Learning 3&4 W

LEARNING EXPERIENCES: ENGLISH
PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY,

CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
UNIT 3
Phonology
TOPIC 1
Phonemic analysis
OBJECTIVE
❑ Be able to use and

distinguish the different
sounds of English
Phonemes
• Subtopic 1
Phonemes and Allophones.
Subtopic 2
Phonemes and spelling.
• Subtopic 3
Phoneme inventory.
Subtopic 4
Allophones: phonetic similarity.
What is phonetics?
Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds. It
consists of three main sub-fields:
• Articulatory phonetics
• = how speech sounds are produced
• Acoustic phonetics
• = how speech sounds are transmitted from
producer to perceiver
• Perceptual phonetics
• = how speech sounds are perceived
SUBTOPIC 1
PHONEMES AND ALLOPHONES.
Phonemes
A phoneme is a unit of sound in speech. A phoneme
doesn't have any inherent meaning by itself, but when
you put phonemes together, they can make words.

SUBTOPIC 1
It is the mental representation of a speech sound
They are representated into slashes / /
Allophones are the phonetic realization of allophones
Each phoneme can be realized as one of more
different allophones
SUBTOPIC 1
Allophones
They are predictable
Stop (aspirating)
Top (unaspirating)
SUBTOPIC 1
Phonemes
Contrastive distribution: They can’t produce a
change in meaning
Consonant and vowel sounds individual they are
meaningless
But combining them take on meaning

SUBTOPIC 1
There are 44 phonemes in English, each one representing a different
sound a person can make. Since there are only 26 letters in the
alphabet, sometimes letter combinations need to be used to make a
phoneme. A letter can also represent different phonemes. (From A to Z)

SUBTOPIC 1
Phoneme Segmentation and Minimal Pair
Phoneme Segmentation You can segment, or break apart, any
word to recognize the sounds or phonemes in that word. For
example, if you say the word 'sun,' you will hear that there are
three sound units, or phonemes, in that word: /s/ /u/ /n/

SUBTOPIC 1
Minimal Pair
A minimal pair is a pair of words that vary by only a single sound,
usually meaning sounds that may confuse English learners, like the
/f/ and /v/ in fan and van, or the /e/ and /ɪ/ in desk and disk D sk D
sk an an
Minimal Pairs
• A minimal pair consists of:
• two words that have different meanings
• which differ from each other in only one sound.
• Some minimal pairs in English:
pit vs. bit ~ /p/ vs. /b/
beet vs. bead ~ /t/ vs. /d/
boat vs. boot ~ /o/ vs. /u/
• A series of minimal pairs is called a minimal set.
• tee ~ bee ~ key ~ sea ~ fee …
Minimal Pairs
• A minimal pair test
•Two words that are exact the same, exact for one sound
•Top
•Pop
Kitten (they way you pronounce do not change the meaning)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wA9--WJSPws
SUBTOPIC 1
Each language has its own set of phonemes; oppositions among those
phonemes differ necessarily from language to language: they have been based
on different sets of features for each language. For example nasality exists both
in French and in English. However in French nasality is a distinctive feature of
both consonants and vowels.

SUBTOPIC 1
ALLOPHONES.
Allophones are the variations within each group of phoneme.
The different ways the phonemes are realized in various positions are called Allophones which
are predictable, and non-significant.
Allophones are usually relatively similar sounds which are in mutually exclusive or
complementary distribution Occasionally allophone selection is not conditioned but may vary
form person to person and occasion to occasion (ie. free variation)

Technical Terms
• A phone is any sound that is used in speech.
• (may or may not be contrastive)
• A phoneme is a contrastive sound in a language

• It may be used to distinguish between words in minimal pairs.
• An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme

• Different allophones often occur in specific contexts.
• Note: analogy with allomorphs.
Phonemic Analysis
• Phoneme: /t/
(aspirated)
(unaspirated)
“flap”
“glottal stop”
(unreleased)
Allophone 5: ‘bit’
• In our native language, we tend to hear the phonemes that the

allophones belong to…
• Rather than the allophones themselves.
The Trouble with English
• Some letters represent more than one different sound
c: recall vs. receive g: gear vs. siege
• Some letters represent no sounds at all
receive use high knee
• Sometimes two letters represent just one sound
recall phonetics
• Some letters represent two or more sounds at once
tax use
• The same sound can be represented by many different
letters (or letter combinations).
sh: shy, mission, machine, special, caution
Phonemes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UCeXfLfVQ2I
Allomorphy
• What’s going on here?
/in-/ + probable = improbable
/in-/ + mobile = immobile
/in-/ + possible = impossible
• /in-/ changes to /im-/ before both /p/ and /m/.
• /p/ and /m/ are both produced with the lips.
→To explain patterns like this, we’re going to need to know
something about how we actually produce the sounds of
English.
→We have to study Phonetics!
Phonetic Transcription
• The primary tool of phonetic science is phonetic
transcription.
• The basic idea:
• represent speech as a sequence of segments.

• i.e., with an alphabet.
• Segments = individual consonants and vowels.
• Deep thought questions:
• What kind of alphabet should we use?
• How about the English alphabet?
Phonetic Alphabet
• Solution: use a phonetic alphabet
• In a phonetic alphabet, sounds and symbols have a one-
to-one relationship to each other
• Each symbol represents one sound
• Each sound is represented by one symbol
• The use of a phonetic alphabet to represent speech is
called phonetic transcription.
• Our phonetic alphabet of choice:
• The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
The IPA
• Presided over by the International Phonetic Association
• Created in 1886
• Still active and evolving today.
IPA Principles
1. The use of a symbol in a transcription is essentially a claim that the
speaker produced a certain combination of articulatory gestures.
2. “There should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound; that is, for
each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language,
can change the meaning of the word.”
• one letter  one sound
• Sound contrasts can be shown to exist in a language by finding minimal
pairs.
More IPA Principles
3. The alphabet should consist as much as possible of the ordinary letters of
the Roman alphabet.
4. In assigning values to the Roman letters, international usage should

decide.
• ex: vowel in English “bee” is transcribed with [i]
5. When any sound is found in several languages, the same sign should be
used in all. This applies to very similar shades of sound.
• ex: French [u] = English [u] = Korean [u]
The Problem of Abstractness
• How abstract should a phonetic transcription be?
• The IPA solution: only capture contrastive differences between
sounds.
• Contrast: bit vs. pit
• Non-contrast: vs.
• How about “Don” and “Dawn”?

• Here’s the catch:
• The IPA must be able to represent all the contrasts between
sounds that are found in language.
• …including some which we cannot easily hear.
Broad and Narrow
• Broad transcriptions
• Represent only contrastive sounds (phonemes)
• Enclosed in slashes: / /
• Generally use only alphabetic symbols
• Narrow transcriptions
• Represent phones
• Capture as much phonetic detail as possible
• Enclosed in brackets: [ ]
• Can require use of diacritics
English Phonemes
Familiar IPA symbols, same sound:
English Phonemes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HeujZ45OZE
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY.
What is PHONOLOGY?
• Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized
and used in natural languages.
• Phonology is just one of several aspects of language.
• It is related to other aspects such as phonetics,
morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
The phonological system of a language includes • an
inventory of sounds and their features, and • rules which
specify how sounds interact with each other.

SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
Phonetics vs. Phonology
PHONETICS
• Is the basis for phonological analysis.
• Analyzes the production of all human speech sounds, regardless
of language.
PHONOLOGY
• Is the basis for further work in morphology, syntax, discourse, and
orthography design.
• Analyzes the sound patterns of a particular language by
determining which phonetic sounds are significant, and explaining
how these sounds are interpreted by the native speaker.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
What is a Phoneme?
• A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the
sound system of a language.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
Phonologists have differing views of the phoneme.
Following are the two major views considered here:
• In the American structuralist tradition, a phoneme is
defined according to its allophones and environments.
• In the generative tradition, a phoneme is defined as a
set of distinctive features.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
Difference between phone and phoneme

PHONE
• One of many possible sounds in the languages of the
world.
• The smallest identifiable unit found in a stream of
speech. • Pronounced in a defined way.
• Represented between brackets by convention. –
Example: • [b], [j], [o]
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
PHONEME
world.
• A minimal unit that serves to distinguish between
meanings of words.
• Pronounced in one or more ways, depending on the
number of allophones.
• Represented between slashes by convention. –
Example: • /b/, /j/, /o/
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
MODELS OF PHONOLOGY
• In classical phonemics, phonemes and their possible combinations are
central.
• In standard generative phonology, distinctive features are central. A
stream of speech is portrayed as linear sequence of discrete sound-
segments. Each segment is composed of simultaneously occurring
features.
• In non-linear models of phonology, a stream of speech is represented
as multidimensional, not simply as a linear sequence of sound
segments. These non-linear models grew out of generative phonology:
❖ • autosegmental phonology
❖ • metrical phonology
❖ • lexical phonology
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
Generative Phonology
• Generative phonology is a component of generative

grammar that assigns the correct phonetic
representations to utterances in such a way as to reflect
a native speaker’s internalized grammar.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
Levels of Phonological Representation
• An underlying representation is the most basic form of a word
before any phonological rules have been applied to it. Underlying
representations show what a native speaker knows about the
abstract underlying phonology of the language.
• A phonetic representation is the form of a word that is spoken and

heard.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY

heard.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
Distinctive Features
• Distinctive features make it possible to capture the

generalities of phonological rules.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
Linearity
• A stream of speech is portrayed as a sequence of

discrete sound segments. Each segment is composed of
simultaneously occurring features.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
What is Autosegmental phonology?
• Autosegmental phonology is a non-linear approach to phonology that
allows phonological processes, such as tone and vowel harmony, to be
independent of and extend beyond individual consonants and vowels.
• Autosegmental phonology treats phonological representations as multi-

dimensional, having several tiers. Each tier is made up of a linear
arrangement of segments. The tiers are linked to each other by
association lines that indicate how the segments on each tier are to be
pronounced at the same time.
SUBTOPIC 4
ALLOPHONES: PHONETIC SIMILARITY
Definition
• Phonetically similar segments are two or more sounds
which share phonetic features and are frequently found
as variants of a single phonological unit in a language.
• Most phonetically similar segments are adjacent to each

other in a phone chart, and differ only slightly in one or
two articulatory features.
SUBTOPIC 4
REFERENCES
Kelly, G. (2006). How To Teach Pronunciation (With Cd).
Pearson Education India.
Curzan, A. (2013). How English works: A linguistic

introduction. Pearson Education.
Davenport, M., & Hannahs, S. J. (2010). Phonetics and

phonology. London: Hodder.
Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology paperback

with audio CDs (2): A practical course. Cambridge university
press.
UNIT 3
Phonology
TOPIC 2
Phonology and intonation
OBJECTIVE
❑ To recognized the different

patterns in intonation and how
they can convey meaning.
TOPIC 2
PHONOLOGY AND INTONATION
• Subtopic 1
Phonemic patterns.
• Subtopic 2
The Intonation in phonology.
WEEK 11 WORKSHOP
Record a video in groups:
4
Subtopic 1
Phonemic patterns.
• Phonology is the scientific study of

the sound system and patterns of a
language.
• It is how the sounds are organized.
• Understanding and explaining how

different languages organize
individual sounds into patterns
Subtopic 1
Phonemic patterns.
Phonemes: Mental abstract representation of

speech sounds, between / /. (The phonemic
inventory only include one single phoneme)
Allophones: The phonetic realization of a

phoneme. (The phonetic inventory is varied)
When speaking, we produce allophones

Subtopic 1
Phonemic patterns:
STOP
TOP
Subtopic 1
What is assimilation?
Phonology: Crash Course Linguistics #10:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=imH7hdOgxrU
Subtopic 1
Do you remember what deletion or elision is?
Subtopic 1
Phonemic patterns.
How do we test phonemes?
We test phonemes by pairs and sets of words.
Minimal pair: When two words are identical in form

except for a contrast in one phoneme occurring in the
same position, then the two words are described a
minimal pair. e.g. bat vs. fat - bat vs. bet
Subtopic 1
Phonemic patterns.
Minimal sets: When a group of words can be differentiated

by changing one phoneme in the same position in the
word, then we have a minimal set.
e.g. feat - fit - fat – fate - foot

Subtopic 1
Phonemic patterns.
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/263460646934517702/
SUBTOPIC 2
THE INTONATION IN PHONOLOGY.
WHAT IS INTONATION
1. Intonation is a term used to refer to the distinctive use of different

patterns of pitch that carry meaningful information.
2. The kinds of pitch modulation which are found in whole utterances.

Intonation contours can be used to highlight certain elements in an
utterance, to bundle words together into information chunks,& to
convey speaker’s attitude to what he/she is saying.
SUBTOPIC 2
Pitch
The degree of highness and lowness of the voice.
The pitch of a word often used to express differences of meaning.
e.g ; “ You are coming.” “ You are coming?”

SUBTOPIC 2
Stress
Stress functions as the means of making a

syllable prominent. Speech tempo:
• The pace of speech is called tempo.
• Fast speech can convey urgency.
• Slow speech can be used for emphasis.

SUBTOPIC 2
Tone
The emotions or attitude express by the words that is used by the

speaker.( varying between rise and fall of tone )
Rhythm
The measured flow of words determined by the relation of stressed or

unstressed syllables.
WEEK 11 WORKSHOP
17
UNIT 3
Phonology
TOPIC 1
Phonemic analysis
OBJECTIVE
❑ Be able to use and

distinguish the different
sounds of English
Phonemes
• Subtopic 1
Phonemes and Allophones.
Subtopic 2
Phonemes and spelling.
• Subtopic 3
Phoneme inventory.
Subtopic 4
Allophones: phonetic similarity.
What is phonetics?
Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds. It
consists of three main sub-fields:
• Articulatory phonetics
• = how speech sounds are produced
• Acoustic phonetics
• = how speech sounds are transmitted from
producer to perceiver
• Perceptual phonetics
• = how speech sounds are perceived
SUBTOPIC 1
Phonemes
A phoneme is a unit of sound in speech. A phoneme
doesn't have any inherent meaning by itself, but when
you put phonemes together, they can make words.

SUBTOPIC 1
It is the mental representation of a speech sound
They are representated into slashes / /
Allophones are the phonetic realization of allophones
Each phoneme can be realized as one of more
different allophones
SUBTOPIC 1
Allophones
They are predictable
Stop (aspirating)
Top (unaspirating)
SUBTOPIC 1
Phonemes
Contrastive distribution: They can’t produce a
change in meaning
Consonant and vowel sounds individual they are
meaningless
But combining them take on meaning

SUBTOPIC 1
There are 44 phonemes in English, each one representing a different
sound a person can make. Since there are only 26 letters in the
alphabet, sometimes letter combinations need to be used to make a
phoneme. A letter can also represent different phonemes. (From A to Z)

SUBTOPIC 1
Phoneme Segmentation and Minimal Pair
Phoneme Segmentation You can segment, or break apart, any
word to recognize the sounds or phonemes in that word. For
example, if you say the word 'sun,' you will hear that there are
three sound units, or phonemes, in that word: /s/ /u/ /n/

SUBTOPIC 1
Minimal Pair
A minimal pair is a pair of words that vary by only a single sound,
usually meaning sounds that may confuse English learners, like the
/f/ and /v/ in fan and van, or the /e/ and /ɪ/ in desk and disk D sk D
sk an an
Minimal Pairs
• A minimal pair consists of:
• two words that have different meanings
• which differ from each other in only one sound.
• Some minimal pairs in English:
pit vs. bit ~ /p/ vs. /b/
beet vs. bead ~ /t/ vs. /d/
boat vs. boot ~ /o/ vs. /u/
• A series of minimal pairs is called a minimal set.
• tee ~ bee ~ key ~ sea ~ fee …
Minimal Pairs
• A minimal pair test
•Two words that are exact the same, exact for one sound
•Top
•Pop
Kitten (they way you pronounce do not change the meaning)
SUBTOPIC 1
Each language has its own set of phonemes; oppositions among those
phonemes differ necessarily from language to language: they have been based
on different sets of features for each language. For example nasality exists both
in French and in English. However in French nasality is a distinctive feature of
both consonants and vowels.

SUBTOPIC 1
ALLOPHONES.
Allophones are the variations within each group of phoneme.
The different ways the phonemes are realized in various positions are called Allophones which
are predictable, and non-significant.
Allophones are usually relatively similar sounds which are in mutually exclusive or
complementary distribution Occasionally allophone selection is not conditioned but may vary
form person to person and occasion to occasion (ie. free variation)

Technical Terms
• A phone is any sound that is used in speech.
• (may or may not be contrastive)
• A phoneme is a contrastive sound in a language

• It may be used to distinguish between words in minimal pairs.
• An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme

• Different allophones often occur in specific contexts.
• Note: analogy with allomorphs.
Phonemic Analysis
• Phoneme: /t/
(aspirated)
(unaspirated)
“flap”
“glottal stop”
(unreleased)
Allophone 5: ‘bit’
• In our native language, we tend to hear the phonemes that the

allophones belong to…
• Rather than the allophones themselves.
The Trouble with English
• Some letters represent more than one different sound
c: recall vs. receive g: gear vs. siege
• Some letters represent no sounds at all
receive use high knee
• Sometimes two letters represent just one sound
recall phonetics
• Some letters represent two or more sounds at once
tax use
• The same sound can be represented by many different
letters (or letter combinations).
sh: shy, mission, machine, special, caution
Phonemes
Allomorphy
• What’s going on here?
/in-/ + probable = improbable
/in-/ + mobile = immobile
/in-/ + possible = impossible
• /in-/ changes to /im-/ before both /p/ and /m/.
• /p/ and /m/ are both produced with the lips.
→To explain patterns like this, we’re going to need to know
something about how we actually produce the sounds of
English.
→We have to study Phonetics!
Phonetic Transcription
• The primary tool of phonetic science is phonetic
transcription.
• The basic idea:
• represent speech as a sequence of segments.

• i.e., with an alphabet.
• Segments = individual consonants and vowels.
• Deep thought questions:
• What kind of alphabet should we use?
• How about the English alphabet?
Phonetic Alphabet
• Solution: use a phonetic alphabet
• In a phonetic alphabet, sounds and symbols have a one-
to-one relationship to each other
• Each symbol represents one sound
• Each sound is represented by one symbol
• The use of a phonetic alphabet to represent speech is
called phonetic transcription.
• Our phonetic alphabet of choice:
• The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
The IPA
• Presided over by the International Phonetic Association
• Created in 1886
• Still active and evolving today.
IPA Principles
1. The use of a symbol in a transcription is essentially a claim that the
speaker produced a certain combination of articulatory gestures.
2. “There should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound; that is, for
each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language,
can change the meaning of the word.”
• one letter  one sound
• Sound contrasts can be shown to exist in a language by finding minimal
pairs.
More IPA Principles
3. The alphabet should consist as much as possible of the ordinary letters of
the Roman alphabet.
4. In assigning values to the Roman letters, international usage should

decide.
• ex: vowel in English “bee” is transcribed with [i]
5. When any sound is found in several languages, the same sign should be
used in all. This applies to very similar shades of sound.
• ex: French [u] = English [u] = Korean [u]
The Problem of Abstractness
• How abstract should a phonetic transcription be?
• The IPA solution: only capture contrastive differences between
sounds.
• Contrast: bit vs. pit
• Non-contrast: vs.
• How about “Don” and “Dawn”?

• Here’s the catch:
• The IPA must be able to represent all the contrasts between
sounds that are found in language.
• …including some which we cannot easily hear.
Broad and Narrow
• Broad transcriptions
• Represent only contrastive sounds (phonemes)
• Enclosed in slashes: / /
• Generally use only alphabetic symbols
• Narrow transcriptions
• Represent phones
• Capture as much phonetic detail as possible
• Enclosed in brackets: [ ]
• Can require use of diacritics
English Phonemes
English Phonemes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HeujZ45OZE
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY.
What is PHONOLOGY?
• Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized
and used in natural languages.
• Phonology is just one of several aspects of language.
• It is related to other aspects such as phonetics,
morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
The phonological system of a language includes • an
inventory of sounds and their features, and • rules which
specify how sounds interact with each other.

SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
Phonetics vs. Phonology
PHONETICS
• Is the basis for phonological analysis.
• Analyzes the production of all human speech sounds, regardless
of language.
PHONOLOGY
• Is the basis for further work in morphology, syntax, discourse, and
orthography design.
• Analyzes the sound patterns of a particular language by
determining which phonetic sounds are significant, and explaining
how these sounds are interpreted by the native speaker.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
What is a Phoneme?
• A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the
sound system of a language.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
Phonologists have differing views of the phoneme.
Following are the two major views considered here:
• In the American structuralist tradition, a phoneme is
defined according to its allophones and environments.
• In the generative tradition, a phoneme is defined as a
set of distinctive features.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
Difference between phone and phoneme

PHONE
world.
• The smallest identifiable unit found in a stream of
speech. • Pronounced in a defined way.
• Represented between brackets by convention. –
Example: • [b], [j], [o]
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
PHONEME
world.
• A minimal unit that serves to distinguish between
meanings of words.
• Pronounced in one or more ways, depending on the
number of allophones.
• Represented between slashes by convention. –
Example: • /b/, /j/, /o/
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
MODELS OF PHONOLOGY
• In classical phonemics, phonemes and their possible combinations are
central.
• In standard generative phonology, distinctive features are central. A
stream of speech is portrayed as linear sequence of discrete sound-
segments. Each segment is composed of simultaneously occurring
features.
• In non-linear models of phonology, a stream of speech is represented
as multidimensional, not simply as a linear sequence of sound
segments. These non-linear models grew out of generative phonology:
❖ • autosegmental phonology
❖ • metrical phonology
❖ • lexical phonology
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
Generative Phonology
• Generative phonology is a component of generative

grammar that assigns the correct phonetic
representations to utterances in such a way as to reflect
a native speaker’s internalized grammar.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY

heard.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY

heard.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
Distinctive Features
• Distinctive features make it possible to capture the

generalities of phonological rules.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
Linearity
• A stream of speech is portrayed as a sequence of

discrete sound segments. Each segment is composed of
simultaneously occurring features.
SUBTOPIC 3
PHONEME INVENTORY
What is Autosegmental phonology?
• Autosegmental phonology is a non-linear approach to phonology that
allows phonological processes, such as tone and vowel harmony, to be
independent of and extend beyond individual consonants and vowels.
• Autosegmental phonology treats phonological representations as multi-

dimensional, having several tiers. Each tier is made up of a linear
arrangement of segments. The tiers are linked to each other by
association lines that indicate how the segments on each tier are to be
pronounced at the same time.
SUBTOPIC 4
Definition
• Phonetically similar segments are two or more sounds
which share phonetic features and are frequently found
as variants of a single phonological unit in a language.
• Most phonetically similar segments are adjacent to each

other in a phone chart, and differ only slightly in one or
two articulatory features.
SUBTOPIC 4
REFERENCES
Kelly, G. (2006). How To Teach Pronunciation (With Cd).
Pearson Education India.
Curzan, A. (2013). How English works: A linguistic

introduction. Pearson Education.
Davenport, M., & Hannahs, S. J. (2010). Phonetics and

phonology. London: Hodder.
Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology paperback

with audio CDs (2): A practical course. Cambridge university
press.
UNIT 3
Phonology
TOPIC 2
OBJECTIVE
❑ To recognized the different

patterns in intonation and how
they can convey meaning.
TOPIC 2
• Subtopic 1
Phonemic patterns.
• Subtopic 2
The Intonation in phonology.
WEEK 11 WORKSHOP
4
Subtopic 1
Phonemic patterns.
• Phonology is the scientific study of

the sound system and patterns of a
language.
• It is how the sounds are organized.
• Understanding and explaining how

different languages organize
individual sounds into patterns
Subtopic 1
Phonemic patterns.
Phonemes: Mental abstract representation of

speech sounds, between / /. (The phonemic
inventory only include one single phoneme)
Allophones: The phonetic realization of a

phoneme. (The phonetic inventory is varied)
When speaking, we produce allophones

Subtopic 1
Phonemic patterns:
STOP
TOP
Subtopic 1
What is assimilation?
Phonology: Crash Course Linguistics #10:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=imH7hdOgxrU
Subtopic 1
Do you remember what deletion or elision is?
Subtopic 1
Phonemic patterns.
How do we test phonemes?
We test phonemes by pairs and sets of words.
Minimal pair: When two words are identical in form

except for a contrast in one phoneme occurring in the
same position, then the two words are described a
minimal pair. e.g. bat vs. fat - bat vs. bet
Subtopic 1
Phonemic patterns.
Minimal sets: When a group of words can be differentiated

by changing one phoneme in the same position in the
word, then we have a minimal set.
e.g. feat - fit - fat – fate - foot

Subtopic 1
Phonemic patterns.
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/263460646934517702/
SUBTOPIC 2
WHAT IS INTONATION
1. Intonation is a term used to refer to the distinctive use of different

patterns of pitch that carry meaningful information.
2. The kinds of pitch modulation which are found in whole utterances.

Intonation contours can be used to highlight certain elements in an
utterance, to bundle words together into information chunks,& to
convey speaker’s attitude to what he/she is saying.
SUBTOPIC 2
Pitch
The degree of highness and lowness of the voice.
The pitch of a word often used to express differences of meaning.
e.g ; “ You are coming.” “ You are coming?”

SUBTOPIC 2
Stress
Stress functions as the means of making a

syllable prominent. Speech tempo:
• The pace of speech is called tempo.
• Fast speech can convey urgency.
• Slow speech can be used for emphasis.

SUBTOPIC 2
Tone
The emotions or attitude express by the words that is used by the

speaker.( varying between rise and fall of tone )
Rhythm
The measured flow of words determined by the relation of stressed or

unstressed syllables.
WEEK 11 WORKSHOP
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UNIT 4
Language transfers and errors
TOPIC 1
Language transfer: Contrastive analysis
TOPIC 2
• Subtopic 1
Positive and Negative transfer of
the mother tongue to a second
language
OBJECTIVE
❑ To have a clear idea about

how languages can
influence each other and
how the similarities and
differences can be used in
order to avoid mistakes in
the process of language
learning.
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE TRANSFER OF THE MOTHER TONGUE TO A
SECOND LANGUAGE
What is transfer?
“[transfer is evidenced as] those instances of

deviation from the norms of either language
which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a
result of their familiarity with more than one
language” Weinreich (1953: 1)
4
Positive and Negative transfer of the
mother tongue to a second language
What is transfer?
“[transfer is] influence that

the learner’s L1 exerts on
the acquisition of an L2”
Ellis (1997: 51)
Other terms
• Transfer
• Mother tongue influence (Corder, 1967)
• Native language influence (Gass, 1996)
• Cross-linguistic influence (Kellerman and
Sharwood-Smith, 1986; Odlin, 1989)
• Cross-linguistic generalization (Zobl,
1984)
Positive and Negative transfer of the mother tongue to a
second language
Positive Negative
It occurs when the It occurs when
prior knowledge previous performance
benefits learning. disrupts the
When the structure of performance of a
both languages is the second task.
same, linguistics When speakers and
interference can writers transfer ítems
result in correct and structures that
language production. are not the same in
both languages.
Positive transfer of the
mother tongue to a second
language
➢ Knowledge of Spanish can help learning

French or Italian.
➢ Learning to drive a car helps a person to later

drive a truck.
➢ Learning to get along with siblings may

prepare one to getting along better with
others.
Positive and Negative transfer of the mother tongue to a
second language
Overgeneralization
➢ Learners make their own rules

of language.
➢ The process of extending the

application of a rule.
➢ The use of rules from Second

Language.
Influence of spelling in pronunciation
➢ Spelling and pronunciation are very closely related in

Spanish, so beginning learners tend to pronounce English
words letter by letter.
friend asked
answer
Vowel Pronunciation:
➢ Sheep: /ʃiːp/ – Ship: /ʃɪp/
➢ These sounds correspond in

Spanish to /i/
Consonant Clusters:
“espres” for express 3

“istant” for instant
“tes” for test or text

Ortography and punctuation
Spelling:
Spanish speakers have high sound-

spelling correspondence
necesary
diferent forgoten
apear
WORKSHOP WEEK 13
Describe five more examples of second language problems acquisition

Spanish speakers have.
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Fiumc_KWNZFMUUZ9hHwwT
kr4Bmp0AlJr/view?usp=sharing
15
REFERENCES
Curzan, A. (2013). How English works: A linguistic introduction. Pearson Education.
Davenport, M., & Hannahs, S. J. (2010). Phonetics and phonology. London: Hodder.
Kelly, G. (2006). How To Teach Pronunciation (With Cd). Pearson Education India.
Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology paperback with audio CDs (2): A practical course.
Cambridge university press.
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Phonemic Analysis
Subject: Learning experiences:

English Phonetics and Phonology
Unit 3: Phonology
Este compendio recoge textualmente documentos e información de varias fuentes debidamente

citadas, como referencias elaboradas por el autor para conectar los diferentes temas.
Se lo utilizará únicamente con fines educativos.
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TABLA DE CONTENIDO
TOPIC 1: Phonemic Analysis

Subtopic 1: Phonemes and Allophones.. .............................................................................. 5
Subtopic 2: Phonemes and spelling .................................................................................... 10
Subtopic 3: Phoneme inventory. ......................................................................................... 14
Subtopic 4: Allophones: phonetic similarity.. ..................................................................... 14
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DESARROLLO DEL CONTENIDO DEL TEMA 2

TEMA 2 Consonants
TOPIC 1
Phonemic analysis
Subtopic 1 Subtopic 2 Subtopic 3 Subtopic 4

Phonemes and Allophones Phonemes and spelling Phoneme inventory Allophones: phonetic similarity..
Objetivo
The objective of this document is to prove a deeper insight into the world of phonemes.
Introducción
In phonology, a phoneme could be a unit of sound that can recognize one word from
another in a specific language.
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DESARROLLO DE LOS SUBTEMAS DEL TEMA 1
Subtopic 1: Phonemes and Allophones
The two sounds designs and two partitions are recognized by replacing a phoneme for a
phoneme in most English dialects, with the remarkable exception of the West Midlands and
the North-West of Britain. Two words differ in meaning because of the differentiation of an
individual phoneme which constitutes something called a minimal pair. It can happen in any
other language, two sequences which differ or are regarded to be the same in meaning as
phonetic variations of a single phoneme.
Slashes are used to identify phonemes created by using minimal pairs, like tap versus tab or
pat vs bat: To denote articulation, linguists employ square brackets.
What phonemes are and what dialect is to be judged phonemically are different viewpoints.
In any case, a phoneme is a set of sounds which are seen by widespread and accepted
discussions as comparable to each other in a certain dialect. The English k sounds, for
example, in the words kill and skill are not indiscriminate, but rather distributional variations
of a single phoneme. Allophones of the same phoneme are spoken sounds that contrast but
do not distinguish the word. Allophonic variation may be conditioned such that a certain
phoneme in certain phonological conditions is carried out as an allophone.
As a result, phonemes are usually thought to be a theoretical basic representation for parts of
words, whereas discourse sounds comprise the contrasting phonetic manifestation, or the
surface frame.
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Notation
In transcriptions, phonemes are often separated by slashes, but phone sounds are separated
by square brackets. In this approach, sounds correspond to a phonetic grouping of three
phonemes, and sounds correspond to a phonetic grouping of sounds. The usage of point
brackets to enclose the orthography units should not be confused with the equivalent use. For
instance, f represents a letter f, written.
The symbols used for each phoneme are often taken from the International Phonetic
Alphabet, the same set of images used for phones. However, representations of individual
dialects may use various conventional pictures to speak to the phonemes of those dialects.
Traditional letters may be used to represent phonemes in languages whose composing
frameworks use the phonemic guideline, Although the complicated connection between
orthography and elocution is often hindered by this technique.
Assignment of speech sounds to phonemes

A phoneme might be a single sound or a set of sounds whereby the speakers of the dialect or
lingo are believed to work in a similar way. An example is the English phoneme in words
like cat, kit, scat and play. Although most of the native speakers do not know about it, the
sound of the "c/k" in most English dialects cannot be separated in these words: cat or cake.
In this way, the words comprise a range of speech sounds or telephones that are both
suctioned and unaspirated. In any way these different sounds are believed to be the same
phoneme, since the word would not alter when a speaker employed the one rather than the
other: the usage of the suction frame sounds odd but it is still identifiable. On the other hand,
a number of other sounds would cause a change of meaning if replaced: for instance, the
sound replacement still generates a new word which must then be interpreted as a distinct
phoneme.
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Allophones are a single phoneme in English, as seen above. In other languages, however,
mother tongues hear them as different sounds and swaps might influence the meaning of a
term. The two sounds therefore show distinct phonemes in both languages.
Minimal pairs
A minimal pair is a combination of words that are likely to contrast when used in different
words. The presence of minimal pairs may be a frequent test for determining if two phones
talk to Various phonemes or are same phoneme allophones. To provide another example, the
insignified match tip and stick indicates that the English-speaker must be aware of the
contrast between the two sounds, and since the two words are of different meanings.
There is no such minor match in other languages, including Korean, both sounds and would
be the same. In Korean they are allophones of a single phoneme, since they need minimal
combinations identifying them. The word is articulated, for example. This means that when
Korean speakers hear this phrase, at the beginning and center of the word they hear the same
sound, whereas English speakers hear unique sounds in these two places.
For example, the signed languages, American Language of the Signs, provide minimal
combinations contrasting with one of the criteria of the sign: hand form, development, area,
introduction of palm, non-manual flag or marker. If one parameter changes but the
fundamental sign stays constant, a negligible combination can arise in the signed dialect.
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Allophones
When more than one allophone is involved in a phoneme, it may be conditional on the
phonetic environment and also on the person who is listening to those sounds during a certain
event of that phoneme – allophones that often do not exist in the same environment are said
to be supplementary transport. In certain cases, it can depend on the person who speaks or
other odd factors to choosing an allophone - such allophones are considered to be free, yet
allophones are still selected in a particular phonetic context rather than the other way around.
Phonology shows an allophone to be one of a number of potential spoken sound, the phone
or signal used in a specific dialect to convey a particular phoneme. For instance, phonemes
are allophones in English, but both are considered separate phonemes in certain languages,
such as Thai and Hindi. These two phonemes are considered to be separate phonemes in
Spanish and allophones for phonemes on the other hand.
The specific allophone selected in a given situation is usually expected from the phonetic
context, and such allophones are referred to as positional variants, although a few allophones
occur in free variety. In general, replacing a sound with another allophone of the same
phoneme does not change the meaning of a word, although the outcome may sound non-
native or even incomprehensible. Native speakers of a given dialect see one phoneme as a
single specific sound and are "both ignorant of and indeed startled by" the allophone
variations used to articulate single phonemes.
History of concept
Benjamin Lee Whorf invented the word "allophone" in 1929. In doing so, he laid the
groundwork for the early phoneme theory. George Trager and Bernard Bloch popularized the
word by the year 1941 while he was working in the context of English phonology, it became
a common use within the American structuralist norm. In the context of English phonology,
it became a common use within the American structuralist norm. Benjamin Lee Whorf
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invented the word "allophone" in 1929. In doing so, he laid the groundwork for the early
phoneme theory.
Complementary and free-variant allophones and assimilation

When a user's discourse is vocalized for a specific phoneme, it differs from other
articulations, even for the same speaker. This has resulted in a few squabbles regarding how
real and all-inclusive phonemes genuinely are. As it were, a few of the variation is important
to speakers by being visible or distinct.
In a given scenario, a Phoneme should be articulated using an allophone or a speaker should

have a clear opportunity to choose the Allophone used. There are two sorts of allophones.
If in a given context a certain allophone is selected for a particular collection of allophones

compared to a phoneme, and the choice of an other allophone for a phoneme might generate
confusion or make the speaker look unborn, allophones are said to be complementary. The
allophones thus complement one another, and one is not utilized in the event that another is
expected to be used. In a certain phonetic context, every complementary allophone is
employed and may be incorporated in a phonetic process.
In other cases, the speaker can pick among free allophones for variation depending on their
individual preferences or inclinations, however allophones for free variation are still chosen
inside the context rather than the other way around.
Another form of allophone is absorption, where a phoneme sounds like a phoneme. Two
instances of digestive digestion are consistent voicing and devotion: voiceless consonants are
voiced lately after consonants voiced, and recently voiced consonants and voiceless
consonants.
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Allotone
An allophone of a tonic like an unbiased tone might be an allotone in Standard Mandarin. All
these are instances of allophonic forms in English of the need of plosion, nasal plosion,
fractional devotion of sonorous substances, entire devotion to sounding, fractional devotion
to obstructive substances, extending and shortening vowels.
Aspiration: A voiceless plosive is absorbed in English when the major or focus language of
a word begins. For instance, while they cannot define words, they are allophones to phoneme,
like in stick and as in turn. The two noises, however not identical: the main is sucked and the
moment is unaspirated, are confused by the British people. The two telephone numbers are
different for several dialects.
Nasal plosion – A plosive has nasal plosion in English if a nasal is follows, either within a
word or beyond a word limit.
Partial devoicing of sonorants: Sonorants in English are a bit devoted to the same syllable
after a voiceless sound.
Complete devoicing of sonorants: The sonorant is totally devoted to English after a suction
plosive.
Partial devoicing of obstruents: After a pause or after a voiceless sound within a word or a
word limit, a voiced obstructive element is slightly consolidated in English.
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Subtopic 2: Phonemes and spelling
Consonants and vowels make up the 44 English sounds. When making a consonant sound,
the air flow is interrupted, either partially or entirely. A vowel sound, on the other hand, is
created with the air flow unimpeded. Our language's melody, or movement, is created by the
vowel sounds. The 44 phonemes below follow the International Phonetic Alphabet.
https://what5.wordpress.com/phonetic-chart/
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Subtopic 3: Phoneme Inventory
Phoneme Inventory
The amount and type of phonemes in a phonemic stock of a language is displayed. Phonemes
in language are specific sound components. One approach for choosing phonemes is
minimum pairs.
The words are little sets and the sounds phonemes are phrases if two words have the same
number and organization of regions but one and those unmistakable parts form various terms.
The English words "chime" and "offer," for example, are insignificant sets. The beginning
words "b" and "s" are distinct since they are separate ingredients. In English, they are
phonemes, since they create separate words.
The UCLA Phonological Segment Stock Database (UPSID) provides phoneme inventory for
over 400 lingos. Rotokas, a language spoken in Papua Unused Guinea, contains 11 phonemes
in the UPSID database. Separately, Xu, a southern African language, has 141 phonemes.
The exact number of phonemes in a language is often impossible to establish. Normally a

combination of variables is responsible. One distinction is that in certain lingos but not in
others, diphthongs are often classified as phonemes. For example, in "take," most English-
language speakers classify diphthong as phoneme but in the Spanish word "reina" (ruler)
diphthong is not classified. The Spanish diphthong is phonemic as "reina" (ruler) contrasts
with "rana" (frog). In any case, most Spanish speakers see diphthong as the sound of two
instead of one because of the orthodoxy, which refers to it by two letters.
Hungarian vows are short and lengthy, phonemic, whereas Finnish vows are short and long.
The contrast is that short and long Hungarian vowels are considered subjective and
quantitative whereas similar Finnish vowels are not. Nevertheless, for many Hungarian
12
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speakers, long vowels /i/ and /u/ are quantitative. The short/long refinement in these vowels
is virtually non-existent in many speakers. Regardless, it is common to define Hungarian
short and long vowels as phonemic.
In Finnish, long vowels are kept at a strategic distance from the Finnish phoneme stock to
demonstrate scorn for the reality that, the qualifier is basically regarded one of length. The
phonemic lengths of Finnish vowels are chronemic. Consonants, like vowels, can be
chronemic. The Finnish word "kuka" (who) is a decent consonant length shift from "kukka"
(sprout), although phoneme inventories avoid lengthy consonants. This is usually simply
convention.
The phonemes are between 36 and 48 in English. Some inventories define rhetoric vowels
such as 'car' and 'ear' as phonemic, whereas others refer to them as components assigned. The
syllables "ear "are analysed as a long front vowel followed by a swa, a diphthong that some
dialect masters define as a phoneme while others do not, as non-Rhotic English dialects such
as Gotten Enunciation, generally known as RP. As a result, the amount of phonemes in a
phoneme stock will fluctuate.
Phoneme stocks are useful for comparing the quantity and sound kinds in various languages.
It is sometimes typical for lingos to show common characteristics. Tap sounds, basically, are
widespread in southern African lingos, consonant clusters in germinal lingos are popular, and
their proximity is common in many eastern Asian languages, since they are liquids such as
an alveolar sound.
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Subtema 4: Phonetic similarity.
It is generally true that English has one of the world's most disorganized and chaotic spelling
systems. The mapping between phonemes and graphemes (what you say vs. how you write
that sound) is far more chaotic and unpredictable. Although many languages are clumsy,
English is in a class by itself.
Whatever language is used, the fundamental cause of the confusion is typically the same:
orthography (spelling) is considerably more resistant to change than spoken language. This
implies that if you encounter a word that appears to be spelled strangely, there's a high
probability it was pronounced exactly the way you see it written at some point in history.
Many languages, such as English and French, have become a jumble as a result of centuries
of phonetic variation with minimal change in the writing system. It's one thing to declare how
comparable groupings are, but it's quite another to judge how comparable they are. However,
there has recently been a strong focus in historical phonetics on the advancement of
quantitative techniques for comparing and classifying tongues; however, these have tended
to be associated with issues of lingo family enrollment, at or perhaps high levels inside the
family tree, rather than down at the level of individual accents.
In short, the pronunciation has changed dramatically, with some highly systematic
modifications (The Great Vowel Shift), while the spelling has not. As a result, what was
formerly pronounced exactly as it was written now has a totally different sound than its
spelling. For example, the word I wasn't pronounced Aye; instead, it was pronounced ee, as
you'd anticipate in a speak-as-you-write language. The hum in night wasn't muffled; rather,
it was audible. And instead of aye, the I in night was ee.
Aside from that, there's the problem of borrowing terms. English generally keeps the
borrowed word's spelling and slightly alters its sound while keeping a little of the original.
When you have loan words from a variety of languages, you're sure to get into a lot of trouble.
14
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You're basically stealing words that were written using entirely other spelling norms. So
you've got terms like Czech and Fjord in your vocabulary. There is no such thing as a
convention when there are too many of them. You naturally start to detect patterns in English
with enough experience and are frequently capable of predicting the word's spelling with
acceptable accuracy, but our spelling nevertheless remains a real jumble.
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PREGUNTAS DE COMPRENSIÓN DE LA UNIDAD
1. What is a Phoneme?
a phoneme could be a unit of sound that can recognize one word from another in a specific
language.
2. How are phonemes represented?

Phonemes are represented between slashes
3. What is the origin of the word “allophone”?

The term "allophone" was coined by Benjamin Lee Whorf circa 1929.
4. What is Minimal pairs?

A combination of words likely to contrast or have a variation only in one sound.
5. What is aspiration?
In English, a voiceless plosive is suctioned. The air is aspirated in order to produce the sound.
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MATERIAL COMPLEMENTARIO
Los siguientes recursos complementarios son sugerencias para que se pueda ampliar la
información sobre el tema trabajado, como parte de su proceso de aprendizaje autónomo:
Videos de apoyo:
Video: What are phonemes and allophones?
Phonemes and allophones

Bibliografía de apoyo:
Katz, W. (2013). Phonetics for dummies. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology paperback with audio CDs (2): A
practical course. Cambridge university press.
Links de apoyo:
https://www.cambridge.org/features/IPAchart/
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REFERENCIAS
Baker, A., & Hengeveld, K. (2012). Linguistics. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
Burridge, K., & Stebbins, T. (2020). For the love of language (2nd ed.). Cambridge.
Curzan, A., & Adams, M. (2011). How English works: A linguistic introduction. Longman.
In Genetti, C. (2014). How languages work: An introduction to language and linguistics.
Kelly, G. (2001). How To Teach Pronunciation (Book with Audio CD). Pearson ESL.
McMahon, A. (2002). An introduction to English phonology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh

University Press.
Rahman, T. (2010). Linguistics for beginners. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology: A practical course. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.
18
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Unit 3: Phonology

2
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TABLA DE CONTENIDO
TOPIC 2: Phonology and intonation

Subtopic 1: Phonemic patterns ............................................................................................ 5
Subtopic 2: The Intonation in phonology. ............................................................................ 8
Subtopic 3: Paralanguage and Intonation pitch.. ............................................................... 11
3
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TEMA 2 Phonology and intonation
TOPIC 2
Subtopic 3
Subtopic 1 Subtopic 2
Paralanguage and Intonation
Phonemic patterns The Intonation in phonology.
pitch.
Objetivo
The understand the importance of intonation in a language and hw it can influence in the
meaning of sentences or words.
Introducción
All languages on the planet sound so diverse because languages are different from one to
another, this is because their speech sounds build patterns. Phonology is recognized as the
study of how linguistic sounds create models or patterns.
4
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Subtopic 1: Phonemic patterns
The Sound Patterns of Language

Only a bunch of characteristics are necessary in any human language to characterize every
speech sound. All languages on the planet sound so diverse because their speech sounds build
different patterns. Phonology is recognized as the study of how linguistic sounds create
models or patterns. Phonology explains what language sounds are, how they behave and mix
to produce words, and why it is important to distinguish words with certain phonetic
properties.
The Pronunciation of Morphemes: Plurals

Sometimes, according to their context, certain morphemes are expressed differently. For
instance, three distinct pronunciations in the English Plural Morphemes depend on the subject
you attach to. Sometimes the ending sound of those words will be a voiceless /s/ and other
times it can become voiced /z/.
To identify the rule governing the use of each variable of the plural morpheme or Allomorph,
a chart where the students can check this sounds might be helpful in order to analyze the
phonological situations in which each allomorph is present.
We are able to seek for minimum pairings to assist us find the varied phonological contexts
between words [-s, [-z] and [əz]. A minimum pair is a couple of words, which have
completely different meaning, but share almost all the sounds except for one sound that
appears in each word in the same location.
Minimal pairs with members who adopt diverse shapes of the plural allomorph are very
useful for the objective of showing sound patterns.
5
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For instance, cab [kæb] and cap [kæp] vary only in their last sound. Therefore, because every
word takes a distinct allomorphic characteristic, one may presume to choose the allomorph
based on the ending sound of it.
The environment where each allomorph appears may be generalized on the basis of the
understanding of the natural classes.
This may be further simplified by defining a rule that accepts /z/ is the fundamental or basic
sound of a plural, providing us with two criteria to explain why additional allomorphs are
discovered :
1. Add a [ə] before the plural morpheme /z/ when a regular noun ends in a sibilant, giving
[əz]
2. Add the plural morpheme /z/ to a voiceless [s] when preceded by a voiceless sound.
The Phonological Units of Language

Phonemes are the central sound units that are mental representation of what is being said or
heard.
All phonemes have one or additional sounds, which are known as allophones, representing
the actual sound generated in different situations.
Vowel Nasalization in English

In English, an allophonic rule describes the circumstances in which vowels are nasalized:
English Vowels are nasalized before a nasal consonant in the same syllable structure.
If you pronounce these words, you might be able to change your nasalization (if you knew
that you do so), and even though it sounds odd it would not affect their meaning, because we
don't even detect nasalized vowels to form a sense contrast.
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In contrast to nasalization, vowel height is employed to contrast meaning in English. As a

result, changing the height of a vowel in a word is likely to affect its meaning. Replacing one
sound with another to check whether it creates a change in meaning can be a useful approach
for phonemes to be identified. If you replace a sound with a different one, then the two sounds
are distinct phonemes
Complementary Distribution
They don't contrast with one another when sounds are in the complimentary distribution. The
substitution of a sound to the other does not affect the word's meaning.
A phoneme is a collection of sounds that are phonologically similar and can be augmented
with other sounds.
Nondistinctive Features
When a characteristic is predicted for a certain type of sound by a rule, it is a non-distinctive
feature for a given class (or redundant or predictable). In English vowels, nasalization, for
example, is a redundant characteristic used to differentiate English consonants. Vowels, on
the other hand, are distinct in Akan and French nasalization. In English, aspiration is a
voiceless stop as well.
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Subtopic 2: The Intonation in phonology.
Intonation is a universal language. There are no languages that are spoken in diverse ways
without a change in prosodic features. It is not only about what we say, but about how we
say things. Without tone, feelings and concepts which go with words are hard to grasp. Sound
is available in all languages therefore the notion we introduce isn't new. However, students
discover their words so regularly that they suffer from intonation. The sound is a feature of
speech that is shared by all languages. Tension, rhythm, connected speech, and emphasis are
some of the other characteristics.
Intonation is the sentence's melody. Intonation is caused by changes in the pitch of the voice
(it is lifted, stays at the same level, rises or falls), emphasis of the phrase (strong emphasis on
the words, weak stress on less significant words, or no emphasis on small words), as well as
rhythm (stressed syllables occur at more or less equal intervals). Word types (statements,
questions, orders, and requests) are differentiated, and sentences are classified according to
their sensory content. Intonation also allows speakers to express various emotions. The tone
(rise, fall...) is the biggest shift in pitch which occurs at the conclusion and at the finish of the
phrase. The terminal at the conclusion of the sentence is the main way in which the sentence
is determined (statement, question, command, request).
Intonation patterns are used in spoken language to update syntagms. It could be good for
you to remind us that the syntagm is a semi-syntactically complete set of words. Phonetics,
often known as intonation groupings, has updated syntagms (Sensory and tonal groupings)
There can be one or more syntagms in each group. In the line I believe he will arrive soon,
for example, there are two possible syntagms: I believe and he will arrive soon. In spoken
speech, it is generally updated as an intonation group.
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The intonation Function

The intonation group is a range of language that can take the entire sentence. But the sentence
frequently contains a number of intones. The number and length of the sentence and the
degree of semantic focus on the various sections of the phrase, will affect the number and the
shape of intonations
Not every sentence that is stressed is equally significant. A syllable stands out from the rest
and acts as the nucleus or heart of an intonation pattern. The nucleus is an officially defined
syllable as the final strongly emphasized syllable in an intonation pattern, which is a major
shift in pitch direction, where the pitch is plainly up or down. The nucleus is the most crucial
component of the intonation pattern and is required for it to exist. In contrast, the intonation
pattern might be made up of a single syllable. After the tail of the remainder of the intonation
pattern, the pitch of the nucleus tone is determined. As a result, the remainder of the
intonation pattern begins with a low tone and ends with a falling tone. The rest of the
intonation pattern ascends after a rising tone.
A finishing ton is made up of the nucleus and the tail. The other two elements of the
intonation pattern are the head and pre-head, which comprise the pre-nuclear component of
the intonation pattern and may be viewed as an optional element.
There are several pitch patterns throughout the pre-nuclear portion. Variations in the pre-
nucleus typically do not change the grammatic significance of the statement, but can provide
meaning to attitudes or phonetic styles. Three varieties are common: A descending type has
pitches that gradually fall (sometimes in "steps") towards the nucleus; an ascending type has
syllables that form a rising sequence; and a level type has syllables that remain at the same
level.
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Certain intonation patterns might be completely uninteresting: they don't imply the attitude
or mood of the speaker. They provide a mechanical purpose — they offer a mould in which
all the phrase may be used to express itself. The intonational minimum of speech represents
such patterns of intonation. There are more than one hundred potential combinations, but not
all are equally significant. Some of them have no significant difference in meaning, and
others are hardly used. That is why it is only essential in teaching to deal with a relatively
restricted number of intonational patterns resulting from a thorough selection.
All the fine shades of sensation and attitude that may be conveyed by tiny changes in pitch,
tone allocation or shortening, raising or reducing the loudness of the voice, changing its
quality, and a variety of other methods remain unclassifiable in any practical study of
intonation. On the other hand, a comprehensive categorization of intonation patterns may be
made, since they differ so significantly in nature. Change the importance of the speech and
produce different loudness pitches. This study is similar to the phonetic analysis of sounds in
a language in which phonetists determine how many sounds they utilize.
In contrast to the identical text sequences that differ in specific aspects of the intonation
pattern the distinctive function of intonation is accomplished. Intonation patterns have an
important role in intonation at the group, phrase, and text levels. As a result, in the sentences:
if Mary arrives, please let me know (a few people are expected to come but it is Mary who
interests the speaker)
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Subtopic 3: Paralanguage and Intonation pitch.
Paralanguage sometimes called vocalism is a component of meta-communication which,

through methods such as prosody, tone, loudness, entonation, etc, may change meaning, offer
nuanced meaning or express emotion. Sometimes only nonphonemic characteristics are
defined as being related.
While attending the Foreign Service Institute of the United States Department of State in the
1950s, the study of paralinguistics was created by George Trager. Henry Smith, Charles
Hockett, Edward Hall developed kineses and Ray Birdwhistell developed kinesics, among
his colleagues at the time. In 1958, 1960 and 1961, Trager reported his findings.
His study was the basis for all subsequent research, particularly research into the link between
paralanguage and culture. John Gumperz's study on language and social identity, which
focuses on paralinguistic distinctions in international communication, is one notable
example. between individuals. Multiracial Britain: Cross-speak, the movie Gumperz created
for the BBC in 1982, shows especially good cultural diversity in the language and its
influence on connection.
Since phenomenal, paralinguistic information is an external speech signal, and not an

arbitrary traditional Language Code.
In human communication the paralinguistic characteristics of speech play a significant role.

No expressions or words are missing since speaking requires a voice that can be manipulated
and that has no paralinguistic characteristics. This voice must have certain qualities, and all
of a voice itself is paralyzed. But the linguistic/paralinguistic difference does not just apply
to speech but also to the language of writing and signs, and it is no longer constrained by any
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sensory method. Even vocal language is shown, and even felt, through the Tadoma technique,
both linguistic and paralytic.
Characteristics of the voice signal

Aspects of perspective
Spoken transmissions reach the ears of a listener with characteristics sound that enable
listeners to determine a speaker's position. Similarly, sound location also works for non-
spoken sounds. When it comes to head movement, the perspective components of lip reading
become more evident and have dramatic effects.
Organic elements
The size of speakers' speech organs varies according to the age of that person. As youngsters
get older, their speech organs enlarge, and there are distinctions between adults and kids. Not
just size but proportions are the differences. They have a major influence on the voice pitch
as well as the developing frequencies that characterize the various speech sounds in certain
ways. The organic voice quality has a limited communication role, as the speaker will convey
the information regardless of the age of the speaker.
Expressive aspects
The emotional or attitudinal character of an utterance is influenced by paralinguistic signals
like volume, pace, pitch, contours, and to some extent forming frequencies. Typically,
attitudes are intentionally transmitted while sentiments are unintentionally shared. Attempts
to pretend or hide emotions, on the other hand, are not unusual.
As a result, expression-related paralinguistic cues have a minor impact on meaning marking.

In other words, by altering its expressive presentation, a message might be more or less
comprehensible. For example, when a speech such as "I drink a glass of wine before I go to
sleep each night" is heard it is consistent when made by an adult speaker, but when made by
a speaker recognized by a children, a tiny semanticized anomaly is noted. This abnormality
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is serious enough for electroencephalography to be assessed as an N400. Autistic people are

less sensitive to this and its related consequences.
The emotional tone of the speech has been demonstrated to impact solution of lexical
ambiguity, even paralinguistic information. Some words have a homophonous partner; for
example, In certain homophones, the mournful "die" contrasts with the neutral "dye,"
expressing the voice's sad tone. may induce listeners to write the former word significantly
more frequently than if they are said in a neutral tone.
Linguistic aspects.
Only linguistically informative qualities are shown by regular phonetic utterance transcripts.
A focus of ongoing study is the issue of how listeners determine linguistic quality from voice
cues.
Some of the notable linguistic features of speech are prosody, pre-linguistic or paralinguistic
aspects. The phenomenon of 'frequency coding,' as described by John Ohala, is one of the
most fundamental and extensively disseminated of its kind. This code works in cross-species
communication as well. It stems from the fact that the voices of small vocalizers have a high
sound frequency, whilst the voices of bigger vocalizers have a low sound frequency. As a
result, secondary meanings like as "harmless," "submissive," or "unassertive" are naturally
linked with the high pitch frequency, but connotations such as "dangerous" or "dominant"
are usually associated with the low tone voice. Most languages use frequency coding to help
distinguish queries from assertions. It is mirrored globally in expressive variation, and the
considerable difference in pitch between normal female and male adults implies that sexual
dimorphism is phylogenetic in nature.
Non-alphabetic or abstract characters can be communicated via text-only communication

such as email, chatrooms, and instant messaging by emoticons, font and color, capitalization,
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and the usage of non-alphabetic or abstract letters. In contrast to face-to-face dialogue,

paralyzing textual communication is limited, frequently causing in misconceptions.
Specific forms of paralinguistic respiration

Gasps
A gasp is a type of paralinguistic breathing in which air is inhaled rapidly and suddenly via
the mouth. A gasp may suggest breathing difficulty and a frantic endeavor to obtain air into
the lungs. Gaps can also be caused by emotions such as surprise, panic, or disappointment.
A gasp, like a sigh, yawn, or groan, is a non-intense, involuntary action. Sighing is strongly
associated with gasping, and the inhalation that defines a shock or surprise triggered gasp can
be released as a sigh if the original emotional reaction is deemed to be less stunning or
surprising than the observer first believed.
Sighs
A sigh is a type of paralinguistic breathing that individuals use to convey emotion. It takes
the shape of a deep, and particularly loud, single air breath. It's a voiced pharyngeal fricative
with occasional guttural, low tone glottal breaths. It frequently comes from a negative
emotion such as consternation, discontent, forbearance and futility. In particular, it ends or is
avoided in the response to some bad scenario. Like a snub, a yaw or a groan, a sigh frequently
becomes an instinctive, involuntary act.
Moans and groans

Moans and groans refer to a long, guttural sound originating from the throat that generally
shows discomfort and is performed by those who start from childhood. While moaning is
frequently linked with pain and suffering, it can also occur as a result of enjoyable physical
sensations such as food stimulation, massage, or sexual engagement. Moans and moans have
long been linked to ghosts and their purported perpetual agony.
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The throat-clear
In nonverbal communication, clearing your throat is a metamessage. . that is used to
announce your presence when you enter the place or come to a gathering. This is done by
individuals who believe they are superior to the group they are approaching and use throat
clearing to communicate this to others.
The throat is frequently used to express surprise displeasure.
This utterance is an indicator of status in the chimp social hierarchy, a symbol of mild
cautions or slow anxiousness addressed by Alpha males and higher-level chimps to lower-
level chimps.
The throat clear is only permitted as a type of metacommunication to indicate that a formal
meeting will be held.
When approaching an informal group, it is not appropriate to clear your throat; the base of
your competence has already been established and this supplementary nonverbal message
does not require any additional reiteration.
Mhm
Between a literal language and a movement there is a time for the discussion to take a break
by producing a "hmm" or a "mhm" noise.
The wording 'mhm' is used commonly in narrative interviews, for example in a catastrophe
survivor interview or as a victims of sexual abuse. During such interviews, interviewers or
consultants should not interrupt the interviewee too frequently. The mhm guarantees that the
interviewee is heard and that his narrative may continue. Observing emotional changes and
paying attention to an interviewee's mental state is an important approach for detecting small
changes while speaking.
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1. How many sound characteristics are needed?

Only a bunch of characteristics are necessary in any human language to characterize every
speech sound.
2. What is intonation?
Intonation is the sentence's melody. Intonation is caused by changes in the pitch of the voice
3. What are the paralinguistics signal”?

Paralinguistic signals are volume, pace, pitch, contours, and to some extent forming
frequencies.
4. Can the size of speech organ change the meaning of words?

The organic voice quality has a limited communication role, as the speaker will convey the
information regardless of the age of the speaker.
5. What is Paralanguage?
Paralanguage sometimes called vocalism is a component of meta-communication which,
through methods such as prosody, tone, loudness, intonation, etc, may change meaning, offer
nuanced meaning or express emotion.
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Videos de apoyo:
Video: Paralanguage
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=daDO719kzfM
Intonation in English
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A6aE4nceJt8
Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology paperback with audio CDs (2): A
practical course. Cambridge university press.
Links de apoyo:
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REFERENCIAS
McMahon, A. (2002). An introduction to English phonology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh

University Press.
Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology: A practical course. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.
18
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Unit 3: Language transfers and errors

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TABLA DE CONTENIDO
TOPIC 1: Language transfer: Contrastive analysis
Subtopic 1: Positive and Negative transfer of the mother tongue to a second language. ............ 5
Subtopic 2: Pedagogical exploitation of contrastive analysis between the two languages… ...... 8
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TEMA 1 Language transfer: Contrastive analysis
TOPIC 1
Positive and Negative transfer of the Pedagogical exploitation of contrastive
mother tongue to a second language. analysis between the two languages.
Objetivo
To have a clear idea about how languages can influence each other and how the similarities
and differences can be used in order to avoid mistakes in the process of language learning.
Introducción
We might make mistakes if we utilize a foreign language because of the impact of our mother
language. Errors in speech, grammar and other language levels are sometimes referred to as
interference. To acquire the proper and idiomatic usage of other languages, it is important to
be aware of these distinctions. In the absence of such knowledge, we prefer to perceive and
hear things in the familiar categories we know in our mother tongue. And it's not unbelievable.
This is how humans generally see, hear, and understand things.
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Subtopic 1: Positive and Negative transfer of the mother tongue to a second language.
Transfer refers in general to the effect of the native language of the learner in the context of non-
native language learning or usage. In certain aspects, both languages differ, yet converge in
others. We call negative transfers or interferences if the impact of the native language causes
problems in acquiring or using a target language.
We can speak of a positive transfer or facilitation when the impact of the native language leads
to a quick or instantaneous learning or usage of the target language. Interference is therefore a
transfer, that has a negative or inhibitory influence (at least briefly) on a new language mastery,
while it is a transfer facilitating a simple or trivial acquisition work. In all broad models of second
language acquisition, the degree to which transfer happens is of importance; whether or not a
particular case of transfer is negative or positive depends exclusively on whether the competence
in the target language is hindered or aided.
Applied languages tend to concentrate considerably more on negative than positive transfers,
because only negative transfers are typically thought to be a difficulty for education and training.
In distinct language areas, negative transfers occur. Negative transfer effects account for a great
deal of (but possibly not all) typical foreign accents in the field of phonetics and phonology.
Objective language sounds or sound combinations which do not occur in the local language often
cause students significant difficulty.
Likewise, negative transfer is usually responsible for a number of morphosyntax learner mistakes
(inflection and word order). For example, French-speakers who purchase English as a new
language, often misplace adverbs in the verb and directly between the verb (John takes often the
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metro) instead of the subject and the verb (John often takes the metro), probably under the
influence of the French word order (Jean often takes the métro).
Positive transfers may, in terms of vocabulary, lead to the instant recognition and acquisition in
the mother tongues and target tongue of words with similar, or identical, pronunciations, but with
different meanings, such as the mother tongue and target tongues (for example English and
French relative parents) and words with similar, or both, native and target languages. In a field
of Pragmatics, when languages native and target have differing circumstances for proper usage
of translation equivalents, negative transfer is also prevalent.
During the last couple of decades, our understanding of transfers has changed partly because of
change in the nature of language development and partly because of the results of empirical
study. When behavioralism was the prevailing paradigm of the 1940s through the mid 1960s,
languages acquired were considered to be acquired by a certain set of habits. Acquisition of
second language as the formation of a new set of habits was so interpreted.
Negative transfers were the negative habits of the original language that were necessary to
overcome in order to acquire the new language. Good behaviors passed on from the mother
tongue were equivalent to positive transfers. The psychological approach was dominated by the
finding of interlanguage in the late 1960's and 1970's. Thus, linguistic acquisition was viewed
not as the learning of habits but as the acquisition of linguistic conduct based on mental
representations. A succession of phases of development, each defined by an internal coherent
grammar, were taken as an indication of native and non-native language learning. In the degree
it exists, transfer would now be considered the impact of the native language grammar produced
mentally on the interlanguage grammar represented.
Changing perspectives were linked to altering assumptions regarding the magnitude of the
transfer effects. The behavioral view led to the contrasting analysis and a methodology that
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thoroughly studied and compared the surface features of indigenous and target languages. In
cases where they differed, students should be expected to make errors due to the negative transfer.
Some kinds of negative transfers might be more troubling than others. For instance, it must
become harder for a learner to differentiate between the target language that does not exist in the
Native language than to integrate the distinction between the native language and the target
language in one category. However, two developments eventually resulted in a disadvantage of
contrasting analysis: Empirical investigation has shown that contractional analysis cannot
anticipate everything. It can just predict the language learners' real problems;
The initial approach to the acquisition of second language based on the mentalist perspective, the
creative construction regarded adult second-language learners as roughly the same position as
the children's native language learners: In this respect, the work of an inherent language
acquisition mechanism (in the spirit outlined by Chomsky in 1965) that uses linguistic intrusion
to build a grammar represented mentally results in both kinds of acquisition.
Moreover, all adult English learners, regardless of their original language, are expected to go
through about the same stage of growth and they are approximately the same phases in children
acquiring English as their native language.
It is remarkable that the Krashen (1982) model of second-language acquisition, the most
thoroughly articulated and prominent model of creative creation, does not see a transfer function.
The realm of sound systems at least seems to have been excluded by creative creation as it is
unpredictable that a foreign accent is not a clear example of negative transfer to a great extent.
Moreover, the idea that there is basically a continual growth of interlanguage morphosyntactic
in all native languages was based on similarities between different morphemes of English (which
all learners must learn, in any case), Unless linguistic qualities such as word order or pronoun
interpretation or other grammatical factors are taken into account.
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Whether instructors teach ESL in the host context or EFL in an alien environment might impact
their opinions about the acquisition of second language. The universality of second language
acquisition may be understood by an ESL instructor who has pupils speaking several
typologically diverse native languages because there are several development phases common
across mother tongues. EFL instructor may assign the same acquisitional sequences to the
language of the native person with pupils who speak the same or single dominant language.
Clearly, the students are given the duty of acquiring second language by two principal resources:
first language and universal learning access. One thing which is also accepted seems that the
function of the native language decreases as acquisitions progress: the more the development of
the target language becomes, the less impact the native language exerts.
Subtopic 2: Pedagogical exploitation of contrastive analysis between the two languages.
Although contrast analysis has frequently been questioned for its insufficiency to forecast
transfer errors which students make inside real learning situations, it can readily be refuted that
"this interference exists and can explain problems" (Brown, 1994, p. 200). In this context, the
study now underway attempts to provide light on the idea of the hypothesis of contrasting
analysis by looking at the background and origins, processes and its many forms. The present
study will also examine differences and similarities in the phonology and syntax of two
languages, namely Persian and English, so that the areas of potential difficulties for L2 students
may be identified.
The identification and contrasting hypothesis are two of the overall hypotheses about second
language learning (Klein, 1986, p.23). The theory of identification claims that acquiring one
language influences little or no other language's acquisition. Many scientists acknowledge the
'essential identity' of acquisition in first and second languages (e.g., Jakobovits, 1969; Ervin-
Tripp, 1974). The contrasting idea on the other hand says that the first language structure impacts
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the second language acquisition (Lado, 1957; Fries, 1945). The phrase 'contrasting hypothesis'
refers to the theory itself and the technique for implementing the hypothesis is focused on
'contrasting analysis.' In contrast, the "hypothesis of a contrast analysis" simultaneously
highlights the theory and technique.
Background of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)
In the sixties, structural linguistics and behavior psychology dominated the contrastive analysis
(hence, simply CAH) hypothesis. The language models of CAH are hence structuralism
explained by Fries (1945) and Lado, as explained in Bloomfield (1933) (1957). Structuralism
asserts that a certain language's finite structure is documentable and comparable with other
languages. Esser (1980, p.181) proposes, as the analysis may provide practical teaching
materials, that the contrast analysis is part of the applied language.
CAH was based on Skinner's comportamental psychology. Every type of study is considered a
habit. On the crossroads, the red stop sign is associated with slowing and stopping the
automobile. Apprenticeship is carried out through strengthening. They relate to the stimulus
theory of the skinner. CAH's two psychological foundations are associationism and S-R theory
(James, 1985). CAH is likewise based on the idea that L2 students prefer to transmit their L1's
formal characteristics to their L2 expressions. According to Lado (1957, p.2), "persons prefer to
put the shapes, meaning, and distribution of forms and meanings of their mother tongue and
culture first. This idea of "transference" denotes "transfer into the second language of the mother
tongue" (Corder, 1974, p.158). The psychological basis of the CAH is also proposed by Ellis
(1965), who replaced the primary language with previous and secondary language with after-
learning the theory of transfer.
Since this idea was contentious, the concept of "transfer" itself caused some complications.
Different individuals defined it differently. Lado (1957) and Fries (1945) have defined transfer
as the imposition of second language knowledge or sentence, although it has cross-lingual
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influence for Odlin (1989). The notion that learners may have poor second language knowledge
(1983, 1992) was examined by Schachter, who argued that that transfer is not in any way a
process but rather is a restriction on the process of acquisition. Odlin (1989, p.27) commented,
"Transfer is the effect arising from the similarities and contrasts between the target language and
any other language previously (maybe imperfectly) learned." And then he points out it is just a
definition that works. Recently, in Ahmadvand (2008), Pavlenko and Scott (2002) claimed that
transferring is not unidirectional but simultaneous and is demonstrated by paradigms and
syntagmism. All of this suggests that there is no consensus about the complexity of the notion of
transfer.
Procedures of CAH
The contrast analysis is broken up into a number of different component techniques by Whiteman
(1970, p. 191). The four phases are (1) to follow both languages, L1 and L2, and to write their
formal descriptions, (2) to choose forms from contrast descriptions, (3) to contrast the chosen
forms and (4) to forecast difficulties in comparison. A hierarchy of difficulty based on the concept
of transfer is proposed to explain the predictive stages: negative, positive, and zero. (Stockwell
et.al, 1965). If the structure of the two languages is same, a positive transfer is made, but a
negative transfer is made with those who are dissimilar. If the two languages' structures are
unrelated, zero transfers will happen. In establishing the 'ideal pedagogical order' Stockwell et
al. utilized the following criteria: (1) Hierarchy of difficulty; (2) Functional load; (3) Potential
mishearing; (4) Pattern congruity.
Three Different Versions of CAH
CAH is characterized as strong, moderate and mild in light of its predictability. The strong CAH
version was categorized by Wardhaugh (1970) as the version that argues that difficulties may be
predicted by contrasting analysis. It is supposed to be possible to compare both languages a priori.
Wardhaugh (1970, p. 126) points out the intuitive attraction of contrasting analysis and that
linguists and instructors employed effectively "the best available language information... to
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explain for the problems found in second language learning." He mentioned the weak form of
CAH as the use of contrast analysis by the observer. Here, focus changes from the prediction
force to the relative difficulty of observable mistake explanatory capacity. This is a variant for
error analysis (EA). CAH is an assumption or a theory, whereas EA is an appraisal technique.
The weak version is not about predicting language difficulties a priori, but about explaining the
basis of language learning failures in the post-explanatory way.
On the basis of its research of spelling errors in the dictation part of the UCLA placement exam
in second language, the Oller and Ziahosseiny (1970) suggested a modest version of CAE
(Cambridge English: Advanced). The strong version was determined to be too strong and the
weak version to be too feeble. Here, they focused on the nature of human learning and proposed
a moderate version that sums up as "the categorization, in accordance with its perceptive
similitudes and differences, of abstract and concrete patterns as a foundation for learning; hence,
where patterns are minimal in form or in sense, confusion may arise" (p.186).
The popularity of contrast analysis has dramatically been lowered by criticism and fresh evidence
against CAH from the strong form towards the moderate version. Some academics continue to
strive to take the benefits and merits of CAH into account and to analyze it. In this study, we
shall highlight from a phonological and syntactical point of view the contrasting analysis
hypothesis, which shows that the distinctions between Persian and English are more noticeable.
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1. What is transfer?
Transfer refers in general to the effect of the native language of the learner in the context of non-
native language learning or usage.
2. What is Positive Transfer?
We can speak of a positive transfer or facilitation when the impact of the native language leads
to a quick or instantaneous learning or usage of the target language.
3. Why do teachers focus more on negative transfer?
Negative transfers are typically thought because they can be of difficulty for education and
training.
4. Why has CA been questioned?
Because of its insufficiency to forecast transfer errors which students make inside real learning
situations.
5. What is Zero transfer?
If the two languages' structures are unrelated, zero transfers will happen.
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Videos de apoyo:
Video: Contrastive Analysis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QvQbSZ5Q8Lk
Transfer in Second Language Acquisition
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UB18y2ZYBiY
Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology paperback with audio CDs (2): A practical
course. Cambridge university press.
Links de apoyo:
13
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REFERENCIAS
McMahon, A. (2002). An introduction to English phonology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University

Press.
Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology: A practical course. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
14
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Other Fields of Contrastive Application

Unit 4: Language transfers and errors

2
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TABLA DE CONTENIDO
TOPIC 2: Other fields of contrastive application
Subtopic 1:. The translation ......................................................................................................... 5
Subtopic 2: Cross-curricular studies............................................................................................ 8
Subtopic 3:.. Conscious and unconscious transfer ..................................................................... 11
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TEMA 2 Other fields of contrastive application
TOPIC 2
Other fields of contrastive
application
Subtopic 3
Conscious and unconscious
The translation Cross-curricular studies
transfer
Objetivo
To understand the other uses of contrastive studies in areas related to the second language
acquisition and language learning and teaching process.
Introducción
In order to fully understand the various facets, objectives and functions of the integrated
curriculum we must take a wider look at ‘curriculum’ as a whole. Murphy and McCormick
propose that any curriculum undergoes three level of analysis, namely the specified, the
enacted and the experienced curriculum.
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Subtopic 1: The translation
Linguists, psychologists, literary critics and ethnographers have been interested in the
phenomena of translation for a long time. Compatible with new developments in linguistics, and
specifically the development of the theory of communication, is relatively new avenue for
scientific research on translation, which deals with this from the right linguistic viewpoint.
The guidelines combine different theoretical issues within its study circle, such as: cross-
language communication models, general language difficulties in translation, the discovery of
universal language through translation, etc.
A comparative examination of bilingual texts allows us to examine a number of questions within

the scope of the research which center on typological comparisons between the two languages.
Communication theory investigates the operation of linguistic units in so-called 'communication

blocks' or texts. This is why it is often proposed as the text theory synonym.
The choice of language signs usually depends, of one hand, on the aims and on the form of
communication (written, oral, monological, dialogic), of the other hand, also on the subjective
factors of the interlocutors: differences of age, the relationship between families, their social
status and their intellectual level.
The communication capacity of a person must always be determined by the universality of the
objectively existing linguistic system, which must not be a special example of communication.
The communication process is united and indivisible where the sender and the receiver
participate at the same level. The communication process is indivisible.
The comparison of texts reveals a strong and direct effect on the socio-cultural backgrounds of
the comparative languages. The entities with distinct individual awareness establish the contact
with various recipients behind both texts.
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A two-language comparison can be made using any of many grammatical models. At first the
model was that of linguists of structuralism (e.g. Bloomfield 1933; Fries 1952). This highlighted
the necessity of thorough 'scientific description' of languages based on a description of the many
types of linguistic patterns. These categories were formally defined and inductively defined. The
disparities (between languages) are large enough to prohibit any categorization system that would
suit all the languages from being established (Bloomfield, 1933).
It seems obvious that contrast analysis and language structuralism became weird allies. How can
an efficient comparison be performed if languages have no common categories?
While the difficulty of the language foundation for comparison was disregarded for practical
purposes, the theoretical problem remained.
Contrastive Analysis should ideally be founded on universal categories (i.e. categories inherent
in all natural languages), which differ in how they are linguistically realized from one language
to the next (Chomsky, 1965). Theory of Grammar presented exactly such a model, providing a
more solid theoretical foundation for contrastive analysis.
While studying a foreign language, students should take into consideration the linguistic aspects
of the mother language as our impression of the mother tongue (sensitivity). On a phonological,
syntactic and semantic level, the effect of native language can be recognized. Contrastive
analyzes enable us to disclose the differences between native and foreign languages and allow us
to focus on this diversity in the foreign language acquisition process. The Carroll J. B. plan calls
'Cognitive theory on code acquisition' is much in common with this method to language learning
(Carroll,1963).
In the context of the translation, contrast analysis means that the translator needs to pay attention
at semantical and syntactic levels to the differences between the foreign and local languages
which to a certain extent also imply overcoming them.
The majority of the contrasting investigations conducted relied on 4 surface structure features, as
stated by structuralists:
(1) description: The two languages are formally described.
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(2) selection: Certain objects chosen for comparison may include whole subsystems, such as the
auxiliary system, or regions identified through error analysis.
(3) comparison: Difference and similarity areas of identification.
(4) prediction: Identify locations that might create mistakes.
In comparison, the easiest approach was to determine the comparable and dissimilar
characteristics of the two languages. Contrasting analysts quickly discovered, however, that
similarities and differences existed.
Subtopic 2: Cross-curricular studies
Learning
In this part we are going to consider the manner in which the classroom facilitates learning
through the curriculum at all three levels, which are the defined, the implemented, and the
experienced one. This part also discusses two modern but divergent viewpoints, those of the
socio-cultural perspective and the learning model, to define the way that supports the integrated
curriculum. This section discusses the way of learning.
The social-cultural approach to learning, often known as the "situated approach," opposes the
idea that learning happens in a linear form and stresses that it happens in a variety of situations
and in different ways. It acknowledges that learning includes identity training methods, that
students do not just get knowledge, but instead take the shape of a specific learner in a certain
society. Wegner's practice theory demonstrates that learning is viewed as a participatory activity.
Practical communities foster and promote a wide range of community ideals and perspectives.
They include conduct and habits common to its members. The study takes place when members
get more familiar with the common set of values, so they can shift to a more centralized position
from the perimeter of the community. As children gain greater authority and empowerment in
the practice community, learning is viewed as a participatory activity. Lave and Wenger (p. 29)
agree that "being a complete participant in a social and cultural environment shapes a person's
goals to learn and meaning."
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The Acquisition Model of Learning
The acquisition paradigm, according to Sfard, differs from the socio-cultural perspective on
learning, which promotes epistemological skepticism of knowledge as an entity. Concepts are
used as knowledge units to help learners build higher cognitive structures, redefine them, and
connect them.
The phrases «accumulation» and «acquisition» suggest that the approach to acquisition considers
the human mind to be a container filled with various thoughts and components. It is feasible to
adapt or transfer the information gained by the learner into other circumstances once it has been
mastered.
The cross-cultural approach of learning promotes the socio-cultural viewpoint of learning and
views learning as a process of cultural activity participation. The principle that learning is fixed
and happens on a linear basis is refuted in the theoretical bases of the acquisition method.
Knowledge
The two conflicting approaches on learning also show distinct perceptions of knowledge. The
cross-curricular approach has been created in line with the socio-cultural perspective of
education.
Knowledge is regarded as fluid, dynamic, and context dependent from a social-cultural

perspective, capable of adjusting to a range of settings and contextual situations. Knowledge is
socially formed via involvement in cultural activities, according to the socio-cultural or
contextual perspective of knowledge. According to positivistic educational philosophies,
knowledge is unaffected by contextual, cultural, or environmental variables. These points of view
are confronted by socio-cultural knowledge concepts.
You acquire knowledge through developing social relationships with peers within your practice
group. The knowledge in every particular community of practice is linked to the tools, symbols
and competences of cultural activities. Involvement in these activities enhance people's
knowledge and comprehension of these cultural objects so they can alter their participation in the
community through time, eventually from periphery to center participants in the practicing
community. Learners are influenced by cultural activities not only because of their culture and
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past knowledge, but also because they define, alter, and reshape their knowledge, and perceived
knowledge.
The socio-cultural approach subscribes to the perceived social knowledge through engagement
in practical communities. The cross-curriculum method aligns the constructivist concepts such
as their thematic character to establish practice communities inside the classroom that are
distinguished by significant mobility levels from the community's periphery to its heart The
transfer is triggered by an increase in the number of students, which allows them to make such a
radical move from their normal surroundings.
Knowledge Transfer
As proponents of the curriculum approach, the notion of knowledge transfer argues that high
volumes of information transmission should be enabled across the curriculum between
disciplinary domains. Nonetheless, Murphy and McCormick, claim to embrace the concept of
knowledge transfer, which is closely related to the learning metaphor of acquisition and is
consistent with the symbol processing approach. Individuals with a socio-cultural or local view
of learning, they claim, reject the concept of information transmission in favor of a more
contextual interpretation of common knowledge.
The term "transmission" refers to the separation of competing perspectives on learning and
conversation, which is ultimately determined by the classroom's perspective on learning. Murphy
and McCormick dismiss the concept of transfer, arguing that re-application and classroom usage
are not the greatest examples. They contend, on the other hand, that the term transportation is a
better fit for the notion. Second, Murphy and McCormick say that we should not focus on how
to best define this technique, but rather on what specific indicators signal using and applying
information in diverse situations.
Curriculum
Exploring Knowledge and Learning, which comes before this section, outlines how practitioners
should approach courses. Different knowledge ideas mediate the creation of the enacted, defined,
and experienced curriculum, according to the preceding sections.
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The integrated curriculum of the cross-curricular approach criticizes the idea of dividing
information into different disciplines or domains, instead offering a more holistic perspective of
knowledge and learning in which disciplines overlap and blend into integrated learning units.
The cross-curricular approach therefore produces learning settings with a high standard of
authenticity in culture and the individual. Learning is more relevant and aimed at students since
it is related to a primary subject. Students begin to know that what they study in any subject helps
them grasp a broader topic or concept more effectively.
Disciplines collaborate to give students with more comprehensive theme experiences, ensuring
that their learning activities are meaningful and relevant, resulting in a high level of cultural and
personal authenticity. To conclude, the cross-curricular approach suggests that this curriculum
moves away from disciplines as a source of knowledge and/or input by looking at the categories
identified by Murphy and McCormick in the outset. Rather, cultural and personal authenticity
are blended to provide a focus point for the curriculum and curriculum that is provided. Pupils
do significant and purposeful activities in the given curriculum, because of the integrity of their
curriculum, producing cultural and personal authenticity. The communities of practice operate
as cultural authenticity and for experienced curriculums. The curriculum implemented mediates
both curricular forms by selecting holistic learning activities which stress the approach's
integrity.
Advantages of Cross-Curricular Approach
Cromwell investigates and organizes information in the human brain. It seems that, depending
on prior experience, the brain organizes new information, and that significance has grown as a
result of that experience. His investigation has shown that holistic experiences are easily
remembered. Caine and Caine research broaden this concept by linking neuropsychology with
methods of education. It enhances Cromwell's investigation by saying it is a fundamental brain
activity that searches for significant patterns. Instead, the human being might try to resist isolated
learning units and information. The capacity of the brain to create patterns across a wide variety
of academic disciplines suggests that the brain favors the cross-curricular approach.
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Cross-curricular methods, according to Hayes, establish connections and interconnections

between the knowledge learned in areas and the experiences of students outside of school,
therefore boosting children's education. This cross-curricular method moves information and
abilities from one scenario to another, enabling students to draw on their interests through a more
meaningful and relevant curriculum.
The results of an integrated course on attitudes of students indicate that the theme approach
results in an increase in the practices and activities associated with the organization such as
motivation, attitude, and self-direction. There is also a limited amount of research. The working
definition of the agency Duranti [p.453] sets out three fundamental properties:
1) control over one's own behavior
2) generate activities that impact other entities and themselves.
3) the production of activities for assessment purposes.
The theme approach, MacIver noted, enhances the attitudes of students and their working habits,
behaviors that meet the agency classification of Duranti as acts that influence other entities as
well as themselves. According to Jacobs, Improved self-direction, higher attendance, and
enhanced motivation, as well as compliance with all three of Duranti's agency criteria, are all
linked to the cross-curricular approach. Although these studies do not specifically address the
advantages of the thematic approach on pupil agency, they do indicate that the thematic approach
increases pupils' attitudes, self-direction, and motivation, all of which are encompassing
components of pupil agency, according to Duranti.
Disadvantages of Cross-Curricular Approach
Advocates for the topic of teaching and learning have stated that the rigorously defined limits of
subject areas give a more realistic explanation of the complexity of the world and a feeling of
order. Alexander, Rose and Woodhead [p.21] say that denying children access to topics "denies
them access to some of the most powerful instruments they've ever conceived to make sense of
the world."
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Nevertheless, the cross-curricular method utilized in this study is not especially relevant, as it
does not promote the disintegration of topic groups. The cross-curricular approach instead
emphasizes the relevance of conceptual structures provided by topics and aims to link them to
create meaningful learning experiences for learners. The breakdown of the strong boundaries
should allow practitioners to create cross-curricular ties between them, giving learners a more
realistic and reasonable worldview in which knowledge and truth are not strictly divided into set
frames.
Subtopic 3: Conscious and unconscious transfer
In recent years, there has been a wide range of experimental information to try to comprehend
the consciousness and its neurological foundations. In this respect, the endeavor to differentiate
between conscious experience and unconscious experiences, but nonetheless recognized as
mental states, has been given special emphasis.
The objective of comprehending the link between experience and the physical world can be aided
by a detailed grasp of what constitutes conscious experiences in particular, such as brain
correlates and cognitive processes. The historical problem, however, has been that awareness is
only available to others, including scientists, in the first person.
Different methodological traditions and choices resulted in various understandings of the

connections between conscious and unconscious states (e.g. Rothkirch and Hesselmann, this
topic for research). Various cognitive and neurobiological awareness theories inspired and
directed a wide range of empirical studies. The opinion that unconscious states have the same
functional features as conscious states (e.g., Hassin, 2013) and the belief that no accessible
information state can be completely unconscious are two of the most varied points of view
(Overgaard and Mogensen, 2014, 2015).
Therefore, the theme of research "Transitions between consciousness and unconsciousness" is

about understanding the connection and passage between consciousness and unconsciousness.
This is a special topic. It contains 18 papers, including original investigations, and reviews and
commentaries that discuss multi-faceted research in this area. We will give a quick overview for
each contribution in the next paragraph.
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One of the most attractive topics about the subject of consciousness research is whether stimuli
affect consciousness. In this case, can the observer impact the behavior of the person being
studied and to what degree? This interesting subject has been addressed by four submissions on
the study topic while concentrating on various procedures and behavioral effects. The masking
of priming is a successful approach to the aforementioned unconscious processes. The main point
is that the answer to a target stimulus may be affected prior to the target by presenting an
irrelevant first stimulus. The primary stimulus is not consciously experienced in masked priming
in particular.
Goller et al. investigated affectual priming using this paradigm, discovering that a negative
appraisal of a neutral symbol following the target includes an inconsistency between the primary
and the target. These emotive primordial effects were found by the authors for the unconscious
rather than for conscious primes which were regarded as misallocation of the primordial
incongruity to the unrelated Neutral symbol. Khalid and Ansorge employed masked priming in
a similar vein to examine how the faces show disgust subliminally processed. To explore for a
putative subcortical foundation of the priming effect, the authors utilize low- and high-pass
filtered faces as primal stimuli. However, they observed an unexpected reversal priming effect
that resulted in faster reaction times with the main objective congruence.
This impact was further limited to circumstances where attention was distracted from the
primary. This indicates that unpleasant faces are unconscious and do not seem to depend upon
subcortical circuits. In addition, researchers are looking at the effects of "higher-level" drinking
on the subconscious facial expressions since in this instance there is no actual consciousness
about the way expressions might look like. When prepared with a favorable face expression,
participants tended to eat more than when a negative look was created. For super and subliminal
primes this effect had been seen and confined to pictorial primes (in comparison to words).
Finally, Ruch et al. demonstrated how subliminal information may influence decision-making.
In the first phase, faces with written high or low-wage employment were subliminally displayed.
These faces were shown in a second phase. The participants' decisions on the recipient's wealth,
both subliminally and supraliminal provided, were impacted in a later memory phase.
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Another important topic in consciousness research is how stimuli acquire access to awareness
and how specific stimulus characteristics promote this. The variations in spatial frequency
awareness between the two hemispheres were explored by Piazza and Silver. Based on earlier
findings that indicate a hemisphere-specific spatial frequency processing. The authors have
shown that the high and low rivalry of the visual system and the hemisphere consequently
preferentially processing this frequency are dependent upon other, concomitantly presented
spatial frequencies in order to tackle this topic by using binocular rivalry.
This shows that a relative processing of spatial frequencies leads to the divergence of hemispheric
perception rather than an absolute processing. The continuing suppression of flash is another
prominent approach to examine consciousness. Noel et al. utilized this method to investigate
preferred treatment of independent stimuli. They found that the participant's criterion for
categorizing these words (i.e., self vs non-self) was reliant on an auditory input, either inside or
outside the periphery.
However, the significant heterogeneity between individuals is a frequent observation in research

with the disruption of continuous flash removal. In addition, as Gayet and Stein show, the
magnitude of reaction times is very linked with the total suppression times of each individual.
As a solution, the authors suggest a simple normalizing technique of latency which also results
in reaction times that are more appropriate for parametric testing.
In addition to concentrating on specific stimulation qualities that make you aware, you may also
question how consciousness evolves through time. In a wider sense. Is it a progressive or
dichotomical phenomena to transition unconscious to a conscious state? This has been one of the
long-standing issues in the field of consciousness study. Kiefer and Kammer changed the
environment by modulating the task and the masking type using a backward mask with words
targets. Based on their findings, the authors concluded that consciousness development is not
merely progressive or binary but relies on the individual factors of the job and on the kind of
mask.
Kojima et al. were particularly interested in the way people become conscious of the presence of
others in the setting of social interactions. Towards synchronous measures and movements,
measured during a social paradigm, revealed the reciprocal co-regulation of the knowledge of
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the other's presence between the two actors. On the neurological level, emphasis has come under
the name "Neural Correlations of Consciousness," to the discovery of brain activities that are
associated or even causative to determinate subjective experiences. Measurement of event-
related potential (EPPs) inside a backward masking paradigm Fu et al. raised the topic of the
connection of visual consciousness with a negative visual consciousness (VAN).
The scientists observed that ERP elements link not just to line drawings, but also with the visual
awareness of color photography. In addition, the VAN varied linearly with visual awareness
whereas non-linear changes in positive late potential indicate that various ERP components have
to do with the different forms of visual awareness. Gallotto et al. give in their review paper a
fundamental overview of brain oscillations and methods of measuring them. They also stress that
differentiating brain preconditions, substrates and consequences of knowledge is a key issue for
future study. Many elements, as Aru and Bachmann pointed out, have also been left unexplained
in regard to the overall path of awareness.
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1. What is learning?
The acquisition of knowledge or skills through experience, study, or by being taught.
2. What is knowledge?
Facts, information, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the
theoretical or practical understanding of a subject.
3. What is knowledge transfer?
A process by which knowledge, ideas and experience move from the source of knowledge to the
recipient of that knowledge.
4. Why is Cross-Curricular approach?
Cross-curricular learning involves establishing patterns of information between different

academic subjects.
5. What is a curriculum?
A curriculum is the combination of instructional practices, learning experiences, and students'

performance assessment that are designed to bring out and evaluate the target learning outcomes
of a particular course.
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Videos de apoyo:
Video: Translation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gEWZ-hWK2eg
Cross-Curricular Studies
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YcacGpY4lyk
Conscious vs. subconscious thinking
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UYSKW3IvZlQ
Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology paperback with audio CDs (2): A practical
course. Cambridge university press.
Links de apoyo:
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REFERENCIAS
McMahon, A. (2002). An introduction to English phonology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University

Press.
Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology: A practical course. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
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LEARNING EXPERIENCES: ENGLISH

PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY,

❑ Be able to use and

A phoneme is a unit of sound in speech. A phoneme

doesn't have any inherent meaning by itself, but when

you put phonemes together, they can make words.

It is the mental representation of a speech sound

They are representated into slashes / /

Allophones are the phonetic realization of allophones

Each phoneme can be realized as one of more

They are predictable

Contrastive distribution: They can’t produce a

Consonant and vowel sounds individual they are

But combining them take on meaning

There are 44 phonemes in English, each one representing a different

alphabet, sometimes letter combinations need to be used to make a

phoneme. A letter can also represent different phonemes. (From A to Z)

Phoneme Segmentation and Minimal Pair

Phoneme Segmentation You can segment, or break apart, any

word to recognize the sounds or phonemes in that word. For

three sound units, or phonemes, in that word: /s/ /u/ /n/

A minimal pair is a pair of words that vary by only a single sound,

in French and in English. However in French nasality is a distinctive feature of

both consonants and vowels.

Allophones are the variations within each group of phoneme.

are predictable, and non-significant.

form person to person and occasion to occasion (ie. free variation)

• A phoneme is a contrastive sound in a language

• An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme

• In our native language, we tend to hear the phonemes that the

• The basic idea:

• represent speech as a sequence of segments.

4. In assigning values to the Roman letters, international usage should

• How about “Don” and “Dawn”?

The phonological system of a language includes • an

inventory of sounds and their features, and • rules which

specify how sounds interact with each other.

Difference between phone and phoneme

• Generative phonology is a component of generative

• A phonetic representation is the form of a word that is spoken and

• A phonetic representation is the form of a word that is spoken and

• Distinctive features make it possible to capture the

• A stream of speech is portrayed as a sequence of

• Autosegmental phonology treats phonological representations as multi-

• Most phonetically similar segments are adjacent to each

Curzan, A. (2013). How English works: A linguistic

Davenport, M., & Hannahs, S. J. (2010). Phonetics and

Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology paperback

❑ To recognized the different

• Phonology is the scientific study of

• It is how the sounds are organized.

• Understanding and explaining how

Phonemes: Mental abstract representation of

Allophones: The phonetic realization of a

When speaking, we produce allophones

Phonology: Crash Course Linguistics #10:

How do we test phonemes?

We test phonemes by pairs and sets of words.

Minimal pair: When two words are identical in form

Minimal sets: When a group of words can be differentiated

e.g. feat - fit - fat – fate - foot

1. Intonation is a term used to refer to the distinctive use of different

2. The kinds of pitch modulation which are found in whole utterances.