Other Static Characteristics of Instruments

• Precision

• Tolerance

• Bias

• Linearity

• Resolution

• Threshold

• Hysteresis
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
• Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of an object

• Accurate measurement of temperature is one of the most

common and vital requirements in industrial instrumentation

• It is one of the most difficult objectives to achieve

• Unless proper temperature measuring techniques are employed,

serious inaccuracies of reading can occur, or otherwise useless
data can result
Classification of Methods of Temperature
Measurement

Electrical method

Non-electrical method

Contact method

Non-contact method
Electrical method:
The temperature signal is converted into electrical signal either through a
change in resistance or voltage, leading to a change in development of
electro-motive-force (emf).
Non-electrical method:
• Mechanical instruments

Based on the principle of change of physical properties of a substance,

when the substance is subjected to the temperature.

• Optical instruments (Radiation method)

Based on the measurement of thermal energy of the radiations emitted by

the hot body because at high temperatures, a hot body emits radiations.
 Electrical method Non-electrical method

• Thermocouple • Fluid expansion: Liquid, Gas

• Thermistor • Dial thermometer: Bimetallic
• Resistance Temperature strip thermometer
Detector(RTD) • Infra-red
Contact method:
The thermodynamic equilibrium between the body whose temperature to
be measured and the measuring instrument is established by physical
contact.

Non-contact method:

• There is no physical contact between the object to be measured and

the instrument.

• The thermodynamic equilibrium is established by the radiation emitted

by the measurement object.
 Contact methods

Thermal Thermoelectric
Electrical
expansion sensors
resistance
thermometer thermometer

Expansion of Expansion
solids Expansion of liquids of gases Thermocouple

Mercury, Mercury in Constant

Bimetallic alcohol etc.in steel, alcohol Constant volume
strip glass etc. in metal pressure thermometer
thermometer thermometer thermometer thermometer
 Non-contact methods

Radiation
pyrometer/Infrared Optical pyrometer
thermometer
Mercury-in-glass thermometer
• Expansion chamber
Space that is taken up by
the gas in the capillary bore; it
is pushed back as the
mercury rises into it
• Stem
Glass tube containing the
capillary bore
• Capillary tube

The glass tube in which the mercury rises or falls with the
temperature

• Scale

Divisions of equal length (degrees) marked on the thermometer that

constitute the units of measurement

• Column of mercury

Quantity of mercury that is contained in the capillary bore; its height

varies with the temperature
• Constriction

Narrowing that prevents the mercury from spontaneously

dropping into the bulb as the temperature lowers (the thermometer
must be shaken to make it go down).

• Mercury bulb

Glass reservoir containing mercury (a liquid metal) that expands

and rises in the capillary tube as the temperature rises
 It utilizes the volumetric expansion of mercury with temperature
 As heat is transferred through the bulb and into the mercury, the
mercury expands, pushing the column of mercury higher in the
capillary above, and the temperature can be read from the scale.

 For rugged service the bulbs and stems are protected by metal
casing which have arrangements for screwing thermometers into a
metal thermal well ( Brass, Steel, Cast iron, Monel, Stainless steel,
Aluminum).
 Temp range is -38.89 to 3570C (-38 to 674.60F)

 Upper temperature range may be extended through the

introduction of an inert gas such as dry nitrogen

 Range depends on the capacity of the bulb and the bore of the
tube.

 A large bulb has a smaller range.

 Accuracy is about ± 1 percent of span

• Advantages: Low cost, simplicity, portability, self operated

• Disadvantages: Fragile, lack of adaptability to remote

indicating, time lag

• Application: Meteorology, open tanks, cooking kettles, molten-

metal baths, steam line, pipelines, air ducts
Industrial Bimetallic Thermometer
• A bimetal is composed of two strips of metal welded together each strip
made from a metal having a different coefficient of thermal expansion

• The bimetal is wound in the form of a helix with one end fixed to outer
casing and other end connected to the pointer stem

• A pointer is attached to upper end of stem and sweeps over a circular

dial to indicate the temperature
• When the temperature surrounding the whole stem changes, the
bimetal expands and the helical bimetal rotates at its free end, thus
turning the inside stem and pointer to a new position on dial

• low expansion metal –Invar (Iron-nickel alloy)

• high expansion metal- brass at lower temperature and nickel alloys

at higher temperature
• The normal temperature range covered by this is - 40 to 2000C (-
40 to 392 0F)

• With special metals its range can be extended to 400 0C

• The accuracy of this when properly installed is about ±1 per cent of

span

• High reliability and long service life

 Applications
Heating systems

Hot water boilers

Solar power systems

Heat transfer system

Air conditioning technology

Ventilation systems

Chemical processing industry

Petro-chemical industry

Food industry
 Questions

1) Working principle of mercury-in-glass thermometer is based on the

------- of mercury with increase in temperature.

(a) Increase of pressure

(b) Increase of thermal conductivity

(c) Volumetric expansion

(d) Differential linear expansion

2) Which of the following is true for bimetallic type thermometer?

(a) Two metals have same temperature coefficients

(b) Two metals have different temperature coefficients

(c) One metal is cooled always

(d) None of these

3) Bimetallic strips contain ------ as a metal

(a) Silicon steel (b) Yellow brass

(c) Bronz (d) Aluminum

4) Why is invar used in metallic strips?

(a) Low density

(b) Low coefficient of expansion

(c) High-temperature resistance

(d) High abrasion resistance