Alcohols:

These (alcohols) are a homologous series of organic compounds that have a -OH (hydroxyl)
functional group.

Alcohols have the general formula CnH2n+1OH and they contain three elements which are:

1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen

You should remember that the name of all alcohols ends with ‘-ol‘ and some alcohols are
mentioned below for your guidance.

Methanol (CH3OH)

Ethanol (C2H5OH)

Propanol (C3H7OH)

This was some basic knowledge about the topic and it is time to move to a very important topic
which is about the properties (physical and chemical) of alcohols.

Physical properties of Alcohols:

1. Their solubility decreases due to an increase in their molecular size
2. These (alcohols) are volatile liquids at room temperature and pressure
3. Their boiling point increases with an increase in their molecular size because the forces
of attraction also become stronger.

Therefore, a larger temperature is required to overcome these forces of attraction.

Chemical properties of alcohols:

In the topic of alkanes and alkenes, we learned that they undergo combustion reaction to
liberate carbon dioxide and water vapours.

 Similarly, alcohols also react with oxygen (combustion reaction) to produce carbon
dioxide and water vapour. For example:

C3H7OH + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O (balanced equation)

This reaction is very useful in our daily life because it is used to give flavours to food items and
therefore, alcohols can be used as fuels as well.

 Alcohols also undergo oxidation reactions when they are heated with an oxidising agent
such as acidified potassium manganate (V||).

When this reaction occurs, carboxylic acid and water are formed (we will learn about
carboxylic acid later in this article). Let me explain this reaction with the help of an example.

C2H5OH + 2[O] → CH3COOH + H2O

In the reaction above, ethanol (alcohol) reacts with oxygen from an oxidising agent, which is
represented by [O], to produce ethanoic acid and water.

This was an example to illustrate oxidation reactions in alcohols. This reaction is very important
because it is used for various purposes such as to manufacture cleaning products in industries.

In the topic of alkenes, we learned that the reaction of alkenes with steam produces alcohols.
Well, you should also know that the fermentation of glucose is another method to produce
ethanol.

Ethanol is present in alcoholic drinks such as beer and wine and to produce ethanol, we
ferment things such as vegetables and fruits.
In this process, we will use micro-organisms, such as yeast, to produce ethanol after reacting
with carbohydrates (like glucose) in the absence of oxygen.

Note: Carbon dioxide is also produced during this reaction.

The equation for this reaction is listed below for your guidance.

C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

In the reaction above, a glucose solution (mixed with yeast) undergo fermentation to produce a
dilute solution of ethanol.

Important note: The temperature for this reaction should be 37-degree celsius because, at this
temperature, enzymes work best and this reaction only occurs in the absence of oxygen.

Ethanol is a good solvent, used in alcoholic drinks and is also used as a fuel. This was all about
the topic of alcohols.

It is time to move to another significant topic in organic chemistry which is about carboxylic
acids. So, let me explain this topic to you as well.

Carboxylic acids:
These (carboxylic acids) are the homologous series of the organic compound who have the -
COOH (carboxyl) functional group. The general formula of carboxylic acids is CnH2n+1COOH.

In alcohols, I explained that the name of alcohols ends with ‘-ol’ such as methanol. The name of
carboxylic acids ends with ‘-oic acid’. The name of some carboxylic acids has been shown below
so that you can easily understand this topic.

 Methanoic acid (HCOOH)

 Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)
 Propanoic acid (C2H5COOH)
 Butanoic acid (C3H7COOH)

Remember that the formula, written in brackets above, is derived from the general formula of
carboxylic acids which is CnH2n+1COOH.

Physical and chemical properties of carboxylic acids:

1. The boiling point of carboxylic acids increases with an increase in their molecular size.
This is because the electrostatic forces become stronger and to overcome them, a higher
temperature is required.

2. Methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, propanoic acid and butanoic acid are soluble in water.

These are some of the physical properties of carboxylic acids which you should know about.

You should remember that carboxylic acids are weak acids because they partially ionise in
water (which means that they do not completely release all hydrogen ions in aqueous solution).

You should also learn the chemical properties of carboxylic acids (which are mentioned
below).

 Carboxylic acids react with metals (such as sodium, magnesium and potassium) to give a
salt and hydrogen. For example

2CH3COOH + 2Na → 2CH3COONa + H2

Lastly, carboxylic acids react with alcohols to form esters (sweet-smelling compounds).

What is an ester? Well, an ester is a colourless liquid which is insoluble in water and the process
to form esters (reaction of carboxylic acids with alcohols) is known as esterification.

Concentrated sulphuric acid is used as a catalyst in this reaction.

Making esters from carboxylic acids and alcohols

The chemistry of the reaction

Esters are produced when carboxylic acids are heated with alcohols in the presence of an acid
catalyst. The catalyst is usually concentrated sulphuric acid. Dry hydrogen chloride gas is used in
some cases

The esterification reaction is both slow and reversible. The equation for the reaction between
an acid RCOOH and an alcohol R'OH (where R and R' can be the same or different) is:

So, for example, if you were making ethyl ethanoate from ethanoic acid and ethanol, the
equation would be:
Doing the reactions
On a test tube scale
Carboxylic acids and alcohols are often warmed together in the presence of a few drops
of concentrated sulphuric acid in order to observe the smell of the esters formed.

You would normally use small quantities of everything heated in a test tube stood in a
hot water bath for a couple of minutes.

Because the reactions are slow and reversible, you don't get a lot of ester produced in
this time. The smell is often masked or distorted by the smell of the carboxylic acid. A
simple way of detecting the smell of the ester is to pour the mixture into some water in
a small beaker.
Apart from the very small ones, esters are fairly insoluble in water and tend to form a
thin layer on the surface. Excess acid and alcohol both dissolve and are tucked safely
away under the ester layer.

Small esters like ethyl ethanoate smell like typical organic solvents (ethyl ethanoate is a
common solvent in, for example, glues).
As the esters get bigger, the smells tend towards artificial fruit flavouring - "pear drops",
for example.