Kenya Methodist University

Distance Learning Material

SCHOOL OF BUSINESS

DEPARTMENT OF HRM MARKETING ADMINISTATION

HRMG 330

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

By

Dr. Karim Omido (PHD)

Published by Kenya Methodist University
P.O. Box 267 – 60200, Meru
Tel: 254 – 064 – 30301, 31146

Dr Karim Omido (Ph.D.) Training and Development Page 1

HRMG 330: TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
Credit Hours: 3 Credits
Contact Hours: 45 HOURS
Prerequisite: Human Resource Management (BUS 220)

Course Purpose
The purpose of this course is to introduce the students to issues relating to employees training and
development and its important in providing sustained internal human resources supply. This is a
specialized course in the field of human resource management with a goal is to make the students
appreciate the role of training and development processes as integral parts of Human Resource
Management in an organization. The unit provides insight to potential human resource manages to
understand the importance of giving progressive development to any employee who enters an
organization.

Course Objectives
At the end of the course, the students should be able to:
i. Distinguish between training, education and development.
ii. Understand and the theories and approaches of training and development
iii. Describe and appreciate the role of training in achieving human resources needs
iv. Describes the systematic training process
v. Explain the approaches to training
vi. Explains the approaches to human resources development
vii. Develop training programs that are appropriate to both the employee and the organization.
viii. Make an evaluation of any training and development programme.
ix. Appreciate the need for continuous training as a way of improving individual team and
organizational performance.

Course Content:
1. Introduction to training and Development:-
 Definition of Education and Training
 Definitions of human resources development
 Human Resources and human capital
 Training strategy, policy and philosophy
 Objectives of training and development

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 2. Systematic training
 Concept of systematic training
 Training needs assessment/Analysis
 Deciding/designing human resources training programs
 Implementing a HR Training programs
 Evaluating Training Programs and Feedback
 Continuous training
 Training budget
 On the job training
 Off the job training
 Informal training methods
3. Performance Management and Training
 Role of performance Management in Training
 Role of performance management in development
 Improving employees performance through training
 Skills inventory and skills upgrading
4. Development
 Employee’s development
 Development needs assessment
 Types and strategy of employees development
 Employees development and Succession planning
 Tools for developing employees
 Management development
 Management Educations
 HR Development budget
5. Career management
 Meaning and importance of career
 Career goals and objectives
 Factors hindering career development
 Stages of career development
 Process of career planning and management
 Career counseling and mentoring
 Role of organization in career development
 Self evaluation and self development

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Delivery Methods and Learning Evaluation
The course delivery will utilizes a variety of learning strategies to accomplish an understanding and
mastery of the learning outcomes and concepts presented in this course. These include, but are not
limited to, reading assignments, discussions with the faculty mentor, case studies, term paper, journal
article reviews, essays, critical thinking and analysis of the subject matter and examinations. The delivery
emphasis will be on reasoning, understanding and application rather than memorizing. Students will be
evaluated as follows:
Examination 70
Develop a training program 20%
CAT 10%
Final Examination 70%
Total 100 %

Recommended Course Materials

1. Human Resources Management: Handbook of Human Resources Management Practice by Michael
Armstrong Kogan page 10th Edition, London.
2. Human Resource Management: By Gary Dessler, 9th Edition, Prentice Hall, New York.
3. Human Resource Management: By Derek Torrington, et al, Prentice Hall, London.
4. Human Resource Management: By Decenzo, D & Robins, S. 6th Edition, John Wiley and Sons.
5. Training Interventions: By John Kenney & Margaret Anne Reid, 2nd Edition, IPM (UK).
6. Training Methods that work: A Handbook for trainers By Lois B. Hart, Crisp Publication, Inc. Los
Altos, California.
7. Measuring the impact of training and development on the bottom line by P. Kearns & T. Miller,
Pitman Publishing, London.

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 HRMG 330 TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT

Definition of Training and Development

 Armstrong states “Training is the planned and systematic modification of behaviour
through learning events, programmes and instruction which enables individuals to
achieve the level of knowledge, skills and competence to carry out their work effectively”.
 Edwin Flippo states “Training is the act of increasing knowledge and skill of an
employee for doing a particular job”.

Definition of Education
 Random Lexicon states “Education is the act or process of imparting or acquiring
general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally of
preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life”.
 Jairo Hassanali states “Education is any act or experience that has a formative effect on
the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual, group or people ”.

Education and Training: A Contrast

i. Education
Education may be formal or informal. Formal education is usually thought of studies done in
schools where as informal education involves studies done outside school. With regard to formal
education, the students range from the very youngest through college to those in adult education.
There is also informal education or self-study, where adults read books, listen to tapes and learn
through other media. Observing life itself is a form of education. This is referred to as
‘pedagogy’ and ‘andragogy’.

The objective of classes or of self-education is usually to gain knowledge about facts, events,
principles, concepts, and such. In some classes the student is required to demonstrate the
memorization of facts and the association between concepts. In other classes, they must apply
rules to solve problems. Testing concerns memorization and understanding, plus perhaps analytic
and problem solving skills.
ii. Training

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On the other hand, formal training is usually concerned with gaining a skill which may either be
at the workplace or away from it. Training is done in trade schools, seminars, and business
training classes. Learners of training are usually adults, although there are some classes to teach
youngsters certain skills.

Informal training is usually done through reading, viewing or listening to how-to material.
Sometimes that material is then used as a guide, while the person applies the skills learned. For
example, you may refer to a how-to book when trying to fix your plumbing at home. Verification
of skills is best achieved by actually doing something in the real world. Sometimes tests given in
trade schools check for knowledge, as opposed to skill. Often in corporate training sessions and
in seminars, there is no verification that the learner had achieved the desired skills.

Summary
Education concerns remembering facts and understanding concepts. It is usually taught in
school, although self-study is possible. Training concerns gaining skills and taught either in trade
schools or business training sessions.

Objectives of Training and Development

i. Knowledge about customers → Organisations often impart training to their
employees so that they (employees) may know the kind of clientele their respective
companies deal with. Knowing customers translates to knowing how to respond and
treat them in order to maintain them. Maintaining customers’ means staying afloat in
a competitive environment hence the objective of training.
ii. Knowledge about market conditions → Training facilitates insights into how the
market is likely to respond to a given strategy. This infers knowing what to do, at
what appropriate time, and when. It is vital for both executives and subordinates to
know how to read market trends as this will aid in formulating strategies to achieve
corporate goals hence the objective of training.
iii. Company operating without rules is like a vehicle operating without a driver. In such
case there will be no goals in sight. It therefore is imperative that organizational
employees operate within certain regulatory framework to consolidate the

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 entrepreneurial vision and enable efforts towards achieving this vision. Training helps
articulate organizational rules to employees. It also enables employees know
government rules pertaining the products and services the company trades in. This
will avoid conflicts in future.
iv. Provision of skill → Training programmes instituted by the organization enable staff
attain the required level of proficiency in performing their work routine. Improved
skills add value to the enterprise hence the objective of training.
v. Job placement → Training helps know the strengths and weaknesses of employees.
It therefore aids in matching the right employee to the right position. In essence
training helps establish efficient from non-efficient staff for the particular job at hand.

Training Policy refers to the rules and regulations that govern the training session or program.
Every organization that looks forward to being successful in achieving its goals must have a
training policy in place. This is not only a requirement for International Standards Organization
(ISO) but also a requirement of prevailing labor laws. The following form part and parcel of
training policy:

i. Payment responsibility → It is of great contention who is to cater for payment of

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 training. That is why this issue must be clarified right on the onset. This means
management must decide whether it will be the employee himself or herself that will
cater for the training costs. So for instance if the training involves learning a
computer package to assist in facilitating better service, the training policy must
clearly state who will foot the training bill. Many employers may or may not pay for
such costs depending upon how they view employee loyalty and whether in actual
fact the training has or does not have do with helping the organization achieve its
objectives.
ii. Amount allocated → Money plays a crucial role in all economic activities. Training
is certainly no exception. When a decision by the management is taken to train staff,
money issues will inevitably crop up to facilitate the process of training. In this
regard, a budget must be included in the training policy. Budgets will help ascertain
who will partake of the training from employees’ perspective and which party will
conduct it. The party conducting the training may be from amongst existing staff such
as the Human Resources Manager or may be an outsourced party. Hence need to
incorporate amount allocated therein since it will also have bearing on quality of
training.
iii. Uses of agencies → Sometimes it may so happen that an organization decides for
purposes of quality to have the training imparted by an outside party. These outside
parties are referred to as training agencies. The option to select a training agency may
lie in the fact that many specialize in particular trainings. Indeed since training may
form the core business of the agency, the organization may opt for it on account of
quality training. However, use of agencies require significant amount of expenses.
Costs cannot be disassociated from use of agencies. It must thus be stipulated in the
training policy which caliber of agencies can conduct which training in the
organization. The criteria of use of the agency in question may be dictated by what
training the organization needs. It may therefore opt for firms like Price Water House
Coopers, KPMG, Manpower etc.

To save on costs, the training would be locally sanctioned in the policy where the HR
manager would be engaged. On the other hand when the organization has enormous

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 financial resources available for the purpose, then the training can be outsourced.
Both these modes have merits and demerits to be considered by management in the
training policy.
iv. Location → Depending on the kind of training and who the target group of
employees are, the location of training is a vital component in contemplating training.
It therefore is included in the training policy. It determines where the training in
question will take place. Towards this end, it may take place within the precincts of
the organization or outside of it. Training for executives for instance could take place
out of station or in a hotel environment that is more in keeping with their status. For
lower level employees and grounds personnel, training could take place within the
company premises given the bulky machines related to which they are to be trained
on.
v. Quality versus quantity → Quality is ever an ambition that every organization
aspires to have in everything it does given its internal and external environments. The
quality of training to be achieved must be in the training policy. This however may
require a balancing act in light of resources available. For instance, an organization
could earmark a promising employee to undertake a certain kind of training but may
be hindered by the cost especially when the training is to be imparted in a foreign
land. Equally, an organization’s training policy must stipulate in no uncertain terms
how many employees will be undertaken for a particular training. The quantity of
personnel to undertake training must be contrasted with the benefits expected to be
accrued from the training. Hence quality and quantity aspects must be contemplated
and clearly spelled out in corporate training policy.
vi. Beneficiaries’ → This is an aspect that stems to establish who will stand to be an
immediate beneficiary from the training imparted. In other words which employees
will undertake the training? Will it be the middle or lower level employees or the
upper echelon executives to be trained? In this case who particularly among them will
be trained? All these facets are included in the training policy. They help alleviate
unproductive unhelpful dysfunctional conflict.

vii. Career progression → Any training imparted should be in line with developmental

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 initiatives anchored at individual and organizational growth and integrated into the
corporate vision and mission. In this regards career paths which act as a blueprint for
growth illustrate the plans training should take to act as a guideline for achieving
these goals. Training policy therefore enumerates career progression for every caliber
of staff so that training imparted is focused to achieving harmonized individual and
corporate goals.
viii. Timing → Training cannot be done haphazardly. If it is conducted in a chaotic
manner, time and money will have been wasted. Thus the training policy indicates at
which juncture what training will take place. For this to be achieved, a training
calendar must be charted. This is normally in tune with organizational objectives. It is
thus systematic and procedural. It is neither conducted too early nor too late. Training
policy stipulates training being coordinated with activities of the entire organization.
ix. Length → If not checked, training can be unnecessarily dragged on thereby scaling
up costs. To avoid this, the training policy dictates the length of time training takes
place. It establishes how long in form of time measure that the program will
undertake. Trainees are consequently briefed before hand on the timing of training so
as to make best use of it.
x. Review → Without knowledge of training results, training will deemed to have
failed. Training policy thus formulates criteria related to which evaluation of training
program will take place. It evaluates the trainees and the trainer. It also evaluates
whether the training was beneficial or not. In essence it ascertains whether the value
of training has increased or not. Process of training review is therefore imperative in
training policy.
xi. Use of ERP → Otherwise termed as ‘Enterprise Resource Planning’, it is a system
that essentially integrates the entire organization. ERP is used as bedrock of
recording, storing and relaying vital information. In the organizational context as
pertains training, it is facilitated by the HR manager. S/he provides training
information as per need. But the HR manager does not work in isolation. S/he must
coordinate with the various line functionaries hence making his/her role a pervasive
one. Training policy therefore provides a platform from which training information
can be recorded, stored and relayed. It uses latest information communication

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 technology techniques.

It is important to state at this juncture that for training policy to succeed, there must be 2
ingredients:-
i. HRD concept
ii. SMART objectives

Definition of Human Resource Development

 Jairo Hassanali states “Human Resource Development (HRD) is a concise and
systematic up gradation and upliftment of an employee or employees in an endeavor to
meet personal, professional, organizational, societal and national goals”.
 Pereira states “Human Resource Development differs in perception from the nationalistic
and organizational points of view. In the former case it concerns aspects and components
related to standards of livelihood where as in the latter case it concerns training and
development of employees”.

A culture of HRD entails ‘OCTAPAC’ practices. These are enumerated below:-

O → ‘Openness’. This means an HRD culture intent on developing employees should
be transparent. It should not be vague.
C → ‘Confrontation’. The HRD culture aims at tackling issues head-on. It does not
dwell upon brushing problems under the carpet. It seeks to resolve issues of
concern and associated challenges without fear.
T → ‘Trust’. This epitomizes relationship of trust. Dyadic relationships or those
between management and subordinates must be based upon mutual trust for a
culture of HRD to thrive.
A → ‘Authenticity’. Word of mouth must be honored. The commitment from
employees and staff should be achieved and not just strive to be achieved.
P → ‘Proactiveness’. All employees irrespective of the positions they hold in the
organization must take risk and initiative. Such risk should be calculated and
focused to achieving organizational objectives and not skewed towards personal

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 objectives.
A → ‘Autonomy’. It is important for employees to self monitor themselves as they are
developing. This cultivates responsibility thus enhancing HRD.
C → ‘Collaboration’. Employees must learn to cooperate with their peers, bosses and
subordinates. They must be able to establish and work as a team besides exploring
ways in which the organization can achieve its objectives.

To be effective, HRD strategies are formulated and observed on a continuous basis. These
strategies include:-
 Training and development
 Potential appraisal
 Performance appraisal
 Rewards management
 Career development
 Job change
 Manpower planning
 Employee procurement and selection management

It is crucial that HRD strategies be focused towards securing organizational objectives. Primarily
therefore, they are targeted towards human resources of the firm. The strategies should be based
on the SMART principle. They must be specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and timely.
Devoid of the SMART based objectives it is arduous to fathom how the training function can
deliver the HRD strategy through working harmoniously with sectional executives in the joint
development of staff.

The pressure emanating from both external and internal factors upon the firm will necessitate
HRD strategy to ensure that training support considers:

 Change occurring at an increasing pace in technology, information systems, attitudes to

and behaviour at work etc.

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  A need to make and manage cost reductions.
 A requirement for more professionalism in marketing and sales negotiation.
 A need for more analytical and assertive business management.
 A more flexible, aware and demanding work force.
 More critical and selective customers.
 An increasing diversification of the technology and human skills.

Need for HRD Concept

i. Ensures adequate planning → HRD forms the foundation based upon which manpower
planning exercise is conducted. It ensures appropriate measures are taken up for
forecasting human resource needs in the future. By so doing HRD considers the past
history as it upgrades these resources while commensurately looking at future
requirements.
ii. Accelerating change → In order to bring about positive change in the organizational set-
up, sensitization will be imperative. The employees must be informed of the impending
changes so that they are not averse to implementation measures. To enable a conducive
environment for sensitization, HRD concept will be necessary. With it, positive change
can be accelerated at a pace comfortable to both the management and employees and any
other stakeholders involved.
iii. Maximum learning → Among the foremost strategies of HRD is training. Devoid of
training, employee learning would take longer than otherwise necessary. Training
therefore culminates in maximum learning in the shortest time possible. Crucial
components are not omitted in the training session itself hence the need for HRD.
iv. Observes standards →Standards set to be attained should be based on SMART tenets.
This is only possible through HRD concept. The concept thus facilitates contrasting and
comparison of results and ground actions for the betterment of the corporate enterprise as
a whole. This way, benchmarking is made possible.

v. Assists in image → HRD concept is relatively a new market phenomenon. It is not a fad.
Empirical studies have proven human beings to be the most important assets of the

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 organization. Without them, the company will not forge ahead in achieving its goals.
Indeed when employees are a happy lot, so will be customers. HRD thus sets in motion a
process that lends to enhanced corporate image and goodwill. An organization can utilize
goodwill to in turn enhance profits by getting the price of its goods A and services high.

Areas of Consideration in Implementing HRD Strategy

i. Technology → In carrying out HRD endeavors, technology cannot be disassociated from
developmental initiatives of employees. The two go hand in hand. They complement one
another. Therefore, there is need for the custodians of developmental endeavors; the line
managers, to be in the loop of current trends and processes of technology. This is a
challenge given the limited time managers have to keep themselves well informed by
reading widely.
ii. Cost → Competitive nature of the industry has made it necessary for companies the
world over to cut down on costs so as to maximize profits. Towards this end, a
considerable number of firms have taken drastic measures simply to stay afloat in the
advent of competition. There are many avenues available to management in reducing
costs. Thought must be put into balancing these avenues with HRD initiatives; a task that
may prove to be daunting.
iii. Professionalism → Dyadic relationships are the cornerstone for productivity.
Management and operative staff should work harmoniously to attain personal and
professional targets. However, any disruption in this relationship more often than not has
led to strikes and lockouts. Picketing has been an issue edging upon insubordination
tendencies. Thus whenever and wherever disagreements arise, professionalism must take
the centerfold. This is easier said than done. Hence HRD strategy should be
professionally geared right from the onset.
iv. Demanding workforce → It is a 21st century world that is operating. This century is
dogged by numerous challenges. These may be politically, geographically, socially, and
environmentally triggered. To a large extent, such challenges inevitably touch upon
humanity. They are faced with pressures which if not well managed will negatively affect
work life. Despite the demanding external pressures, staff is expected to be rational. This
may be a tall order in the face of delayed promotions, salaries etc.

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 v. Customer relationship management → Otherwise referred to as CRM, it entails
treating customers as king. Without customers, there is no business. Managers must learn
to juggle employee temperament with client needs and demands hence the significance of
HRD. The strategy to be taken must be well thought out.

Advantages of HRD Strategy

i. Harmonizing of goals → In any work set-up, individuals sign contract letter and letter
of employment not necessarily to achieve their dreams professionally but rather to earn
money. On the other hand an organization provides employment not necessarily to uplift
the society but rather to achieve its objectives amongst which is to maximize profits. An
even platform therefore must be achieved between the employee and the organization for
both to move forward. Since the employee has his/her personal goals to achieve so too
does the organization. Harmonizing the two thus becomes imperative for HRD to thrive.
ii. Training → To develop employees, training is a primary ingredient. It is undertaken in a
systematic and phased manner. It may be short term or long term and could be initiated
by the employer or employee. It is hence flexible in the manner in which it is designed
since this may differ from organization to organization.
iii. Participation → HRD strategy involves the participation of all managers. This makes it
a pervasive function. Line managers are required to show by example. They lead and
others follow. Through HRD, motivation is enabled simply by bonding with superiors
and peers.
iv. Result oriented → HRD targets achieving results through mechanisms instituted. It aims
at securing predetermined goals due to strategies undertaken towards the same end.
Hence HRD is result oriented.

Methods of Training
Training can be manifested in 3 ways. These are:-
a. Individual versus Group training
b. Executive versus Subordinate training and
c. On the job versus off the job training.

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The underlying methods of training remain the same. It is only the manifestations that will
dictate where the underlying methods vest. For easy comprehension and elucidation, training
methods are hereby provided below under the third manifestation.

TRAINING METHODS

On the Job Training Off the Job Training

 Induction Training  Selective Reading
 Refresher Training  Committee Assignments
 Promotional Training  Role Playing
 Apprenticeship  Case Study
 Internship  Sensitivity Training
 Vestibule Training  Autonomy Training
 Special Project  Conference Training
 Job Rotation  Brain Storming
 Coaching and Understudy  Correspondence Training
 Appraisal Training  In-basket training

A) On the Job Training

This is training that is imparted to an employee officially while s/he is at the work station or

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precincts thereof. It encompasses the following:-
i. Induction Training → It is otherwise referred to as ‘orientation training’. It
essentially involves acquainting a new employee to the organization. He/she is taken
round the firm and given a plant tour. He/she is also introduced to the employees that
will work closely with him/her. The tour will include showing the employee his/her
work station. Indeed a manual may also be given to him/her describing the principal
products or services the firm provides, rules and regulations, pre-requisites and
privileges.
ii. Refresher training → It involves keeping employees that have been employed with
the firm for a relatively long period of time, aware of new trends and techniques of
operation in their respective areas of specialty. The purpose of this training is so as
not to allow these employees be redundant through latest technological innovation.
iii. Promotional training → This training is often imparted as a consequent of potential
appraisal. In other words, an employee’s potential is first established as to whether in
fact he/she can carry out more challenging tasks that relate to a higher but immediate
position. In the event an employee scores high in this appraisal test and of course
subject to availability of a vacancy, he/she will most likely be recruited to the higher
position. Once he takes up his/her new position, then promotional training will be
imparted. Promotional training thus is the imparting of knowledge and skills
pertaining to a higher position that has just been filled. The purpose is to acquaint the
promoted employee on aspects connected to his new achievement. It is therefore
carried out only after one has attained a promotion and not before.
iv. Apprenticeship training → This type of training can be traced back to medieval
times. It strives to instill skill in the trainee to master his/her profession. Initially it
only involved craftsmanship but nowadays it encompasses medicine, law and even
education professions. It largely necessitates practical training and therefore entails a
hands-on approach. Depending upon the profession undertaken, it is known by many
names.

v. Internship training → This training is a requirement by a student to complete in

partial fulfillment of an academic programme. In other words, it requires a student to

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 undergo this training in order to fully complete an academic programme course.
Internship training in essence is a short training course offered in an organization to
complement theoretical knowledge gained at the academic institution. It therefore
provides an insight into the practical nature of the job in question.
vi. Vestibule training → It is also referred to a ‘vestibule school training’. It involves
duplication of real conditions for purposes of imparting basic knowledge about a job.
Often it is carried out at shop-floor level.
vii. Special project(s) → An employee may be allocated duty of some sort that is
directly related to his/her job routines. By carrying out this project, the employee will
learn much more of procedures and systems to get it completed hence the learning
process.
viii. Job rotation → It entails an employee moving from one job to another but within
the same organization. That is why it is also referred to as ‘position rotation’. It
provides versatility to staff. Staff can get to know other perspectives of carrying out
work in order to achieve departmental goals and by and large organizational goals. It
broadens an employee’s knowledge about general duties.
ix. Coaching and understudy → A coach is a teacher or trainer whereas an understudy
is a trainee or new recruit. Sometimes an experienced employee may be assigned a
new recruit to teach technical job related aspects. In such case the trainer will be a
coach and the trainee an understudy. The latter will be permitted the freedom to make
decisions in the technical nature of job aspects but under very close scrutiny.
Corrections will be made when and where he/she goes wrong and encouragement
provided when and where he/she has made wise decision.
x. Appraisal training → It is that training that follows a performance appraisal. This
kind of appraisal pinpoints the strengths and weaknesses of an employee. It therefore
provides cue as to where training is required to improve the employee.

B) Off the Job Training

This is training that is imparted to an employee within or outside of the immediate work
environment but may not take place when the employee is undertaking official chores. It

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encompasses the following:-
i. Selective reading → An employee can decide unilaterally to acquaint himself/herself
with latest developments and challenges in his/her area of profession. In this
connection, he/she could make use of the company library to read material that would
enrich him/her in knowledge and skill.
ii. Committee assignment(s) → A committee is a group of persons formed to discuss
and deliberate upon a problem and come up with a solution to that problem. Members
of a committee tend to vary in position and background. Therefore when they come
together to carry out the task assigned, every committee member gets a chance to
learn from the others in terms of thinking and decision making. Committees are
useful devices for educating members about problems and strategy formulation to
resolve those problems hence why committee assignment is also referred to as
‘multiple management training’.
iii. Role playing → It involves creating a hypothetical scenario close to real life
happenings. Two or three employees are then asked to represent the two-extremities
by playing certain roles. The purpose is to inform and be informed of situations that
are likely to occur. Empathy is often emphasized here.
iv. Case study → A case is a written account of a situation that has actually occurred.
Many established firms have had their ups and downs which they document. When
these are analysed by employees of other firms, they form basis of learning through
the mistakes of others. Case studies are merely illustrative and demand analytical
ability.
v. Sensitivity training → It is also known as ‘T-training’, ‘transactional analysis’,
‘laboratory training’ or ‘group-training’. It involves putting together a group of
employees and allowing them to discuss and deliberate upon any issue of their choice
in a completely unstructured environment. The purpose is to develop awareness and
sensitivity to one’s own behavioral pattern(s) as they interact with others.

vi. Autonomy training → Here, it is left at the behest of the trainee to employ any
method he/she deems fit to acquire and increase his/her knowledge and skill.
vii. Conference training → A conference is a convention of likeminded persons coming

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 together to discuss topical issues concerning their profession put in form of a theme.
Members participate by form of presenting papers of listening to the presenters.
Question-answer session are arranged which give great insight and understanding into
relevant matters.
viii. Brain storming session → It is also referred to as ‘synectic session’. It basically
involves a specialist moderating a session of high level executives to shade light into
how challenges are resolved. Thus the specialist storms brains of participants in order
to gather how the participants would resolve challenges and the best way forward.
Brain storming stimulates trainees to creative thinking.
ix. Correspondence training → It involves a trainee subscribing to professional
magazines and journals for a particular period of time. On payment of the
subscription fee he/she will be posted periodically with facts and topical viewpoints
on related matters of professional interest. This way, more knowledge will be
attained.
x. In-basket training → This method of training is used to judge the rationale of
decision making. It strives to assess the ability of executives to differentiate between
the significant matters from important ones. In essence, the trainee is asked to take
over from a senior who is absent. The trainee is provided with an in-basket full of
materials which he/she must deal with. An assessment is then done on how and
whether pertinent issues were tackled according to priority. Strong and weak points
are pinpointed.

Evaluating Training Programmes

i. Post training assessment → One way of assessing whether training has been
successful or not is through this mode. It provides an opportunity to supervisors and
senior management to carry out a survey focused at establishing whether indeed the
training imparted was useful or not. This survey by use of questionnaires, interview
schedules and other means of research may be done to find out if performance has
increase after the training as compared to before the training. It may look at whether
accident rates have reduced or not following the training imparted etc. The margin of
increase or decrease in performance achieved or not achieved is also gauged to

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 establish whether the training was worthwhile and if at all it should be continued.
ii. Gripe box → This is nothing but a suggestion box. Organisations place them in
strategic locations within the enterprise for employees to insert in their personal
remarks on the quality of training programmes. Essentially the main objective is to
get the comments from employees anonymously otherwise they would simply enter
into a superior’s office with the same comments. However, for fear of repercussions,
gripe boxes are spread out in special localities like the cafeteria, near the cloak rooms
or even in the reception area so that employees may insert in their comments on
training or other issues of concern. A designated person collects and sorts out the
information to be disbursed to the HR manager. S/he will then get to fathom what
aspects of the training were valued by employees and what aspects were not. Ways of
improving the training programmes are also deliberated on.
iii. Cost versus benefit analysis → Although training costs vary, they can be pretty
expensive depending upon their nature. Consequently to get value worth, it is
imperative for managers to compare the costs against the benefits accrued. If the
costs far outweigh the benefits then there will be no logic in authorizing for the
training. On the other hand, if the opposite is true then it will be worthwhile to ensure
training is imparted. Thus cost versus benefit analysis should be conducted to
evaluate training programme viability.
iv. Attitude survey → Training is not just about a hands-on approach. It should aim at
changing the attitudes of trainees. Evaluation of training programmes therefore
actually strive to assess the behavioral change in the individuals trained. Ideally, such
behavior of an employee must have changed for the better following training
programme. Attitude surveys are hence meant to gauge the successfulness or failure
of the training programme.
v. Customer complaints → Complaints are often noted at the point of service (POS).
A customer tiff can lead to the flight of other customers to competitors. Such a
scenario would reflect problems in employee training. It would mean either
employees are unwilling to be trained or the training is not commensurate to
individual employee needs or incompatibility on account of other reasons altogether.
Customer complaints therefore shed light into the quality of training conducted. If the

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 complaints increase, it means training was ineffective. On the contrary if customer
complaints dwindle significantly, it is a cue of successful training programmes.

Importance of Training
i. Less learning period → Without training, the trainees would certainly take a longer
period for them to gain knowledge and skill. To avoid this time wastage, training is
necessitated. It leads to less learning period.
ii. Reduces accidents → Without training the likelihood of industrial accidents would
be high. But with training, accidents are most certainly likely to reduce to significant
levels. It enables staff know how to safely operate industrial machinery and keep risk
to absolute minimum.
iii. Less turnover → Training reduces employee flight which could prove to be very
costly to the organization. It brings about employee satisfaction thereby minimizing
turnover. In other words training increases employee loyalty to the organization.
iv. Efficiency and effectiveness → Training aids the organization better its working
systems, procedures and processes. This way, efficiency and effectiveness are
achieved; all of which help beat competition.
v. Morale → Training helps boost confidence levels of employees. It increases their
motivational levels thereby enabling them be positive towards work. This increases
productivity.

Types of Learning Aids

In training, learning aids are used to make it easier on the trainees to understand training
programmes imparted. There are 2 kinds of learning aids largely used for the purpose. These
are:-
a. Audio-visual aids → These aids target sight and sound. Thus to take mileage of visual
aids, the trainees’ eyes and ears must not have encumbrances. Audio-visual aids entail
use of diverse projectors, blackboards, white boards, television screens, video players,
multimedia phones, objects and implements in the training. The training could be indoors
or outdoors. Merits included in using visual aids are that they make it easier to fathom
the training, faster to understand and implement, reduce chances of errors and accidents,

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 can be used both on literate and illiterate trainees, and can be adjusted to fit the
environment. As a downside, audio-visual aids can be quite expensive, out of reach of
many trainers, require use of technological knowhow to operate and deliver, require
infrastructure such as electricity to operate, can lead to boredom if used extensively’ and
can be easily damaged.
b. Paper based aides → They require literacy in successful execution. Trainees therefore
need to know how to read them to benefit from the training. They may take form of
handouts, maps, papers, journals, text books, magazines, diagrams, flip-charts, and
otherwise. They are cheap to acquire and utilize, require little training, can be shared
among trainees, can be referred to easily from time to time, and are light and relatively
easy to carry around. However, paper aides are not easy to alter in case of mistakes, they
are easy to destroy, can be used for malicious purposes and are common subjects of
plagiarism – an action that could lead to a jail term or fine or both.

Purpose of Learning Aids

i. Preparation → Learning aids require time to prepare. Prior preparation takes

significant time to complete. Such time frame may differ depending upon several
factors highlighted above. However, to hasten the process of preparation and delivery,
learning implements are used.

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 ii. Interest → It differs from person to person and from issue to issue. Periodically it
may differ from day to day. Human beings are a complex social animal and hence
mood swings could crop in. To eliminate boredom and ensure interest is created,
visual aids are used in training.
iii. Useful in andragogy and pedagogy → Learning aids could be used in adult training
or training of the youth. Both will gain from advantages accrued therefrom.

Limitations of Training
i. Expensive → In order to train, an organization must have equipment as well as hire
the services of quality instructors. This costs money. Small organizations cannot
effectively afford training venture of sizeable magnitude.
ii. Time consuming → Training eats into valuable employee and organizational
productive time. It often is slow and bureaucratic. It therefore reduces employee
productivity.
iii. Pressure oriented → Training puts a lot of pressure on trainees. This may not augur
well particularly when the instructor is not in the vicinity. It may therefore be
detrimental to organizational objectives.
iv. Difficulty acquiring trainer → Trainers are in high demand. Their services thus are
not easy to procure. This may delay training calendar. Moreover, in the event the
trainers are available, their services are expensive to hire. This makes them difficult
to utilize.
v. Theoretical hopelessness → Training many-a-times is misplaced. It does not achieve
what it is intended. It often works in theory but fails in practical. Thus it is of no
value more so if it mismatched to the job vis-à-vis the needs.

Identification of Training Needs

i. Shortage of labour → When an organization is dogged with under-staffing issues,

this ought to act as a cue to impart training to existing staff. Existing employees must
be trained to handle more work. This will help resolve under-staffing issues.
ii. Accidents → When number of accidents increase, training ought to made more

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 intensive. The more the training the less likelihood for accidents.
iii. Automation → The advent of information technology has called for the need to train
staff. Staff must be trained to cope with the new technology. Mechanization therefore
forms basis not only for training employees but training customers as well.
iv. Changing work processes → When work structures are re-engineered, training must
be imparted to staff. This is so as to make employees acquainted with the new
working systems, rules and procedures.
v. New recruits → New recruits must be made aware of the organization. As such,
recruitment forms basis for imparting training programmes.

Process of Training
i. Identifying training needs → This forms the first stage in the process of training. It
involves carrying out a preliminary survey to establish what training employees need.
Information in the survey can be solicited from the supervisor, the immediate
superior or the employee himself or herself.
ii. Designing training programme → It is only after employee training needs have
been identified can the stage of designing the training programme itself take hold.
This will be subject to consultations with line managers. All efforts oriented towards
designing of the training programme are focused on the overall organization
objectives in light of employee training needs. These needs are explicated better by
the trainee’s immediate superior.

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 iii. Developing training methods → This forms the third step in the process of training.
It entails looking at a systematic approach to individual training. It hence includes
determining the correct approach to tackling the issues that require being resolved.
Brevity is sought for in developing training methods especially when the need is
high.
iv. Implementing training → It is perhaps the most crucial of the steps. If the training
need has been identified but is not properly implemented, the purpose and use for the
training will have failed ab initio. This step therefore calls for dexterity, discipline
and patience. Skilled people are employed for the purpose. The training may be
implemented over the short haul or long haul subject to corporate needs. It should be
implemented in good time and not too early of too late.
v. Evaluating training → Once the training programme has been implemented, the
next step is to monitor the training. The reason is to determine whether the training
programme has achieved what it was designed to do in the first place. If the training
has met its objectives, than it will deem to have been successful. The vice versa is
also applicable. Indeed when lacunas are identified, the programme may either be re-
designed or discarded altogether. This concludes the process of training.

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Career Planning and Development
Definition
 Edwin Flippo states “It is a sequence of separate but related work activities that
provides continuity, order and meaning in a person’s work-life”.
 Feldman D.C. states “Its a systematic process by which one selects career goals and
paths to those goals”.

Objectives of Career Planning and Development

i. Ensure management succession → Without a proper career plan in place it
would be impossible to replace a manager from within the ranks of the
organization. Having a career plan ensures continuity in the organization. When a
manager leaves the organization for whatever reason, work does not stop.
Systems put in place automatically ensure replacement and continuity.

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 ii. Facilitate promotional training → It is important to foresee future roles in the
organization. These roles would ideally be identified given the corporate growth.
This is done through career plans. They enable potential appraisal which provides
in turn for promotional training. This training is imparted to employees who are
expected to take up higher positions in the impending future.
iii. Attract personnel → With a proper career plan in place the organization is better
placed to attract competent prospective employees. This is because they can see a
clear career path and as a result become well positioned to chart their future. They
too can manage themselves in accordance to the career path.
iv. Ensures manpower utilization → Career plans facilitate adequate number of
employees in the organization. They ensure no duplication of efforts. By so
doing, human resources are utilized in a maximum and most efficient manner.
Costs are saved this way.
v. Enhances job satisfaction → Career plans put in place provide employees with
sense of security. In other words, security of tenure is facilitated which gives an
employee sense of belongingness to the firm thereby enabling loyalty to it. Job
satisfaction is then achieved as a result.

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Career Responsibilities
The following comprise of responsibilities that the diagram above elucidates:-
Responsibility of the employee
- Self assess abilities, interests and needs.
- Analyse career options.
- Decide on development objectives and needs
- Preferences to manager
- Map out mutually agreeable action plans with manager
- Pursue agreed-on action plan.
b) Responsibility of the manager
- Act as a catalyst; sensitize employee to the development planning process.
- Assess employee’s expressed objectives and perceived development needs. Find out how
realistic they are.
- Counsel employee and develop mutually agreeable plans.
- Follow-up and update employee’s plans as appropriate.
c) Responsibility of the firm
- Provide career planning model, resources, counseling and information needed for
individualized career planning.
- Provide training in career development planning to managers and employees and career
counseling to managers.
- Provide skills training programmes and on-the-job development experience opportunities.

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