lifting is one of those inconspicuous and unconscious characteristics. This is a strong
evidence of lack of identity.
It should be given careful examination in the problems involving anonymous letters and
documents containing considerable amount of writing as many peculiar and distinctively
individual habits of pen – lifting before or following certain letters are developed by many
writers.
Forged writings often show too many pen – lifts at wrong places.

9. Hiatus

Is a gap between strokes due to speed in writing and defective writing instruments. Most
people have no fixed writing habit regarding the inclusion of hiatus. It is common to find a
slowly written specimen handwriting of a particular writer with several gaps, while another
specimen written shortly afterwards is practically devoid of hiatuses. Therefore, hiatuses are
included or omitted in the handwriting according to the whim of the writer.
 10. Lateral Spacing

Lateral spacing is considered as a common characteristic when it conforms to the ordinary

copy – book – form.
Abnormally, wide spacing or cramping of letters may be regarded as personal characteristics
of some value. Most writers retain their abnormal spacing habits even if there is an attempt to
disguise other features in handwriting.
In signatures, when both the Christian name and surname are written, most writers have fixed
habits in spacing.
Spacing of words is often a feature in handwriting. It remains constant even when
handwriting is disguised or written in rather limited spaces. Some writers prefer to reduce the
size of their writing to an almost illegible manner, rather than depart from the usual word
spacing habit.

11. Shading

It is the widening of the ink strokes with increase pressure on the paper surface. It is
due to the spitting of the pen – nib resulting in the widening of the ink lines as controlled by
the variation in pen pressure. The consistent variation in width due to the variation in pressure
of fine and delicate lines is more specifically referred to as “unconscious emphasis”.
A forger, who is unfamiliar with the manner and manipulation of the pen by another
person will have difficulty in imitating his handwriting as to the exact location of the shading,
most often resort to retouching of inclines.
With the adoption of ballpoint pen wherein the width of the inclines is not affected by change
in pressure, shading in handwriting is becoming rare.
 12. Line Quality

Refers to the visible record in the written stroke of the basic movement and manner of
holding the writing instrument. This quality of visible record is derived from a combination
of factors including writing skills speed, rhythm, shading, pen pressure, pen position and
freedom of movement. It is the overall character of the written strokes from initial to the
terminal.
A signature will either have good or poor line quality depending upon the reflex movement of
the hand and arm of the writer.
A natural handwriting done by skillful writer will be found that practically all the curved
strokes are smoothly written. They exhibit none or but few abrupt changes in the curvatures.
Good line quality is produced when the writer concentrate his attention on what he is writing
rather than on how the pen point is being moved. When a writer concentrate his attention on
the movement of his pen point, reflex movement are retarded, lines are irregular and there
will be no smoothness.

13. Alignment

Is the relation of the parts of the whole line of writing or line of individual letters in words or
signature to the baseline.
In general, a signature is written in a more florid style and often associated with greater
degree of misalignment of the letters.
Persistent errors in the alignment of letters in a signature are often considered as individual
characteristics.
14. Rhythm

It is the balanced quality of movements of the harmonious recurrence of stress or

impulse. It is the flowing succession of motion that is recorded in a written record. Habitual
rhythm in writing is the harmonious recurrence of stress, impulse or motion. It produced a
natural and not a constrained or an artificial result.
A flowing hand (a term used to describe a skillful, artistic writing ability) is a coordinated
succession of movement impulses that guide into each other with a rhythm. A signature
executed with fluency and done by the reflex movement will have good rhythm. Disguised or
copied signature will possess poor rhythm.

15. Writing skill – it is the relative degree of ability of a writer’s proficiency.

Writing skills are dependent upon many factors, manual dexterity being the most important of
them. Manual dexterity id either inherent or acquired.
The bases upon which skill (pleasing pictorial aspect of writing) is judged are:
 Legibility
 Symmetry
Skill is usually classified as poor, medium, and good.
16. Pen pressure
 It is the average force in which the pen makes contact with the paper or the usual
force involved in writing. Pen pressure is one of the most personal but somewhat hidden
characteristics in writing. Pen pressure more accurately describes the proportion of strokes to
each other in width as affected by shading and by unconscious emphasis.
Delicate, controlled pen pressure accompanies developed habitual rhythm that gives to
writing its vitality or life. In combined qualities, rhythm and pen pressure in writing there
often is free, harmonious movement and a certain springy, varying pen pressure which
produces clear cut accentuated strokes that increase and decrease in width like perfect cones,
and especially starts and terminates in vanishing points with the pen in motion.
It is almost an impossible task to imitate successfully a writing containing this vitality as this
would require not only a physical organization of the same class but they must work in
perfect harmony.

17. Tremor – means “deviation from uniform strokes due to lack of smoothness perfectly
apparent even without magnification”.
Lack of muscular skill with the pen is usually described as tremor and is shown by:
a. Lack of uniformity of speed in making pen strokes;
b. Pen stops;
c. Involuntary horizontal and vertical movements (uncontrolled sidewise
movement produce a line with abrupt changes of direction or zigzag
character)

Involuntary pen pressure, sometimes referred to as “vertical tremor”, is the involuntary up

and down movements or changing pressure which produces a line of varying width or
intensity as the pressure is suddenly increased or diminished.
Causes of tremor:
a. Lack of skill on the part of the writer;
b. Self – consciousness of the writing process;
c. Hesitation resulting from copying or imitation;
d. Uncontrollable nervousness of the writer;
e. In illiterate writing, due to clumsiness, partly due to lack of clear mental
impression of the form being made.
 Kind of tremor:
a. Genuine tremors such as:
i. Tremor of age;
ii. Tremor of illiteracy;
iii. Tremor of weakness;
b. Tremor of fraud

Tremor of age, illiteracy, and of weakness are not always distinguishable from each other but
can usually be distinguished from that of fraud.
Genuine tremor – genuine writing even if showing much tremor will show some free
connecting and terminal strokes made by the momentum of the hand. Natural tremor, being
involuntary, is apt to be comparatively uniform on similar parts of a letter (and a forger may
fail in simulating natural, genuine tremors in showing too many or too few tremors, or place
tremors in wrong portions of a letter).

Tremor of Age or Weakness – characteristics of tremor of age or of extreme weakness are:

 Shows unusual and erratic departures of the line from each intended course;
 Abrupt recovery;
 General indication of muscular weakness and of movements beyond the
control of the writer particularly in downward strokes;
 shows awkward digressions or distortions which may be due to imperfect
sight;
 General irregularity due to involuntary tremor, often characterized by
abbreviations or even omission of parts of letters, or even whole letters.
Tremor of illiteracy – this is characterized by general irregularity that is not due to weakness
but to lack of skills and mental uncertainty as to the form and a general clumsiness resulting
from unfamiliarity with the whole writing process.
Even on ruled paper, illiterate writing frequently shows a pronounced irregularity in
alignment, some of it being above the line and some through the line; the words may each go
up from the line so that the end of each word is higher than the beginning; and especially on
an uncontrolled paper, writing has the tendency to go uphill across the whole sheet.
Omission of parts of letters or strokes is not uncommon. Even the clumsiest genuine writing
will usually show occasional, careless and unconscious strokes.
Changes of direction are not apt to be as in tremor of age or weakness.
Tremor of Fraud – fraudulent writing which is drawn even in general form shows, little, if
any, freedom and will often show hesitation at places where tremor is wrongly placed.

Characteristics of Tremor of Fraud

Inequality of movement at any place in stroke or line with strokes too strong and vigorous
combined with weak, hesitating strokes;
 frequent interruption in movement;
 unequal distribution of ink on upward as well as downward strokes;
 varying pen pressure, due to change in speed and interruption of speed, which may
occur in the middle of direct curves, or even in that should be straight lines;
 tremor of fraud shows a painstaking and unnatural care at every point that indicates an
effort to follow an unfamiliar copy.
In the imitation of a writing that is excessively weak and hesitating, the imitation in some
parts shows an inconsistent strength and firmness and indicates that the writing is not
genuine.

18. Natural Variation

Variation is:
 Due to lack of machine – like precision of the human hand,
 It is also caused by external factors, such as the writing instrument and the writing
position,
 Influenced by physical and mental condition such as fatigue, intoxication, illness,
nervousness and the age of the writer,
 Due to the quantity of the writing prepared in the course of time, variation in genuine
signature appears in superficial parts and does not apply to the whole process of
writing. The degree of care given to the act of writing creates variation. Change of
slope and the size of the signature superficially affect the appearance of the signature.
The nature and extent of the variation of the letter design depend on the location: initial,
medial, or terminal. The master pattern for any letter design that closely resembles the
copybook form must be regarded more as a class rather than individual characteristics. No
two individual will exhibit similar master pattern of the same combination of letter design.
The range of variation of letter design is not the same for all letters; small letters such as “I, e,
and o” have limited variation because any appreciable modification of the design will render
the letters illegible.

19. Rubric or Embellishment

This refers to additional unnecessary strokes not necessary to legibility of letter forms
or writings but incorporated in writing for decorative or ornamental purposes.
Embellishment is usually added to signatures to enhance, what is to the writer, their “pleasing
appearance.” This serves as “security” to make a signature more difficult to imitate or forge.

Self-Assessment Question #7
I. Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. Refers to the additional unnecessary strokes in writing that is for decorative or

ornamental purpose.
a. Rubric b. Tremor c. Rhythm d. variation
2. Characterized by general irregularity, that is not due to weakness but lack of skills and
mental uncertainty as to the form and general clumsiness resulting from unfamiliarity
with whole writing process.
a. Tremor of fraud c. tremor of age
b. Tremor of illiteracy d. tremor of weakness
3. Deviation from uniform strokes due to lack of smoothness perfectly apparent even
without magnification.
a. Variation b. tremor c. rubric d. rhythm
4. It is the relative degree of ability of a writer’s proficiency.
a. Skill b. rhythm c. tremor d. variation
5. Balanced quality of movement of the harmonious recurrence of stress or impulse.
a. Skill b. rhythm c. alignment d. variation
6. A gap between strokes.
a. Pen lift b. spacing c. hiatus d. ratio
7. An interruption in strokes caused by removing the pen from the paper.
a. Pen lift b. spacing c. hiatus d. ratio
8. The following are classification of connecting strokes, except,
a. Circular b. oblong c. angular d. angular
9. Letters written entirely between the lines.
 a. Short b. tall c. high d. low
10. Refers to the relation between the tall and short letters.
a. Short b. tall c. ratio d. proportion
11. Refers to the shape and design of individual letters.
a. Slant b. form c. slope d. rhythm
12. Angle or inclination of the axis of the letters from the baseline.
a. Slant b. form c. slope d. a and c
13. Generally speaking, how many groups of muscles are employed in writing?
a. One b. two c. three d. four
14. It pushes the pen to form the upward strokes.
a. Flexor b. lumbrical c. extensor d. fingers
15. It functions as the extension of the hand in writing.
a. Ball pen b. pencil c. sign pen d. writing instrument
16. It is a disease where one losses the ability to write even though he could still grasp a
writing instrument.
a. Agraphia b. Parkinson’s c. Arthritis d. stress
17. The attention of the person who first begins to learn the art of handwriting is focused
on.
a. Execution of letters b. drawing c. form d. subject
18. The attention of a matured writer is centered on.
a. Execution of letters c. writing process
b. Letter forms d. subject matter
19. A combination of basic design of letters and writing movements as taught in school.
a. System of writing c. cursive writing
b. Handwriting d. writing
20. Any repeated elements or details which may serve to individualize writing,
a. Signature c. habit
b. Holograph document d. elements

II. Fill in the blanks

____________ 1. It is the result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole, a
combination of certain form which is the very visible result of fixed mental and muscular
habits acquired by long, continued painstaking effort.
____________ 2. Writing in which the letters are for the most part joined together.
____________ 3. Are identifying details which are common to a group.
____________ 4. It is any property or mark which distinguishes, and in questioned
document examination, refers to the identifying details.
____________ 5. One’s name written by himself on a document as a sign of
acknowledgement.
____________ 6. Push the pen to form the upward strokes.
____________ 7. The tall letters have loops twice the height of the short letters.
____________ 8. It is an essential property of everyone’s handwriting.
____________ 9. Refers to the visible records in a written stroke of the basic movement
and manner of holding the pen.
____________ 10. It is the widening of the ink stroke with increased pressure on the
paper surface.
 MODULE 6
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN HANDWRITING
IDENTIFICATION

The Different Principles and Rules in the Individuality and Identification of Handwriting

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the Chapter, the student should be able to:

1. Discuss the basis of handwriting identification;

2. Enumerate the factors affecting the handwriting of a person;

3. Enumerate the different causes of changes in individual’s handwriting;

4. Discuss the importance of comparative examination and the standards in the

identification of handwriting;

5. Identify the focal point of identification of handwriting.

PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION
I. No two writers write exactly the alike

This is the basis of all handwriting identification. Early workers in the field who
pioneered in the scientific identification of handwriting assumed that “no two writers write
exactly alike”. This assumption has stood the test of time. When the numerous problems
have been submitted to document examiners throughout the years there has never been
found an example of two identical handwritings. Even a single writer cannot perfectly
duplicate his own handwriting. As no two person writes exactly alike, one cannot perfectly
produce a geometrically perfect handwriting.

Each writer has a handwriting which is personal and peculiar to him alone. Each
writer has their own habit. The manner of holding the pen and the mental capability of the
person, including the process of transmitting through the nerves the impulse to produce a
writing, constitute a characteristic which are unique to a writer.

The characteristics of a person are acquired through a long process by many

repetitions. This constitute a habit in the writing process. Habits are those elements of
handwriting that repeatedly appear. The mental and physical condition of a person as well as
his emotional aspect affects the process of handwriting. However, it does not fully destroy
temporarily the habit which is identical to a single writer.

Modifications and changes come into an individual’s handwriting during different

periods of his life but in most instances, they are very gradual and may not be discernable
except by studying specimens written at widely separate dates. There are certain periods in
which this modification appears more rapidly than others. Early maturity is usually one such
period. Now this should be put into use in everyday affairs. With some, the changes
represents personal innovation; with others, a gradual decline due to carelessness and hasty
writing; and with still another group, increased vigor, freedom and sureness. The long span
of middle life as a rule is only a slight modification.

II. The physical writing condition and position of the person including his writing
instrument may affect the handwriting characteristics but they do not confine all its
identifying elements.

Deterioration in writing results from less accurate coordination of the highly

complicated interrelated factors which go into the writing process. Thus, one would not
expect only one or two identifying characteristics to be altered while the others will to
continue to be reproduced exactly as before.

Both illness and old age may be reflected in handwriting. Not every serious illness,
however, causes a lessening in writing ability. Rather, those that weaken the person so that
he is unable to perform skillful operation are most likely to affect his handwriting. Diseases
such as heart ailments, high blood pressure, and the like, normally, are not accompanied by
deterioration in handwriting, although a layman may attempt to explain away a poorly
forged signature by this type of illness. Writing during sickness in which the patient is
confined to bed probably reflects more strongly the effects of adverse writing condition than
the illness itself.

What applies to physical conditions brought about by severe illness also applies to old
age. There are many individuals well advanced in years whose handwriting hardly betray
their age. But those older writers who have suffered general physical deterioration are very
apt to write with less vigor and skill. It is that the converse to the corollary does not hold.

A transitory change may be injected into handwriting by temporary physical and

mental conditions such as, fatigue, nervous tension and intoxication or severe illness, from
which the writer ultimately recovers. In these cases, handwriting reverts to its normal
qualities after the causes of deterioration are removed.

Transitory changes are those changes, which continue only while the basic cause is
affecting the writer. Ultimately, his handwriting recovers or assumes its normal qualities
when the cause of deterioration has been removed. Both physical and some mental state can
affect a writer’s penmanship. Thus, fatigue or intoxication may produce much lower than the
normal quality of handwriting. At the same time, a person who is extremely or has been
subjected to sudden shock likewise produces abnormal writing. There are many illnesses
which weaken the writer and make him incapable of producing his normal handwriting. In
due course, the writer completely recovers and his handwriting again assumes its normal
qualities and habit.

Likewise, the writing position may also affect the qualities of handwriting. It is also
given a consideration that not all deteriorations in handwriting are due to physical operation
in the writing process is affecting the handwriting when the person is in a different writing
position. This is due to the fact that the muscles are not used to that kind of operation. Thus
it produce changes in the handwriting characteristics which is different in the usual writing
process. However, these changes are purely temporary and do not affect all the identifying
elements of the person’s handwriting. Most of the identifying elements of the characteristic
will continue to be reproduced. There are some people that in any situation and condition
will continue to produce a handwriting not affected by any condition.

III. A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skill without serious effort
and training applied over a period of time.

The preceding principles says that no writer can spontaneously exceed his best
handwriting. Disguised for the most part is completely unpracticed and even if it has been
practiced, it will never develop to the point that the person’s writing ability and habit are
bound to bring about a less fluent and less skillful mode of writing. Even if practiced,
disguise hardly enable the writer to achieve his best writing.

Disguise is seldom rehearsed. It is an unnatural form of writing. In its execution, the

writer must concentrate his attention on eliminating personal identifying details and at the
same time devise and execute a new style of writing. This task cannot be accomplished on
the spur of the moment. The end result is that the page of disguise contains inconsistencies
and irregularities. In contrast, uniformity throughout and extended specimen of writing is the
mark of an undisguised skillfully executed writing.

Our handwriting was developed not by a couple of years but through the years of
maturity. A writing habit ingrained in our personality cannot be eliminated in just a short
time. When we try to disguise our personality, we cannot fully change our personal
characteristics. The real us will always prevail. This is also the same in the handwriting of a
person. Only those identified characteristics are being changed leaving those other details
which is focal to identification.

IV. The combination of handwriting characteristics including those derived from form
and writing movements are essential elements of identification.

Hand writing characteristics serve as parts of the ultimate identification and a sound
scientific conclusion that two specimens are by a single writer which cannot be based only
on one or two points of agreement. Of course, the wrong properties which are most personal
and group characteristics also contribute to the ultimate conclusion.

The elements of movement such as skill, rhythm, writing pressure, emphasis and
shading, location and quality of starts and stops, pen lift and the like, are reflected in the
finished specimen. The combination of these and other elements describes the fundamental
writing movement.

It may be possible from the study of writing that was executed by finger movement or
arm movement. But this is not always true. It is possible however, to distinguish between
well – developed movement as opposed to the rugged type execution or the writing of more
primitive nature which is typical of the near illiterate.

The various elements that make up the writing movements are not always reflected in
the specimen prepared with the same classes of writing instrument. For example, variation in
pen emphasis appears as shading with a flexible writing movement but most of this is lost
when the writing is performed with a stiff pen. By the same token, pencil and ball pen
position is clearly disclosed when the writer uses a relatively flexible nib pen. If one
specimen of writing fails to show certain writing qualities because of the instrument used
and another does disclose this qualities. This does not mean that we are dealing with
significance between the two writing and that we are dealing with two different writers. The
examiner must carefully determine the kind of writing instrument used in each specimen and
with this knowledge evaluates apparent differences of this nature.

V. Individuality in handwriting can only be determined through comparative

examination with the standard written or prepared under comparable conditions.

Writing standards are necessary to establish the individual’s normal writing habit and
to show the degree of variation common to his writing. This principle actually defines
adequate and proper standards. Unless they completely fulfill these conditions, their
usefulness in any examination is limited. In fact, standards which do not comply with these
requirements, may, in certain instances, lead to erroneous conclusion especially in the
elimination of a writer who actually prepared the specimen in question.

The best standard includes writing that was prepared for a comparable purpose and
under similar writing conditions, to the matter under investigation. With standard consisting
of a relatively small sample of a person’s total writing, it is well to select them carefully.
Statistical studies have shown that a small sample properly selected and controlled may give
a more accurate picture of the whole than the substantially larger but uncontrolled sample.
The problem is one of selection and control; thus, in writing, standards and all influencing
factors should be kept as much as those of those questioned material. This means that
writing with similar instrument prepared under comparable condition at or about the same
time should be sought. It does not mean, however, that writing a very different purpose may
not permit an accurate identification. If the two writings contain the same identifying
elements, then certainly the identification is valid. It does not mean, however, that the best
procedure is to seek writing prepared for a similar purpose, as reference has shown that
writing generally leads to the best identification and require far less interpretation by the
experts.

VI. Similarity does not mean identity

Many people resemble one another, some in greater detail, and others in less. But
even persons, who are said to be “doubles”, are not the same in appearance in every detail.
There are always differences. Some of those differences are gross and easily discernable;
while others may be subtle and discernable only upon close examination.

Just are there are people who “look alike” but are not the “same” so are there many
handwritings which are similar to each other in appearance, especially in common formation
of letters, but not identical in individual writing characteristics, especially with regard to
subconscious unique writing characteristics and distinctly individual writing habits.

It is for this reason that a person may come to a handwriting expert with a
preconceived notion as to the identity of the writer of a questioned document. Such a person
usually wants confirmation of his opinion.

Two similar handwritings may appear to be the same, but when the two specimens are
placed under close scrutiny, what appeared to be the same or identical handwriting, proves
to be similar but not identical.

Unfortunately, too frequently in courtrooms so – called non – expert “experts” testify

as to similarities. The ability to evaluate and distinguish between similarity and identity is a
basic and imperative requirement for every handwriting experts. Comparison based upon
similarity can be fatal to any conclusion. “Just as no two persons’ fingerprints are identical,
so no two persons’ handwriting is identical.”
 Since forgery is imitation, the forger sets out to imitate handwriting or a signature
with all the skill he possesses. He will do this either by practicing the signature, or by
tracing, or by carefully copying it. His aim is a perfect likeness of the signature or writing.

Expert examination can reveal when writing is seemingly identical but different in
characteristics. There are the so – called primary controlling characteristics, being the result
of subconscious habits, unrealized by the writer, which make it possible to establish the
identity of the writer or to determine whether the two writings or signatures of the same
name, were written by one person or two.

VII. Complete identity means definite forgery.

If a signature is geometrically identical with another, it points almost inevitably to a

tracing; for neither the forger nor the owner of the signature himself can produce such
perfect copy. No person writes his signature precisely the same twice in succession. The
precise imitation, like a rubber stamp of a signature, is quickly detected as forgery.

If a signature, for example, looks, on first impression, different from other authentic
signature, that fact alone may indicate genuineness. A forger cannot afford to present an
obvious different signature. Only the owner of the name can safely permit himself that
leeway.

VIII.
A). A writing was written by one person when there is a sufficient number of
identical writing habits and identical primary controlling characteristics and in
addition, the absence of divergent characteristics.
B). A writing was not written by one person when there is a sufficient number of
divergent writing characteristics and the absence of identical primary
controlling characteristics.

The conclusion of identity or difference depends upon the combination of identical or

different writing characteristics. The weight of such characteristics against each other, as
facts and evidence for or against identity or for or against difference, are the determining
factors.

A specimen writing is written by a particular person if all its identifying elements are
a part of his handwriting and furthermore, the variation within the specimen falls within his
range of writing variation. And in reverses a specimen of writing was not written by a
particular person if there exist significant differences between its identifying elements and
those of the suspected writer.

Similarities, as pointed out before, will be found in almost handwriting, especially in

common form. On the other hand, no matter how anybody will try to disguise his
handwriting, if there are at least five or six words involved, the forger will incorporate a
number of his own writing characteristics, usually sufficient enough to identify him. In
signatures forgeries, there is less chance of identifying the forger. However, in most
instances, the forged document renders suspect the person who is most likely to benefit from
the forgery.

In identifying the writer of the unknown material, the standard must contain all the
identifying elements present in the questioned specimen. These elements include personal
writing habits, the manner of execution and quality and extent of variation. The kwon writing
may contain elements not found in the unknown. In the process of identification, the
examiner should look for the individuality and not for the difference. Therefore, if both
specimens of handwriting are having characteristics which are individual and identical to a
single person, then it is the handwriting of one person. But if we cannot look for the
individuality then it is an automatic conclusion of handwriting of a different writer. With
longer questioned specimen by the same writer and under similar condition to the standard,
not only should the same combination of identifying characteristics should be expected but
also those personal writing attributes should occur in a frequency in both specimen.

Differences between the known and the unknown writing become significant due to
their clear fundamental nature or to the repeated occurrences to the same unconscious
element. It is the converse rule that governs, and the writing is by different writers,
fundamental differences must be clearly distinguished from variables, which are a part of
every writer’s handwriting. Thus, the identification of writing involved certain point of
judgment whether an apparent difference is really fundamental or is a variable or was
introduced purely by change. Fortunately, in the vast majority of questions, non – identity is
established by the presence of not one but a number of significant basic differences.

Self-Assessment Question #8

Answer the following questions:

1. What is a transitory change?

2. What are the different causes of changes in individual’s handwriting? Are they
permanent or temporary?

3. What is the basis of handwriting identification?

4. What is the basis of identifying disguised writing?

5. Where excellent agreement exists between all of the questioned and standard writings
developed in the initial comparison except for the presence of one difference, what
further action should be taken?

6. What is the best standard for comparison?

7. When do you consider writing as written by one person or not?

8. How many characteristics are required for handwriting identification? Why?

9. Should the questioned signature or standard be examined first? Why?

10. Is it possible to identify a questioned signature in some specific cases where only one
standard is available? Why?
11. Can similarities always be found between two sets of writing? Why?

12. What are possible explanations or reasons for a single difference to exist between two
writings where there is an excellent agreement in the remainder of the writings?

13. Is it possible to find excellent agreement between two sets of writing and not be able
to effect identification? Why?
 UNIT 4
FORGERY
 MODULE 7
DETECTION AND EXAMINATION OF FORGERIES

Identification of Signatures; Characteristics of Genuine Signatures; Detection of

Forgeries; Kinds of Forgeries; How Simulated Forgery is Produced; The Different
Process of Tracing; Characteristics of Traced Forgery; Some of the Methods Used for
Illustration and Demonstrations of Traced Forgeries; Suggested Steps in the Examination
of Signatures; Some Characteristics that serve as the Basis of Signature Verification;
Classification of Movements; Groups of Characteristics; Common Terms and Description
of Letters.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the Chapter, the student should be able to:

1. Distinguish characteristics of genuine signature from that of forgery;

2. Discuss why signature is a specialized branch of handwriting identification;
3. Enumerate the characteristics of a genuine and a forged signature;
4. Define forgery and discuss how it is produced;
5. Enumerate the steps and procedures in the examination of forgery;
6. Identify and illustrate the characteristics that serve as the basis of signature
identification;
7. Enumerate and illustrate the different term and description of letters.
DETECTION AND EXAMINATION OF FORGERIES
Identification of Signatures

The identification or so – called “verification” of signature is a specialized branch of

handwriting examination for the following reasons;

1. A signature is a word most practiced by many people and therefore most fluently
written;
2. A signature is a means to identify a person and has a great personal significance;
3. A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some sort other details;
4. A signature is a word written without conscious thought about the mechanics of its
production and is written automatically;
5. A signature is the only word the illiterate can write with confidence;

The identification principles and pointers in general handwriting examination set forth
and discussed herein, fundamentally remain the same in the identification of signatures.
However, certain characteristics and factors must be given careful consideration for the
following reasons:
a. Known signatures may contain certain elements and features not common to
the writer’s other classes of writing
b. Factors of identification given closest study in signature examination may not
be given the same special emphasis in general writing.

It is either simple, conventional, or highly individualized signature must be given

concern. It is therefore natural and necessary that every minute phase of this small production
of the human hand and the human brain should be analyzed and scrutinized in every possible
way.
A signature is a combination of rather limited letter designs and due to its frequent
use, it becomes almost automatic in many writers.

The identification of a signature depends very largely on the manner on how it was
written. “While design or forms of letters are the “eye – catching features” the forces of
factors that contribute to the manner of writing of the signature are the “cornerstone” of its
accurate identification”.

The individual writing movement and the skill employed in the execution of the
signature can be determined from a careful analysis of the signature itself. A combination of
the following factors provides a full description of the individual writing movement in the
execution of the signature.
 1. Continuous writing movement or the opposite, a writing movement
interrupted at intervals by either pen stops or actual pen lift;
2. Rhythmic or the opposite jerky pattern of writing;
3. Shading and pen emphasis on particular strokes;
4. Overall writing pressure;
5. Speed of execution;
6. Smooth or angular connecting strokes between letters;
7. Starting of the initial writing movement before or after the pen makes contact
with the paper and the corresponding condition at the termination of word.

A person, in writing his signature, produces a particular pattern which contains

personal concepts of design which, when often repeated, serves to distinguish his signature
from others.

Elements which constitute general form of signature include the following:

a. Design of letters;
b. Slant of letters;
c. Relative size of capitals, single space small letters and those which follow the baseline
or above the height of a single space;
d. Ornamentation flourishes (embellishment);
e. Simplification of form;
f. Arrangement of different parts of the signature with respect to the balance of its
strokes.

The identification of a signature is based on the combination of the two personal

attributes of letterform and line quality.
If a questioned signature agrees with the standards in all its identifying elements, then
it can be concluded that it was written by the same person.
If on the other hand, significant differences exist between the standard and the
questioned signatures, they must be the work of two different writers. The differences that
exist between them have to be of fundamental nature and not mere variations which are
normally found between two signatures of any writer.
No two specimen of a person’s signature are absolutely identical. The signatures
normally vary from each other in some details and the degree with which they vary from each
other depends on the individual writer and the condition under which it was written. As
pointed out in “standards of comparison”, it is because of normal variation in signature that
several signatures should be used to identify the one in questioned. In the identification, the
known or sample signature must necessarily establish accurately the range of variation and it
is necessary to determine whether the identifying qualities of the unknown signature fall
within this limit. Natural variations between several signatures of the same person plays an
important role in the process of identification. In most cases, the extent of variation in writing
even becomes a characteristic peculiar to the writer.

Characteristics of a Genuine Signature

 Degree of Skill – genuine signature even if showing tremors will show some free,
connecting and terminal strokes made by the momentum of the hand;
 Firmness of Strokes – in genuine signatures, hesitation and stops are on natural
places;
 Habitual Speed of Writing – even in slow and unskillful signatures, there will be
consistency in speed;
 Fundamental Muscular Movement – in genuine signatures, the upward strokes show
more smoothness and freedom than the downward strokes;
 Pattern of Shading and Pen Emphasis;
 Presence of Natural Variation – as no two signatures are exactly alike, a certain
amount of natural variation is expected and consequently allowed for letter design;
 Coordination, continuity, and rhythm in writing;
 Carelessness in strokes and movement.

Example of a genuine signature:

Self-Assessment Questions #9

1. Why it is that signature identification is considered a specialized branch of

handwriting examination?
2. What are the elements that constitute the general form of signature?

3. What are the characteristics of a genuine signature?

4. Why do signatures of a person vary from time to time?

5. How would you consider the signatures of different writers?

 MODULE 8
Detection of Forgery

Forgery is committed by any person who, with intent to defraud, signed the name of
another person, or of a fictitious person, knowing that he has no authority to do so; or falsely
makes, alters, forges, or counterfeit any check, draft and due – bills for the payment of money
or property, or counterfeits or forges the seal and handwriting of another knowing the same to
be fake, altered, or forged or counterfeit with the intent to prejudice, damage, or defraud any
person.
Kinds of Forgery

A. Simple Forgery
This kid of forgery is best termed as a “spurious signature”. In committing fraud, the
forger who is confronted with the absence to produce a facsimile of the genuine, but merely
signs the name on his own, or in a modified (disguised) handwriting, and then contrive some
means of passing the document as his own with intent to gain before the obvious fraud is
discovered. This is commonly employed by the check – chief who steals, endorse, and passes
government, corporation, or other checks, or who procures printed check forms, completes
and endorses them with fictitious signatures in order to pass them off as genuine.

The determination of the fraudulent nature of this kind of forged signature becomes
very elementary when standards of the genuine signatures are obtained. With sufficient
standards the identity of the forger, thru his handwriting, may be possibly determined.

B. Simulated Forgery
As previously stated, genuine signature, especially done by a good writer, exhibit
fluency and smoothness of strokes. In simulated or traced forgeries, the motion of the pen is
slow and careful. The beginning and ending lines are usually blunt or clumsy in appearance.
 There are simulated forgeries written by expert forger which are passed off as genuine
simply because untrained eyes can only judge the signature by its general appearance or
pictorial effect but cannot detect the minutiae.
How simulated forgery is produced:
1. The forger study the genuine signature he intends to copy. By this, he acquires the
mental picture of the letter design, lateral spacing, and other obvious features;
2. Constant practice from memory, or the genuine model is placed in front of him
(forger). Portions of the signature are mastered first, and finally, the signature as a
whole;
3. The study and practice are carried on until the forger feels the capability of writing a
convincing forgery;
4. After each attempt, the forger compares it with the genuine signature that he copied.
Defects or error are corrected in the future.

The forger labors under a strained mental and muscular condition that makes it
difficult, if not altogether impossible, to do his work in a skillful manner brought about
by:
1. The realization that forgery is a criminal act;
2. Fear of discovery which certainly will result to punishment and dishonor.
3. Painful anxiety to do the word well.
To be able to forge successfully, one must:
1. Be able to see significant characteristics of the writing of another;
2. Have the muscular skill necessary to reproduce the writing imitated;
3. Be able to eliminate at the same time all the characteristics of his own handwriting.

Forgery is apt to show failure in these phases of performance.

The nicety of natural writing that is an almost automatic act that follows the fixed
grooves of habit becomes necessarily strained when attention is given to it.
In simulated forgery, the forger has a model (genuine signature) before him to copy.
Often, he undertakes some practice before he proceeds to his work of imitation or simulation.
In rarer instances where the forger cannot avail himself of a genuine signature for a
model, he may rely on a mental pattern of the signature, which he may have owing to long
acquaintance or association with said signature:
1. He finds it extremely to write even his own handwriting in free natural manner;
2. He finds that imitating a writing successfully is a task of a very great difficulty.
Foolish errors of omissions and commissions in the production of a forgery often
prove conclusively that the writing is forgery. These errors are due to the fact that the mind is
so focused on certain details of the act that other matters of equal or even more importance
are entirely overlooked.
 Forgery, therefore, always show plainly natural result of strained condition by:
1. Slow, hesitating, and unnatural appearance;
2. Too much attention to unimportant details.

This is shown even when writing is an accurate copy of the main features of the
genuine writing imitated.
Forgery fails in the elementary part of the process when it is not even a good imitation
of form characteristics.
Forgery is a double process. First, the forger must be able to see the significant
characteristics of the writing imitated and second, he must be able to discard or eliminate his
own writing characteristics in the process.
The process of even breaking even the simplest of habits requires intense
concentration over an extended period of time.
The forger unconsciously include his own characteristics.
The forger fails in his work for he is not able to determine the most significant
characteristics in the writing imitated and he is not aware of his own significant writing
characteristics.
It is difficult to copy an unfamiliar form and an unfamiliar movement is very much
more difficult to simulate than unfamiliar form.
To copy unfamiliar forms and at the same time write freely in an unusual manner or in
the unfamiliar movement is simply impossible.
Self – consciousness of a familiar act produces unnaturalness, fraudulent writing
(which is inevitably written with attention fixed on the process) is not well executed.
Writing which is strong, smooth, free and skillful, cannot be correctly by slow,
plodding, copying movement. This is imitated with the greatest difficulty.
A simulated forgery is produced by a method of following a copy, very much similar
to that employed by a pupil in following a pattern. Writing that is slow and hesitating
(produced by interrupted, changing movements of impulses) is more easily imitated. For its
manner of production is similar to that of the imitation process. If the forger possesses a skill
superior to that of the genuine writing, the forgery may have a higher degree of muscular
coordination or control than the writing imitated.
Imitation which is executed with inconsistent strength and firmness, is easily shown
not to be genuine. Actual criminal forgery is a poorer piece of work than that of the same
writer done merely as an exhibition of skill.
The fundamental, usual forgery defect is not a divergence in form, but a quality of
line or stroke showing tremors or fraud, hesitations, stops and other indication of a poor,
defective line quality.
 It is impossible to identify the author of a simulated forgery, for in the dual process,
he assumes characteristics of the writing imitated and unconsciously inject his own
characteristics in a very limited quantity. The writing characteristics will not provide any
basis for identification.
 C. Traced Forgery
A traced forgery is the result of an attempt to transfer to a fraudulent document an
exact facsimile of a genuine signature or writing by some tracing process. It is any fraudulent
signature executed by actually following the outline of a genuine signature with a writing
instrument.

Different Process of Tracing

1. “Carbon processes” or “carbon outline method”
 A carbon paper is placed between the genuine signature (top sheet) and the fraudulent
document (below). Outline of model signature is traced with dry pen or pointed instrument to
make a carbon offset on the lower sheet. Outline is finally re – written or retraced with
suitable ink strokes.

2. Indentation process

An intended or “canal – like” outline of the genuine signature is produced in a

fraudulent document (lower sheet) by tracing (with suitable pressure or force) the outline of
the genuine signature (top sheet) with a pointed instrument. The outline is then directly inked
in some instances. The outline is first retraced lightly with a pencil before it is finally retraced
with suitable ink.

3. Projection process or “transmitted – light process”

A spurious document is placed immediately over the genuine signature, with strong
light directed through the two sheets of paper from below or behind. The outline that is seen
through the upper sheet is then traced.
 Tracing is resorted to by a forger who lacks the necessary skill which is required in an
off – hand or free – hand imitation of what is called simulated forgery.
A traced forgery in most cases is a clumsy forgery for it is usually a poor piece of
work. It is the easiest to detect because it is not actually writing but a drawing.
It is intended to reproduce not only the form but also the size, proportion and exact
relations of all the parts of the original. The minute detail of each line, stroke, and even a dot,
being followed closely as permitted by the method employed and the skill of the operator.

Traced forgery usually shows a decrepit, hesitating quality of line, hesitation as shown by pen
stops abnormal changes of direction of strokes, inconsistent pen pressure, and an unnatural
movement interruption in a more pronounced manner than simulation, suspicious pen lift,
disconnections and careful joining.

Traced forgery will probably be defective in one or more of the following:

1. Natural movement, freedom and speed of writing
Natural, free, unconscious writing cannot be produced by tracing process. Even to
trace one’s own handwriting and to produce a good result is impossible for the method itself
interferes with the natural writing movement.
2. Quality of line or stroke
A fraudulent tracing may conform to the model with some accuracy but its hesitating,
unnatural, defective line quality will sufficiently show its non – genuineness.
3. Pen – lifts, retouching, and shading
Pen – lifts may be covered with gaps filled in.
Tracing process, with attention almost exclusively given to the form, may entirely
omit characteristics shading which are afterwards carefully added.
 A traced forgery is not entirely as satisfactory to the forger as first written, and the
forger, knowing the signature is not genuine, is its most severe critic, and tries to perfect it by
improving it with connecting, patching, and correcting certain parts such as wavering lines,
which are delicately spliced on, and flourishes which are carefully added to signatures.

ALTERATIONS – Any changes made on a documents after its preparations and which changes the
original meaning of the document.
May be made in any of the following means:
a) ERASURE – the removal of writing, typewriting or printing from a document through either
mechanical or chemical means.
b) ADDITION – any matter made a part of the document after its original preparation.
c) SUBSTITUTION – The replacement of original entries with another.
d) INSERTION OR INTERLINEATION – the addition of writing and other material between lines
or paragraphs, or the addition of a whole page to a document.
e) OBLITERATION – the blotting out or smearing over the writing to make the original invisible
or indecipherable.
f) CUTTING – The skillful cutting of some portions and then inserting new material to fill the
gap. (If the paper is thick only the top layer need to be cut).
Evidence of Naturalness in Writing

a. a general rhythmic writing throughout

b. smooth, unbroken strokes in writing
c. finely tapered strokes both at the beginning and ending of letters
d. tendency towards illegibility especially towards the end of signature or other
words indicating great speed

Primary Signs of Forgery

a. slow, broken strokes and wavy lines

b. unnecessary retouching or patching
c. lack of difference in pressure on up and down strokes
d. meaningless markings and dots caused by a false start
e. shading in more than one direction caused by an effort to imitate line, which is done
by twisting the pen rather than varying the pressure or imitating pen hold

Groups of Characteristics

1. Common class characteristics

They are those which conform to the general style acquired when one was learning to
write and which is fashionable at a particular time and place. It is the style taught to the
child in school or by the parents. Not all characteristics encountered in document
examination are peculiar to a single person, but rather common to a group.

Example of common characteristics or qualities;

a. Ordinary copybook form

b. Usual systematic slant

c. Ordinary scale of proportion ration

 d. Conventional spacing

2. Individual or Personal Characteristics

They are those introduced into the handwriting, consciously or unconsciously by the
writer. They are highly personal or peculiar and are unlikely to occur in other
instances.

This class of characteristics are acquired either by:

1. Outgrowth of definite teaching

2. Result of imitation
3. Accidental condition or circumstances
4. Expression of certain mental and physical traits of the writer as affected by
education, by environment, and by occupation.

Examples of some of the individual characteristics

1. Hook to the right and hook to the left

2. Shape, position, size and angle or “i” dots and “t” crossing

3. Idiosyncrasies
4. Bulbs and distinctive initials and final pen pressure

5. Embellishment, added strokes and free movement

6. Abbreviation of letters

7. Simple and compound curves and graceful endings

8. Labored movement producing ragged lines

9. Terminal shading and forceful ending

Common Terms and Description of Letters

1. Arc or Arch – any arcade form in the body of the letter

2. Beard – a rudimentary curved initial stroke

3. Blunt Ending or Beginning – blunt ending and initial strokes are results of the
drawing process in forgery.
4. Buckle Knot – the horizontal and looped strokes that are often used to complete
such letters.

5. Central Part of the body – the part of a letter ordinarily formed by a small circle
that usually lies in the line of writing.

6. Eye loop or Eyelet – the small loop formed by strokes that extend in divergent
direction

7. Foot of the Letter or Oval – the lower portion of any down stroke which
terminates on the baseline.

8. Diacritic – an element added to complete a certain letter.

9. Hitch – the introductory backward strokes added to the beginning or ending of

many capital letters or small letters.
10. Hook or Through – the bend, crook or curve on the inner side of the bottom loop
or curve of small letter.

11. Hump – the rounded outside of the bend, crook or curve in small letters.

12. Spur – short, horizontal beginning strokes.

13. Knob – rounded appearance at the beginning or ending strokes.

14. Main Stroke or Shark Stem – downward strokes of any letter.

15. Whirl – the upward strokes usually on letters that have long loops.

16. Space Filler or Terminal Spur – an upward horizontal or downward final stroke
usually seen in small letters.

17. Retrace or Retracing – a stroke that goes back over another writing stroke
18. Retouching or Patching – a stroke that goes back to repair a defective portion
writing.

19. Staff – backspace of a letter.

20. Baseline – rules of imaginary line where the writing rest.

21. Copybook Form – design of letter, which is fundamental to a writing system.

22. Pen Emphasis – it is the periodic increase in pressure of intermittently forcing the
pen against the paper surface with increased pressure.
Self-Assessment Questions #10

Answer the following questions correctly;

1. Explain:

“Physical appearance might be means of recognition but not a complete description”.

2. What are primary signs of forgery?

3. What are the examples of characteristics common to a group?

4. What is the difference between a layman’s observation and of a handwriting expert’s

opinion?

5. How an individuality of handwriting be acquired?

II. Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. The upward strokes usually on letters that have long loops.
a. Knob b. shank c. whirl d. space filler
2. Short horizontal beginning strokes.
a. Spur b. knob c. shank d. whirl
3. The bend, crook or curve on the inner side of the bottom loop or curve of small letter.
a. Spur b. knob c. hook d. shank
4. The rounded outside of the bend, crook or curved in small letters.
a. Hook b. hump c. spur d. knob
5. Any arcade form in the body of letter.
a. Arch b. beard buckle knot d. eyelet
6. A rudimentary curved initial stroke.
a. Arch b. beard c. buckle knot d. eyelet
7. The lower portion of the letter which terminates on the base.
a. Foot b. diacritics c. hitch d. eyelet
8. An element added to complete certain letters.
a. Foot b. diacritics c. hitch d. eyelet
9. Backspace of the letter.
a. Foot b. back c. staff d. hitch
10. A stroke which goes back over another writing stroke.
a. Retouching b. punching c. retracing d. whirl

11. The following are primary signs of forgery, except;

a. Slow, broken strokes and wavy lines;
b. Blunt starting and ending strokes;
c. General rhythmic writing throughout;
d. Unnecessary patching or retouching.
12. The following is not an example of class characteristics, except;
a. Ordinary copybook
b. Ordinary scale of proportion or ratio
c. Usual systematic slant
d. All of the above
13. It is impossible to write two signatures precisely and exactly alike.
This statement is;
 a. True b. partly true c. false d. doubtful
14. No signature or writing of the same person will exactly coincide with each other in
design, size and proportion. This statement is;
a. True b. partly true c. false d. partly false
15. It is the result of an attempt to transfer to a fraudulent document an exact facsimile of
a genuine signature or writing;
a. Traced signature c. simple forgery
b. Copied or stimulated d. forgery
16. This kind of forgery is best termed as “spurious” forgery;
a. Traced b. copied c. simulated d. simple
17. It is committed by any person, who, with intent to defraud, signs the name of another
person, or of fictitious person knowing that he has no authority to do so.
a. Traced b. copied c. simulated d. forgery
18. The following are the classification of movements, except ;
a. Smooth unbroken strokes c. usual systematic slant
b. Wide writing and spacing d. all of the above.
19. A stroke that goes back to repair a defective portion writing.
a. Retouching b. punching c. retracingd. all of the above
20. It is the periodic increase in pressure of intermittently forcing the pen against the
paper surface with increased pressure.
a. Pen pressure b. pen emphasis c. pen lift d. pen stop
 MODULE 9

PREPARATION OF STANDARDS AND CARE

IN HANDLING OF DOCUMENTS.
What are Standards; Classification of Standards; Basic Point to Consider in Obtaining
Standard for Comparison; How to Take Handwriting Samples I n Court; Care,
Handling and Preservation of Documents; The Do’s and Don’ts in the Care in Handling
of Documents.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:

1. Define standard document;

2. Classify standards for comparison;
3. Discuss the importance of standard in the identification of questioned documents;
4. Enumerate the basic way in obtaining standards for comparison;
5. Enumerate the do’s and don’ts in handling of documents;
6. Give the value of protecting and preserving the documents.

PREPARATION OF STANDARD FOR COMPARISON

What is a Standard Document?

“Standard” in questioned document investigation refers to those things whose origin

are known and can be proven and which can be legally used as samples to compare with
other matters in questioned.

In handwriting identification, the standards of comparison or what is commonly

referred to as the basis of comparison consists of known authenticated writing of a person.

A comparative examination of a questioned signature or writing is made with the

standard of comparison in arriving at a conclusion or an opinion as to the genuineness or
authorship of the questioned matter.
 A positive opinion on the genuineness or identity of writing is not given or reached
unless an adequate and appropriate standard writing comparison is supplied.

The determination as to whether the standards of comparison are adequate and

appropriate is to be made at the stage of a preliminary examination of a questioned document.

As a basic requirement, the standard of comparison must contain appropriately prepared

material or writing so as to indicate not only the individual writing characteristics of the
writer but also the usual variations in these habits from one writing to the other.

The standard of comparison need not embody all the innumerable characteristics of the
person’s writing but only those which would occur in a material exactly as that in a
questioned or disputed document.

Standards of Comparison are classified into two groups as follows:

1. Procured or Collected Standard – those which can be obtained from files of document
executed in the course of a person’s day to day business, official, social or personal
activities.

They often serve as the best or most appropriate standards in the determination of the
genuineness of a questioned signature or writing.
2. Requested Standard – those which are given or made upon the request of an
investigator for purposes of making a comparative examination with the questioned
writing.

They serve, in addition to collected standards that could possibly obtained, as

appropriate standards in determining the identity or authorship of anonymous letters
(such as libelous or poison notes, extortion notes, ransom notes, letters of threats, ect.)

The procedure employed is not usually the same in collecting procured

standard and in obtaining request standard.

BASIC POINTS THAT SHOULD BE CONSIDERED IN OBTAINING

STANDARDS
A. Procured or Collected Standard
1. Amount of standard writing available

There is no fixed rules as to the definite number of standards that may

be considered adequate or sufficient.
 Experience shows, however, that at least seven standards usually constitute a sufficient
amount, but effort should not be made merely to

comply with this minimum requirement, but as much as possible, more should be
procured. As a rule, 10 is better than 7, 15 is better than ten and 20 is better than 15.
More standards provide a wider field for selection of the more appropriate standards.

2 . Similarity of subject matter

As a rule, like things must be compared.

A signature cannot be compared with an extended writing, neither a cursive writing
with a block (or hand-lettered or hand-printed) writing, or an extended or
conventional (lay hand) writing with block writing.
Therefore, a signature should be compared with a signature, extended writing and so
on.
3 .Relative date of the questioned signature or writing with the standards.

The standards must be those executed or affixed on documents with dates

contemporaneous with, or close to the dates of the questioned signature. The best
standards are those made on dates, which comes during a period before, about, and after
the date of the questioned signature. In some cases, where the standards do not show
radical changes or variations in a few years, writings made before or after the date of
the questioned signature may prove appropriate as standards.

4 . Conditions under which known writing or signature is prepared.

Serious illness, intoxication, haste, lack of care or an unnatural writing position as

resting the paper on knee or magazine or back held with the other hand or writing
while riding on a moving on a moving vehicle may introduce variations in writing
which may render such writing nor appropriate or unsuited standard for comparison
with more carefully written material.

Writing made under such unusual or unnatural conditions should not be solely the basis of
comparative examination of a writing made or done in a normal condition or position. The
main difficulty encountered in a comparative examination of questioned writing under
unusual condition is that there are no available standards written under similar conditions.

5 . Kinds of instrument and paper used

 The kind of writing instrument and paper used might influence or affect writing.
Pencil writing, for example may not entirely show the characteristics of a fountain pen or
ballpen writing.
As a rule, some of the standards at least should be those which were written with the same
instrument as that in the questioned document, and as far as possible, the paper used in the
standard should be of the same size, shape, ruling and composition as the one used in the
questioned document.

5 Requested Standards
The following steps are aimed at minimizing, if not eliminating, disguise in the writing of the subject
or person being required to furnish his handwriting specimens:
1 . Questioned material must be dictated.
Never allow a suspect to see the questioned document. If dictation is not possible, a copy
of material (typewritten or in another person’s writing but not a photograph or similar
reproduction) must be the one given to the subject.

2. Dictated text must be carefully selected.

It is not a good practice to dictate the contents of the questioned document.
Therefore, a substitute text to be devised may be a composition or paragraph
which contains most of the words in the questioned document.
3. Adequate amount of writing must be included.
4. Some portions of dictation must be repeated at least three times.
Writings should be made on three different sheets of paper, each sheet being
removed from the writer’s view upon completion.
5. Writing instrument and paper used should be similar to those used in the
questioned document.
6. Dictation should be interrupted at intervals so that the suspect will feel relaxed
and will write his own natural writing. Rest between dictations usually makes a
writer forget about his previous writing.
7. Normal writing condition should be arranged.
If a subject must be required to give a statement or make a written explanation, he
must be required to make such statement or explanation in his own handwriting.
Disguise is eliminated in writing, as attention of the writer is not focused in the act
but on some other reasons that may serve as his alibi.
 The sheets of paper containing the requested standard made from dictation must
contain some sort of certification made by the subject that the specimen given are his
writings and must also contain the date it was obtained and the identification marks
or signature of witnesses if possible.
How to Take Handwriting Samples in Court

Frequently it is necessary to take a handwriting sample in court.

A person, whether innocent or guilty, whose handwriting sample is requested

in court, usually becomes nervous and apprehensive. The fact that he is asked to give
sample of his handwriting implies suspicion, and having to do so in a courtroom, with
all eyes on him, creates a psychological block which may affect his handwriting.

The innocent person will be nervous, and so will the guilty person. The latter,
however, will still try to disguise his handwriting. Handwriting of a person under
nervous tension and disguised handwriting can show the same or similar symptoms.

Disguised handwriting can be detected, because only the appearance of the

handwriting is changed, not the writer’s individual primary and controlling writing
characteristics. The “appearance” of handwriting can easily mislead the layman, and
therefore, it is important to have proper and sufficient material for comparison, to
avoid the slightest possibility of error.

To take a handwriting sample in court, it is advisable:

1. To ask the person to sit as comfortable as possible.

2. If he has his own pen, he should use it.

3. Give him enough space to sit and enough space to write

4. Explain the situation and reassure him that it is natural for everyone to be
nervous in such situation, but that he should try to write as naturally as
possible under the circumstances, and if his handwriting shows any
nervousness, that will change the handwriting only in appearance but not
in characteristics. On the other hand, a disguised writing can be revealed
and established.

An important condition is that people should not gather around him and watch him while he
is writing.

First, he should be asked to write things which are familiar to him: his name, address,
telephone number, occupation, name of family members, ect.

Next, dictate to him an innocuous paragraph, for example, from the day’s newspaper.
Then, ask him to write the text or signature in question at least six times.

Finally, ask him to write anything he wishes. Then ask him to sign the paper. These simple
instructions will give the natural writing of the person as accurately as it will be possible to
obtain.

CARE IN HANDLING AND PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS

The improper or careless handling of a questioned document can lead to serious curtailment
of certain technical examination. Most frequently, this condition is brought about by
ignorance of the consequences of mishandling. Just the simple act of removing and replacing
a letter in its envelope repeatedly can cause noticeable deterioration.

The care, handling, and preservation of documents can be discussed adequately by setting
fourth certain positive rules of action in the form of “Do’s” and listening to several
admonitions in the form of “Don’ts”.
“DO’s”
1. Keep documents unfolded in protective envelope.
2. Take disputed papers to the document examiner’s laboratory at the first opportunity.
3. If storage is necessary, keep the document in a dry place free from excessive heat and
strong light.
“DON’Ts”
1. Do not handle documents excessively or carry them in a pocket for long
a time.
2. Do not mark questioned documents (either by consciously writing or by pointing at
them with writing instruments or dividers).
3. Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist to make chemical or other tests. Do
not treat or dust for latent fingerprints before consulting a document examiner.
4. Do not mutilate or damage by repeated refolding, creasing and cutting, tearing, or
punching for filing purposes.

The Care of Disputed Documents and Documentary Evidence

It is a basic requirement, not only a common sense principle, that when a document becomes
disputed and deposited in court or with the lawyer to maintain its original condition, it should
be kept unfolded and in a separate, proper-size envelope or folder. This is true not only for
disputed documents, but for any other important documentary evidence.

It is also advisable and preferable in all instances that right after a document becomes
disputed, questioned or imported, to make not only the usual photostatic copy, but also a
proper photograph or photo enlargement, done if possible by a document expert, or under the
supervision of a document expert.

When working on the preparation of a case it is often necessary for the lawyer or court to
handle repeatedly disputed document. Should this be necessary, instead of handling and
working with the original document, the photograph should be used.

Every touching, folding, refolding or pointing to certain parts of a document can change the
physical condition of that portion of the document. It can be decisive to the case. For
example, touching with wet hands or fingers can create smearing in the ink; pointing with a
pencil can leave marks that create suspicion of “previous” pencil marks, or experiments as
proof of attempted forgery.

Pointing at a document with any other instruments, such as a sharp stick, can cause slight
damage, which, although, cannot be seen by the naked eye, can show definite marks under
the microscope or on the enlarged photograph.

Self-Assessment # 11

1. What is a standard document?

2. What is the importance of a standard document?

3. What is the purpose of providing adequate and appropriate standards for comparison?

4. What are the things to consider in analyzing the questioned and standard writing
comparison?
5. What is the purpose of examining the entire standard before comparing it with the
questioned document?

6. What are the sources of collected standard?

7. How many standards are required in comparative examination of questioned

document?

8. What is the purpose of protecting and caring of disputed document and documentary
evidences?
 MODULE 10

MONEY COUNTERFEITING

Identification of BSP Bank Notes and Coins; and Security and Features of the Philippine
Legal Tender Currency; General Features of the New BSP Coins; Pertinent laws and
Regulations to Protect and Maintain the Integrity of the Currency.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:

1. Identify the different features and design of the BSP legal tender and coins;
2. Enumerate the pertinent laws and regulations for the protection of Philippine
Currency;
3. Distinguish genuine currency from counterfeit money;
4. Define the different features of the Philippine legal tender.

MONEY COUNTERFEITING

IDENTIFICATION OF BSP BANK NOTES AND COINS

The following are the characteristics, design and distinct features of BSP banknotes:

PAPER-Feel the paper- The genuine note is printed on a special kind of paper which is
rough when you run your fingers through it. It does not glow under the ultra-violet
light. During paper manufacture, the water marks, security fiber, security threads and
iridescent band are included.
WATERMARK- Examine the watermarks on the unprinted portion of the note. The
watermark is the silhouette of the portrait appearing on the face of the note. Sharp
details of the light and shadow effect can be seen when the note is viewed against the
light. The contours of the features of the silhouette can be felt by running the finger
over the design on relatively new notes.

SECURITY FIBERS- Inspect the security fibers—Embedded red and blue visible fibers are
scattered at random on both surfaces of a genuine note and can be readily picked off by
means of any pointed instrument.

EMBEDDED SECURITY THREAD- View the embedded security thread—The embedded

security thread is a special thread vertically implanted off center of the note during
paper manufacture. This can easily be seen when the note is viewed against the light. It
appears as a broken line for 5’s, 10’s, and 20’s and straight line for 50’s, 100’s, 500’s
and 1000’s.

WINDOWED SECURITY THREAD- View the windowed security thread on the

improved version of 100’s, 500’s and 1000 peso notes and the new 200 peso notes.- The
windowed security thread is a narrow security thread vertically located like “stitches” at the
face of the note with a clear text of the numerical value in repeated sequence and changes in
color from magenta to green or green to magenta depending on the angle of view.

IRIDESCENT BAND- Look for the iridescent band on the improved portion of 100’s, 500’s
and 1000 peso notes and the new 200 peso notes. A wide glistening gold vertical stripe with
the numerical value printed in series.

PORTRAIT- appears life-like. The eyes “sparkle”. Shading is formed by the fine lines that
give the portrait a characteristic facial expression which is extremely difficult to
replicate.

SERIAL NUMBER- Composed of 1 and 2 prefix letters and 6 or 7 digits. The letters and
numerals are uniform in size and thickness, evenly spaced and well-aligned; They glow
under ultra-violet light. A banknote with six “0” digit serial number is a specimen note
and not a legal tender.

BACKGROUND/LACEWORK DESIGN- the background designs are made up of

multicolored and well-defined lines. The lacework designs are composed of web-
crossing lines which are continuous and traceable even at the intersection.

VIGNETTE- The lines and dashes composing the vignette are fine, distinct and sharp; the
varying color gives a vivid look to the picture that makes it “stand out” of the paper.

VALUE PANEL- Check the numerals found at the four corners of the front and back of the
note. The numerals denote the denomination of the note.
COLOR- Recognize predominant color of each denomination:

1000-peso Blue 50-peso Red

500-peso Yellow 20-peso Orange
200-peso Green 10-peso *Brown
100-peso Mauve 5-peso *Green
____________
* The BSP has stopped printing bank notes; They are being replaced by coins; however, the
existing 10 and 5-peso notes remain legal tender.

FLOURESCENT PRINTING- Look for the presence of the fluorescent print when the note
is exposed under ultra-violet light—The fluorescent print is the invisible numerical value
located off of the center of the face of the note that glows when exposed to ultra-violet light.

MICROPRINTING- Verify under the lens presence of the microprinting on the

denominations 50’s, 100’s, 200’s, 500’s and 1000—Microprinting are the minute and finely
printed words “Banko Sentral ng Pilipinas or Central Bank of the Philippines” located at the
face or back of the note that are clearly printed and readable.

CONCEALED VALUE- Check the concealed value on the 500-peso denomination—The

concealed value is located at the lower left corner of the face of the note and is recognizable
when the note is held at eye level.

OPTICALLY VARIABLE INK- Chec the optically variable ink on the 1000-peso
denomination. It changes color from green to blue or blue to green when the note is held at
different angles.
 DESIGNS AND SECURITY FEATURES OF THE PHILIPPINE LEGAL TENDER CURRENCY

ONE THOUSAND PESO BANKNOTE

Embedded
Portrait(c) Security Thread
(b)
Watermark (a)

Optically-variable Serial number (l)

Ink (m)

Micro printing Fluorescent printing (j) Background

(k) /lacework
Design (g)
Front
Version 1
Embedded Security
Portrait (c) Thread

Watermark (a)
Background/
framework
Serial number Flourescent
Design (d)
Printing (j)
Improved OVI

Windowed
Securitty
Thread (c)
Microprinting (k)

Iridescent Band
(d) Vignette (h) Watermark (a)

Back

FIVE HUNDRED PESO BANKNOTE

 Embedded Security Thread

Portrait (e)

Background/
Lacework
Design (g)

Microprinting

Flourescent Watermark (a)

Value panel (i) Printing (j)

1
2 3

11
6

10
7
8
9

1.portrai 2. Fluorescent Printing 3. Serial Number 4. Portrait 5. Microprinting 6. Concealed value 7. Vignette 8. Water mark 9.
Value panel 10. Embedded security thread 11. Background Lacework Design

TWO HUNDRED PESO BANKNOTE

1 6
2
7
3

5 10
4
9 8
 1.Portrait 2. See-thru perfect Register 3. Serial number 4. Vignette 5. Watermark 6. Flourescent Printing 7. Microprinting 8.
Value panel 9.Windowed Security Thread 10. Iridescent Band

ONE HUNDRED PESO BANKNOTE

2 1

6 7

4
9

5 9

1. Iridescent Band 2. Watermark 3. Serial Number 4. Embedded Security Thread 5. Vignette 6. Flourescent Printing 7. Portrait 8. Windowed
Security Thread 9. Value Panel
FIFTY PESO BANKNOTE

1.Portrait 2. Serial number 3. Watermark 4. Embedded Security thread 5. Background/Lacework Design 6. Flourescent Printing 7. Vignette
8. Microprinting 8. Value Panel
TWENTY PESO BANK NOTE

1. Portrait 2. Water mark 3. Serial Number 4. Embedded Security Thread 5. Background

Lacework Design 6. Fluorescent Printing 7. Vignette 8. Value Pan

EXISTING PHILIPPINE LEGAL TENDER NOTES

PHILIPPINE CURRENCY COINS
Self-Assessment # 12

I. Direction: Encircle the letter of the correct answer;

1. What security feature is found in 1000-peso note?
a. Security thread b. fluorescent printing c. optically variable ink
2. Which denomination bears a concealed value?
a. 500-peso b. 20-peso c. 200-peso
3. Whose portrait is on the 100-peso note?
a.Benigno Aquino b. Emilio Aguinaldo c. Manuel Roxas
4. Which denomination has a predominantly orang color?
a. 10-peso b. 20-peso c. 100-peso
5. Which denomination has a composite portrait of three Filipino heroes during the
Japanese war?
a. 50-peso b. 10-peso c. 1000-peso
6. Where is watermark located in a note?
a. Center of the note b. left side of the note c. right side of the note
7. What is the highest denomination in the present circulation coins series?
a. 1-peso b. 5-peso c. 10-peso
8. What is the lowest denomination in the present circulation coins series?
a. 1-centavo b. 5-centavo c. 10-centavo
9. What is the highest denomination in the legal tender notes in circulation?
a. 200-peso b. 500-peso c. 1000-peso
10. What design is at the back of 200-peso note?
a. Portrait of former President Diosdado Macapagal
b. Aguinaldo Shrine
c. Oath taking of President Gloria Macapagal
II. Fill the blank with correct answer.
1. _____________it is the silhouette of the portrait appearing on the face of the note.
Sharp details of the light and shadow effect can be seen when a note is viewed against
the light.
2. _____________it is located at the lower left corner of the face of the note and is
recognizable when the note is held at eye level.
3. ____________ it changes color from green to blue or blue to green when the note is
held in different angles.
4. ____________ it is the invisible numerical value located off of the center of the face
of the note that glows when exposed to ultra-violet light.
5. ____________ are the minute and finely printed words “Banko Sentral ng Pilipinas”
or “Central Bank of the Philippines” located at the face or back of the note that are
clearly printed and readable.
6. ____________ are designs made up of multicolored and well defined lines and are
composed of web-crossing lines which are continuous and traceable even at the
intersection.
7. ____________it appears life-like. The eyes “sparkle”. Shading are formed by the fine
lines that give the portrait a characteristic facial expression which is extremely
difficult to replicate.
8. ___________ composed of 1 or 2 prefix letter and 6 or 7 digits. The letters and
numerals are uniform in size and thickness, evenly spaced and well-aligned and glow
under ultra-violet light.
9. ___________these are the lines and dashes composing fine, distinct and sharp varying
color that gives a vivid look to the picture that makes it “stand out” of the paper.
10. __________ it is a special thread vertically implanted off center of the note during
paper manufacture. This can easily be seen when the note is viewed against the light.
It appears as a broken line for 5’s, 10’s and 20’s and straight line for 50’s, 100’s,
500’s and 1000’s.

MODULE 11
 THE ACE- V METHODOLOGY IN
FORENSIC HANDWRITING
IDENTIFICATION

Historical Background of the Daubert Case; What is ACE-V Methodology; Descriptive

Analysis; Comparative Examination; Evaluation; Conclusion Against Opinion;
Verification

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss the importance of Daubert case in the presentation of expert testimony.

2. Discuss the step by step methods of handwriting identification;
3. Analyze, compare and interpret the handwriting characteristics
4. Differentiate conclusion from opinion
5. Prepare the questioned documents examination reports for court presentation.

THE ACE-V METHODOLOGY IN FORENSIC HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

AN ANSWER TO THE EXISTING DAUBERT HEARING: A CHALLENGE TO

FORENSIC HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Daubert hearing is related to the US Supreme Court Ruling on the admissibility of the expert
testimony.

Testimony by Experts as defined by Federal Rule 702

“If scientific, technical or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact to
understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue, a witness qualified as an expert by
knowledge, skill, experience, training or education, may testify thereto in the form of an
opinion or otherwise, if (1) the testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data, (2) the
testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods, and (3) the witness has applied
the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the case.”

The Daubert Challenge is related to the judge’s ability to act like a gatekeeper and prevent the
expert’s testimony from being admitted in court. If the expert’s testimony is excluded, the
attorney has no way to support his/her case. It is therefore important that the attorney and his
expert meet the challenge so that the expert’s testimony is admitted.

Historical Perspective

In 1993, two Daubert children, Jason Daubert and Eric Shuller. And their parents were
plaintiffs in a case where birth defects were alleged to be from the mother’s ingestion of
Bendectin (a prescription anti-nausea drug). Benedectin was manufactured and marketed by
Merell Dow Pharmaceuticals. The plaintiffs argued that Bendectin likely caused the birth
defects.

The defense expert, Dr. Steven Lamm, was a physician and a well-respected epidemiologist.
He was a well-credentialed expert on the risks from exposure to various chemical substances.

Dr. Lamm stated that he reviewed all the literature on Benedectin and human birth defects in
more than 30 published studies over 130,000 patients. He indicated that no study had found
Bendectin to be a human teratogen, which is a substance capable of causing malformations in
fetuses. Based on his review, Dr. Lamm concluded that the maternal use of Bendectin during
the first trimester of preganancy had not been shown to be a risk factor for human birth
defects. The plaintiffs did not and do not contest this characterization of the public record.
Instaed, they responded with the testimony of eight experts of their own, each of whom also
possessed impressive credentials. The eight well-credentialed experts concluded that
Bendectin could cause birth defects. Their conclusions were based upon; “in vivo” (live)
animal studies that found a link between Bendectin and malformations; pharmacological
studies of the chemical structure of Bendectin that purported to show similarities between the
structure of the drug and that of other substance known to cause birth defects; and, the re-
analysis of previously published epidemiological (human statistical) studies.

The plaintiff’s in the Daubert case countered Merrell Dow’s expert testimony with the
testimony of eight experts. The trial court ruled the evidence presented by plaintiff’s experts
did not meet general acceptance test for admission. The Appeals court agreed and cited the
Frye ruling. The Supreme Court reversed the decision, stating that the Federal Rules of
Evidence superseded the Frye test. The Supreme Court stated “no common law of evidence
remains.” Nothing in the new federal rules “establishes ‘general acceptance’ as an absolute
prerequisite to admissibility.” They also said that the general acceptance requirement of the
Frye test is at odds with the “liberal thrust” of the Federal Rules and their general approach of
relaxing the traditional barriers to opinion testimony.
Those in favor of the general acceptance test argued that the ruling would open the floodgates
to unfounded and reliable evidence. They were afraid that juries would be misled and
confused by evidence that was generally accepted in the scientific community. The Court
addressed these concerns by levying the task of managing the admission of reliable scientific
evidence and excluding less reliable evidence. The Supreme Court ruled that there were four
non-exclusive factors to be used when evaluating the expert’s testimony. They form the basis
of The Daubert ruling regarding expert witness testimony.

They are:

1. Whether the theory can be tested.

2. Whether the theory or technique has been subjected to peer review as well as
publication
3. The potential rate error.
4. The existence and maintenance of standards controlling the technique’s operation.
The US Supreme Court was attempting to liberalize the ruling. However, the Daubert
case actually “created a more stringent test for expert admissibility.” After the Daubert
ruling, the lowest courts were inconsistently applying the ruling. Some courts very
rigidly applied the ruling while others stated Daubert only apply to engineers.

Daubert hearing does not exist to give fear to all handwriting examiner but to strengthen and
provide more expertise training to those who want to be involved in the forensic
identification.

In United States v. Jones, 107 F.3d 1147,1160 (6th Cir. 1007), the argument that handwriting
identification evidence ought not to be admitted because it could not be shown to be reliable
was also made and rejected. The government’s expert there had an equally lengthy career in
questioned document analysis, had testified in over 240 cases and had authored many articles
on handwriting comparisons. In rejecting the argument that the trial court improperly
permitted him to testify as an expert, the court said, “To put it bluntly, the federal government
pays him to analyze documents, the precise task he was called upon to do in the district
court.”

What is ACE-V Methodology?

The ACE-V Methodology is the scientific method in the identification of questioned

document especially in the identification of handwriting. This is derived from the scientific
application done by Mr. Roy A. Huber; Analysis, Comparison , and Evaluation.
Identification of handwriting, when it is difficult to establish the excellent agreement of
identify, may somehow be verified by other expert for the purpose of verification.
ANALYSIS- properties or characteristics are observed, measured and determined.

It is always true that the first thing to examine is the questioned handwriting because it
is the document that may arrive first in hand of the examiner. The analysis of the questioned
handwriting it is and to establish the best standard to compare with the questioned
handwriting. However, to establish further the genuineness of the handwriting in question, it
is the standard handwriting that may be studied or analyzed first just to give a clearer picture
of individually in the handwriting.
DESCRIPTIVE ANALYZE

The general description of the questioned handwriting is determined by descriptive

analysis. This is to study the general appearance of the questioned handwriting.

(a) General information of handwriting or signature;

(b) Relation to baseline;
(c) Line quality;
(d) Ratio and proportion; and
(e) Variation in the handwriting.

These are the general descriptive aspect to analyze the handwriting of a person. After
having studied the general descriptive aspect, the next to consider is the specific description
of the standard handwriting. The specific description refers to the specific characteristics
found in the handwriting of the person. These are very strong points to have an excellent
agreement for identification. Specific description of handwriting is represented by arrows and
numbers to pinpoint the specific description. In the specific description of the handwriting, all
possible characteristics and elements found in the handwriting must be taken and put into
consideration.

Example:

Descriptive Analysis

(Standard)

Description

General Information: Generally formed in eyelet loop formation with multiple

embellishments and retracing strokes with arcaded top writing
executions in slanting position ended in hook formation.
Relation to Baseline: Higher elevation of the initial writing executions with lower
elevations in the middle portion and ended in downward
directions.

Line Quality: Consistent blunt initial strokes with alternationof handwriting

pressure on upward and downward strokes, and indicative to
GHS in spontaneous handwriting execution.

Ratio and Proportion: Consistent bigger initial execution with wider distance in the
middle portion and terminates in diminishing size.

Variation: Changes of handwriting executions under simple degree of

modification within the primary controlling pattern.

SPECIFIC DESCRIPTION

(Standard)

1. Consistent presence of embellishment

2. Consistent presence of arcaded formation
3. Consistent higher elevation of initial writing
4. Consistent lower elevation of the middle portion
5. Consistent blunt initial strokes
6. Consistent less handwriting pressure on upward strokes
7. Consistent greater handwriting pressure on download strokes
8. Consistent wider distance in the middle portion
9. Consistent diminishing size
10. Consistent embellishment of terminal stroke
11. Consistent pressure of hook formation

After the analysis conducted on the standards, the questioned will follow. Now, the standard
and the questioned handwriting are put together for the purpose of comparison.

COMPARISON- properties or characteristics of the unknown items determined thru analysis

are now compared with the familiar or recorded properties of known items.

The questioned handwriting is the unknown item that we need to establish its identity by
comparing it to the known item which is the standard.
Example of comparative examination written by one person:
General COMPARISON
Description Standards 1 to 13 QD1
General Generally formed in eyelet loop formation with multiple DO
Formation embellishment and retracing stroke with arcaded top
writing executions in slanting position ended in hook
formation.
Relation to Higher evaluation of the initial writing executions with DO
Baseline lower elevations in the middle portion and ended in
downward directions
Line quality Consistent blunt initial strokes with alternation of DO
handwriting pressure on upward and downward strokes and
indicative to greater handwriting speed in spontaneous
handwriting executions and vanishing terminal strokes.
Ration and Consistent bigger initial execution with wider distance in DO
Proportion the middle portion and terminates in diminishing size.
Variation Changes in handwriting executions under simple degree of DO
modifications within the primary controlling pattern.

SPECIFIC DESCRIPTION
STANDARD SPECIMEN QUESTION
SPECIMEN

1. Consistent presence of embellishment. 1. –do-

2. Consistent presence of arcaded formation 2. –do-
3. Consistent higher evaluation of initial writing. 3. –do-
4. Consistent lower evaluation of the middle portion. 4. –do-
5. Consistent blunt initial strokes 5. –do-
6. Consistent less handwriting pressure on upward strokes. 6. –do-
7. Consistent greater handwriting pressure on downward 7. –do-
stroke
8. Consistent wider distance in the middle portion 8. –do-
9. Consistent diminishing size 9. –do-
10. Consistent embellishment of terminal stroke 10. –do-
11. Consistent pressure of hook formation. 11. –do-

COMPARATIVE TABLE

DESCRIPTIVE ASPECTS SPECIMEN

S1 S2 S S4 S S6 S7 S S9 S10 S1 QS
3 5 8 1

General Formation P P P P P P P P P P P P

Relation to Baseline P P P P P P P P P P P P
 Line Quality P P P P P P P P P P P P

Ration and Propertion P P P P P P P P P P P P

Variation P P P P P P P P P P P P

Example of comparative examination made on different handwriting of a person:

DESCRIPTIVE COMPARISON
Description Standard Specimen Questioned Document

General Consistent narrow and tall Wider and lower execution of

Informatio executions of initial writing
n indicative of vertical
handwriting formation with
close eyelet and presence of
angular connections
initial handwriting indicative of
slanting formation with consistent
open eyelet and dominated by
garlanded connections

Relation to Indicative of lower Indicative of higher elevations in

Baseline elevation in the middle
portion tending to terminate
in upward direction
Line Harmonious writing
quality executions and presence of
alternated degree lesser and
greater handwriting pressure
along upward and
downward stroke
Ration and Indicative of narrow
Proportion distance of letters
Variation Change in handwriting
within the range of primary
controlling pattern.
the middle portion
Presence of retracing and
retouching strokes and pen lift
with the absence of alternated
degree of lesser and greater
handwriting pressure along
upward and downward stokes.
Indicative of wider distance of
letters
Changes in the handwriting
characteristics beyond the range
of primary controlling pattern.

1. 1.
 COMPARATIVE TABLE

DESCRIPTIVE SPECIMEN
ASPECTS

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S1 S11 QS
0

General P P P P P P P P P P P P
Formation
Relation to P P P P P P P P P P P P
Baseline
Line Quality P P P P P P P P P P P P

Ration and P P P P P P P P P P P P
Propertion
Variation P P P P P P P P P P P P

Evaluation- similarities or dissimilarities in property or characteristics that have certain

value for identification is determined by its likelihood of occurrence.

The evaluation is derived from comparing the standard and the questioned specimen. Avoid
being influenced by outside factor like the statement of the client that he really knows that it
is written or not written by one person.

Other points to consider in the identification of the signature are the presence of significant
reminder. Where excellent agreement may exist however there exist
significant reminder on the result, the analysis and comparative
examination may be reviewed to establish whether that reminder is
only an accidental or temporary or additional standard can be asked
for. The conclusion must be purely derived from the evaluation of the
handwriting

CONCLUSION AGAINST OPINION

According to Huber and Headrick, some controversies have been noted in

the views of examiners as to whether the results of their examinations
should be expressed as conclusion or as a matter of opinion.
In some other instances opinion and conclusion are being used
interchangeably in giving the findings of the handwriting examinations.
On the other hand, opinion is very much different from conclusion.

According to the Meriam Webster Dictionary, opinion is defined as:

1. A view, judgment, or appraisal formed in the mind about particular matter;

2. A belief stronger than impression and less strong than positive knowledge, a generally
held view;

3. A formal expression of judgment or advice by an expert;

4. The formal expression (as by a judge, court or referee) of the legal reasons and
principles upon which a legal decision is based.

The Encarta Dictionary define opinion as:

1. An expert assessment of something;

2. A conclusion drawn from observation of the facts;
3. The view somebody takes about certain issue, especially when it is based solely on
personal judgment;
4. A view regarding the worth of somebody or something.

On the other hand, Encarta Dictionary defines conclusion as:

1. A decision made or an opinion formed after considering the relevant facts or

evidence;

2. An ending or the part that brings something to a close (formal)

3. The completion of a formal agreement or deal, especially after long or detailed

discussions and arrangements;

4. The summation or closing argument at the end of a case being tried;

5. The portion of an argument for which evidence is presented.

The Oxford Dictionary also defines conclusion as:

 1. An outcome;

2. A final determination

3. A judgment arrived by reasoning

4. An inference, induction or deduction.

The rule of law does not govern what on how expert evidences can be expressed or
determined, but how it will be accepted. As long as the expert testimony will be given a
chance to be presented in court, it does not question whether it is a conclusion given or just
an opinion.

In the presentation of testimony as well as the written reports of the examiner, there is no rule
as to the content or format to follow. It is the experience or expertise of the examiner that can
speak louder on the issue as to whether it is the handwriting of one person or another.
In the Philippines, questioned document examination reports vary with different examiners.
The Philippine National Police Crime Laboratory and the National Bureau of Investigation is
applying the word “Conclusion”. The noted Filipino Questioned Document Expert Mr.
Gregorio Mendoza is using the word “Opinion” in his questioned document examination
reports.
Qualified Opinion

During the Senate Committee Hearing on the “Jose Pidal” case, the questioned signature
presented was a photocopy. The standard for comparison was requested standards. One of the
question raised by a member of the Senate Committee during the presentation of the
questioned document examination result was, “What do you mean by qualified opinion?”
Most of the document examiners apply “qualified opinion” where there is a probability of a
mistake on the result of the matter being investigated. Qualified opinion is based on the facts
shown on the document not the original. When the document presented is a photocopy, and it
shows individuality in characteristics both in questioned document and the standard, therefore
it is probably the handwriting of another person. However, there is a strong probability that is
not, the moment that the original document will be presented and examined.
The examiner in the “Jose Pidal” case cannot give a definite answer as to whether it is the
handwriting of the suspected writer or not because the matter in question is a photocopy. But
as an expert, he or she can only render his or her “qualified opinion” based on the
characteristics shown both in the standard and questioned document. A conclusion is a
definite answer to the problem. Opinion is likewise applied with respect to the understanding
of the law respecting expert testimony.

VERIFICATION- it is also known as a second opinion. Where numerous handwriting

problem may occur most especially when the identity is somewhat difficult to prove, the
expert should seek another expert’s opinion.

“The Dreyfus case is an unforgettable lesson to all experts. French Army Captain Alfred
Dreyfus was charged with treason because of the famous “bordereau” % itemized documents
considered as top secret.” These documents are very difficult to procure because it is
considered as top secret. The French Counterespionage Bureau became interested about the
identity of “Scoundrel D_ _ _” which was mentioned on the letter. The name Dreyfus later
turned up. The handwriting was examined and became the basis for conviction. After two
years, the real identity of the writer was established. ”

Self-Assessment #13

1. Discuss step by step the methods in handwriting identification.

2. Differentiate qualified opinion from conclusion.

3. What is an expert opinion?

4. Define the following in your own words;

 a.Opinion

b. Conclusion

c.Analysis

5. What is the Daudert case?

MODULE 12

EXPERT TESTIMONY IN COURT

LIGITATION
Trial Preparation and Testimony; Responsibilities and Duties of Forensic Expert in Judicial
Proceedings; Elements of Effective Expert Testimony Proper Courtroom Behavior;
Qualifying in Court as an Expert Witness

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss the important role of the forensic expert in judicial proceedings;

2. Explain one by one the duties and responsibilities of the forensic expert in
judicial proceedings
3. Enumerate the elements of effective testimony and courtroom behavior;
4. Explain the basic rule of forensic document examiner in court litigation;
5. Differentiate expert testimony from the ordinary testimony of a witness;
6. Explain the value of training and experience of the forensic questioned document
examiner in qualifying as an expert witness in judicial proceedings.

THE EXPERT TESTIMONY IN COURT LIGITATION

 The duty of the Forensic Questioned Document Examiner does not end after
establishing the identity of the questioned document as to whether it is written or not by one
person. The final judgment is by the court which decides on the issue. The document
examiner presents his/her testimony to the court or any investigative body in order for him to
convince them regarding the result of his examination. In this situation, the examiner will
undergo a process of qualifying as an expert. The examiner will be put in the hot seat
answering questions during the cross examination. It is a difficult stage in a court litigation
for an examiner. The examiner on the other hand should be prepared and be ready to answer
questions asked by the adverse party.

In this situation, the following must be considered;

1. Your expertise.
2. Knowledge on Rules on Evidence
3. Trial Proceedings.

An expert witness is a person skilled in some art, science, profession, or

business or who has experience or knowledge in relation to matters that are not
commonly known to the ordinary person. The ordinary witness testifies to facts,
that is, what one has been seen, heard or otherwise observed. The expert witness
expresses an opinion or answers hypothetical questions based on facts presumably
on the record. It should be kept in mind that the expert witness testimony is
entirely within the province of the judge to determine the weight to be given to
such opinions. The judge is not bound by the opinion of experts.
The forensic questioned document examiner will testify before a judge. He
may be presented by the prosecution lawyer or by a private prosecuting lawyer as
the court may allow. His purpose is to be of assistance to the legal luminaries may
they be for the defense or for the prosecution in the administration of justice. He
will also testify before the court. This may be presented by the defense lawyer.

TRIAL PREPEARATION AND TESTIMONY

As soon as you find out that you will be testifying, you should begin preparing for
the witness chair. Regardless of your role, you should take the following steps:

1. First, discuss with the lawyer/attorney who will present you as a witness what
is expected, how your testimony is to be used and when you will be expected
to testify.
2. Review all available documents pertaining to the issues being litigated.
3. Discuss your testimony with the lawyer and what line of questioning will be
used to develop the case, and have general idea on how you will respond to the
questions.
4. Consider what the defense counsel’s approach will be and the area he will
most likely probe during cross-examination.

The forensic examiner has various responsibilities and duties during judicial
proceedings. They are as follows:
 1. In criminal cases, review the prosecution memorandum.

2. In criminal cases, review the charge filed which sets forth the specific allegations of
the criminal act.

3. Review the anticipated evidence available to prove and disprove the charge or
information in criminal cases, or support or deny the plaintiff’s or respondents’
position in civil case.
4. Check the evidence to be presented in court, whether criminal or civil.
5. Advice the lawyer of a potential technical problem.
6. Determine the clearest manner to present the testimony in terms that the judge will
understand.
7. Prepare tentative summary, based on the evidence that is expected to be admitted.
8. Supply the lawyer you are assisting a written statement of your qualifications as a
forensic examiner or a current resume.
9. Testify only on those matters that are presented by the lawyers to the court.
10. Take notes regarding the evidence that is presented and marked as exhibits and
prepare a list of documentary exhibits of both sides, whether in a criminal or a civil
case.
11. Alert the lawyer regarding any evidence that has been overlooked. It is important that
all evidence necessary to support your testimony has been admitted.

The basic rule for the forensic examiner and investigator is to truthfully testify in court. His
or her demeanor should reflect professionalism. Fostering cooperation with the lawyers can
be greatly beneficial. Communication between your lawyers can enlighten you, as well as
those around you, on the case. The forensic examiner should expect to work long hours
during the trial. Most of the job is done outside the courtroom, not in it. The forensic
examiner should be very familiar with the case. If not, he or she should study the case a week
or so before the trial begins.

ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE EXPERT TESTIMONY AND PROPER

COURTROOM BAHAVIOR

1. The expert witness before testifying in court must have his evidence and testimony
adequately prepared and should have at least one pre-trial conference with the trial
conference with the trial attorney.
 2. The expert witness must have confidence in his opinion, which is based upon his
knowledge, experience and proper presentation. Confidence is an intelligent faith
based on act.

3. The expert witness must create a good impression of himself to the court. He should
come to the court dressed simply in clean conservative street clothes in keeping with
the prevailing style.

4. Enter the courtroom with an aggressive and positive walk, giving the assurance that
you are prepared to beat whatever may confront you. It is the walk and posture of
most men that indicate their character.

5. Upon reaching the witness stand, turning to the court to be sworn in, he should raise
his hand without hesitation and let his voice ring out in a clear and forceful “I do”.
Without hesitation, he takes the stand and sit down with ease in comfortable but erect
position.

6. The expert must have the ability to explain his technical subject in simple and clear
language, understandable by the trial judge. Make it easy for the judge to understand
what you are talking about. Use distinct and expressive sentence with a simple, clear
and logical presentation.

7. Present your opinion in a friendly spirit. Be natural and speak in a normal, down-to-
earth, and congenial manner. Be human. Sincerity is displayed by the expert in
manner of his speech. It will be conveyed in the ring of his voice, his facial
expressions and his bodily movements. The slightest indication by his tone of voice or
by any gesture that he is doubtful will destroy the confidence of the judge. You cannot
hide in sincerity. If the expert does not believe in his ideas or opinion whole-
heartedly, he cannot make others believe in him. A timid voice never carries
conviction.

If the Law has made YOU…a witness,. You will…remain a man of science. YOU
have no victim to avenge, No guilty or innocent to ruin or save. You will…bear witness
within the limits of Science.

QUALIFYING IN COURT AS AN EXPERT WITNESS

A witness who is to give testimony concerning questioned documents in court must not only
understand how it is analyzed, compared and interpreted, how it was photographed,
developed and charted, but he must also be familiar with the history, literature and legal
precedence of his profession. He should be able to state truthfully the length of time he has
been engaged as a questioned document examiner. He must have enough knowledge of some
theories, studies and research involving questioned document examination. The questioned
document examiner must have learned the principles of identification and must have shown
the evidence of training and expertise to the court in order not to find difficulties in obtaining
the court’s recognition as an expert witness.
Ordinarily, the opinion of a witness is not admissible in court. But opinion evidence is
admitted of questions which the court is not competent to decide without assistance. This is
the field of the skilled witness and expert witness are higher than those of a lay witness. The
expert witness must show training and practical experience in the field in which he sets
himself up as an authority.

It is true that there is always a first appearance in court as an expert for each forensic
questioned document specialist. It is said that only those who have testified before in courts
should be considered as experts. If that is the case, we would exhaust the supply of experts
when he present experts all lie. Even though each must have an initial appearance, we should
not go into court as an expert witness unless we have enough years of experience in handling
the thousands of prints (beefed up by thorough theoretical knowledge in the field) to obtain
the confidence of the court. There is no certain number of years of experience or no definite
number of handwriting specimen that we have examined which can be given as minimum or
maximum experience. Some men may be excellent as experts in forensic questioned
document identification but fails in court because of their nervousness, poor personality or
other human weaknesses.

Self-Assessment #14

1. Discuss the following;

a. The importance of expert testimony in court proceedings.

b. The importance of qualifying an expert witness before hearing his/her testimony

before the court.
 2. How important is the training and experience of a forensic examiner in qualifying as
an expert witness in court?

3. Differentiate expert witness from ordinary witness.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX “A”

TYPEWRITING EXAMINATION

The typewriter was the most versatile instrument of communication back in 18th Century up
to the later part of 20th Century. It is a machine which is being used by some of the business
and government offices in our country today. With its development and universal use in
business, the problem “Disputed Typewritten Documents” arose and underscored the need for
examination of typed documents to determine their validity.

The first writing machine was introduced in England by the British Inventor Henry Mill and
obtained a British patent granted by her Majesty Queen Anne in 1714. In 1829, American
inventor introduced a writing machine with type arranged on a semicircular wheel that
revolved to the desired letters and press against the paper to print. Another writing machine
was introduced in 1833 by a French inventor Xavier Progin. His machine embodied one of
the principles employed in a modern typewriter: the use for each letter or symbol of separate
typebars, actuated by separate lever keys.

During the 1840’s up to 1860’s, many inventors tried to produce a workable typewriter, but
none succeeded until 1868, when three American Inventors: Christopher Latham Sholes,
Carlos Glidden and Samuel W. Soule’, patented a writing machine. Early in 1873, they
contracted with E. Remington & Sons of Lion, New York manufacturers of rifles and sewing
machines, to produce their typewriter. This was the so-called “blind writing machine”. In
order to see what had been written, it was necessary to lift the Platen. The Remington
typewriter Model No. 1 became available in 1874 followed by Remington Model No. 2
which has an upper and lower case letters in 1878. In 1892, the first “visible writing
machine” and one of the most successful invented typewriter in the United State of America
was introduced by the Underwood Company. Another typewriters which was proved
successful in the United States of America is L. C Smith, Royal and Woodstock.

In 1912, a portable typewriter was developed. In the 1920’s, the International Business
Machine Corporation (IBM) introduced to the market a motor-driven typewriter better known
as electric typewriter. It produced a uniform impression and pressure of each letter. Among
its other features are the following: It permits swift correction of mistakes; automatically
justifies or evenly aligns the right hand margin; supplies character in foreign languages and
alphabets; types a single word at a single stroke; and is equipped with interchangeable type
spheres that supply a variety of typefaces, such as italic or cursive.

Generally, we have three major types of typewriter machines: these are the Office Typewriter
Machine, the Portable Typewriter, and the Electric Typewriter.

Important Details About the Typewriter

Typeface- it is the printing surface of the type block. The most popular type used in business
before PICA and ELITE.

PICA- it is composed of ten characters in an inch.

ELITE- it is composed of twelve characters in an inch.

Character- refers to letters, symbols, numerals or any point of functions in typewriter.

Typefaced defects- refers to any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the
typeface metal. Typeface refers to the printing surface of the type block.

1. Horizontal mal-alignent- a deficiency in alignment in which the character prints to

the right or left of its proper position.
2. Vertical mal-alignment- a defect in alignment in which the character prints below
or above its proper position.
3. Twisted letter- each character and letter is designed to print at a certain fixed angle
to the baseline. Due to damage and wear to the type bars and type block some letters
are distorted so that they can lean to the left or print of their correct slant.
4. Off its feet- the condition of a type face printing heavier on one corner or side over
the remainder of its outline.
5. Rebound- is a defect in which a character prints a double impression with the lighter
one slightly offset to the left or right.
6. Clogged typeface- otherwise referred to as dirty type face characterized by unclean
prints due to constant use of typewriter without cleaning the type face, commonly
occurring in enclosed letters and characters.
7. Actual Breakage- any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage of the
type face metal resulting to breakage in the line of letters.
The term defect is used to describe any maladjusted or abnormality in a typewriter which is
reflected in its work and which leads to its identification and individualization.

`Permanent defect- refers to any identifying attribute of a typewriter which cannot be

corrected by simply cleaning the type face or replacing the ribbon.

Transitory Defect- refers to an identifying typewriter characteristics which can be

eliminated by replacing the ribbon or cleaning the machine.

Typewriter Comparison

Type the specimen on the paper similar in the surface to that in the questioned
document. If in doubt, use standard typewriter paper. Type the questioned text word for word
three times. If the typewritten document is very long, specimen of the first page will suffice.
On a separate sheet of paper, also type some common letter groups as well as three complete
impressions of typewriter typeface made by striking all the keys in each row. Remove the
typewriter ribbon and submit both the ribbon and the typing specimen to the laboratory.

Principal Techniques Utilized in Typewriting Identification:

1. Measure the typeface

2. Verify the size and design
3. Look for individual typeface defects.

Points to Consider in Preparing Standard of Typewriters:

1. Include all words and characters used in the questioned document.

 Use the same wording as in the questioned document if possible;
 Employ different degrees and speed;
 Utilize the same or similar quality of paper;
 Make no machine adjustments or ribbon changes until at least several standards
are completed.
2. Each sheet should contain data on make, model, serial number of machine and initials
or signature of the investigator.
3. Submit typewriter’s ribbon if it has not been changed since the questioned document
was typed.

Identification Rule in Typewriting Identification

 Two specimen of typewriting are works of single typewriting if all type size, and
spacing are identical in the two documents; if there is a unique combination of a defective
character; and there is no significant difference between set of specimens.

Some questions involved in the examination of typewritten and computerized

documents:

1. Whether two or more questioned documents are identical and typed on the same
machine;

2. Whether certain questioned documents are the products of different typewriters or

computer printers

3. Whether the entire document was typed or printed on the same machine;

4. Whether the prints on a particular document was done on one continuous operation, or
whether a part was typed at one time and another at a later time on the same machine

5. Whether a document was typed or printed partly on one machine and partly on the
different machine;

6. Whether anything was changed, overtyped, added, and if so, what was the original
text;

7. Whether certain insertions and additions are typed on the same machine used for the
original text, or on a different machine;

8. Whether certain insertions and additions are typed on the same machine but at
different times;
9. Whether the typewritten or computerized document was made on the date it bears, or
whether it was made before or after ostensible date;
10. Whether any of the typewritten or computerized document pages have been
substituted or inserted;
11. Whether a particular document was typed or printed on a blank sheet of paper bearing
a signature previously affixed.

APPENDIX “B”

LAWS ON FORGERY
 (Revised Penal Code)

Art. 161. Counterfeiting the great seal of the Government of the Philippine
Islands, forging the signature or stamp of the Chief Executive—the penalty of
reclusion temporal shall be imposed upon any person who shall forge the Great Seal
of the Government of the Philippine Islands or the signature or stamp of the Chief
Executive.

ArT. 162. Using forged signature or counterfeit seat or stamp.—The penalty of

prision mayor shall be imposed upon any person who shall knowingly make use of the
counterfeit seal or forged signature or stamp mentioned in the preceding article.

Art 163. Making and Importing and uttering false coins. –Any person who makes,
imports or utters, false coins, in connivance with counterfeiters, or importers, shall
suffer:

1. Prision mayor in its minimum and medium periods and a fine not to exceed P10, 000
pesos, if the counterfeited coin be silver coin of the Philippine coin of the Central Bank of
the Philippines of ten centavo denomination or above.
2. Prision correctional in its minimum and medium periods and a fine of not to exceed
P2,000 pesos, if the counterfeited coins be any of the minor coinage of the Philippines or
of the Central Bank of the Philippines below ten-centavo denomination.
3. Prision correctional in its minimum period and a fine not to exceed P1,000 pesos, if the
counterfeited coin be currency of a foreign country. (As amended by R. A No. 4202,
approved June 19, 1965).

Art. 164. Mutilation of coins; Importation and Utterance of mutilated coins.—the

penalty of prision correctional in its minimum period and a fine not to exceed P2,000 pesos
shall be imposed upon any person who shall mutilate coins of the legal currency of the United
States or of the Philippine Islands or import or utter mutilated current coins, or in connivance
with mutilators or importers.

Art. 165. Selling of false or mutilated coin, without connivance--The person who
knowingly, although without connivance mentioned in the preceding articles, shall possess
false or mutilated coin with intent to utter the same, or shall actually utter such coin, shall
suffer a penalty lower by one degree than the prescribed in said articles.

Art. 166. Forging treasury or bank notes on other documents payable to bearer;
importing, and uttering such false or forged notes and documents.—the forging or
falsification of treasury or bank notes or certificates or other obligations and securities
payable to bearer and the importation and uttering in connivance with forgers or importers of
such false or forged obligations or notes, shall be punished as follows:

1. By reclusion temporal in its minimum period and a fine not to exceed P10,000
pesos, if the document which has been falsified counterfeited, or altered, is an
obligations or security of the United States or of the Philippine Islands.
 The word “obligation or security of the United States or of the Philippine Islands”
shall be held to mean all bonds, certificates of deposit, bills, checks, or drafts for
money, drawn by or upon authorized officers of the United States or of the
Philippine Islands, and other representatives of value, of whatever combination,
which have been or may be issued under any act of the Congress of the United
States or of the Philippine Legislature.
2. By prision mayor in its maximum period and a fine not to exceed P5,000 pesos, if
the falsified or altered document is circulating note issued by any banking
association duly authorized by law to issue the same.
3. By prision mayor in its medium period and a fine not to exceed P5,000 pesos, if the
falsified or counterfeited document was issued by a foreign government.
4. By prision mayor in its maximum period and a fine not to exceed P2,000 pesos,
when the forged or altered document is a circulating note or bill issued by foreign
bank dult authorized therefor.

Art. 167. Counterfeiting, importing and uttering instruments not payable to bearer. –
any person who shall forge, import or utter, in connivance with the forgers or importers, any
instrument payable to order or other document of credit not payable to bearer, shall suffer the
penalties of prision correctional in its medium and maximum periods and a fine not
exceeding P6,000 pesos.

Art. 168. Illegal possession and use of false treasury or bank notes and other
instruments of credit. – unless the act to be one of those coming under the provisions of any
of the preceding articles, any person who shall knowingly use or have in his possession, with
intent to use any of the false or falsified instruments referred to in this section, shall suffer the
penalty next lower in degree than that prescribed in said articles.

Art. 169. How forgery is committed. – the forgery referred to in this section may be
committed by any of the following means:

1. By giving to a treasury or bank note or any instrument, payable to bearer or order

mentioned therein, the appearance of the true genuine document.
2. By erasing, substituting, counterfeiting or altering by any means the figures, letters,
words or signs contained therein.

Art. 170. Falsification o Legislative documents.--- the penalty of prision correctional in its
maximum period and a fien not exceeding P6,000 pesos shall be imposed upon any person
who, without proper authority therefor alters any bill, resolution, or ordinance enacted or
approved or pending approval by either House of Legislature or any provincial board or
municipal council.

Art. 171. Falsification by Public Officer, employee or notary or ecclesiastic minister. –

The penalty of prision mayor and a fine not to exceed P5,000 pesos shall be imposed upon
any public officer, employee, or notary who, taking advantage of his official position shall
falsify a document by committing any of the following acts:

1. Counterfeiting or imitating any handwriting, signature or rubric;

 2. Causing it to appear that persons have participated in an act or proceeding when they
did not in fact to participate;
3. Attributing to persons who have participated in an act or proceeding statements other
than those in fact made by them
4. Making untruthful statements in a narration of facts;
5. Altering true dates;
6. Making any alterations or intercalation in a genuine document which changes its
meaning;
7. Issuing in an authenticated form a document purporting to be a copy of an original
document when no such original exists, or including in such a copy of a statement
contrary to, or different from, that of the genuine original; or
8. Intercalating any instrument or note relative to the issuance thereof in a protocol,
registry or official book.
The same penalty shall be imposed upon any ecclesiastical minister who shall commit
any of the offenses enumerated in the preceding paragraphs of this article, with
respect to any record or document of such character that its falsification may afflict
the civil status of persons.

Art. 172. Falsification by private individual and use of falsified documents. – The
penalty of prision correctional in its medium and maximum periods and a fine of not
more than p5,000 pesos shall be imposed upon:
1. Any private individual who shall commit any of the falsifications
enumerated in the next preceding article in any public or official document
or letter of exchange or any other kind of commercial document, and
2. Any person who to the damage of the third party, or with the intent to
cause such damage, shall in any private document commit any of the acts
of falsification enumerated in the next preceding article.

Any person who shall knowingly introduce in evidence any judicial proceedings or to the
damage of another or who, with the intent to cause such damage, shall use any of the false
documents embraced in the next preceding article, or any of the foregoing subdivisions of
this article, shall be punished by the penalty next lower in degree.

Art 173. Falsification of wireless, cable, telegraph and telephone messages, and use of
said falsified messages. – the penalty of prision correctional in its medium and maximum
periods shall be imposed upon any officer or employee of the Government or of any private
corporation or concern engaged in the service of sending or receiving wireless, cable or
telephone message who utters a fictitious wireless, telegraph or telephone message of any
system or falsifies the same.

Any person who shall use such falsified dispatch to the prejudice of a third party or with the
intent to cause such prejudice, shall suffer the penalty next lower degree.

Art. 174. False medical certificates, false certificates of merits or service, ect. – the
penalties of arresto mayor in its maximum period to prision correctional in its minimum
period and a fine not to exceed P1,000 pesos shall be imposed upon:

1. Any physician or surgeon who, in connection with the practice of hos profession,
shall issue a false certificate; and
 2. Any public officer who shall issue a false certificate of merit or service, good conduct,
or similar circumstances.
The penalty of arreso mayor shall be imposed upon any private person who shall
falsify a certicate falling within the classes mentioned in the two preceding
subdivisions.

Art. 175. Using false certificates. – the penalty of arresto menor shall be imposed upon any
one who shall knowingly use any of the false certificates mentioned in the next preceding
article.

Art. 176 Manufacturing and possession of instruments or implements for

falsification. – the penalty of prision correctional in its medium and maximum
periods and periods and a fine not to exceed P10, 000 pesos shall be imposed upon
any person who shall make or introduce into the Philippine Islands any stamps, dies,
marks, or other instruments or implements intended to be used in the commission of
the offenses of counterfeiting or falsification mentioned in the preceding sections of
this Chapter.

Any person who, with the intention of using them, shall have in his possession any of
the instrument or implements mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, shall suffer the
penalty of next lower in degree than that provide therin.

(d) not to give an answer which will tend to subject him to a penalty for an offense
unless otherwise provided by law; or
(e) not to give answer which will tend to degrade his reputation, unless it is very fact
at issue or fact from which the fact in issue would presumed. But a witness must
answer to the fact of his previous final conviction for an offense.
Sec. 4 Order in the examination of an individual witness—the order in which the
individual witness may be examined is as follows:
(a) Direct examination by the proponent
(b) Cross-examination by the proponent
(c) Re-direct examination by the proponent
(d) Re-cross examination by the proponent

Sec. 5 Direct Examination. Direct Examination is the examination-in-chief of a witness by

the party presenting him on the fact relevant to the issue.

Sec.6 Cross-examination; its purpose and extent. Upon the termination of the direct
examination, the witness may be cross-examined by the adverse party and to any matters
stated in the direct examination, or connected therewith, with sufficient fullness and freedom
to test his accuracy and truthfulness and freedom from intent or bias, or the reverse, and to
elicit all important facts bearing upon issue.

Sec. 7 Re-direct Examination; its purpose and extent- after the cross-examination of the
witness has been concluded, he may be re-examined by the party calling him, to explain or
supplement his answers given during the cross-examination. On re-direct examination,
questions on matters not dealt with during cross examination, may be allowed by the court in
its discretion.

Sec. 8 Re-cross Examination- Upon the conclusion of the e-direct examination, the adverse
party may cross0examine the witness on maters stated in his re-direct examination, or such
other matters as may be allowed by the court in its discretion.

Sec.9 Recalling Witness- After the examination of a witness by both sides has been
concluded, the witness cannot be called without leave of the court. The court will grant or
withhold leave in its discretion as the interest of justice may require.

Sec. 10. Leading and misleading questions. A question which suggest to the witness the
answer which the examining party desires is a leading questions. It is not allowed, except:

(a) On cross examination

(b) On preliminary matters
(c) When there is a difficulty in getting direct and intelligible answers from a witness
who is ignorant or a child of tender years, or is feeble0minded; or deaf-mute
(d) Of an unwilling or hostile witness, or;
(e) Of a witness who is an adverse party or an officer, director, or managing agent of a
public or private corporation of a partnership or association which is an adverse party.

A missing question is one which assumes as true a fact not yet testified to by the witness,
contrary to that which he has previously stated. It is not allowed.

Sec.11 Impeachment of adverse party’s witness- A witness may be impeached by the

party against whom he was called, by contradictory evidence; by evidence that his general
reputation for truth, honesty or integrity is bad; or by evidence that he has made, at other
times, statements inconsistent with his present testimony, but not be evidence of
particular wrongful acts, except that may be

Sec. 27 Public record of a private document- an authorized public record of a private

document may be proved by the original record, or by a copy therof, attested by the legal
custodian of the record, with an appropriate certificate that such officer has the custody.

Sec. 28. Proof of Lack of record. – A written statement signed by an officer having the
custody of an official record or by his deputy that after diligent search no record or entry of a
specified tenor is found to exist in the records of his office, accompanied by certificate above
provided, is admissible as evidence that the records of his office contain no such record entry.

Sec. 29. How judicial record impeached- any judicial record may be impeached by
evidence of: (a) want of jurisdiction in the court or judicial officer, (b) collusion between
parties or (c) fraud in the party offering the record, in respect to the proceedings.
Sec.31. Alteration in document, how to explain- ten party producing a document as
genuine which has been altered and appears to have been altered after execution, in a part
material to the question in dispute, must account for the alteration. He may show that the
alteration was made by another, without his concurrence, or was otherwise properly or
innocently made. If he fails to do that, the document shall not be admissible in evidence.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PUBLISHED HANDBOOK
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SCHOOL HANDOUTS AND NOTES

Dimzon, Erasmus (1999). Review in Questioned Document, University of Iloilo, Iloilo City,
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Magliano, Gerardo (1993). Notes on Special Crime Investigation. Philippine College of

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TRAINING AND SEMINAR

Panganiban, Artemio, (2006). Criminalistics, Notes on Forensic Specialization Course,

Criminology FILE Academy, Cebu City, Philippines.

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Panganiban, Artemio. “Guidelines Court Appearance and Testimomy”, presented during the
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Cebu City, Philippines.

Mendoza, Gregorio Jr. The practice of Questioned Document Examination“. Lecture

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WEBSITES

http://www.forensicevidence.com

http://www.forensicpage.com

http://www.forensic.gov.uk

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http://www.forensic.html

http://www.asqd.org
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http://www.moneyfactory.gov/newmoney/

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http://www.4n6.com

DICTIONARY AND ENCYCLOPEDIA

2005 PREMIUM ENCARTA REFERENCE

ENCARTA REFERENCE TOOL

2000 MERRIAM WEBSTER DICTIONARY

2000 OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY