Twelfth Edition

Textiles
Sara J. Kadolph
Professor Emeritus
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa

Sara B. Marcketti
Associate Professor
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Kadolph, Sara J., author. | Marcketti, Sara B., author.

Title: Textiles / Sara J. Kadolph and Sara B. Marcketti, Iowa State
  University.
Description: Twelfth edition. | Boston : Pearson, 2016. | Includes
  bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016003980| ISBN 9780134128634 (alk. paper) | ISBN
  013412863X (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Textile industry. | Textile fibers. | Textile fabrics.
Classification: LCC TS1446 .K33 2016 | DDC 338.4/7677--dc23 LC record available at
http://lccn.loc.gov/2016003980

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-412863-4
ISBN-10: 0-13-412863-X
 brief contents

Section I: Introduction to Textiles

1 Introduction | 5
2 Product Development from a Textile Perspective | 17

Section II: Fibers

3 Textile Fibers and Their Properties | 33
4 Natural Cellulosic Fibers | 61
5 Natural Protein Fibers | 89
6 The Fiber-Manufacturing Process | 121
7 Manufactured Regenerated Fibers | 141
8 Synthetic Fibers | 161
9 Special-Use Fibers | 201

Section III: Yarns

10 Yarn Processing | 227
11 Yarn Classification | 249

Section IV: Fabrication

12 Weaving, Basic Weaves, and Fabrics | 269
13 Fancy Weaves and Fabrics | 309
14 Knitting and Knit Fabrics | 329
15 Other Fabrication Methods | 363

Section V: Finishing
16 Finishing: An Overview | 403
17 Aesthetic Finishes | 423
18 Special-Purpose Finishes | 445
19 Dyeing and Printing | 473

iii
 Section VI: Other Issues Related to Textiles
20 Care of Textile Products | 513
21 Legal and Sustainability Issues Related to Textiles | 543
22 Career Exploration | 573

Appendices
A Fiber Names in Other Languages | 590
B Fibers Not Produced in the United States | 591
C Selected Trade Names | 592
D A Map of the World | 597
E Standard Care Terminology | 598
F A Guide to Stain Removal | 600

Glossary | 603
Index | 619

iv brief contents
 contents

Section I: Introduction to Textiles  Aesthetic Properties  45 • Durability Properties  46 • Comfort and

Safety Properties  48 • Appearance-Retention Properties  50 •

1
Resistance to Chemicals  51 • Resistance to Light  52 •
Sustainability  52 • Care Properties  53 • Cost  54 • Fiber Property
Charts 54
Introduction | 5 Fiber Identification  54
Chapter Objectives  5 Visual Inspection  54 • Burn Test  55 • Microscopy  56 •
Solubility Tests  56
Professional Importance of Learning Textile Science  6
Textiles and Textile Products  7 key terms 57
Textiles and Quality of Life  8 review questions 58
The Global Textile Complex  10 Case Study: Reading Care Labels  59
key terms 13 suggested readings 59
review questions 13
Case Study: Wearable Technology  14
suggested Readings  14
4 Natural Cellulosic Fibers | 61

2 Product Development from
a Textile Perspective | 17
Chapter Objectives  61
Cellulosic Fibers  63
Characteristics Common to All Cellulosic Fibers  64
Chapter Objectives  17 Seed Fibers  64
The Role of Textiles in Product Development  18 Cotton  64 • Coir  74 • Kapok  75
Serviceability and the Consumer  21
Performance 23 Milkweed  75
Information Sources  26 Bast Fibers  75
key terms 26 Flax  76 • Ramie  78 • Hemp  80 • Jute  81 • Kenaf  82 •
review questions 26 Hibiscus  82 • Nettle  82 • Bamboo  82
section review questions 27 Leaf Fibers  83
Case Study: Product Development  27
Piña  83 • Abaca  83 • Sisal and Henequen  83
suggested readings 28
Other Cellulosic Materials  84
key terms 85
Section II: Fibers  review questions 86
Case Study: Cotton DNA  86

3
suggested readings 87

5
Textile Fibers and Their Properties | 33
Chapter Objectives  33
Fiber Terminology and Properties  36 Natural Protein Fibers | 89
Fiber Structure  37
Chapter Objectives  89
Physical Structure  37 • Chemical Composition and Molecular
Arrangement 40 Natural Protein Fibers  90
Characteristics Common to All Natural Protein Fibers  91
Serviceability 42

v
 Wool 92 key terms 158
Production of Wool  92 • Types and Kinds of Wool  93 • Physical review questions 158
Structure of Wool  94 • Chemical Composition and Molecular Case Study: Soy Fiber  159
Arrangement of Wool  96 • Properties of Wool  98 • Sustainability of suggested readings 159
Wool  101 • Uses of Wool  102
Specialty Wools  103
Mohair  104 • Qiviut  105 • Angora  105 • Camel Hair  106 •
Cashmere  106 • Llama and Alpaca  107 • Vicuña and Guanaco  107 •
Yak  108
8 Synthetic Fibers | 161
Other Animal Fibers  108
Silk  108 Chapter Objectives  161
Production of Silk  109 • Physical Structure of Silk  110 • Chemical Synthetic Fibers: An Overview  162
Composition and Molecular Structure of Silk  111 • Properties of Common Properties of Synthetic Fibers  163 • Common Manufacturing
Silk  111 • Sustainability of Silk  113 • Uses of Silk  114 Processes  164 • Common Fiber Modifications  166
Spider Silk  115 Identification of Synthetic Fibers  168
Identification of Natural Protein Fibers  115 Synthetic Fibers  168
key terms 117 Nylon  168 • Polyester  177 • Olefin  185 • Acrylic  191
review questions 117
key terms 197
Case Study: A Lao Silk Farm  118
review questions 197
suggested readings 118
Case Study: Green Chemistry  198
suggested readings 199

6 The Fiber-Manufacturing Process | 121

9
Chapter Objectives  121 Special-Use Fibers | 201
Manufacturing Fibers  122
Chapter Objectives  201
Fiber Spinning  124
Elastomeric Fibers  202
Spinning Methods  125
Rubber  202 • Spandex  203 • Elastoester  206 • Elasterell-p  206 •
Fiber Modifications  125 Lastol 206
Spinneret Modifications  126 • Molecular Structure and High-Performance Fibers  207
Crystallinity Modifications  128 • Additives to the Polymer or
Spinning Solution  129 • Modifications in Fiber Spinning  131 • Aramid  207 • Glass  208 • Metal and Metallic Fibers  210 • Modacrylic
Complex Modifications  132 Fibers  211 • Novoloid  213 • PBI  213 • Sulfar  213 • Saran  214 •
Vinyon  214 • Vinal  215 • Fluoropolymer  215 • Carbon  216 •
Sustainability of Manufactured Fibers  135 Melamine  217
Manufactured-Fiber Consumption  136
Other High-Performance Fibers  217
Manufactured Versus Natural Fibers  136
key terms 220
key terms 137
review questions 220
review questions 137
section review questions 221
Case Study: Apparel Imports  138
Case Study: Undergarments for Firefighters  222
suggested readings 139
suggested readings 222

7 Section III: Yarns 

Manufactured Regenerated Fibers | 141

Chapter Objectives  141
Manufactured Regenerated Fibers  142
10 Yarn Processing | 227
Cellulosic Regenerated Fibers  142
Chapter Objectives  227
Rayon 142 • Lyocell  148 • Acetate  151 Filament Yarns  228
Other Regenerated Fibers  156 Smooth-Filament Yarn  229 • Monofilament Yarns  230 • Tape and
Identification of Regenerated Fibers  157 Network Yarns  230 • Bulk Yarns  230

vi contents
 13
Spun Yarns  232
Processing Staple Fibers  234 • Inserting Yarn Twist  237 • Alternate
Spun-Yarn Processes  239 • Spinning Filament Tow into Spun
Yarns  240 • High-Bulk Yarns  241 Fancy Weaves and Fabrics | 309
Fiber Blends  242 Chapter Objectives  309
Blend Levels  243 • Blending Methods  244 • Blended-Filament Fancy Weaves: Types and Processes  311
Yarns 244 Dobby Weaves  312 • Extra-Yarn Weaves  312 • Piqué Weaves  313 •
Sustainability of Yarn Processing  244 Jacquard Weaves  315 • Momie Weaves  316 • Leno Weaves  317 •
key terms  246 Double Cloth  318 • Pile Weaves  320 • Slack-Tension Weaves  324 •
review questions  246 Tapestry Weave  325
Case Study: Yarn Energy Storage  247 Narrow Fabrics  325
suggested readings  247 key terms  326
review questions  326
Case Study: Passion for Jacquard Design and Weaving  327

11
suggested readings  327

14
Yarn Classification | 249
Chapter Objectives  249
Yarn Characteristics and Structure  250 Knitting and Knit Fabrics | 329
Fiber Length  250 • Yarn Twist  251 • Yarn Size  253 • Yarn
Regularity  255 Chapter Objectives  329
Knit Versus Woven Fabrics  330
Yarn Types  255
Types of Knitting  331
Simple Yarns  255 • Sewing and Embroidery Thread  257 • Novelty
Yarns  258 • Composite Yarns  260 Classifying Knits  333 • Sustainability of Knitting  336

Yarn Performance and Yarn Quality  262 Filling and Warp Knitting and Fabrics  337
key terms  263 Filling (or Weft) Knits  337 • Warp Knits  351
review questions  264 key terms  358
section review questions  264 review questions  359
Case Study: Antimicrobial Sewing Thread  265 Case Study: Made in the United States  360
suggested readings  265 suggested readings  361

15
Section IV: Fabrication 

12 Weaving, Basic Weaves, and Fabrics | 269

Other Fabrication Methods | 363
Chapter Objectives  363
Fabrics from Solutions  364
Chapter Objectives  269
Films  364 • Foams  365
Fabric Quality  270
Woven Fabrics  272 Fabrics from Fibers  367
The Loom  272 • Sustainability of Weaving  277 Nonwoven or Fiberweb Structures  367 • Felt  373 • Netlike
Structures  374
Characteristics of Woven Fabrics  278
Fabrics from Yarns  375
Warp and Filling  278 • Grain  278 • Fabric Count  279 • Balance  279 •
Selvages  280 • Fabric Width  280 • Fabric Weight  281 • Properties of Braids  375 • Lace  375 • Embroidery  378
Woven Fabrics  282 • Naming and Diagramming Woven Fabrics  282 Composite Fabrics  378
The Three Basic Weaves  285 Coated Fabrics  379 • Poromeric Fabrics  380 • Suedelike
Plain Weave  285 • Twill Weave  295 • Satin Weave  300 Fabrics  381 • Flocked Fabrics  382 • Tufted-Pile Fabrics  384 •
Laminates  385 • Stitch-Bonded Fabrics  387 • Supported-Scrim
key terms  304 Structures  390 • Fiber-Reinforced Materials  390
review questions  305
Case Study: Threats and Opportunities for the Woven Industry  306 Animal Products  392
suggested readings  306 Leather  392 • Suede  394 • Fur  394

vii
contents
 key terms 396 Shrinkage Control  447 • Durable Press Finishes  450
review questions 396 Appearance-Retention Finishes  453
section review questions 397
Soil- and Stain-Release Finishes  453 • Abrasion-Resistant
Case Study: Textile Protection from Dust Mites  398
Finishes  455 • Antislip Finishes  455 • Fume-Fading-Resistant
suggested readings 398 Finishes  455 • Surface or Back Coatings  455 • Light-Stabilizing
Finishes  456 • Pilling-Resistant Finishes  456 • Anti-Yellowing
Finishes 457
Section V: Finishing  Comfort-Related Finishes  457

16
Water-Repellent Finishes  457 • Moisture Management Finishes  459 •
Porosity-Control Finishes  460 • Water-Absorbent Finishes  460 •
Ultraviolet-Absorbent Finishes  460 • Antistatic Finishes  461 •
Finishing: An Overview | 403 Phase-Change and Temperature Regulation Finishes  461
Biological-Control Finishes  462
Chapter Objectives  403
Finishing Technology  406 Insect- and Moth-Control Finishes  462 • Mold- and Mildew-Control
Routine Steps in Producing a Fabric  408 Finishes  463 • Rot-Proof Finishes  464 • Antimicrobial Finishes  464 •
Microencapsulated Finishes  465
Fiber Processing  408 • Yarn Processing  409 • Yarn Preparation  409 •
Fabrication  410 • Fabric Preparation  410 • Whitening  413 • Alternate Safety-Related Finishes  466
Preparation Steps  414 • Coloration  415 • Finishing  415 • Flame-Retardant Finishes  466 • Liquid-Barrier Finishes  468 •
Drying  415 • Reworking  416 Light-Reflecting Finishes  468
Routine Finishing Steps for Wool Fabrics  417 key terms 469
Sustainability of Finishing  418 review questions 469
key terms 419 Case Study: Skin Cancer Prevention  470
review questions 419 suggested readings 471
Case Study: Eco-Denim  420
suggested readings 420

19
17 Aesthetic Finishes | 423
Dyeing and Printing | 473
Chapter Objectives  473
Theory and Practice in Dyeing and Printing  474
Chapter Objectives  423 Color Theory  476 • Colorants  479 • Sustainability of Dyeing and
Applied Design Versus Structural Design  424 Printing 482
Aesthetic Finishes  426
Stages of Dyeing and Printing  485
Luster  426 • Drape  429 • Texture and Hand  431
Fiber Stage  487 • Yarn Stage  488 • Piece or Fabric Stage  489 •
Performance of Aesthetic Finishes  441 Product Stage  490
key terms 442
Dyeing 491
review questions 442
Case Study: Softeners and Fabric Sewability  443 Batch Dyeing  491 • Package Dyeing  492 • Combination Dyeing  492 •
suggested readings 443 Resist Dyeing  494
Printing 495
Direct Printing  498 • Discharge Printing  500 • Screen Printing  501 •

18
Other Printing Methods  502
Color Problems  503
Special-Purpose Finishes | 445 key terms 506
review questions 507
Chapter Objectives  445 section review questions 508
Special-Purpose Finishes  446 Case Study: Indigo Farming  508
Stabilization Finishes  447 suggested readings 509

viii contents
Section VI: Other Issues Related Sustainability Issues  558
Laws and Regulations  559 • Product Demand and Corporate
to Textiles Responsibility  561 • Efforts Within the Global Textile Complex  564 •

20
Disposal and Recycling  567
key terms  568
review questions  569
Care of Textile Products | 513 Case Study: Sustainability  570
suggested readings  570
Chapter Objectives  513
Factors Related to Cleaning  515

22
Soil and Soil Removal  515 • Detergency  516 • Solvents  517 •
Synthetic Detergents and Soaps  518 • Other Cleaning Additives  521 •
Sustainability of Cleaning  523
Cleaning of Apparel and Interior Textiles  525 Career Exploration | 573
Laundering  525 • Sorting  525 • Washing Machines  525 • Dryers and Chapter Objectives  573
Drying  529 • Commercial Laundering  531 • Dry Cleaning  531 • Home
Critical Career Preparation  574
Solvent Cleaning  533 • Professional Wet Cleaning  534 • Cleaning of
Interior Textiles  534
Career Opportunities  575
Product Development  575 • Production  577 •
Storage and Conservation Practices  537
Design  578 • Sourcing  580 • Merchandising  581 •
Storage  537 • Textile Conservation  538 Marketing  583 • Entrepreneurs  584 • Government  585 •
key terms  539 Other Career Areas  585
review questions  539 Summary  586
Case Study: Sustainable Laundry Practices  540 key terms  587
suggested readings  540 review questions  587
section review questions  588
Case Study: The Resume  588
suggested readings  589

21

Legal and Sustainability Issues
Related to Textiles | 543
Appendices
A Fiber Names in Other Languages | 590
Chapter Objectives  543
Laws and Regulations  544 B Fibers Not Produced in the United States | 591
Silk Regulation, 1932  545 • Wool Products Labeling Act, 1939 C Selected Trade Names | 592
(Amended)  545 • Fur Products Labeling Act, 1952 (Amended)  546 • D A Map of the World | 597
Textile Fiber Products Identification Act, 1960 (Amended)  546 •
Permanent Care Labeling Regulation, 1972 (Amended)  548 • Mandatory E Standard Care Terminology | 598
and Voluntary Labeling Programs  551 • Flammable Fabrics Act, 1953, and F A Guide to Stain Removal | 600
Its Amendment  552 • Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
(FIFRA)  555 • Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act (CPSIA)  555
Professional and Consumer Rights and Responsibilities  556 Glossary | 603
Codes  556 • Tort  556 • Consumer Recourse  557 Index | 619

ix
contents
 preface
Philosophy of This Book
Textiles provides students with a basic knowledge of textiles so that they
­understand how textiles are produced and how appropriate performance char-
acteristics are incorporated into materials and products. With this knowledge,
they have the foundation needed to make informed decisions regarding textile
materials and products and to communicate effectively with team members in
the workplace as well as with suppliers, contractors, and buyers. A solid under-
standing of textile components (fibers, yarns, fabrics, and finishes), the interre-
lationships among these components, and their impact on product performance
enables them to fulfill day-to-day responsibilities in many careers in the textile,
apparel, and interior segments of the global textile complex.
Serviceability of textiles and textile products is the fundamental principle
emphasized throughout the book. Discussion focuses on the contributions of
each component as it is incorporated in or combined with other components in a
textile product. Interrelationships among the components is another critical com-
ponent. Basic information regarding how each component is processed or han-
dled helps in understanding product performance and cost. Production of textiles
is a complex process dealing with a wide variety of materials and techniques.
To understand textiles, students need a basic understanding of the choices and
technology involved.
This book will help students:
• use textile terminology correctly;
• know laws and labeling requirements regulating textile distribution;
• understand the impact of production processes and selection of compo-
nents on product performance, cost, and consumer satisfaction;
• describe major forces that drive product and process developments;
• identify fiber type, yarn type, and fabrication method;
• predict fabric or product performance based on a knowledge of fibers,
yarns, fabrication methods, and finishes in conjunction with informative
labeling;
• select textile components or products based on specified end uses and
target market expectations for performance and serviceability;
• select appropriate care for textile products;
• describe major issues related to the sustainability of textiles and their
production, use, care, and disposal; and
• develop an interest in and appreciation of textiles.
Understanding textiles cannot be achieved only by studying this book; it
also requires working with fabrics. Numerous learning activities included in the
x
chapters make use of fabric swatches. The numbers in the activities refer to the
swatches in the Basic Swatch Kit available with this book.
Organization of This Book
Each section of the book focuses on a basic component or aspect of fabrics and
textile products or on general issues important to the use of, production of, or
satisfaction with textile products. Sustainability issues are included in almost
every chapter. Each section is complete and can be used in any order desired.
The four main sections follow the normal sequence used in the production of
textiles: fiber, yarn, fabrication, and finishing.
The first section of the book introduces the study of textiles and the global
textile complex and approaches product development from a textile perspective.
Section II focuses on fibers and their production, serviceability, effect on product
performance, and use. Smart textiles and nanotechnology are included. Section
III focuses on yarn production, yarn types, the relationship of yarn type to prod-
uct performance and serviceability, sewing and embroidery threads, and rope.
Section IV examines fabrication methods. These chapters are organized by basic
fabrication method, standard or classic fabric names and types, and the relation-
ships between fabrication and product performance. Areas that were confusing
have been clarified. Section V deals with finishes, grouped by type or effect.
­Dyeing and printing are also included, as well as problems that consumers and
producers experience with dyed or printed fabrics. Section VI deals with other
issues related to textiles. One chapter focuses on care of textile products, clean-
ing compounds and processes, and associated sustainability concerns. Another
chapter investigates legal and sustainability concerns. The final chapter discusses
career opportunities requiring knowledge of textiles and has been extensively
revised to reflect the ever-changing career opportunities in the textile, apparel, and
interior design industries.
This book assumes that the student requires basic information regarding
textiles in order to perform professional responsibilities and communicate with
other professionals in an intelligent and informed manner. Hence, the book is
designed to be of use as a textbook and to become a valued component of a
professional's reference library. Key terms are defined in both the text and the
glossary. The glossary includes more than basic or classic fabric names as well
as a pronunciation guide. Fiber modifications, finishes, and terminology related
to performance have been incorporated. The extensive index will help individuals
locate information needed for class or on the job. Appendix A lists fiber names
in several languages that may be encountered in the global textile complex.
­Appendix B lists fibers that are not produced in the United States. Appendix C
lists selected trade names for fibers, yarns, fabrics, finishes, and cleaning pro-
cedures. Appendix D is a map of the world that students can use to understand
the global nature of the textile complex. Appendix E provides definitions from the
Federal Trade Commission for care label terms. A shorter list of such terms is in
Chapter 20. Appendix F provides stain removal guidelines.
Features of This Book
Instructors and students have always liked this book's summary and reference
tables and charts, the presentation of information in a clear and consistent fash-
ion, the emphasis on serviceability, and the numerous illustrations, graphics, and
photographs. These aspects are strengthened with this revision.
Although the basic content and flavor of Textiles remain intact, the changes help
students recognize and focus on the most important material. Objectives and key
terms for each chapter were updated so that students will be able to identify and un-
derstand the major concepts. After reading and studying each chapter, students should
be able to define each term in the key terms list and describe how terms relate to each
other and to the chapter content. Additional review questions provide students with an
opportunity to test their level of understanding, focus on key concepts or applications,
and integrate the information. Updating the list of readings helps those students who
like to investigate topics beyond the scope of the book. Many of these readings are
technical in nature. There are a few articles on textiles in the popular press, but these
often include little substantive information. Hence, the most valuable articles and books
tend to be those written from a technical perspective.
Major Changes and Additions
The emphasis in this revision has been on updating and adding material where
new processes or concerns have developed in the professional workplace, in the
global textile complex, or among consumers. In almost every chapter, a discussion
of the local fiber movement was added. Terminology incorporates an industry
perspective so that professionals can understand and communicate with other
professionals. The pronunciation guide included with some words in the glossary
will help professionals pronounce and use terms correctly. The expanded index
facilitates the book's use as a resource by professionals who need to locate infor-
mation quickly regarding a specific term, process, or product. Color photographs
and diagrams make the text more interesting and concepts easier to understand.
The book continues to focus on the three major end uses of textiles:
­apparel, interiors, and technical products. However, many changes have been
made in the text. Technological advances and new industry and societal con-
cerns that have arisen or have increased in importance since the last edition are
included. Several topics have been reorganized to more closely represent indus-
try practices or to enhance learning.
xi
preface
The chapter on finishing combines mechanical and chemical finishes—an
anathema to the textile purist, but an approach that works well with students.
Nanotechnology and changes in chemicals and processes reflect the ever-­
increasing interest in sustainability.
The chapter on career opportunities has been extensively revised to help
students understand careers and how they will apply their knowledge of textiles
and textile products in their professional work. It should help students gain a
better understanding of careers and how professionals interact with each other.
Although this chapter may not be assigned in a beginning textile course, stu-
dents might read the chapter on their own to explore career possibilities and use
the information when considering career options other than those that are most
obvious to the consumer.
Many more Learning Activities and a new case study are included with
every chapter. Many Learning Activities make use of the Basic Swatch Kit that
is available to purchase with this book. Other Learning Activities allow students
to discuss topics in small groups, explore current events or topics, or use the
textiles they are wearing or have around them as learning tools. Most of these
activities are independent of additional resources. Key concepts for each chapter
are emphasized. Review questions included at the end of each main section of
the book encourage students to connect textile components to product charac-
teristics and performance.
Supplements
Instructor Resources
• Instructor’s Manual that includes an updated outline of the material
for each chapter, a revised list of suggested activities, and bank of test
questions in a variety of formats.
• PowerPoint Presentation for use in lectures or as a supplement to
class activities.
• Online Instructor’s Resource Center to access supplementary
materials online. Instructors need to request an instructor access code.
Go to www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, where you can register for an
instructor access code. Within 48 hours after registering, you will receive
a confirming e-mail, including an instructor access code. Once you have
received your code, go to the site and log on for full instructions on
downloading the materials you wish to use.
Student Resources
• Swatch Kit that is packaged in a three-ring binder includes over
100 swatches, a master list of the fabric swatches (with fabric name,
description, and fiber content), heavyweight mounting sheets, linen tes-
ter/stitch counter, and a Textile Companion CD with more than
1,300 fabric images.
Acknowledgments
We used the comments and contributions of many students and colleagues
in preparing this revision. Students' comments help the most in evaluating
the approach, wording, and style of presentation, and therefore we appreciate
hearing from any student or faculty member about the book. Both positive and
negative comments are incredibly helpful and invaluable in revising the book. We
would especially like to thank Chunhui Xiang and Amanda Lensch of Iowa State
University for their helpful suggestions. Thanks to reviewers for their comments
and suggestions:. Nancy Asay (Missouri State University), Marie Botkin (California
State Long Beach), Debra Hillen (Johnson County Community College), Renee
Young (Fullerton College), and Sara Sunderlin (North Dakota State University).
Sara Kadolph would like to personally thank her sister Lora Camacho, who
helped keep her sane while working on this edition. And Clementine, Silkie, and
Franklin for the reminder that cats need to be fed and petted every day! Sara
Marcketti would like to thank her family for the time and space and Sara Kadolph
for the opportunity to work on this book.
Revising this book is always an exciting challenge, as it allows the opportu-
nity to explore the textiles literature in more depth than university responsibilities
usually allow. We hope that this book hooks you on textiles as the third edition of
this book did for Sara Kadolph and the ninth edition did for Sara Marcketti.
Sara J. Kadolph
Sara B. Marcketti
About the Author
Sara J. Kadolph is a retired professor emeritus of Apparel, Merchandising,
and Design at Iowa State University in Ames, Iowa, where she taught for 30
xii preface
years. She taught several courses related to textiles: chemistry, dyeing, quality
­assurance, and conservation. Dr. Kadolph is the recipient of numerous teaching,
advising, and professional awards including teaching excellence awards from the
International Textiles and Apparel Association, Iowa State University, and the Iowa
Association of Family and Consumer Sciences. She was the inaugural holder of
the Donna R. Danielson Professorship in Textiles and Clothing. She is a Fellow of
the International Textiles and Apparel Association and a Wakonse Fellow.
Dr. Kadolph has consulted with companies in the textile complex to solve
quality problems, educate product development/design teams, select materials,
assess textile performance, write specifications, and develop quality assurance
programs. Her teaching and research scholarship has been published in the
Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, the Journal of the Society of International
Natural Dyeing, the Journal of the Korean Society for Clothing Industry, The
­Journal of Consumer Education, the Journal of Family and Consumer S­ ciences,
the International Journal of Clothing and Science Technology, and others.
Her Textiles book with Pearson Education is used in colleges and universities
throughout the world.
Sara B. Marcketti is an associate professor in the Apparel, M
­ erchandising,
and Design Program and Associate Director of the Center for Excellence in
Learning and Teaching at Iowa State University. She teaches courses in textile
science, history of dress, and creative thinking and problem solving. Dr. M
­ arcketti
is the recipient of numerous teaching, research, and professional awards in-
cluding teaching excellence awards from the International Textiles and Apparel
Association, Iowa State University, and the Costume Society of America. She is a
Wakonse Fellow.
Dr. Marcketti's teaching and research scholarship has been published in
the Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Dress, Textile History, the Journal of
Family and Consumer Sciences, and others.
This page intentionally left blank
 Nh7/Fotolia Angela Ostafichuk/Fotolia

Nikolai Sorokin/Fotolia Monkey Business/Fotolia

Section I

Introduction
to textiles
1 Introduction

2 Product Development from a

Textile Perspective
 Shock/Fotolia

Jjava/Fotoliaß Tan4Ikk/Fotolia
Introduction

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To identify the value of developing a professional knowledge of textiles.
• To recognize the diversity in textiles and textile products.
• To determine how textile apparel, interior, and technical products enhance quality of
life for individuals, communities, and society.
• To describe the global nature of the textile complex.

1
 Fashion and textiles continue to be at the forefront of innovation. From evidence of weaving
and dyeing technologies of about 30,000 years ago to the latest developments in high-tech
health monitoring, textiles have always been at the frontier of invention and one of the world’s
major industries. Indeed, while the global apparel industry continues to change with new tech-
nologies such as 3D printing, increased automation through computerized manufacturing pro-
cesses and equipment, and the phenomenon of social media that is reshaping nearly every
industry, the need and desire for textiles remains constant. Whether it is consumers desiring
a new fashion, soldiers needing uniforms and equipment for ballistic protection and heat and
moisture management, or textiles that help protect the environment, knowledge and under-
standing of textiles is key! Throughout this book, you will learn about all of the amazing textiles
and their properties and innovative research in the industry, to help you as a student, con-
sumer, and future professional within the global textile complex.
This book is divided into six sections taking you through the entire life cycle of a tex-
tile from product development through materials, fabrication, finishing, and care and disposal
from a legal, sustainable, and environmental lens. The interdependent elements of fibers,
yarns, fabrics, finishes, and coloration, found in most textiles, contribute to everything about
the product: aesthetics, durability, how it is cared for, cost, appearance retention, safety,
function, and comfort of these products.
The first section is divided into two chapters. Chapter1 introduces the study of textiles by
defining terms, providing examples of textile products, surveying the diversity of textiles, and
describing the importance of the textile complex to the global economy. Chapter 2 describes
characteristics of textiles, the manner in which textiles and textile products are developed and
used, and how consumers assess their satisfaction with them.
Students may find much of the terminology used in this book new, with terms and facts
needing to be memorized. It takes time and effort to understand and recognize the differ-
ences among fibers, yarns, fabric structures, finishes, and coloration methods. You will need
to examine closely many fabrics in order to develop this ability.

Professional Importance of Learning

Textile Science
Evaluation and determination of the similarities and differences among fabrics is tantamount
to any career in the textiles global complex. Imagine, for example, designing children’s sleep-
wear out of woolen herringbone, producing silk swimwear, or merchandising a tent made
from mesh. Clearly not the proper choices for the end uses! Furthermore, the wide variety
of products produced and sold within the global textile complex has created challenges in
the selection of apparel and interior textiles. Many items look alike but their performance and
care differ significantly. Without specific knowledge of textiles, it is impossible to know what
factors are important for specific end uses. Knitted fabrics look like woven fabrics, vinyl and
polyurethane films look like leather, and acrylic and polyester fabrics look like wool. Traditional
cotton fabrics may be polyester or polyester/cotton blends. It is the responsibility of consum-
ers to ensure the products purchased are appropriate for the end use and for those in the
global textile complex to ensure consumer trust is not damaged by poorly performing textile
products.

6 chapter one
Textiles and Textile Products
(a) Woven fabric
The definition of several key terms is a logical starting place to understand what textiles are
Fiber
with respect to both personal and professional use. Finished fabric
Yarn
Polymer A very large molecule made by connecting many small molecules together.
Almost all fibers are polymers made of organic materials, but some polymers are formed
into thin films and used as textiles. For example, vinyl upholstery is a film, often applied to
a more traditional textile knit or woven material for added durability.
Fiber Any substance, natural or manufactured, with a high length-to-width ratio pos-
sessing suitable characteristics for being processed into fabric; the smallest component,
hairlike in nature that can be separated from a fabric. Fibers can be absorbent (like cotton

Fabric
and rayon), stretchy (like spandex), warm and bulky (like wool), or very strong and abra-
sion resistant (like nylon and polyester). (See Figure 1.1.)
Yarn An assemblage of fibers that is twisted or laid together so as to form a continuous
strand that can be made into a textile fabric. Yarns can be used to make a fabric that is
smooth and slick like satin or soft and fuzzy like brushed denim. (See Figure 1.1.)
Fabric A flexible planar substance constructed from solutions, fibers, yarns, or fabrics,
in any combination. (See Figure 1.1.) Fabrics range from lightweight and sheer chiffon
scarves to heavy and sturdy denim to rigid and firm carpeting to technical products such Unfinished fabric
as erosion control and medical tapes. (See Figures 1.2, 1.3, and 1.4.) Cloth and material (b) Knit fabric
are common synonyms for fabric.
Fiber
Textile A term originally applied only to woven fabrics, now generally applied to any flex-
ible material that is composed of thin films of polymers or of fibers, yarns, or fabrics or Finished fabric Yarn
products made of films, fibers, yarns, or fabrics.
Gray goods (grey or greige goods) Any fabric that has not been finished. Consumers
rarely see gray goods, except for home sewers and quilters who may work with
muslin.
Coloration Any dyeing or printing process used to add color with dyes or pigments
to a textile. Coloration adds interest and fashion appeal to apparel and interiors. (See
Figure 1.1.)

Fabric
Finish Any process that modifies appearance or enhances performance of gray goods
(unfinished fabric). Some finishes make the fabric more comfortable such as brushing vel-
veteen to produce the soft surface. With other finishes, the consumer cannot determine
the presence of a finish. For example, a pair of cotton slacks may have a stain-resistant
finish that makes stains easier to remove, but the consumer will not be able to see the
finish and will only know of its presence if such information is included on labels or tags.
(See Figure 1.1.)
Soft goods Products constructed of textiles and other flexible materials including
apparel, interior textiles, and technical textiles. Unfinished fabric
Apparel Clothing and accessories made from flexible materials. Figure The components of a fabric: fiber,
Interior textiles Also known as interior furnishings or home fashions; describe textiles 1.1 yarn, structure, and finish.
and textile products used in the home and other building interiors for functions such as
absorbency or to add comfort and visual interest.
End use The application or function for which a textile is designed or for which it is ulti-
Most textiles are made of fibers that are
mately used.
processed into yarns and woven or knit
Smart textiles or smart fabrics Sense and react to the environment or stimuli of an
electrical, chemical, thermal, mechanical, magnetic, or other nature. into fabrics. Coloration and finishing add
Technical or industrial textiles Include a broad range of materials that are widely used value, enhance appearance, or improve
in special applications of a technical nature and that are generally not considered apparel performance.
or furnishings.

7
introduction

Figure This technical textile reduces soil
1.2 erosion on a slope.
Figure Textiles used in the health care fields:
1.3 self-adhering flexible wrapping,
waterproof adhesive tape, elastic
wrist support, waterproof cushioning
tape, low trauma tape for pain-free
removal, and flexible fabric bandages
(clockwise from top left).
8 chapter one
1 Learning Activity
Select Fabric #1 from your swatch kit. Dismantle it so that you have a fiber and a yarn.
Describe the differences and similarities between these components. Compare what
you have written with the definitions for fiber, yarn, and fabric stated above. Is the fabric
finished in any way? State if you believe the fabric has been printed or dyed, and why?
Determine an appropriate end use for the fabric.
Textiles and Quality of Life
From cradle to grave, we are surrounded by textiles. We encounter some textiles every day,
such as apparel (clothing and accessories made from flexible materials), interior textiles
also known as interior furnishings or home fashions (upholstered furniture, carpets and
rugs, wall coverings, draperies and curtains, table linens, and towels and bed linens), and
technical and industrial textiles (toothbrushes, bandages, and seat belts in cars). Other textiles
are rarely viewed on a daily basis; however, they are omnipresent in our apparel (interlining
and interfacing), interiors (nonwoven support materials and fiberfills used to enhance the com-
fort and appearance of upholstered furniture), and in technical and industrial textiles (insulation
and moisture barriers).
No matter what element or walk of life, textiles are crucial for individual, community, and
societal health and well-being. They provide protection and enhancement for sports and
recreation; injuries are minimized with padded protective helmets, shoulder, and knee pads,
and gloves specific to the sport; athletic performance is enhanced with carbon reinforcement
fibers in golf clubs and tennis rackets. Textiles provide comfort and safety for animals and
humans: farmers and ranchers protect crops and livestock with textile barrier fabrics; outdoor
activities take place under tents and awnings to protect us from sun and rain. Life is prolonged
and preserved by mending organs and tissues with sutures and textile structures; ballistic,
fire, and slash-resistant vests protect police, firemen, and soldiers. Our homes and buildings
provide protection to us through fiberglass insulation and polyethylene film wind and moisture
barriers. Apparel ranges from soft and absorbent garments for newborn infants, to easy-care
and colorful clothes for toddlers, to comfortable and stylish outfits for office workers, to rug-
ged and durable gear for farmers and factory workers, to high fashion and elegant looks for
weddings and celebrations. Many of these astonishing textiles were not possible before the
development of manufactured fibers. It is challenging to envision what our lives would be like
without them. Table 1.1 lists examples of technical and industrial textiles grouped by end-use
category.
The newest innovations in smart and technical textiles have great potential for govern-
ment agencies, the military, and consumers. For example, smart textiles are able to deliver
medication in slow and controlled doses, monitor pulse and body temperature, promote
safety with sensors that identify seat occupancy in vehicles, and keep wearers comfortable by
promoting heat loss in warm weather and minimizing heat loss in cooler weather. In the future,
some smart textiles are likely to have the ability to sense, receive, compute, and transmit infor-
mation, such as weight, heartbeat, respiration, and even calories consumed. The possibilities
of smart and technical textiles are boundless.
The field of textiles is ever-changing. Textiles are modified in response to changes in
fashion, consumer demand, production costs and processes, government standards for
safety and environmental quality, research developments, innovations in the industry, and
Table 1.1 Examples of Technical and Industrial Textiles Grouped by End-Use Category
Personal Hygiene Transportation Environment Medical
Cotton balls Bicycle helmets Air and water filters Arteries
Dental floss Brake linings Drainage screens Bandages
Feminine hygiene Convertible tops Erosion barriers Casts
Incontinence pads Gaskets and seals Oil-spill-control barriers Dialysis filters
Loofahs Interiors for planes, buses, cars, Pond liners Examination gowns
Makeup brushes and trucks Sandbags Gloves
Medicated pads Road bed underlays Seed blankets Support wraps
Nail buffers Seat belts and air bags Shore protectors Surgical masks
Tooth and hairbrushes Tire cords Snow and silt fences Sutures
Wipes Weed-control fabrics Tissue engineering
Vascular implants

Food Animal Care Agriculture Protective Gear

Bags and sacks Blankets Anti-insect fabric Abrasion-resistant gloves

Bakery filters Leashes Bags and sacks Ballistic vests
Coffee filters Livestock ground fabric Bale coverings Chemical-resistant gloves
Fast-food wrappers Pet bed liners Flexible tanks for storing liquids Hazmat suits
Greenhouse light-reflective flooring Poultry curtains Hoses and belts Heat/fire-resistant suits
Packaging materials Restraints Plant covers and tree wraps Impact-resistant helmets
Tea bags Saddles Ropes
Stall liners Tractor interiors

Sports and Recreation Manufacturing Miscellaneous Products Building Materials

Artificial playing surfaces Belts Artificial flowers/plants Awnings

Backpacks Conveyor belts Banners and flags Carpet and backing
Balls Duct tape backing Book bindings Covers for wiring
Fishing line and nets Gaskets and seals Candle wicks Drop cloths
Helmet liners Hoses Casket linings Duct tape
Life jackets Loading dock covers Laptop bags and sleeves Insulation
Protective pads Mailing envelopes Communication lines Moisture barriers
Rafts and boat hulls Noise reduction Felt-tip pens Paint rollers
Sails Silk-screen mesh Lampshades Pool liners and covers
String for rackets Tarpaulins Mops and dusting cloths Roofing materials
Tents Scuba gear Venetian blinds
Uniforms and specialty footwear Wall coverings
Window screens

Learning Activity 2
Go through the list of technical and industrial textiles in Table 1.1. Make a check mark
by each of the textile products you used or likely encountered today. Compare your list
with those of others in your class. What are some of the common and not-so-common
items on the lists? Think about the last vacation that you took. Did you encounter any
textiles on your trip not included in Table 1.1? What were they? What smart or technical
textile do you have with you today? Imagine what the future will look like with smart and
technical textiles. What are you most looking forward to?

9
introduction

Figure Interior textiles include upholstered
1.4 furniture like this chair.
Textiles are soft goods and include apparel,
interior, and technical items. They add
variety and interest to our activities and
make our lives more comfortable and safer.
10 chapter one
international trade. These influential factors and historical developments related to the textile
industry are identified throughout this book. Some changes occur quickly (or seem to appear
quickly), but others might take several years of basic and applied research to engineer new
fibers, new end uses, or meet challenging criteria for unusual performance conditions or appli-
cations. As consumers and industry expectations become more sophisticated, demands for
textile product performance expand.
The Global Textile Complex
From ancient times, textiles were used to provide protection, decoration, modesty, and sta-
tus. Textiles have also helped fuel economies both locally and globally. Through guilds in the
medieval period, masters passed textile making knowledge to their apprentices. During the
Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries, new technologies including the spinning
jenny and water-powered spinning frame helped speed and mechanize the process of textile
making. Throughout the 20th through the 21st century, an emphasis on science, technology,
and engineering, while minimizing cost and increasing speed of production and consumption
have been the focus of producers and consumers of textiles. In the last century, innovations
in manufactured and synthetic fibers, new fabrication methods, and sophisticated textile pro-
duction and marketing systems were developed.
Sustainability concerns have resulted in a renewed interest in the impact of the pro-
duction, use, cleaning, and disposal of textiles. In 1900, the world’s population of 1.9 billion
people consumed about 5 pounds of fiber each. In 2012, the world’s population of 7 billion
consumed more than 20 pounds of fiber each. This tremendous growth in population and
technical accomplishments are dwindling the natural raw materials that we depend upon. As
such, researchers suggest not only buying less but also considering how unwanted materials
can be reused or recreated into something wanted. Consider nylon carpet and polyester bev-
erage bottles reused into textile products such as fleece jackets. Our increasing awareness
of the limits of world resources drive research efforts focused on renewable resources, lower
energy and water use in the production and finishing of textiles, modifying cleaning processes
for consumers and commercial establishments, and recycling. New chemicals and processes
are being investigated for finishing and cleaning textiles. General government policies, laws,
and trade practices are reevaluated to ensure more sustainable textile production processes.
The textile complex is the international mix of related industries that provide soft goods
for the world’s population. Figure 1.5 includes several dimensions of the complex that relate
most closely to textile materials: the natural and manufactured fiber producers; yarn process-
ing plants and mills in which spinners and throwsters create plied or textured yarns; textile
mills that weave, knit, and develop fabric; tufters who make some carpet and upholstery fab-
rics, fiberweb, or nonwoven fabric producers; finishers and dyers who add to the appearance
and determine the color of fabrics in the market; equipment producers; and many others.
While many dimensions of the textile complex are not evident to the average individual, huge
segments of the world population are involved in the development, engineering, design, pro-
duction, evaluation, marketing, and transportation of textiles and textile products.
Today, many portions of the world are involved with the export and import of textile
components, product components, or finished products. Globalization refers to companies
purchasing from and/or selling to multiple sites in the world and applies to many industries,
including the textile complex. Globalization requires use of advanced technologies to satisfy a
 Consumer
Consumers

Distribution
Wholesale and Retail
Operations, Military and
Institutional Purchasers

Manufacturing
Product Manufacturer:

Product
Label &
Private
Apparel, Interior, and
Technical Products

Finishing and Dyeing/Printing

Facilities/Mills

Textile Mills, Jobbers, Converters

Textile Mills—Fabricators:
Film & Membrane Nonwoven Fabric Woven, Knit, Lace, Braid,
Composite, and others

Yarn Processing/Yarn Mill

Synthetic Fibers
(Spun & Filament)

Manufactured Natural Cellulosic Natural Protein

Fibers Fibers Fibers

Synthetic Polymers Plants Animals/Insects

Fiber Industry
Raw Materials Sunlight, Water, Air,
(Chemicals) and Soil Nutrients

Figure The global textile complex. Imports and exports are not specifically identified since they can enter or exit the complex at
1.5 every stage.

wide variety of consumers and to coordinate the purchasing, manufacturing, and distribution
to multiple locations worldwide.
While the textile complex has had an international perspective for centuries including the
Silk Road in which materials and dyes were transported, globalization as it is now practiced is
a 20th-century development. Many of the textile products sold in the United States are pro-
duced in other countries in a process known as offshore production, just one of many aspects
of globalization. As such, maintaining records of the information required by law for product

11
introduction

The global textile complex is one of the
world’s largest industries and has a
significant impact on the world economy.
12 chapter one
labels can be a challenge. Consider a cotton t-shirt, which may include fiber grown in the
United States, converted into yarns and knit into fabric in China, cut and assembled into the
shirt in Indonesia, and dyed and embroidered in India.
The process of making a textile product is long and involved. While thousands of jobs
have moved offshore where production costs are lower, other jobs have been created to
ensure that products manufactured in other parts of the world meet customer expectations
for design, size, production, and quality standards; that the products are produced in safe
working conditions; that the products are appropriately labeled; and that they do not present
a health or safety hazard to the consumer.
With access to the global market, many more options are now available for every type
of textile product. To make textile selection easier for consumers, the textile industry has set
standards and established quality-control programs for many textile products. Laws and reg-
ulations inform consumers of fiber content and care requirements and protect them from
unsafe textiles, improperly labeled merchandise, and other unfair trade practices. Other laws
and regulations protect the environment and regulate trade. Energy and water use, energy
and water conservation, environmental quality, sustainability, noise abatement, health, and
safety issues are challenges that affect all industries. Understanding the components used in
textile products and their production will provide a better basis for textile selection, a better
understanding of product limitations, and a more satisfied consumer.
3 Learning Activity
Go to a local big-box retailer and examine the labels of several textile products, includ-
ing at least one example from interior furnishings, making a list of the countries identified
on the labels. Group them by type, country, and part of the world, such as shirt, Haiti,
Central America. Consult the world map in Appendix D to determine the location of
many of the countries. Compile your results with those of your classmates. Do you see
specific trends regarding product types, countries, or parts of the world? What factors
(environmental political, social, or legal) might impact these trends? Did you find any-
thing surprising about the places these goods were created?
4 Learning Activity
Examine the textile products that you have with you today. Identify the kinds of infor-
mation that are provided in the labels of these textile products. Compile the information
found by the class. Discuss how consumers might use that information.
5 Learning Activity
Think about and then discuss with a classmate the reasons why studying and learning
about textiles is important to you as a consumer and within your future-desired pro-
fession. What are the three concrete activities that you are going to do to master the
Textiles material?
terms
key terms
Apparel
Coloration
End use
Gray, grey, or greige goods
Home fashions
Industrial textiles
Soft goods
Technical textiles
Textile
Fabric Interior furnishings Textile complex
Fiber Interior textiles Yarn
Finish Polymer
Globalization Smart textiles

questions
review questions
1. Define the key terms, explain the differences among them,
and describe how these terms relate to textiles.


c. Stylist for a catalog company that sells smart textiles
d. Technical designer for a discount store’s decorative
pillows
2. How do textiles contribute to individual, community, and
societal way of life? e. Buyer for plus size apparel for a department store
f. Interior designer for an architectural firm that
3. Consult Figure 1.5 and explain the parts of the textile
specializes in office buildings and corporate
complex that would have been involved in producing and
headquarters
marketing a cotton/polyester blend dress shirt.
g. Fashion writer for a style section of tabloid magazine
4. Consider the working life of a fast-food worker, a h. Field analyst for a company specializing in camping
construction worker, and a physician. Identify textiles that i. Sourcing specialist for a department store’s private
these individuals might interact with in the course of their day. label
5. Identify your current career goal and describe where it j. Allocator for a specialty store chain for bed and bath
would fit within the global textile complex in Figure 1.5. linens
6. Locate three different textile products that utilize the k. Product analyst for a company that designs and
same fiber, such as nylon. Examine these products and produces automotive interiors
determine the similarities and differences in the way they l. Store manager for a luxury retail boutique of high-
look, feel, and are used. Using the definitions of textiles and fashion women’s apparel
textile products and Figure 1.5, explain why these products m. Museum curator focused on historic textiles and
are so different. clothing
n. Visual merchandiser for a specialty boutique
7. What impact have smart textiles made in your life? How do
o. Professional home stager for a real estate office
you envision interacting with smart textiles in the future?
9. List five aspects related to textiles that concern you in
8. Explain how each of the following would use knowledge of
terms of their sustainability or impact on the environment.
or information about textiles (it might be beneficial to scan
As you read this book, watch for information related to
the discussion of careers in Chapter 22):
sustainability and environmental impact of textiles and
a. Designer for an outerwear company
textile products.
b. Product development specialist for children’s casual or
play clothes

13
introduction
 Case Study
Wearable Technology*
In Fashionable Technology, writer Sabine
Seymour, discusses wearable technology
(referring specifically to the electrical
engineering, physical computing, and
wireless communication networks that
make wearable technology functional) on
a spectrum from expressive to functional.
Expressive wearable technology exists to
create interesting, beautiful designs with
function less important. Dutch designer Iris
Van Herpen’s amazing use of 3D printing in
which the printing machine is programmed
to make a particular design is one such
example of expressiveness. High function
garments, such as astronaut suits with their
many layers and elements each serving a
purpose, are an example of functionality
in which personal expression is limited by
precise predefined restrictions. In the middle
of this continuum are fashionable wearable
technologies with a defined function and a
need to be stylish. Sportswear and health-
monitoring devices, such as Tory Burch’s
collection for Fitbit, are one example of
combined purpose and aesthetics.
Discussion Questions
1. How do wearable technologies
demonstrate the level to which our bodies
are becoming extensions for technical
advances?
2. With advances in conductive fibers and
yarns, washable e-textiles are necessary.
How will these care requirements impact
the future design and consumption of
wearable technologies?
3. How does the production, design,
marketing, and consumption of wearable
technologies demonstrate the global
nature of the textile complex?
4. How will wearable technologies impact
you as a consumer and within your future
career?

*Seymour, S. (2008). Fashionable Technology: The Intersection of Design, Fashion, Science, and Technology. Austria: Springer-Verlag/Wien.

readings
suggested readings
Examine each of these trade publications to determine its focus
and type of information: AATC Review, Interior Design,
Technical Textiles International, Textile Progress, Textile
Research Journal, and Textile World.
Bide, M. (2013). Sustainability: A big picture. AATCC Review, 13(4),
36–40.
Burns, L. D., & Bryant, N. O. (2007). The Business of Fashion:
Designing, Manufacturing, and Marketing. New York: Fairchild
Publications.
Colchester, C. (2007). Textiles Today: A Global Survey of Trends
and Traditions. New York: Thames & Hudson.
Glock, R. E., & Kunz, G. I. (2005). Apparel Manufacturing: Sewn
Product Analysis, 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Education.
Kunz, G. I., & Garner, M. B. (2007). Going Global: The Textile and
Apparel Industry. New York: Fairchild Publications.
Mustane, G. B. (2014). Inside the crystal ball: A look at the textile
industry’s evolving future. AATCC Review, 14(1), 28–35.
Powell, N. B., & Cassill, N. L. (2006). New textile product
development: Processes, practices, and products. Journal of
the Textile Institute, 97(2), 155–166.
Reichard, R. S. (2008). Textiles 2008: Blueprint for survival. Textile
World, 158(1), 22–32.
Seymour, S. (2008). Fashionable Technology: The Intersection
of Design, Fashion, Science, and Technology. Austria:
Springer-Verlag/Wien.
Tao, X. (Ed.) (2001). Smart Fibres, Fabrics, and Clothing.
Cambridge, England: Woodhead.
Thiry, M. C. (2009). Smart enough. AATCC Review, 9(1), 28–32.
Thiry, M. C. (2012). The wireless age. AATCC Review, 12(2), 30–35.

14 chapter one
This page intentionally left blank
Mortazza/Fotolia Kruwt/Fotolia

Chiccododifc/Fotolia Asferico/Fotolia
Product
Development
from a Textile
Perspective
Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To describe the role of textiles in product development.
• To apply the serviceability components, including sustainability concepts, to textiles
and textile products.
• To assess product serviceability and textile performance with target market needs
and expectations.
• To identify information sources used in developing textile products.

2
 Have you ever wondered how new fibers or finishes are created? Or pondered what ­factors
determine the materials used in apparel, interior, or technical products? Or even thought about
who develops or modifies fashion trends? Product development refers to the design and
engineering of a product so that it has the desired serviceability characteristics, appeals to the
target market, can be made within an acceptable time frame for a reasonable cost, and can
be sold at a profit. Product development encompasses a range of activities and differs widely
by companies and segments of the global textile complex. The product development process
involves many areas of specialized knowledge. This includes knowing which product charac-
teristics appeal to specific target markets to comprehending how to produce the item so that
it meets consumers’ needs. Important factors for successful product development include

Product development encompasses a understanding processes, people, and things including product innovation and management,

range of activities and differs widely by consumers, and textile materials. The substantial role the textile complex plays within the

companies and segments of the global global economy and the shorter product life span of textiles compared with other consumer

textile complex. and technical products, necessitates the often expensive and time-consuming, yet essential
element of textile product development.

The Role of Textiles in Product Development

Product development allows textile complex firms to recognize and capitalize on opportunities
within their market. For example, basic research may lead to new fibers that improve physical
comfort or allow for greater human achievement. Applied research may focus on minimizing
environmentally harmful by-products leftover from the dyeing and finishing process. New
fabric designs and colorways may be created for fashion apparel and interior uses. Some
innovations such as microfibers (fibers with very small diameters, introduced in Chapter 6)
transformed some existing product types (blouses with softer drape and hand), created new
product lines that increased company markets (production of both regular and microfibers),
and broadened existing product lines (tights and hosiery combining regular and microfi-
bers). Other innovations such as soil-resistant finishes resulted in product improvements
that improved performance (resist soiling), solved problems (better cleaning of oily soils), or
added perceived value to some products (soil-resistant dress slacks would look new longer).
Innovations solve new problems or meet new market needs, such as smart garments with
physiological monitoring to assess athletes’ training programs. Understanding textile char-
acteristics and serviceability is essential for product development so that materials or fabrics
used in a product meet consumers’ expectations and needs.
To assess target market and consumer expectations, a firm needs to understand its
customers, their shopping preferences, lifestyles, values, and factors that influence their
purchasing decisions. Some firms have specialized market-research divisions that help iden-
tify consumer needs and desires. In other firms, product-development specialists, designers,
and merchandisers are responsible for identifying consumer expectations, designing the
product line, selecting materials, sourcing, and developing purchasing and production spec-
ifications. Many firms also work with forecasting companies to ensure success in product
development. Color and fashion trend forecasting may be done 18 to 24 months in advance.
Some sectors of the market, such as fast-fashion retailers that are able to react quickly to the
latest trends may utilize forecasting firms more frequently.
Forecasting companies and organizations research trends and sell their services
to designers, manufacturers, retailers, and are even available at selected colleges

18 chapter two
and universities. To forecast color, industry experts search various reference points, analyze
data from around the world, and pay close attention to street trends and consumer segmen-
tations to identify colors for each season and product type. Color cards are produced for
diverse end uses from residential and contract interiors; packaging; automotive applications;
women’s, men’s, and children’s wear; and other markets where color is an important factor
in selling the product. Fashion trend forecast information includes silhouette, fabric swatches
to demonstrate fabric type and texture, color cards, and periodic newsletters with current
fashion information tailored to specific product categories or markets. The Internet, mobile
media, globalization, and even the weather influence the way forecasters predict the trends
of the future, designers build their color stories and lines for the season, and how consumers
interact with the latest available goods.
Significant changes have occurred in product development within the global textile
complex. While Europe and the United States once dominated textile and textile product
production and design, China now dominates textile production. Advancements in design
from Japan, technology-rich smart fabrics from South Korea and Taiwan, and a developing
international fashion industry in India continue to shape product development. Developed
countries often will invest monetary resources toward new technologies whereas developing
nations offer the advantages of cheaper labor and natural resources for production.
To illustrate the variables that may be considered in selecting or developing a fabric,
denim was selected. Denim is a classic (or widely accepted and used over a long time) fabric
with a strong fashion component. Denim is used for such diverse apparel products as jeans,
skirts, shorts, jackets, hats, bags, as well as interior products such as upholstery, wall cover-
ings, and bed sheets. Denim can differ in fiber content from 100% cotton to blends of cotton,
polyester, and spandex to 100% wool. Denim can be made from new, unused cotton fiber,
or polyester fiber recycled from beverage bottles. The yarns in denim can be made in many
sizes by several processes. Denim can be made in many weights, from relatively light weight
as used in shirting to very heavy weight as used in construction work dungarees. It can be
finished to look crisp and new or faded and distressed. Denim can be lightened using harsh
chemicals, enzymes, or ozone bleaching. Denim can be dyed or printed in a variety of colors
or patterns, including the traditional indigo blue to any color under the sun including greens,
yellows, and reds. All these variations related to fabrics mean that many decisions are made
during the product development process to determine the look and performance of the
fabric and the end product. Consumers want their denim, and other apparel products, to be
comfortable, aesthetically pleasing, durable, and easy to maintain. Understanding the effects
of product development decisions related to fiber and yarn type, fabric type and weight, and
fabric finishes on product serviceability is vital to the product development team.
When designers, merchandisers, producers, or engineers select one fiber, yarn, or fabric
over another, they determine the product’s performance, appearance, appeal, and cost.
These decisions also influence the manufacturing facilities as certain companies may only

Learning Activity 1
Go into your own closet and that of someone of a different age or gender. Identify the
similarities and differences between the denim in your closet and the person that is dif-
ferent in some way from you. Compile the information gathered by the class and identify
some basic factors related to product segmentation for denim based on different target
markets.

product development from a textile perspective 19

 2 Learning Activity
Colleges and universities use color to brand their institutions. Oftentimes an institution
will develop a distinctive mark and colorway that extends across all of the athletic teams
and officially sanctioned apparel and interior merchandise. Think about a familiar to you
educational institution. What colors do they use to brand their identity? What do you
think these colors are meant to signify to supporters or rivals of the school? Do the col-
ors accurately brand the character of the school?

work with heavy weight fabrics, knits, or wovens because of the type of equipment used,
operators’ expertise, etc. Factors such as fabric weight, stiffness, hand, texture, yarn structure
and process, fiber content, fiber modifications, coloration method, and finishes are consid-
ered in the decision making. Laboratory analysis, wear tests in which consumers use the
product in real or realistic settings, test marketing, and focus group discussions with sample
products help determine a textiles’ performance features.
Sometimes, design firms negotiate with fabric producers so that some part of the fabric—
for example, the color—is exclusive or confined to that firm. Confinement means that only
one firm can use that color, pattern, or fabric. Some large retailers or manufacturers control
such a significant market share that fabric producers willingly modify their processes to meet
the buyer’s preferences. Some fabric firms in the interiors market produce custom-designed
fabrics or custom colors. However, many firms are small and must work with fabrics available
on the open market.
Fabrics and other textiles are presented in a variety of formats so that product developers
and designers can observe its appearance and drape, examine the texture and hand, and
consider how it would work with an assortment of related fabrics (Figure 2.1).
Assortment refers to a group of fabrics that share a commonality of design, structure, or
color. For example, an assortment could consist of fabrics of the same structure available in
a range of colors or one color available in several fabrications. Information about a fabric may
be limited to its style number as determined by the producer, width, fiber content, weight,
or additional information related to yarn size, yarn spinning method, weave structure, and
finishes. Adherence to fire safety codes also may be provided for some interior and apparel
fabrics. Fabric information helps product developers determine its appropriateness for the
product and target market and determine production requirements.

a b c

Figure Presentation samples: leather showing surface finish, weight, and colors (a); upholstery fabric samples showing weight, colors, and
2.1 patterns (b); and carpet showing colors (c).

20 chapter two
 Designers and product-development specialists examine many fabrics when developing
a product line. Designers may be attracted to a specific fabric because of its hand, color,
texture, drape, or other factor. But they also consider their target market and their company’s
product line and mission, as well as the cost of the fabric before selection. In order for their
company to make a profit and stay in business, the products must satisfy consumers’ expec-
tations for serviceability and performance.

Serviceability and the Consumer

Serviceability describes the measure of a textile product’s ability to meet consumers’ needs.
The emphasis of serviceability is on understanding the target market and relating target
market needs to product serviceability. The serviceability concepts that are used to organize
the information are aesthetics, durability, comfort, safety, appearance retention, care, environ-
Serviceability includes aesthetics, durability,
mental concerns, sustainability, and cost.
comfort, appearance retention, care,
Aesthetics addresses the appearance or attractiveness of a textile product. Does the
and cost. Environmental concerns and
item look pleasing and appropriate for its end use? Does it make the right statement for the
sustainability are additional factors of
target market? Aesthetics includes the specific textile components of texture, luster, pattern
importance in product development.
or motif, color, opacity, drape, stiffness, and surface characteristics.
Durability describes the manner in which the product withstands use, that is, the
length of time the product is considered suitable for the use for which it was purchased.
Will the consumer be satisfied with how well it wears, how strong it is, and how long it
remains attractive? Is the product strong, tear and abrasion resistant, snag-proof, and pill
resistant?
Comfort addresses the way textiles affect heat, air, and moisture transfer, and the way
the body interacts with a textile product. Safety considers a textile’s ability to protect the
body from harm. Is this item comfortable for its end use in terms of absorbency, temperature
regulation, and hand? Will its comfort change with use, care, or age? How does it feel? Is it
safe to use or wear?
Appearance retention considers how the product maintains its original appearance
during use and care. Will the item retain its new look with use and cleaning? Will it resist wrin-
kling, shrinkage, abrasion, soiling, stretching, pilling, sagging, or other changes with use? Will
it age quickly or slowly?
Care describes the treatment required to maintain a textile product’s original appearance
and cleanliness. What is the item’s recommended care procedure? Is the care procedure
appropriate to maintain the product’s look? Are these recommendations appropriate consid-
ering its end use, cost, and product type? Is the care reasonable for the product and target
market?
Environmental concerns focus on the impact that the production, use, care, or
disposal of a textile has on the environment. Sustainability describes practices and poli-
cies that reduce environmental pollution and do not exploit people or natural resources in
meeting the lifestyle needs of the present without compromising the future. Sustainability
deals with the life cycle impact of products. Life cycle impact examines the way the
production, use, care, and disposal of a product affects the environment and the people
involved with the product. How has the production of this item changed the environment
and the people involved in its production? How will its recommended care alter the envi-
ronment? Can this product, its components, or its packaging materials be recycled? Do the

product development from a textile perspective 21

 product or its packaging contain any recycled materials? Have the product or its compo-
nents been evaluated for environmental concerns and sustainability? Can the individuals or
company producing this product earn a living or make a profit? Are the fibers rapidly renew-
able without concentrating their impact within one segment of the agricultural or manufac-
turing segment?
In the 20th century, textile production had largely been linear: producing a textile
product and delivering it to the consumer as quickly and inexpensively as possible. In the
late 20th and 21st centuries, sustainability has added another dimension to this process.
Considerations about the short- and long-term effects of producing, using, caring for,
and disposing of textile products has become increasingly significant for producers and
consumers. While the importance of protecting and saving our environment and natural
resources is undeniable, decisions about the best or the least harmful processes and prod-
ucts are often complicated.
Cost is the amount paid to acquire, use, maintain, and dispose of a product. Additional
factors that should be considered include how much it will cost to care for this product during
its lifetime and the product’s inherent attributes. Cost is very important to many consumers,
but cost will not be discussed in much depth in this book because many outside factors, such
as how a product is promoted and sold, and consumer purchasing behavior greatly influence
the price. The costs of a finished product includes direct costs such as the raw materials of
the fiber, yarn, and fabric, the costs to dye and finish the fabric, and the production costs of
running the machinery to create and/or finish the garment. Indirect costs include overhead
and administrative costs of the business such as taxes and office space, as well as a certain
percentage for profit.
These serviceability concepts provide a framework for combining textile knowledge with
consumers’ expectations to develop an understanding of textiles. When consumers discuss
textile products, they often touch on these concepts, although their terms may not precisely
match some of the more technical terms used in this book. One consumer may describe the
needs for a particular product as inexpensive, easy care, nice looking, comfortable in hot
weather, and long-lasting. While this list may not address all eight aspects of serviceability, the
comments do address cost (inexpensive), care (easy care), aesthetics and appearance reten-
tion (nice looking), comfort (comfortable in hot weather), and durability (long lasting). Another
consumer might focus more on a product with lower environmental impact and express
concerns about the safety components of the product. Is the fiber recycled or can it be recy-
cled? Is there excessive packaging with the product that adds cost without adding value to
the product? Will it meet safety standards for children’s sleepwear? Consumers evaluate their
purchases and determine their satisfaction with products based on these concepts, which will
be used throughout the book to relate textile characteristics and performance to consumer
expectations.

3 Learning Activity
Select a textile product you are wearing. Describe your general expectations when you
purchased this item and group them by serviceability concepts. Prioritize the service-
ability concepts from most-to-least important. Describe your degree of satisfaction with
this product. In what serviceability areas has performance been satisfactory and in what
areas could it be improved?

22 chapter two
 Learning Activity 4
For the following products, identify and describe at least two serviceability components
important for the identified target market’s needs and desires for this product. Products
include: t-shirt for indoor rock climbing enthusiast, formal gown for a mother of the
bride, table cloths used in a busy and chic downtown restaurant, and window treat-
ments in a sun-filled floral shop.

Performance
Performance describes the manner in which a textile, textile component, or textile product
responds to use or how it responds when exposed to some mechanical or environmental
factor that might adversely affect it. Mechanical factors include abrasion, impact, or pulling
forces. Environmental factors include extremely warm or cold temperatures, intense light,
and frequent and prolonged wetting. Because performance measures are used in making
product-development decisions, methods have been developed to make such assess-
ments. These methods are referred to as standard test methods so that everyone assessing
performance will follow the same procedure and use identical equipment in the process.
For example, we can assess how much fading or loss of strength occurs when a textile is
exposed to a known amount of artificial light for a certain time. We can measure how much
force will cause a textile to tear. We can assess whether a fabric will bleed or lose color when
washed and how much a fabric will shrink when machine washed and machine dried using a
regular cycle with hot water.
Each material in a textile product influences the overall performance of the product. That
is, textile product performance cannot be determined solely on a single component such as
fiber content or fabric structure. Although these two product characteristics are important and
can have a significant impact, product performance can be enhanced or negated by other
factors such as yarn type and finish, and product fit, construction, or design.
Retail sleeping bags will be used as an example to illustrate differences in products,
target markets, and expectations (Figure 2.2). Sleeping bag (a) is sold at a specialty store that
carries products for outdoor aficionados. This bag is mummy shaped, with an outer cover of
water-repellent ripstop nylon taffeta, a filling of high-volume goose down, and an inner lining
of polyester modified to enhance warmth and comfort. Bag (a) is very lightweight and can be
(a) (b) (c)
compressed and packed in a relatively small space. It is expensive and requires special care
because of the down filling. This bag is designed to be used outdoors without the added
Figure Sleeping bags: (a) mummy-shaped,
2.2 (b) traditional-shaped (for child), and
protection of a tent or other structure. (c) traditional-shaped (for adult).
Sleeping bag (b) is a more traditional sleeping bag sold in a discount store. The outer
layer is a cotton/polyester blend print cloth with a printed pattern that would appeal to a
young child, the fiberfill is polyester, and the inner layer is cotton/polyester flannel. Bag (b) will
not be as warm or as expensive as bag (a). It is designed to be used indoors by a child. It is
easy to care for and can be machine washed and machine dried.
Sleeping bag (c) is sold through a mail-order catalog and also has a traditional rectan-
gular shape. It incorporates a specially modified polyester fiberfill for warmth without weight;
it has a solid dark-green polyester/cotton poplin outer cover and a plaid yarn-dyed cotton
flannel for the inner layer. Bag (c) is more expensive than bag (b) and is also easy to care for.
Bag (c) would appeal to an adult who is interested in a warm, comfortable sleeping bag to be
used in a tent or other structure and who does not have a lot of time to shop.

product development from a textile perspective 23

 The three sleeping bags differ in their materials, in their serviceability and performance,
and in the way they are marketed to their specific target market.
T-shirts provide another example of variations in products, target markets, and expec-
tations (Figure 2.3). A wide variety of T-shirts exists on the market to meet the needs and
expectations of consumers. T-shirt A is a basic, no-frills 50% cotton/50% polyester T-shirt
of a solid navy blue sold in a discount store. It is a simple tube-knit jersey fabric with no side
seams. It will be worn for physical labor such as construction work or yard and garden work,
so the target market expects the shirt will be labeled machine wash and machine dry. Other
expectations include a shirt that is durable and comfortable. T-shirt B, sold at specialty shops
for teenage consumers, is a more fashion forward 95% cotton/5% spandex blend T-shirt
with lace neckline trim, shorter sleeves, and more body-hugging fit for casual outings and
class. The fabric in this T-shirt is a patterned jersey-knit in a fashion-forward yellow-green
that is screen printed with a floral pattern. T-shirt C is made with specially engineered comfort
polyester. This T-shirt is designed for active wear such as running to wick moisture from the
body, dry quickly, and protect against ultraviolet exposure. Made of a mesh knit to enhance
comfort, this T-shirt would be sold by an athletic or outdoor activity specialty store. T-shirt D
is an all-silk baby pique knit with three-quarter-length sleeves and a split neckline appropriate
for most office work. The fabric design incorporates several shades of blue, making it easy
to match with slacks, skirts, and jackets. This T-shirt would be available from a mail-order
catalog or Web site. Each fiber or blend listed here contributes a unique set of performance
characteristics to the shirt. Additional aspects related to product performance that can be
tried out during product development include yarn type and structure, fabric knit structure,
type of support materials and decorative trims, and dyes and finishes.
Fabric performance may be assessed by the fabric producer, the firm buying the fabric,
or an outside firm that specializes in assessing fabric performance. Unfortunately, some firms
do not assess fabric performance, increasing the risk that products will not meet perfor-
mance expectations or will fail in consumers’ hands. For example, products that incorpo-
rate two or more fabrics of different colors may exhibit problems with color bleeding during
laundering if the designer is not aware of this performance problem. If one fabric bleeds
in laundering, then all products that combine both fabrics into a single product incorpo-
rate this inherent flaw. These products are likely to produce consumer dissatisfaction with

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure T-shirts: (a) work shirt, (b) V-neck shirt for teens, (c) active-wear shirt, (d) office-wear shirt.
2.3

24 chapter two
 Learning Activity 5
Use Fabrics #2, 8, and 25 from your swatch kit. Identify the similarities and differences
in their structure, weight, and appearance. Identify an apparel product that might be
made using each fabric. Describe an appropriate target market and its serviceability
expectations for each product. How might these fabrics be modified to make them
more appropriate for the end-use and target market? How would these modifications Textile performance is determined by all of
be a factor in product development? Which of these modifications would be considered
the components of the product, from fiber
innovative? What new products might make use of this innovation?
content to fabric finishing.

the product, complaints, and returns. This potentially could negatively impact the consumer
return shopping to wherever this product was purchased. By failing to assess how the two
fabrics interact, the designer has created an unsatisfactory product and an expensive failure
for the company.
In some product and performance categories, such as the flammability of interior textiles
in public-use areas and the flammability of children’s sleepwear, performance testing is
required by law. Products that do not meet minimum safety standards are banned from the
market.
Fabric performance often is assessed following standard industry procedures so that
performance values for fabrics can be compared. In these procedures, one or more small
pieces of fabric are tested for performance on a specific criterion, such as snagging or fading
(Figure 2.4). Assessing fabric performance helps in selecting fabrics appropriate for the
target market and the firm. Some firms have developed specifications or written descriptions
describing minimum performance measures for fabrics used in their products. Their perfor-
mance specifications are based on understanding their target market’s expectations. These
specifications help the firm ensure that the fabrics they buy and the products they turn out
meet their target market’s expectations for performance. Although performance testing elim-
inates many material-selection problems, it is not an absolute guarantee that all products
will be perfect, since some problems may be related to accidents or spills that involve a tiny
portion of a fabric.
Product quality has become an important dimension in the competitive global market-
place. But the term is difficult to define because it means different things to consumers
and producers. Quality generally refers to the sum total of product characteristics such as
appearance, end use, performance, material interactions within the product, consistency
among identical products, and freedom from defects in construction or materials. Throughout Figure Samples from performance testing:
2.4 snagging (a) and resistance to sunlight
this book, measures and dimensions of fabric quality will be addressed. Keep in mind that
(b) with faded portion on left side.
fabric quality is only one component of product quality. Fabric quality addresses the fabric
used to produce the product. Other factors beyond the scope of this book, such as design
and construction, also influence product quality. Product quality generally refers to the
It must be stressed that neither this book nor any course or combination of courses in sum total of product characteristics such
textiles will provide the best single answer for any specific end use. This book will not answer as appearance, end use, performance,
the question, “What is the best combination of fiber and yarn type, fabrication method, and material interactions within the product,
finish for (fill in the name of a product)?” The answer to the question is based on under- consistency among identical products, and
standing a specific target market and end use, current fashion, lifestyle, budget, access to the freedom from defects in construction or
market, and more. However, this book will provide a wealth of information for developing and materials.
selecting products to meet a wide variety of target market needs.

product development from a textile perspective 25

Understanding textiles and their properties
will contribute to developing serviceable
products that perform suitably for
consumers.
Information Sources
Information related to textiles and the selection of textile and other materials to be used in
textile products can be found in textbooks, technical journals, industry or trade publications,
and on the World Wide Web. Technical publications include such journals as America’s
Textiles International, AATCC Review, and Textile Research Journal. Trade publications such
as Women’s Wear Daily and Home Furnishings News are available online. The Internet includes
many sites that provide technical information and fabric assortments. Many producers and
retailers provide information about their products on their Web sites. Of course, it remains the
responsibility of the reader to determine the validity and accuracy of the information and to
apply it in a professional and appropriate manner.

6 Learning Activity
Examine five online retailers for textile products within the same category (sweaters
for men, residential window treatments, children’s play clothes, etc.). For each retailer
determine: who is the target market? How much and what textile product information
is provided by the retailer? What other textile-related information would the consumer
want or need before making an informed purchasing decision? Who determines the
information provided on a Web site or product label? Who determines the accuracy of
that information?

terms
key terms
Aesthetics
Appearance retention
Care
Durability
Environmental concerns
Life cycle impact
Product quality
Quality
Safety
Comfort Performance Serviceability
Cost Product development Sustainability

questions
review questions
1. Define product development and describe how it
determines the products available in the marketplace.
2. Identify consumer expectations for each serviceability
concept for the following products and target markets:
a. Carpet for a high-traffic area such as the entry way in a
pediatric dentist office
b. Shirt/blouse for an internship interview
c. Housecoat/robe for a resident in a physical
rehabilitation center
d. Upholstery for chairs in a department of motor vehicle
waiting room
e. Adhesive bandage for a child’s heel blister
3. Explain the relationships among serviceability, product
performance, and product development.
4. Compare the type of textile information available in a technical
journal such as AATCC, in a trade publication such as WWD,
and on the Internet for a company such as the Gap.
5. Using the serviceability concepts, debate the advantages
and disadvantages from a consumer’s perspective of an
organic cotton T-shirt versus a polyester T-shirt made from
recycled beverage bottles.
6. List six questions that would help you determine the life
cycle impact of a pair of cotton slacks.

26 chapter two
 7. Identify five questions related to serviceability components
a friend or relative might ask before purchasing the
following items:
a. an apparel item, such as yoga pants for exercise
b. an interior textile item, such as a placemat for a dinner
party
8. Compare the two lists in Question 7 and describe how and
why they are different. Now, consider how the questions
might differ if the consumer represented a different target
market or socioeconomic group. What are the factors that
might explain these differences?
9. Identify three sources of information about textiles and
textile products other than the Internet. For each source,
explain why you selected it, the kinds of information it
includes, the bias of the information, and how consumers
and professionals might access these sources.
10. Identify five characteristics that you use in determining the
quality of a textile product. As you learn more about textiles,
add characteristics or details to your list.
11. Go to your closet and find a garment that you no longer
wear. Using the list of serviceability concepts, determine
why you no longer utilize this product.

questions
section review questions

1. Identify which of these items would be considered a textile.
Explain your classification.
a. Grocery store reusable bag
2. Describe the serviceability factors important for each of the
textiles identified in Question 1.
3. Explain how product development might be used to
b. Dog leash improve the performance or cost for each of the items in
c. Vinyl umbrella Question 1.
d. Polo shirt
4. Explain how product development and the global textile
e. Store awning
complex work together.
f. Tennis ball
g. Biking shorts 5. Explain why sustainability and environmental impact
h. Soaker hose for watering plants are important in decision making regarding product
i. Wreath made from ribbons development.

Case Study
Product Development*
Socks are often the innovation laboratory
for new fibers, finishes, and construction.
Hosiery is a natural place to test technology
and performance because it is less costly
to produce a pair of socks than an entire
garment, socks are quicker and easier
to manufacture, and it is often easy to
demonstrate performance features such
as aesthetics, comfort, and safety to the
consumer. Some recent innovations include
evolution of compression socks to meet the
needs of athletes for performance legwear
and socks that utilize engineered fiber cross
sections such that excess heat is mitigated,
lowering perspiration and increasing comfort.
Oftentimes the innovations introduced in
hosiery move into other sorts of apparel. For
example, antimicrobials were first introduced
in socks and now are commonplace in
athletic apparel wear to control odor and
maintain freshness.
Discussion Questions
1. What elements of product
development are incorporated into this
case study?
2. How would the changes in the materials
used in the hosiery line alter product
serviceability and consumer satisfaction?
3. Within the article that published this case
study, the author wrote: “Socks are a tough
challenge but an easy gamble.” Explain
what this means for hosiery product
developers.
4. Consider the different types of socks and
hosiery that you wear in different roles and
activities in your life. Determine if and why
these products are meeting your needs
of them.

*Thiry, M. C. (2010). Best food forward: Socks, hosiery, and leading innovation. AATCC Review, 10(4), 32–38.

product development from a textile perspective 27

 readings
suggested readings
Anon. (2007, February 26). Avoiding global collapse. Chemical and
Engineering News, 85(9), 51.
Borland, V. S. (2004). Color works. Textile World, 154(1), 48–50.
Kim, McDonough, W., & Braungart, M. (2002). Cradle to Cradle.
New York: North Point Press.
Mustane, G. (2013). Coloring outside the lines. AATCC Review,
Chapman, K. (2003). Where design begins. AATCC Textile Review, 13(1), 28–33.
3(4), 40–42. Powell, N. B., & Cassill, N. L. (2006). New textile product
Colchester, C. (2007). Textiles Today: A Global Survey of Trends development: Processes, practices, and products. Journal of
and Traditions. New York: Thames & Hudson. the Textile Institute, 97(2), 155–166.

Fletcher, K. (2008). Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design (2012). Special bra for highly sensitive skin. The Textile Journal,
Journeys. London: Earthscan. 129(3), 12.

Glock, R. E., & Kunz, G. I. (2005). Apparel Manufacturing: Strickland, M. (2008). A detailed manufacturer’s guide to successful
Sewn Product Analysis, 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: retail product development and on-time deliveries—From a
Prentice-Hall. retailer’s perspective. AATCC Review, 8(1), 30–33.

Kadolph, S. J. (2007). Quality Assurance for Textiles and Apparel, Thiry, M. C. (2010). Best food forward: Socks, hosiery, and leading
2nd ed. New York: Fairchild Publications. innovation. AATCC Review, 10(4), 32–38.

Kim, E., Fiore, A. M., & Kim, H. (2011). Fashion Trends and Thiry, M. C. (2010). Divine denim. AATCC Review, 10(6), 38–45.
Forecasting. New York: Fairchild Publications. Yaeger, J. I., & Teter-Justice, L. K. (2000). Textiles for Residential
and Commercial Interiors, 2nd ed. New York: Fairchild
Publications.

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 Goir/Fotolia Mee Ting/Fotolia

Photoncatcher36/Fotolia Billionphotos.Com/Fotolia

Tyler Olson/Fotolia
Section II

Fibers
3 Textile Fibers and Their
Properties 7 Manufactured Regenerated
Fibers

4 Natural Cellulosic Fibers

8 Synthetic Fibers

5 Natural Protein Fibers

9 Special-Use Fibers

6 The Fiber-Manufacturing
Process
Determined/Fotolia Artisan263/Fotolia

M_A/Fotolia Hunta/Fotolia
Textile Fibers
and Their
Properties

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To recognize and be able to appropriately use terms describing textile fibers and their
properties.
• To describe the relationships between fiber structure and fiber properties.
• To discuss fiber performance and serviceability to end-use requirements and
­expectations.
• To identify commonly used fibers through simple identification procedures.

3

Natural fibers are in fiber form as they
grow or develop and come from animal,
plant, or mineral sources. Manufactured (or
man-made) fibers are made into fiber form
from chemical compounds produced in
manufacturing facilities.
34 chapter three
Fibers are the basic unit of most fabrics. Knowing the different fibers and the performance
of these fibers is essential to anyone interested in a career involving textiles. Fibers influence
product aesthetics, durability, comfort, appearance retention, care, environmental impact,
sustainability, and cost. Successful textile fibers must have sufficient strength, pliability, length,
and cohesiveness to be processed into yarns, fabrics, and products that satisfy consumer
needs. Further, whether deriving from nature or manufactured, fibers must be readily and con-
tinuously available and cost effective for both producers and the end user.
Textile fibers have been used to make fabric for thousands of years. Until the late 19th
century, in 1885, when the first manufactured fiber was produced commercially, fibers were
produced by plants and animals. The fibers most commonly used were wool, flax, cotton,
and silk. These four natural fibers continue to be used and valued today, although their
economic importance relative to all fibers has decreased. Natural fibers are those that are
in fiber form as they grow or develop and come from animal, plant, or mineral sources.
Manufactured (or man-made) fibers are made into fiber form from chemical compounds
produced in manufacturing facilities. Manufactured fibers may be made from cellulosic, pro-
tein, or mineral sources or produced from synthetic polymers. Early efforts in manufacturing
fibers focused on duplicating the properties of natural fibers. For example, rayon, once called
artificial silk, was created with high luster and a smooth hand, but at a less expensive price
than silk. Mimicry of natural fiber properties has continued; however, more recent develop-
ments have focused on expanding human potential. Consider, for example, the bullet- and
knife-resistance of aramids, which are also used in protective apparel for firefighters and
race car drivers’ suits.
See Table 3.1 for a list of natural and manufactured fibers. Several more recently devel-
oped fibers derive from plant materials, but they are not considered natural fibers because
the starting material does not resemble a fiber. One of the azlon fibers, Soysilk, is made
from by-products of tofu production, while Polylactide Fiber or PLA, a fiber made from plant
sugars, is made from fermented corn starch. Fibers made from bamboo fall within both the
natural and the manufactured categories. Because rayon is manufactured from cellulose
found in plants and trees, including bamboo, some manufacturers and retailers in the late
20th century touted their goods as bamboo because of the perceived environmental friend-
liness of this natural plant. The Federal Trade Commission decided that these companies
violated the Textile Products Identification Act and the FTC’s Textile Rules by falsely labeling
1 Learning Activity
Look at the labels in your clothes and other textile products you have with you today.
Locate where the fibers listed on the labels fit in Table 3.1. Discuss fiber categories rep-
resented by product categories such as casual tops, dressy tops, lingerie and under-
wear, active or athletic wear, casual bottoms, dressy bottoms, outerwear, accessories,
book bags/backpacks and purses, and other items. Which categories of fibers are
most represented? Which categories are least represented? Based on the fiber prop-
erties that you are already aware of, why do you think certain categories or fibers are
more represented than others? Consider how care requirements and cost of the fiber
contribute to their use. Do you think the distribution of fiber categories you found is
typical for your age group and occupation? How might it differ for other age groups and
occupations?
Table 3.1  Fiber Classification Chart*
NATURAL FIBERS MANUFACTURED FIBERS

Cellulosic Protein Mineral Cellulosic Protein Synthetic Fibers Mineral

Seed: Cotton Wool Asbestos Acetate Azlon Acrylic Glass
Coir Silk Lyocell Aramid Metal/Metallic
Kapok Cashmere/Pashmina Rayon** Elastoester Carbon
Milkweed Llama Seaweed Elasterell-p Ceramic
Alpaca Fluoropolymer Stainless steel
Bast: Bamboo Vicuña Lastol
Flax Guanaco Modacrylic
Hemp Angora Nylon
Ramie Camel Olefin
Jute Mohair PBI
Kenaf Yak PEN
Hibiscus Fur PBO
Qiviut PLA
Leaf: Abaca Spider silk Polyester
Piña Polyimide
Sisal Rubber
Henequen Spandex
Other: Rush Sulfar
Sea grass Vinal
Maize/corn husks Vinyon
Palm fiber
Wicker

*See individual fiber chapters for more complete lists. Only select fibers are included here.
**Includes rayon made from bamboo.

and advertising their products as made of bamboo, while they were actually rayon derived
from bamboo.
Many textile processes—spinning, weaving, knitting, dyeing, and finishing of fabrics—
were developed for the natural fibers. Weaving and knitting for making fabrics, spinning for
producing yarns, and dyeing and finishing to make fabrics more attractive with better con-
sumer performance have been modified for use with manufactured fibers. New processes
have been developed specifically for manufactured fibers and sometimes modified for use
with natural fibers. For example, spinning is also the term used to describe extruding manu-
factured fibers. Most of the techniques for producing nonwovens were developed for use with
manufactured fibers.
Many manufactured fibers were developed in the 20th century. Advances have been
made in the manufactured-fiber industry, such as modifications of the original or parent fibers,
to provide fibers with better properties for specific end uses. The manufactured fibers most
commonly used in contemporary apparel and fabrics for interiors include polyester, nylon,
olefin, acrylic, rayon, lyocell, and acetate. Fibers for special and technical applications include
spandex, aramid, polybenzimidazole (PBI), and sulfar. From time to time, new modifications or
new fibers are introduced.

textile fibers and their properties 35

 Fiber Terminology and Properties
Fibers contribute significantly to fabric performance. For example, strong fibers contribute
to the durability of fabrics such as those used in tents and ropes, absorbent fibers are
used for products that come into contact with the skin such as towels and diapers, and
fire-resistant fibers are used for children’s sleepwear and firefighters’ gear. While consum-
ers may describe textiles and their properties as durable, easy care, comfortable, and
strong, a professional in the field needs to have a more exacting vocabulary. This section
will introduce many new terms and provide more precise definitions of terms consumers
often use.
Predicting and understanding fabric performance begins with the fiber. Knowledge of
fiber properties will help determine a fiber’s contribution to fabric and product performance.
Fiber properties are determined by their physical structure, chemical composition, and molec-
ular arrangement. Fiber properties are determined using specialized equipment and following
specified procedures called standard test methods. Assessment of specific fiber properties is
important in selecting an appropriate fiber for the end use. Although this chapter focuses on
fiber properties, several fabric properties will be included because they need to be understood
early in the study of textiles.
Some attributes of fibers are desirable and some are not, often depending on the end
use and product. The following list of characteristics of a low-absorbency fiber includes con-
sumer advantages and disadvantages:

• Static cling can occur.

Fibers differ in their physical structure,
chemical composition, and molecular
arrangement. These differences are used
to distinguish among fibers by generic
names. These differences influence the
serviceability of that product.
• Dries rapidly.
• Has a cool and slick hand.
• Feels clammy next to the skin.
• Waterborne soils do not stain.
• Liquids wick along the fiber’s surface, but absorbency is low.
• Does not shrink when machine-washed and machine-dried.
• Does not require ironing after washing.
• Difficult to dye, but dyes are colorfast to washing.

While fiber plays a major role in the characteristics of a product, other components also
greatly contribute to performance. Fibers are the building blocks used to create yarns and
fabrics. These yarns and fabrics are often finished using dyes or pigments, as well as finishes
that add aesthetically or functionally to the product performance. Each step in the process,
from fiber to yarn to fabric to finish, influences the product’s appearance and texture, perfor-
mance during use, care, and cost. The four components (yarn, fabric structure, coloration,
and finish) will be discussed in detail in the chapters in Sections 3, 4, and 5.

2 Learning Activity
Based on the consumer advantages and disadvantages mentioned in the text for a
low-absorbency fiber, and your own experiences as a consumer, consider several prod-
ucts that you would desire with these characteristics. State the products and why these
characteristics would be most useful for that particular end use.

36 chapter three
Fiber Structure
Fiber structure includes the physical aspects of fibers like length, diameter, shape, contour,
crimp, and components and the chemistry of the fiber including chemical composition and
arrangement of the molecules.

Physical Structure
The physical structure, or morphology, can be identified by observing the fiber using a micro- The physical structure of a fiber, or
scope. In this book, photomicrographs, in which fibers are magnified 250 to 1,000 times, morphology, can be identified by observing
show details of a fiber’s physical structure. In addition, fiber measurements influence fabric the fiber using a microscope.
characteristics and performance and the process that will be used in producing a finished
fabric.

Length  Fibers are sold by the fiber producer as staple, filament, or filament tow. Staple
fibers are short fibers measured in inches or centimeters (Figure 3.1). They range in length
from less than 2 to 46 cm (0.5 to 18 inches). Except for silk, all of the natural fibers are avail-
able only in staple form. Staple fibers are used to produce spun yarn fabrics. Cotton woven
into sateen as used in sheets, shirts, and blouses is an example of a spun yarn fabric.
Filaments are long, continuous fiber strands of indefinite length, measured in miles or
kilometers. They may be monofilament (one filament) or multifilament (a number of filaments).
Filaments may be smooth or bulked (crimped in some way), as shown in Figure 3.2. Smooth
filaments are used to produce silklike fabrics; bulked filaments are used in more cottonlike
or woollike spun yarn fabrics. Silk fiber woven into crepe de chine, acetate fiber woven into
taffeta fabric, and polyester fiber woven into gabardine fabric are examples of filament yarn
Figure Staple fibers: manufactured (left) and
fabrics. Filament tow, produced as a loose rope of several thousand fibers, is crimped or 3.1 natural (right).
textured, and cut to staple length.
When examining a fabric with staple fibers, the fabric will have a soft or matte luster and
feel fuzzy, and fiber ends protrude above the surface when the fabric is viewed closely. If the
fabric is folded and the folded area is viewed over a contrasting surface, the fiber ends can
be seen, making the edge of the fabric look slightly fuzzy or hazy. When a yarn is unraveled
from these fabrics, short fiber ends can be seen protruding from the yarn. When the yarn is
untwisted, short fibers can be pulled from the yarn and the fibers may vary slightly in their
length. No fiber is as long as the yarn or the piece of fabric from which the yarn was raveled.
Smooth filament yarns will produce a fabric that is shiny, lustrous, smooth, slick, and
feels smooth and cool to the touch. No fiber ends can be seen on the surface. When a yarn
is removed, it usually takes fewer turns to unravel it than spun yarns. The only fiber ends that
exist are where the fabric has been cut and the fibers are as long as that piece of fabric. If the Figure Manufactured filaments: textured bulk
fabric is folded and viewed over a contrasting surface, the edge of the fabric will look sharper 3.2 yarn (left) and smooth filament yarn
or crisper than that of a spun yarn fabric. If the filament yarn has been textured or bulked, it (right).
will resemble spun yarns in some aspects and filament yarns in other aspects. The fiber ends
only occur where the fabric is cut and the yarns are as long as that piece of fabric. But the
hand is not as smooth and slick and the surface will not look as flat and even as a smooth fil-
ament yarn fabric. Consumers will not see filament tow. Filament tow is used to produce spun
yarns—either of a single fiber type or blends such as cotton and polyester chambray for shirts
or wool and acrylic herringbone for skirts and trousers.

textile fibers and their properties 37

 3 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #3, 5, and 6 from your swatch kit. Identify the fiber lengths in each fabric
as filament or staple. Suggest one or two textile products that might be made using
each fabric. Describe the serviceability for each product that would be related to fiber
length. Explain your reasoning. From the clothes you are wearing and the other textile
products you have with you today, identify the items that are made from staple fibers
and those made from filament fibers. How does the serviceability of those items relate
to fiber length?

Diameter  Fiber diameter greatly influences a fabric’s performance and hand or how it feels.
Large fibers are crisp, rough, and stiff. Large fibers also resist crushing—a property that is
important in products such as carpets. Fine fibers are soft and pliable. Fabrics made with fine
fibers drape more easily and are more comfortable next to the skin. Large fibers are used to
produce durable products such as book bags and luggage. Fine fibers are used to produce
softer and more comfortable products such as apparel and bed linens.
Natural fibers like cotton, ramie, wool, and silk are subject to growth irregularities and
are not uniform. In natural fibers, fineness is one factor in determining quality—fine fibers are
of better quality. Fineness is measured in micrometers (a micrometer is 1/1,000 millimeter or
1/25,400 inch). The diameter range for some natural fibers are 16 to 20 micrometers for cot-
ton, 12 to 16 micrometers for flax, 10 to 50 micrometers for wool, and 11 to 12 micrometers
for silk.
For manufactured fibers like rayon, nylon, and polyester, diameter is controlled at sev-
eral points during production. Manufactured fibers can be made uniform in diameter or can
be thick and thin at regular intervals throughout their length. The fineness of manufactured
fibers is described as denier or tex. Denier is the weight in grams of 9,000 meters of fiber or
yarn. When used to describe a fiber, denier refers to the fineness or coarseness of the fiber—
small numbers describe fine fibers; large numbers describe coarse fibers. Tex is the weight in
grams of 1,000 meters of fiber or yarn. Staple fiber is sold by denier and fiber length; filament
fiber is sold by the denier of the yarn or tow.
Both systems are weight per length systems. However, specific gravity has an effect on
fiber size. Fibers that are dense, like rayon with a specific gravity of 1.48, will generally have a
larger tex or denier number than lighter weight, less dense fibers such as olefin with a specific
gravity of 0.90 or nylon with a specific gravity of 1.14. If samples of all three fibers had the
same diameter measurement and all were 9,000 meters long, the denier would be largest
for rayon and smallest for olefin because of the differences in specific gravity of these three
examples.
Denier per filament (dpf) is a way of identifying fiber size; it is often used when describ-
ing or specifying yarns. Dpf is calculated by dividing the yarn size by the number of filaments:
40 denier yarn/20 filaments = 2 denier per filament. Fine cotton, cashmere, or wool is 1 to 3
denier; average cotton, wool, or alpaca is 5 to 8 denier; and carpet wool is 15 denier. Most
apparel fibers range from 1 to 7 denier, although much smaller fibers are also available. Carpet
fibers may range from 15 to 24 denier. Technical fibers exhibit the broadest range, from less
than 1.0 to several thousand, depending on the end use. For example, fibers used for weed
trimmers and towropes are much larger than those used for absorbent layers in diapers or for
fabrics to polish lens for glasses and microscopes.

38 chapter three
 Drawing

Description Circular, uniform in Polygonal, lumen Oval to round, Flat, oval lumen, Circular, serrated,
diameter overlapping convolutions lengthwise striations
scales
Fiber Nylon, polyester, Flax Wool Cotton Rayon
lyocell

Drawing

Description Dog-bone Square with voids Triangular, Trilobal Lobular, lengthwise

rounded edges striations

Fiber Acrylic, spandex Modified nylon or Silk Modified nylon or Acetate

polyester polyester

Figure Cross-sectional shapes and fiber contours.

3.3

Denier is related to end use. Apparel fibers do not make serviceable carpets, and carpet
fibers do not make serviceable garments. Soft and pliable apparel fibers would make a carpet
with poor crush resistance. Technical fibers are produced in various deniers, depending on
the end use. Selecting the appropriate size fiber for the end use is important. Fibers that are
too large for apparel are stiff and uncomfortable, while fibers that are too small for interior and
technical products will wear out too quickly and may not provide sufficient strength and dura-
bility for the end use.

Cross-Sectional Shape  The cross-sectional shape of a fiber impacts luster, bulk, body,
texture, and hand. Figure 3.3 shows common cross-sectional shapes. These shapes include
round, dog-bone, triangular, lobal, multisided, or hollow. Round fibers are common in natural
fibers and easy to produce for manufactured fibers. Round fibers have a small surface area
and may magnify soil. Triangular or trilobal fibers are better at hiding soil. As such, almost all
carpet fiber is trilobal or some other shape modification so that soil is not as readily seen.
Round carpet fibers, except for natural fibers like wool, are not used because they make the
carpet appear dirtier than trilobal fibers.
The natural fibers derive their shape from (1) the way the cellulose is built during plant
growth (cotton), (2) the shape of the hair follicle and the formation of protein substances

Learning Activity 4
Use Fabrics #7, 8, 11, 20, 119, and 120 from your swatch kit. First separate the yarns
from the fabric. Are these yarns filament or spun? Now separate the fibers from the
yarns and organize the fibers from smallest diameter to largest diameter. (A magnifying
glass, pick glass, or microscope might help with this assessment.) Suggest textile prod-
ucts that might be made using each fabric. Describe the serviceability for each product
that would be related to fiber size. Explain your reasoning. Count the number of filament
fibers in a yarn of one of the filament yarn fabrics used in this activity. How would the
serviceability change if fewer and larger fibers were used? Or if more and smaller fibers
were used? Consider the textile products you have with you today. Make a list of those
items starting with those with the smallest diameter to those with the largest diameter.
How does the serviceability of those items relate to fiber diameter?

textile fibers and their properties 39

 in animals (wool), or (3) the shape of the orifice through which the insect extrudes the
fiber (silk).
The shape of manufactured fibers is controlled by the shape of the spinneret opening
and the spinning method. The size, shape, luster, length, and other properties of manufac-
tured fibers can be modified by changes in the production process. More details about these
modifications will be discussed in chapters focusing on manufacturing fibers.

Surface Contour  Surface contour describes the outer surface of the fiber along its length.
Surface contour may be smooth, serrated, striated, or rough, and it affects luster, hand, tex-
ture, and apparent soiling of the fabric. Figure 3.3 also shows surface contours of selected
fibers. Surface contour can make fabrics seemingly more or less comfortable and easier
or more difficult to clean. Many people prefer to wear cotton next to the skin because its
slightly irregular contour is more pleasing. Coarser wool fibers can feel prickly next to the skin
because of their size and small scales along the outer edge of the fiber.

Crimp  Crimp may be found in textile materials as fiber crimp or fabric crimp. Fiber crimp
refers to the waves, bends, twists, coils, or curls along the length of the fiber. Fiber crimp
increases cohesiveness, resiliency, resistance to abrasion, stretch, bulk, and warmth.
Crimp increases absorbency and skin-contact comfort but reduces luster. Fibers with lots of
crimp like wool are warmer than fibers with little crimp like cotton. Crimp helps trap air within
the fabric and next to the skin, making the fabric warmer. Inherent crimp occurs in wool.
Inherent crimp also exists in an undeveloped state in bicomponent manufactured fibers in
which it is developed in the fabric or the garment (such as a sweater) with heat or moisture
during finishing. The size and frequency of wool’s crimp is dependent upon where the fiber
grows on the animal, environmental factors, the breed of sheep, and even the animal’s age.
Do not confuse fiber crimp with fabric crimp (the bends caused by distortion of yarns
due to weaving and knitting a fabric). When a yarn is unraveled from a fabric, fabric crimp can
easily be seen in the yarn and in fibers removed from the yarn resembling the structure of
the fabric.

Fiber Parts  Except for silk, the natural fibers have three distinct parts: an outer covering
called a cuticle or skin; an inner area; and a central core that may be hollow. The manufac-
tured fibers are less complex in structure. They usually consist of a skin and a core.

Chemical Composition and Molecular Arrangement

All matter is made of chemicals. Chemicals make up the air we breathe, the compounds we
use to wash our dishes, the books we read, tires we ride on, and the textiles we wear and

5 Learning Activity
Use Fabric #11 from your swatch kit. Unravel two yarns from the fabric. Place one yarn
aside. Untwist the other yarn and examine the fibers for fiber crimp. (A magnifying glass,
pick glass, or microscope might help with this examination.) Compare the fiber crimp
of the fibers from the untwisted yarn with the fabric crimp of the yarn that you had set
aside earlier. Describe the frequency and depth of both types of crimp.

40 chapter three
use. The nature of the chemical and its structure determines its physical properties. This is
true for all substances, including fibers. Because of the number of fibers in the market, a
classification system has been developed. As you can see by Table 3.1, fibers are classified
into groups by two criteria: the source (natural or manufactured) and chemical composition:
cellulosic, protein, mineral, or synthetic. Fibers in a generic group have similar chemical
compositions that differ from those in another group. The chemical composition determines
fiber properties, and thus end use. For example, fibers based on plants or cellulosic fibers,
tend to be absorbent, heavy, heat resistant, prone to wrinkling, damaged by acids and mil-
dew, and highly flammable. Fibers based on synthetic organic compounds called esters or
synthetic polyester fibers tend be nonabsorbent, lightweight, resistant to wrinkling, resistant Fibers in a generic group have similar
to most chemicals, and melt when exposed to flames or high heat. Apparel and interiors chemical compositions that differ from
can be made from either cellulosic or synthetic fibers. However, cotton, a cellulosic fiber, those in another group. The chemical
would be an excellent choice for a kitchen towel due to its absorbency. Polyester, a syn- composition determines fiber properties,
thetic, manufactured fiber, would be an excellent choice for an awning because of its non- and thus, appropriate end uses.
absorbent and lightweight nature.
Fibers are composed of billions of atoms bonded together in millions of long molecu-
lar chains. The molecular chains are created by polymerization, when small molecules—­
monomers—are joined together to form a long chain, or polymer. The length of the polymer
varies just as the length of fibers varies. The number of molecules connected in a chain is
defined as the degree of polymerization. Long chains indicate a high degree of
(a) (b)
polymerization and a high degree of fiber strength. This knowledge was used to
develop some of the very strong fibers on the market like the modified olefin fibers.
Short molecular chains produce fibers with lower strength, such as rayon. Molecular
chains are too small to be seen, even with the assistance of an optical microscope.
(c)
Molecular chain length also may be described by molecular weight, a factor
in properties such as fiber strength and extensibility. Fibers with longer chains or
higher molecular weights are stronger and more difficult to pull apart than fibers
with shorter chains or lower molecular weights.
Molecular chains have different configurations within fibers. When the chains
are arranged in a random or disorganized way within the fiber, they are amor-
phous. When the molecular chains are organized parallel to each other, they are
crystalline. Molecular chains that are parallel to each other and to the fiber’s
Figure Polymers: (a) amorphous area;
lengthwise axis are oriented. Most molecular chains that are oriented have a high
3.4 (b) crystalline, but not oriented, area;
degree of orientation. Fibers that are highly oriented are also highly crystalline. (c) oriented and crystalline area.
However, highly crystalline fibers are not necessarily highly oriented (Figure 3.4).
Fibers vary in their proportion of oriented, crystalline, and amorphous regions.
The polymers in manufactured fibers are in a random, unoriented state immediately after
production. Stretching, or drawing, causes the chains to slide and become more paral-
lel to each other and to the longitudinal axis of the fiber. It also reduces fiber diameter and
compacts the molecules (Figure 3.5). Fiber properties affected by crystallinity and orientation
include strength, elongation, moisture absorption, abrasion resistance, and dyeability.
Amorphous fibers such as wool, cotton, and rayon are relatively weak and easily elon-
gated. These fibers also have poor elasticity and good moisture absorbency, dyeability, and
flexibility.
Highly oriented and crystalline fibers are strong and stiff. They do not stretch much or
easily, but they recover from stretch quickly. They tend to be nonabsorbent and difficult to
dye. Highly oriented and crystalline fibers include polyester, nylon, and aramid.

textile fibers and their properties 41

Figure (a) Stretching or drawing a fiber
3.5 affects its molecular arrangement
and diameter; (b) nylon fiber, before
drawing (left of the pin), after drawing
(right of the pin). Unstretched or undrawn Stretched or drawn
(a)

(b)

Molecular chains are held close to one another by intermolecular forces called hydrogen
bonds and van der Waals forces. The closer the chains are to each other, the stronger
the bonds. Hydrogen bonding is the attraction of positive hydrogen atoms of one chain to
the negative oxygen or nitrogen atoms of an adjacent chain. The van der Waals forces are
weak bonds between atoms that are physically close together. Hydrogen bonding and van
der Waals forces occur in the crystalline areas and help make crystalline polymers stronger
than amorphous polymers.

Serviceability
Textile serviceability includes the concepts of aesthetics, durability, comfort, safety, appear-
ance retention, care, environmental concerns, sustainability, and cost that were introduced in
Chapter 2. Properties that relate to each concept are presented in Table 3.2.
Learning the definitions of the properties will contribute to a more in-depth understanding
of textile fiber performance. The tables in this chapter compare various performance aspects
among fibers. Relating past experience with fabrics made of a specific fiber will contribute to a
better understanding of fiber performance and serviceability.

6 Learning Activity
Ask a friend or family member about a textile product he or she is wearing. Write down
the comments that address the product’s serviceability. Based on these comments,
find the technical terms in Table 3.2 that deal with the comments. Explain how the
terms relate to the comments.

42 chapter three
Table 3.2  Fiber Properties
Fiber Property Is due to Contributes to Fabric Property

Abrasion resistance is the ability of a fiber to resist damage Tough outer layer, scales, or skin Durability
from rubbing or surface contact.
Fiber toughness Abrasion resistance

Flexible molecular chains Resistance to splitting or pilling

Absorbency or moisture regain is the percentage of moisture Chemical composition Comfort, warmth, water repellency,
a bone-dry fiber will absorb from the air when at standard absorbency, static buildup
Amorphous areas
temperature and relative humidity.
Dyeability, soiling

Shrinkage

Wrinkle resistance
Aging resistance is resistance to deleterious changes over time. Chemical structure Fabric and product storage
Allergenic potential is the ability to cause physical reactions Chemical composition, additives Comfort
such as skin redness.
Chemical reactivity describes the affect of acids, alkalis, Polar groups of molecules Cleaning requirements
oxidizing agents, solvents, or other chemicals.
Chemical composition Ability to take certain finishes
Cohesiveness is the ability of fibers to cling together during Crimp or twist, surface contour Resistance to raveling
spinning.
Resistance to yarn slippage
Compressibility is resistance to crushing. Molecular structure, fiber diameter, and Crush and wrinkle resistance
stiffness
Cover is the ability to conceal or protect. Crimp, curl, or twist Fabric opacity

Cross-sectional shape Cost—less fiber needed

Creep is delayed or gradual recovery from elongation or strain. Lack of side chains, cross links, strong Streak dyeing and shiners in fabric
bonds; poor orientation
Density and specific gravity are measures of the weight of a Molecular weight and structure Warmth without weight
fiber. Density is the weight in grams per cubic centimeter.
Loftiness
Specific gravity is the ratio of fiber mass to an equal volume
of water at 4º C. Fabric buoyancy
Dimensional stability is the ability to retain a given size and Physical and chemical structure, Shrinkage, growth, care, appearance
shape through use and care. Includes shrinkage resistance, coatings
which is the ability of a fabric to retain its original dimensions
during cleaning.
Drape is the manner in which a fabric falls or hangs over a 3D Fiber size and stiffness Appearance
form.
Comfort
Dyeability is the fiber’s receptivity to coloration by dyes; dye Amorphous areas and dye sites, Aesthetics and colorfastness
affinity. chemical structure
Elasticity is the ability of a strained material to recover its Chemical and molecular structure: side Fit and appearance; resiliency
original dimensions immediately after removal of stress. chains, cross links, strong bonds
Elastic recovery is the degree to which fibers will recover from Chemical and molecular structure: side Processability of fabrics
strain. chains, cross links, strong bonds
Resiliency and creep
Electrical conductivity is the ability to transfer electrical Chemical structure: polar groups Poor conductivity, static, fabric cling
charges.
Elongation is the ability to be stretched, extended, or Fiber crimp Increased tear strength
lengthened. Varies with conditions (wet/dry) and
Molecular structure: molecular crimp Reduced brittleness
temperatures.
and orientation
Provides give
Flammability describes how a fabric reacts to ignition sources. Chemical composition Fabric’s ability to ignite and burn

(continued)

textile fibers and their properties 43

Table 3.2  Fiber Properties (continued)
Fiber Property Is due to Contributes to Fabric Property

Flexibility is the ability to bend repeatedly without breaking. Flexible molecular chain Stiffness, drape, comfort
Hand is the way a fiber feels, a tactile sensation: silky, harsh, Cross-sectional shape, surface Fabric hand
soft, crisp, dry. properties, crimp, diameter, length
Heat conductivity is the ability to transfer heat through a fabric. Crimp, chemical composition Comfort: cooling effect

Cross-sectional shape
Heat retention is the ability to retain heat or insulate. Crimp, chemical composition Comfort: warming or insulating effect

Cross-sectional shape
Heat sensitivity is the ability to shrink, soften, or melt when Chemical and molecular structure Determines safe cleaning and pressing
exposed to heat. temperatures
Fewer intermolecular forces and cross
links
Hydrophobic describes fibers with low affinity or attraction for Chemical composition Soiling, comfort, care
water.
Static buildup
Hydrophilic or hygroscopic describes fibers with a strong Chemical composition Soiling, comfort, care
affinity or attraction for water.
Amorphous areas
Light resistance is the ability to withstand degradation from Chemical composition Fabric durability
sunlight.
Additives
Loft, or compression resiliency, is the ability to spring back to Fiber crimp Springiness, good cover
original thickness after being compressed.
Stiffness Resistance to flattening
Luster is the light reflected from a surface. More subdued than Smoothness of fiber, yarn, and/or fabric Luster
shine; light rays are broken up.
Fiber length, shape, or additive
Mildew resistance is resistance to the growth of mold, mildew, Low moisture absorption and chemical Storage
or fungus. composition
Moth resistance is resistance to insect damage. Chemical composition Storage
Oleophilic describes fibers with a strong affinity or attraction for oil. Chemical composition Soiling; care; appearance
Pilling is the formation of balls of fiber on the fabric surface. Fiber strength Pilling

High molecular weight Unsightly appearance

Resiliency is the ability to return to original shape after bending, Molecular structure: side chains, cross Wrinkle recovery, crease retention,
twisting, compressing, or a combination of deformations. links, strong bonds appearance, care
Specific gravity—see density
Stiffness, or rigidity, is resistance to bending or creasing. Chemical and molecular structure Fabric body, low drape characteristics

Difficult to make spun yarns

Strength is the ability to resist stress and is expressed as tensile Molecular structure: orientation, Durability, tear strength, sagging, pilling
strength (pounds per square inch) or as tenacity (grams per crystallinity, degree of polymerization
Sheerest fabrics possible with strong,
denier). Breaking tenacity is the number of grams of force to
fine fibers
break a fiber.
Sunlight resistance is the ability to withstand degradation from Chemical composition Fabric durability
sunlight.
Additives
Texture is the nature of the fiber or fabric surface. Physical structure Luster, appearance, comfort
Translucence is the ability of a fiber, yarn, or fabric to allow Physical and chemical structure Appearance, cover
light to pass through the structure.
Wicking is the ability of a fiber to transfer moisture along its Chemical and physical composition of Makes fabrics comfortable
surface. outer surface
Moisture transport

44 chapter three
 Learning Activity 7
Consider the following products: shower curtain, weed-barrier fabric used in a garden,
and drapes for a residence. Which of the terms in Table 3.2 would be most applicable
for consumers using these products?

Aesthetic Properties
A textile product should be appropriate in appearance for its end use. Aesthetic properties
relate to the way senses such as touch and sight contribute to the perception of the textile.
In evaluating the aesthetics of a textile product, the consumer usually determines whether the
appearance is appropriate for the end use.
Cover is the ability of a fiber to conceal or protect. Fibers that are opaque, like cotton,
can be used to produce relatively lightweight fabrics like batiste such that they provide
cover, yet are not too heavy in weight. Translucence is the ability of a textile to allow light
to pass through it. Fibers that are transparent or translucent like nylon or polyester must
be altered during production with additives or by changing their cross section to provide
cover.
Luster results from the way light is reflected by a surface (Figure 3.6). Shiny or bright Incident light Incident light
fabrics reflect a great amount of light and are used in selected fashion instances or for safety Reflected light
Reflected light
reasons. Lustrous fabrics reflect a fair amount of light and are used in formal apparel and inte-
riors. Matte, or dull fabrics reflect little light and are used most frequently for less formal looks Matte Shiny
in apparel and interiors. Silk fabrics are usually lustrous. Cotton and wool fabrics are usually Figure Smooth surfaces reflect light in a
matte. The luster of manufactured fibers can be varied during manufacturing. Fibers with high 3.6 straight line and are lustrous; rough
luster are referred to as bright fibers. (Bright is used here to describe luster, not color inten- surfaces reflect light at various angles
and are dull.
sity.) Low-luster fibers are dull fibers. Medium-luster fibers are semibright or semidull. Yarn
and fabric structure, and finish may change fabric luster.
Drape, a fabric characteristic, is the way a fabric falls over a 3D form like a body or
table. Fine fibers produce a softer drape than coarse fibers. Fibers influence fabric drape to
a degree, but yarns and fabric structure are usually more important in determining drape.
Chiffon is soft and free flowing, chintz falls in graceful folds, and gabardine is stiff and heavy.
As such, chiffon is often used in formal dresses, chintz in decorative furnishings, and gabar-
dine in women and men’s suits and overcoats.
Texture describes the nature of the textile’s surface. It is identified by both visual and
tactile senses. Textiles may have a smooth or rough texture. Natural fibers tend to give a fab-
ric more texture than manufactured fibers because of the variations inherent in the structure
of natural fibers. Yarns, finishes, and fabric structure also greatly impact texture. Consider
the differences in texture among products made out of cotton but woven into flannel sheets,
denim jeans, or a terry cloth hand towel.
Hand is the way a textile feels to the skin. Hand is often described using adjectives
such as warm or cool, bulky or thin, and slick or soft. Hand may be evaluated by feeling
a fabric between the fingers and thumb. Both human assessment and instrument mea-
sures are used to determine suitability for an end use. Hand is important for designers
and consumers. Imagine walking into an area with bolts of fabric on counters, garments
on racks, or examining swatch books of drapery and upholstery fabrics and not touching
anything!

textile fibers and their properties 45

 Durability Properties
A durable textile product should last a period of time adequate for its end use. Durability prop-
erties can be tested in the laboratory, but laboratory results do not always accurately predict
performance when used by consumers.
Abrasion resistance is the ability of a textile to withstand the rubbing it gets during use
(Table 3.3). Abrasion is measured by rubbing a textile against a surface and measuring the
change in strength or appearance. Abrasion can occur when the textile is fairly flat, such as
repeated walking on a rug creating visible wear and tear. Edge abrasion can occur when the
textile is folded, as when a pant hem rubs on a sidewalk and the fabric is abraded. Flex abra-
sion can occur when the textile is moving and bending, as in shoelaces that wear out where
they are laced through the shoe. Flexibility, the ability to bend repeatedly without breaking, is
an important property related to abrasion resistance. Some fibers like silk and wool have supe-
rior flexibility, while others like glass break very quickly after very few bends and are not used for
apparel or other consumer products because the broken bits of fiber are irritating to the skin.
Pilling is the formation of balls of fiber on the fabric surface. Pilling most often occurs
when fibers of differing abrasion resistance, such as cotton and polyester, are combined into
one fabric. With abrasion, short pieces of the less-resistant cotton break off and become
entangled with the more abrasion-resistant polyester, forming little balls of fiber on the sur-
face. These little pills are not only unattractive but can be uncomfortable as well.
Strength is the ability to resist stress. Tenacity, or tensile strength, is the ability of a
textile to withstand a pulling force (Table 3.4). Tenacity is measured by securing both ends of

Table 3.3  Fiber Ratings Related to Performance

Rating Abrasion Resistance Thermal Retention Resiliency Light Resistance

Excellent Aramid Wool Nylon Glass

Fluoropolymer Acrylic Wool Acrylic
Nylon Modacrylic Modacrylic
Olefin Polyester Polyester
Polyester
Good Saran Olefin Olefin Sulfar
Spandex Nylon Acrylic Lyocell
Flax Aramid Modacrylic Flax
Acrylic Polyester Cotton
PBI Rayon
Sulfar PBI
Cotton
Silk
Moderate Wool Silk Silk Triacetate
Rayon Spandex Acetate
Olefin
Poor Vinyon Flax Lyocell Nylon
Acetate Cotton Flax Wool
Glass Lyocell Cotton Silk
Rayon Rayon
Acetate Acetate

46 chapter three
Table 3.4  Fiber Properties Related to Performance
Fiber Tenacity (Grams/ Density or Specific
Rating Denier)* Absorbency** Gravity (Grams/CC)*** Elongation**** Elastic Recovery*****

High Glass (9.6/6.7)
Aramid (4.0–5.3/3.0–4.1)
Lyocell (4.8–5.0/4.2–4.6)
Silk (4.5/2.8–4.0)
Nylon (3.5–7.2/3.0–6.5)
Medium Flax (3.5–5.0/6.5)
Olefin (3.5–4.5)
Cotton (3.5–4.0/4.5–5.0)
Sulfar (3.0–3.5)
PBI (2.6–3.0/2.1–2.5)
Rayon, HWM
(2.5–5.0/3.0)
Polyester (2.4–7.0)
Acrylic (2.0–3.0/1.8–2.7)
Fluoropolymer (2.0)
Low Modacrylic
(1.7–2.6/1.5–2.4)
Melamine (1.8)
Wool (1.5/1.0)
Acetate (1.2–1.4/1.0–1.3)
Rayon, viscose
(1.0–2.5/0.5–1.4)
Vinyon (0.7–1.0)
Spandex (0.7–1.0)
Rubber (0.34)
PBI (15) Glass (2.48–2.69) Rubber (500) Spandex (99 at 50%)
Wool (13–18) Fluoropolymer (2.1) Spandex (400–700) Rubber (98 at 50%)
Flax (12) Olefin (70–100) Wool (99)
Rayon, viscose
(11.5–12.5)
Lyocell (11.5) Lyocell (1.56) Acrylic (35–45/41–50) Modacrylic (99 at 2%)
Silk (11) Cotton (1.52) Sulfar (35–45) Nylon 6 (98–100)
Rayon, HWM (11) Flax (1.52) Nylon 6 (30–90/42–100) Olefin (96 at 5%)
Rayon, viscose (1.48) Modacrylic (30–60) Rayon, HWM (96 at 2%)
Rayon, HWM (1.48) PBI (25–30/26–32) Rayon, regular (95 at 2%)
Cotton (7–11) PBI (1.43) Acetate (25–45/35–50) Acrylic (92)
Aramid (6.5) Melamine (1.40)
Acetate (6.3–6.5) Aramid (1.38–1.44)
Melamine (5.8) Sulfar (1.37) Wool (25/35) Silk (90)
Modacrylic (1.35) Aramid (22–32/20–30) Lyocell (88)
Polyester (1.34–1.38) Silk (20/30) Nylon 6,6 (82–89)
Nylon (2.8–5.0) Vinyon (1.33–1.43)
Modacrylic (2.5) Acetate (1.32)
Spandex (1.3) Wool (1.32)
Acrylic (1.0–1.5) Silk (1.26) Nylon 6,6 (16–75/18–78) Polyester (81)
Rubber (0.8) Spandex (1.2) Lyocell (14–16/16–18) Cotton (75)
Sulfar (0.6) Vinyon (12–125) Flax (65)
Polyester (0.4) Polyester (12–55) Acetate (48–95 at 4%)
Melamine (12)
Vinyon (0.1) Acrylic (1.17) Rayon, HWM (9–18/20)
Olefin (0.01–0.1) Nylon (1.13–1.14) Rayon, regular
(8–14/16–20)
Fluoropolymer (0.0) Rubber (1.1) Fluoropolymer (8.5)
Glass (0.0) Olefin (0.90–0.91) Glass (3.1/2.2)
Cotton (3–7/9.5)
Flax (2.0/2.2)

*Numbers in parentheses are in grams per denier for staple fibers with unmodified cross sections. The first number is for dry fibers; the second number is
for wet fibers. If there is only one number, there is no difference in performance between wet and dry fibers.
**Expressed as moisture regain [percentage of the moisture-free weight at 70°F (21°C) at 65% relative humidity].
***Ratio of weight of a given volume of fiber to an equal volume of water.
****A 10% minimum elongation is desirable for ease in textile processing. For fibers that are available in several lengths and modifications, the values are
for staple fibers with unmodified cross sections.
*****Percent recovery at 3% stretch, unless otherwise noted. The first number is performance at standard conditions of 65% relative humidity, 70°F or
21°C; the second number is when wet. If only one number is given, the performance is the same at standard conditions and when wet. Percent recovery
for some specialty fibers is not given because values are low or this aspect of performance is not critical for the more common end uses.

textile fibers and their properties 47

 8 Learning Activity
Each column in Table 3.4 focuses on a specific performance property where the fibers
are grouped by high, medium, and low values. Examine the fibers and the values for
each column and group those fibers where performance is almost the same, that is, for
fiber tenacity and the high grouping of fibers, glass is clearly the strongest, but aramid,
lyocell, and silk are similar in strength. Note where a spacing occurs within a column
and identify how performance differs for those fibers just below or just above a space.

the fiber in clamps and measuring the force needed to break or rupture the fiber. (Breaking
tenacity for a fiber is the force, in grams per denier or tex, required to break the fiber.) The
tenacity of a fiber when it is wet may differ from the tenacity of that same fiber when it is dry.
Although fabric strength depends, to a large degree, on fiber strength, yarn and fabric struc-
ture are additional factors effecting fabric strength. Strength may also be described by the
force needed to rip a fabric (tearing strength) or to rupture a fabric (bursting strength). Textile
products that will be used wet, like washcloths, are made of cotton and other fibers that are
stronger when wet.
Cohesiveness, the ability of fibers to cling together during spinning, can be a factor in
durability. Fibers with good cohesiveness tend to resist raveling or slipping during use. Cotton
and wool have good cohesiveness while silk and polyester have poor cohesiveness.
Elongation refers to the degree to which a fiber may be stretched without breaking.
It is measured as percent elongation at break (see Table 3.4) by measuring the change in

Using the correct fiber property length and comparing that to the original length. Elongation should be considered in relation

performance term in describing a product to elasticity. Highly oriented and highly crystalline fibers do not elongate much when a force

will enhance your communication ability is applied. However, when that force is released, they recover quickly to their original length

within the global textile complex. or very close to their original length. Aramid, used in ballistic vests, is a fiber that has very low
elongation.

Comfort and Safety Properties

A textile product should be comfortable when it is worn or used. This is primarily a matter of
personal preference and individual perception of comfort under different environmental condi-
tions and degrees of physical activity. The complexities of comfort depend on characteristics
such as absorbency, heat retention, density, and elongation.
Absorbency is the ability of a fiber to take up moisture from the body or from the envi-
ronment. It is measured as moisture regain where the moisture in the material is expressed
as a percentage of the weight of the moisture-free material (see Table 3.4). Hydrophilic fibers
absorb moisture readily. Hydrophobic fibers have little or no absorbency. Hydrophobic fibers
tend to be oleophilic, meaning that they have a strong affinity or attraction for oil. Oleophilic
fibers tend to bond quickly and tightly with oil, making cleaning and staining more of a prob-
lem. Hygroscopic fibers absorb moisture without feeling wet. Absorbency is related to static

9 Learning Activity
Using Tables 3.3 and 3.4, why would a fiber such as spandex be used in applications
such as swim wear, foundation garments, and surgical hose? For what reasons would
glass fibers be chosen for use in draperies in public buildings?

48 chapter three
buildup; problems with static are more likely to develop in hydrophobic fibers because they
do not conduct electrons readily. Absorbency is a measure of the increase in mass when a
fiber is exposed to humid air. Cotton, a hydrophilic fiber, is often used for casual work apparel
and children’s wear because it absorbs moisture readily. Nylon and polyester, hydrophobic
fibers, are often used for the outer layer in raincoats. Wool, a hygroscopic fiber, is often used
in winter apparel because it will absorb the moisture of perspiration during physical activity or
moisture from melting snow without feeling wet next to the skin. Fibers that have good absor-
bency also tend to have good dyeability, meaning that they are receptive to coloration by
dyes. Fibers that absorb water quickly dye well and have good dye affinity.
Fibers with good absorbency also tend to be good electrical conductors. Electrical
conductivity is the ability to transfer electrical charges. Absorbent fibers do not build up
static charge readily and do not attract lint or create problems with static cling.
Wicking is the ability of a fiber to transfer moisture along its surface. Fibers that wick well
are not very absorbent. Moisture is transported along the surface rather than being absorbed
into the fiber. Fibers with good wicking characteristics can produce comfortable products
because the moisture is pulled away from the skin by wicking to the outer surface of the fabric
where evaporation can occur. Smart textile modifications of polyester and olefin make use of
this characteristic and are used in apparel for exercise and athletics.
Heat or thermal retention is the ability of a textile to hold heat (see Table 3.3). Because
people want to be comfortable regardless of the weather, a low level of thermal retention is
favored in hot weather and a high level in cold weather. This property is affected by fiber, yarn,
and fabric structure and layering of fabrics. Bulky fibers like wool or acrylic are often used for
sweaters and winter hats and scarves because they retain heat well. Heat conductivity is the
opposite of heat retention. Heat conductivity is the ability to transfer heat through a fabric.
Cotton is popular in summer apparel because it has good heat conductivity and helps the
body release heat quickly.
Heat sensitivity describes a fiber’s reaction to heat (Table 3.5). Since some fibers soften
and melt and others are heat resistant, these properties identify safe pressing temperatures
and restrict some end uses. Electrical line personnel seldom wear synthetics like nylon or
polyester since these heat-sensitive fibers shrink and melt with heat, a potential problem when
working near high-voltage power lines.
Flammability describes how a fabric reacts to ignition sources and how it burns.
Fabrics that are highly flammable are banned from interstate commerce in the United States
and many other countries because of the safety risk they pose. See Chapter 21 for more
information.
Density or specific gravity is a measure of fiber weight per unit volume (see Table 3.4).
Lower-density fibers can be made into thick fabrics that are more comfortable than high-­density
fibers that result in heavy fabrics. Fibers with the same diameter may not have the same denier
or tex value since fiber density affects weight. Take a 100% cotton and a 100% ­polyester
fabric identical in fabric structure, yarn structure and size, and number of yarns per inch. Since
cotton has a higher density than polyester, the all-cotton fabric will be heavier. Also refer back
to the discussion earlier in this chapter regarding fiber size and fiber density.
Allergenic potential is the ability to cause physical reactions such as skin redness
resulting from exposure to the fiber. While many individuals claim an allergy to wool, most
are not allergic, but are very sensitive to the prickle or irritation caused by coarser wool
fibers. Chemicals used in finishing and dyeing can also cause allergic reactions in some
individuals.

textile fibers and their properties 49

 Table 3.5 Heat Sensitivity*
FIBERS THAT DO NOT MELT PRESSING* RECOMMENDATIONS IN 8F ( 8C)

Natural Fibers
Cotton 425 (218)
Flax 450 (232)
Silk 300 (149)
Wool 300 (149)

Manufactured Fibers
Aramid Do not press**
Fluoropolymer Do not press**
Lyocell 400 (205)
Melamine Do not press**
Modacrylic 200–250 (93–121)
PBI Do not press**
Rayon 375 (191)

FIBERS THAT MELT PRESSING RECOMMENDATIONS IN 8F ( 8C)

Manufactured Fibers
Acetate 350 (177)
Acrylic 300 (149)
Glass Do not press**
Nylon 6 300 (149)
Nylon 6,6 350 (177)
Olefin 150 (66)
Polyester PET 325 (163)
Polyester PCDT 350 (177)
Spandex 300 (149)

*Lowest setting on irons is 185–225˚F. Settings on irons and presses correspond to recommended
temperatures for pressing and may be designated by common apparel fiber names.
**These technical fibers are rarely used in products that might require pressing.

Appearance-Retention Properties
A textile product should retain its appearance during use, care, and storage.
Resiliency is the ability of a textile to return to its original shape after bending, twisting,
or crushing (see Table 3.3). Resilient fibers usually produce resilient fabrics. An easy test for
resiliency is to crunch a fabric in your hand and watch how it responds when you open your
hand. Fabrics that do not wrinkle easily and spring back after compression are resilient and
wrinkle resistant. A fabric that wrinkles easily stays crumpled in your hand. When it is flattened
out, wrinkles and creases are apparent. Because of the poor wrinkle resistance of cotton,
finishes have been developed to improve their resilience. (See Chapter 18.) In the standard
test for resiliency, a fabric is twisted and compressed for a set length of time. The number and
sharpness of the wrinkles are evaluated to assess resiliency.
Compressibility is resistance to crushing. Fibers, like cotton, that are easily compress-
ible tend to wrinkle easily but can produce heavy and compact fabrics, like denim. Fibers,
like wool, do not compress easily, do not wrinkle easily, and produce bulky fabrics. Loft or
compression resiliency is the ability to spring back to the original thickness after being
compressed. Loft is important for pile fabrics, most knits, and carpets and rugs.

50 chapter three
 Dimensional stability is the ability of a fabric to retain its original size and shape through
use and care. It includes the properties of shrinkage resistance and elastic recovery. Fabrics
are carefully measured, cleaned, and measured again. Dimensional change is calculated
based on the difference between the original measurements and the after-cleaning mea-
surements. Fabrics and products that are dimensionally stable maintain their size and shape
throughout their life.
Shrinkage resistance is the ability of a fabric to retain its original dimensions throughout
care. It is related to the fabric’s reaction to moisture or heat. Items that shrink may no longer
be attractive or suitable for their end use. Most textile products exhibit their greatest shrink-
age during the first cleaning cycle, but some products continue to shrink each time they are
cleaned. Residual shrinkage refers to additional shrinkage that occurs after the first care cycle.
Elasticity or elastic recovery is the ability of a textile to return to its original dimension
or shape after elongation (see Table 3.4). It is measured as the percentage of return to original
length. Elastic recovery varies with the amount of elongation and with the length of time the
fabric is stretched. Fibers with poor elastic recovery, like cotton and rayon, tend to produce
fabrics that stretch out of shape. Fibers with good elastic recovery, like nylon and polyester,
tend to produce fabrics that maintain their shape. Creep is a delayed or gradual recovery from
elongation. Creep may be seen in the difference in fit between denim shorts at the end of one
day of wearing and the fit at the beginning of the next day of wearing. The shorts may have
gotten looser during the day as they were worn and stretched. Because of the low and slow
elastic recovery of cotton (creep), the shorts will probably be a little tighter fitting the next day.
Some fibers age more slowly than others. Aging resistance is resistance to deleterious
changes over time. Spandex and other elastic fibers have poor aging characteristics. Over
time, these fibers become stiff, rigid, and brittle. When stretched, the spandex fiber breaks
and the fabric remains stretched out. Other fibers, such as cotton, can be stored for years
without suffering significant damage.
Mildew resistance and moth resistance can be especially important when textiles are
stored. Mildew resistance is the resistance to the growth of mold, mildew, or fungus. If cot-
ton and other plant fibers are stored in humid and warm conditions, mildew, mold, or fungus
growth can occur. The odor can be unpleasant, and the microorganisms can also perma-
nently damage textiles. This is of particular concern for vintage textiles stored by individuals,
resale boutiques, and museums. Moth resistance is resistance to insect damage, including
moths, beetles, crickets, roaches, and spiders. Problems with insects are most often encoun-
tered during storage of textile products.

Resistance to Chemicals
Different fibers react differently to chemicals. Some are quite resistant to most chemicals;
others are resistant to one group of chemicals but easily harmed by others. Resistance to
chemicals and chemical reactivity determines the appropriateness of care procedures
and end uses for fibers as well as selection of appropriate dyes and finishes for fabrics and
products. Table 3.6 summarizes fiber reactions to acids and alkalis. Acids are compounds
that yield hydrogen ions to alkalis in chemical reactions. Alkalis (bases) are compounds that
remove hydrogen ions from acids and combine with the acid in a chemical reaction. The
average consumer can come in contact with acids in the kitchen (fruit and vegetable juice,
vinegar, and salad dressings), the bathroom (some medications, skin and hair treatments,
and first aid supplies), outdoors (grass stains), and in the garage (battery acid). Alkalis are

textile fibers and their properties 51

 Table 3.6 Effect of Acids* and Alkalis**
FIBER ACID ALKALI

Natural Fibers
Cotton Harmed Resistant
Flax Harmed Resistant
Silk Harmed by strong mineral acids, Harmed
resistant to organic acids
Wool Resistant Harmed

Manufactured Fibers
Acetate Unaffected by weak acids Little effect
Acrylic Resistant to most acids Resistant to weak alkalis
Aramid Resistant to most acids Resistant
Glass Resistant Resistant
Lyocell Harmed Resistant
Modacrylic Resistant to most acids Resistant
Nylon Harmed, especially nylon 6 Resistant
Olefin Resistant Highly resistant
PBI Resistant Resistant to most alkalis
Polyester Resistant Degraded by strong alkalis
Rayon Harmed Resistant to weak alkalis
Spandex Resistant Resistant
Sulfar Resistant Resistant

*Examples of acids: organic (acetic, formic); mineral (sulfuric, hydrochloric).

**Examples of alkalis: weak (ammonium hydroxide); strong (sodium hydroxide).

also encountered by consumers in the bathroom and laundry (soaps and detergents), kitchen
(baking soda or sodium bicarbonate), and cleaning supplies (household ammonia and borax).
While the reaction of fibers to other chemicals like organic solvents (fingernail polish remover)
and inorganic salts (deicing salt) is important, these reactions are more important in terms of
end use and cleaning—issues that are addressed during product development.

Resistance to Light
Light or sunlight resistance is the ability to withstand degradation from natural or artificial
light. Exposure to light may damage fibers. The energy in light, especially in the ultraviolet
region of the spectrum, causes irreversible damage to the chemical structure of the fiber.
This damage may appear as a yellowing or color change, a slight weakening of the fabric,
or, eventually, the complete disintegration of the fabric (see Table 3.3). Fibers with good light
resistance are used where exposure to light, especially sunlight, is high. For example, acrylic
is often used in awnings because of its high light resistance. Tenacity is measured before and
after exposure to light. A loss in strength indicates ultraviolet damage to the fiber.

Sustainability
Environmental concerns refer to the way the production, use, care, and disposal of a fiber
or textile product impacts the environment. Many consumers assume that natural fibers have

52 chapter three
less of an environmental impact than manufactured or synthetic fibers. The environmental
concerns related to each fiber are far more complex. The factors differ with each fiber or pro-
cess and may differ depending on the region of the world where a fiber is produced. Natural
fibers’ impact on soil conservation, use of agricultural chemicals, disposal of animal waste,
water demands, processing, and cleaning requirements create environmental problems.
Since very few textile products are disposed of in a manner that allows for biodegradation,
natural fibers do not even have that advantage in modern society.
Sustainability describes practices and policies that reduce environmental pollution
and do not exploit people or natural resources in meeting the lifestyle needs of the pres-
ent without compromising the future. While the environmental concerns and sustainability
for each of the major consumer fibers will be discussed in Chapters 4 to 9, it is important
to remember some basic concepts. Cotton and polyester account for more than three-
fourths of the global textile fiber market. With this degree of concentration in only two fibers,
the agricultural and manufacturing segments dependent on them concentrate the poten-
tial for environmental and economic problems. These large segments are less responsive
to change in global markets and provide fewer consumer choices. Distributing this market
among a more diverse group of fibers would have a greater impact on local economies and
offer greater consumer choice.
Based on the necessity and urgency to create more sustainable practices, several cer-
tification programs have been developed. The cradle-to-cradle concept can be applied to
any company, including textile production, and holistically examines the overall impact of the
production, use, care, disposal, and recycle potential of products, from economic, industrial,
and social perspectives. The Oeko Tex Standard 100, is an independent testing and certi-
fication system for textile raw materials and intermediate and end products at all stages of
production which ensures textiles products are free from substances hazardous to humans
and the environment. The Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS) has criteria for human and
environmental health, recyclability, renewable energy, as well as social responsibility and aims
to ensure the organic status of textiles from the harvesting of raw materials to the label of the
product. The Higg Index is a tool for measuring product sustainability across the supply chain.
It was launched by the Sustainable Apparel Coalition. It aims to promote sustainable and
socially responsible practices among apparel and footwear producers and reduce the global
environment and social impacts of their product. See Chapter 21 for more discussion of these
certification programs.

Care Properties
Treatments that are required to maintain the new look of a textile product during use, clean-
ing, or storage are referred to as care. Improper care can result in items that are unattractive,
not as durable as expected, uncomfortable, or unusable. Fiber reactions to water, cleaning
chemicals, heat in pressing and drying, and special storage requirements will be discussed in
each fiber chapter.

Learning Activity 10
Examine your current shopping, cleaning, and disposal practices regarding textile prod-
ucts. How do you impact sustainability of textiles in your daily life?

textile fibers and their properties 53

 11 Learning Activity
Consider the terms in Table 3.2. Organize them by the following:

a. Terms that describe performance factors of concern to the consumers who use,
wear, and care for textile products
b. Terms that describe performance factors of interest to apparel or interior designers
c. Terms that describe performance factors of interest to product developers

Cost
Cost is impacted by how a fiber is produced, the number and type of modifications present,
and how the fiber is marketed. Cost will be addressed in general terms for each fiber. Actual
costs for fibers are related to supply of and demand for the fiber as well as costs of raw mate-
rials used to grow or produce each fiber. Fiber costs are only a small percentage of the cost
that a consumer pays for a textile product.

Fiber Property Charts

The fibers within each generic family have individual differences. These differences are not
reflected in the tables in this chapter, except in a few specific instances. The numerical values
are averages, or medians, and are intended as a general characterization of each generic
group.

Fiber Identification
The procedure for identifying fibers in a fabric depends on the nature of the sample, the
experience of the analyst, and the facilities available. Because Federal Trade Commission

Fiber identification is required on product laws require the fiber content of most apparel and interior textiles to be indicated on the

labels and helps professionals and label, the consumer may only need to look for identification labels. If a professional wishes to

consumers select appropriate products for confirm or verify the label information, microscope, solubility, and burn tests may be used.

end uses. If labels are not present or if fiber These procedures differ in their effectiveness in identifying fibers. Microscopic appearance is

content must be verified, visual inspection, most useful for natural fibers. Solubility tests and sophisticated spectroscopic analyses are

burn and solubility tests, and microscopy most effective for manufactured fibers. The AATCC Technical Manual provides additional test

can be used. methods that identify qualitative and quantitative methods for accurately determining fiber
composition.

Visual Inspection
Visual inspection of a textile for appearance and hand is always the first step in fiber identifica-
tion. It is no longer possible to make an identification of the fiber content by appearance and
hand alone, because manufactured fibers can resemble natural fibers or other manufactured
fibers. However, observation of certain characteristics is helpful. These characteristics are
apparent to the unaided eye and are visual clues used to narrow the number of possibilities.

1. Length of fiber.  Untwist the yarn to determine fiber length. Any fiber can be made
in staple length, but not all fibers can be filament. For example, cotton and wool are
always staple and never filament.

54 chapter three
 Learning Activity 12
Use Fabrics #9, 24, 45, 61, 86, and 122 from your swatch kit. Describe the visual and
textural clues for each fabric that would help determine fiber content. Without looking at
the key, what fiber(s) would you guess for each fabric? Now, check the key and deter-
mine your degree of accuracy. What factors confused you? Watch for discussions in
future chapters that describe ways fibers can be made to look and feel like other fibers.

2. Luster or lack of luster.  Manufactured fiber luster may range from harsh and shiny
to dull and matte.
3. Body, texture, hand.  These factors indicate whether the fiber is soft to hard, rough
to smooth, warm to cool, or stiff to flexible and relate to fiber size, surface contour,
stiffness or rigidity, and cross-sectional shape.

Burn Test
The burn test can be used to identify a fiber’s general chemical composition, such as cellu-
lose, protein, mineral, or synthetic (Tables 3.1 and 3.7). Blends cannot be identified by the
burn test. If visual inspection is used along with the burn test, fiber identification can be carried
further. For example, if the sample is cellulose and also filament, it is probably rayon; but if it is
staple, a positive identification for a specific cellulosic fiber cannot be made.

Table 3.7 Identification by Burning

When Approaching After Removal from
Fibers Flame When in Flame Flame Ash Odor

Cellulose Does not fuse or shrink Burns with light gray Continues to burn, Gray, feathery, smooth Burning paper
(Cotton, Flax, from flame smoke afterglow edge
Lyocell,
Rayon)
Protein Curls away from flame Burns slowly May self-extinguish Crushable black ash Burning hair
(Silk, Wool)
Acetate Melts and pulls away Melts and burns Continues to burn and Brittle, black, hard bead Acrid, harsh, sharp odor
from flame melt
Acrylic Melts and pulls away Melts and burns Continues to burn and Brittle, black, hard bead Chemical odor
from flame melt
Glass No reaction Does not burn No reaction Fiber remains None
Modacrylic Melts and pulls away Melts and burns Self-extinguishes, white Brittle, black, hard bead Chemical odor
from flame smoke
Nylon Melts and pulls away Melts and burns May self-extinguish Hard gray or tan bead Celerylike
from flame
Olefin Melts and pulls away Melts and burns May self-extinguish Hard tan bead Chemical odor
from flame
PLA Melts and pulls away Melts and burns with May self-extinguish Hard tan or gray bead Slightly acrid odor
from flame slight white smoke
Polyester Melts and pulls away Melts and burns May self-extinguish Hard black bead Sweet odor
from flame
Spandex Melts but does not pull Melts and burns Continues to melt and Soft black ash Chemical odor
away from flame burn

textile fibers and their properties 55


Figure Fiber identification by the burn test:
3.7 initial reaction to flame (a), burning of
sample (b), and final residue and ash (c).
56 chapter three
Work in a safe, well-ventilated area or under a hood. Remove paper and other flammable
materials from the area. Check apparel and hair to ensure that they will not put the analyst at
risk. Follow these general directions for the burn test:
1. Ravel out and test several yarns from each direction of the fabric to determine if they
are the same fiber type. Differences in luster, twist, yarn structure, and color suggest
that there might be more than one generic fiber in the fabric.
2. Hold the yarn horizontally, as shown in Figure 3.7. It is helpful to roll long pieces of
yarn into a flat ball or clump, as shown in the figure. Use tweezers to protect your
fingers. Move the yarns slowly into the edge of the flame and observe what happens.
Repeat this step several times to check your results.
Microscopy
Knowing the physical structure of fibers will be of use when using a microscope in fiber iden-
tification. Identification of natural fibers is best done by microscopy. For the best accuracy,
examination of both the lengthwise appearance (longitudinal) and crosswise appearance
(cross section) of an unknown fiber is best. Photomicrographs of fibers (longitudinal and
cross-sectional views) are included in Chapters 4 to 9. Consult those chapters for identifying
characteristics of the natural fibers. Manufactured fibers are more difficult to identify because
many of them look alike, and their appearance may be changed by variations in the man-
ufacturing process. Positive identification of the manufactured fibers by microscopy is not
possible.
The following are directions for using the microscope:
1. Clean the microscope lens and the glass slide and cover glass.
2. Place a drop of distilled water or glycerin on the slide.
3. Untwist a yarn and place several fibers from the yarn on the slide. Cover with the
cover glass and tap to remove air bubbles. (Make sure you are examining several indi-
vidual fibers, not a yarn.)
4. Place the slide on the stage of the microscope. Focus with low power first. If the fibers
have not been well separated, it will be difficult to focus on a single fiber. Center the
fiber or fibers in the viewing field. Then move to a lens with greater magnification. As
magnification increases, the size of the viewing field decreases. Thus, if fibers are not
in the center of the field when a higher magnification is selected, they may disappear
from the viewing field.
5. If a fabric contains two or more fiber types, examine both warp and filling yarns.
Solubility Tests
Solubility tests are used to identify the manufactured fibers by generic class and to confirm
identification of natural fibers. Two simple tests, the alkali test for wool and the acetone test
for acetate, are described in Chapters 5 and 7, respectively.
13 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #9, 30, and 39 from your swatch kit. Follow the instructions for preparing
a slide and using the microscope. Describe what you see through the microscope for
Fabric #9. Repeat the process for Fabrics #30 and #39. What are the differences you
see about each fiber? Watch for discussions in Chapters 4 to 6 and 8 that describe the
microscopic appearance of these fibers.
Table 3.8 Solubility Tests
Solvent (In Order of Increasing Strength) Fiber Dissolved

Acetic acid, 100%, 20°C Acetate

Acetone, 100%, 20°C
Hydrochloric acid, 20% concentration, 1.096
density, 20°C
Sodium hypochlorite solution, 5%, 20°C
Xylene (meta), 100%, 139°C
Dimethyl formamide, 100%, 90iC
Sulfuric acid, 70% concentration, 38°C
Cresol (meta), 100%, 139°C
Acetate, modacrylic, vinyon
Nylon 6; nylon 6,6; vinal
Silk and wool (silk dissolves in 70% sulfuric
acid at 38°C), azlon
Olefin and saran (saran in 1.4 dioxane at
101OC; olefin is not soluble), vinyon
Spandex, modacrylic, acrylic, acetate, vinyon
Cotton, flax, rayon, nylon, acetate, silk
Polyester, nylon, acetate

Table 3.8 lists solvents from weakest to strongest. Place the specimen in the liquid in the
order listed. Although many solvents will dissolve some fibers, following this order will help in
identifying the specific fiber. Stir the specimen for 5 minutes and note the effect. Fiber, yarns,
or small pieces of fabric may be used. Remember that the liquids are hazardous—handle
them with care! Use chemical laboratory exhaust hoods, gloves, aprons, and goggles.

Learning Activity 14
Imagine you are a detective at the scene of a crime. You find several small hairlike
pieces of evidence that appear to be fibers. Will examining the feel and look of the
fibers be enough to accurately determine fiber type? Why or why not? Which of the fiber
identification tests would be most useful to identify if the fiber is natural, manufactured,
or synthetic? Based upon the results of certain tests, you determine that the fiber has a
trilobal cross section, is in filament form, and melts when burned? What fiber type does
this fiber belong to? What is the possible fiber?

Learning Activity 15
Look at the labels in the textile products you are wearing today. Select one product and
explain the serviceability of that product based on its fiber content. Be sure to use the
terms described in this chapter in your explanation.

terms
key terms
Abrasion resistance
Absorbency
Aging resistance
Chemical reactivity
Cohesiveness
Compressibility
Creep
Crystalline
Degree of polymerization
Allergenic potential Compression resiliency Denier
Amorphous Cover Denier per filament (dpf)
Care Cradle-to-cradle Density

textile fibers and their properties 57

 Dimensional stability Heat sensitivity Rigidity
Drape Hydrogen bonds Shrinkage resistance
Drawing Hydrophilic Specific gravity
Dyeability Hydrophobic Staple fiber
Elasticity Hygroscopic Stiffness
Elastic recovery Light resistance Strength
Electrical conductivity Loft Stretching
Elongation Luster Sunlight resistance
Environmental concerns Manufactured fiber Sustainability
Fabric crimp Mildew resistance Tenacity
Fiber crimp Moisture regain Tensile strength
Filaments Moth resistance Tex
Filament tow Natural fiber Texture
Flammability Oleophilic Thermal retention
Flexibility Orientation Translucence
Generic group Pilling van der Waals forces
Hand Polymer Wicking
Heat conductivity Polymerization
Heat retention Resiliency

questions
review questions
1. Define each of the key terms listed in Table 3.2.
2. Differentiate between the following pairs of related terms:
fibers. Describe the number and type of items in each list
and how restricted your wardrobe might be without the
manufactured fibers. (Remember when creating your lists
a. Elongation and elasticity
b. Absorbency and wicking that elastic bands usually incorporate a manufactured fiber.)
c. Loft and resiliency If you find a fiber that you cannot identify, check Table 3.1
d. Heat conductivity and heat sensitivity to determine the classification of the fiber in question.
e. Hand and texture 8. Consider textile products that you have discarded recently.
f. Cover and translucence Did these products fail because of some performance
g. Care and chemical sensitivity problem? If yes, identify the performance problem using
h. Strength and abrasion resistance one or more of the key terms discussed in this chapter.
i. Drape and stiffness If you remember the fiber content of the failed product,
j. Electrical conductivity and cohesiveness consult the tables in this chapter to determine a fiber
3. Using Figure 3.3, consider how changing a fiber’s shape type that might have resulted in better performance in
from round to trilobal would impact performance. this area. Explain why another fiber might provide better
performance.
4. What differences in performance might you expect from
fibers used to produce a T-shirt, a carpet in a movie 9. Select two of the fiber property summary lists from
theater, and an outdoor flag? Table 3.4. Explain what the numbers represent and how
that information describes fiber performance. For each
5. What differences in performance might you expect from
summary, explain if a higher value might be more or less
fibers used to produce jeans used while gardening, a
desirable for a textile product.
carpet in a day care center, and an erosion control fabric?
10. Using Table 3.3, compare cotton’s performance related to
6. Describe polymerization and the possible arrangements of
polyester. What types of end uses would cotton be ideal?
molecules within fibers. List four aspects of performance
What types of end uses would polyester be ideal?
that might be expected for each combination you describe.
11. Explain the fiber characteristic(s) that has the greatest
7. Look through your clothes and make three lists: items that
influence on these fiber properties. Identify three fibers that
only include natural fibers (cotton, hemp, ramie, wool, or
perform well for each property.
silk); items that include only manufactured and synthetic
a. Absorbency
fibers (rayon, lyocell, acrylic, polyester, nylon, and spandex);
b. Cohesiveness
and items that combine both natural and manufactured

58 chapter three
 c. Elasticity
d. Flexibility
e. Hand
f. Loft
g. Luster
h. Pilling
i. Strength
j. Texture
k. Wicking
Case Study
Reading Care Labels*
The vast majority of consumers, 97%, do
laundry themselves. Care labels provide
consumers important information on how
to clean textile products to help them last
longer and maintain their performance and
appearance. However, research indicates
just over half of consumers always or
usually read laundering instructions before
washing a garment. Ignoring care labels
can contribute to problems with garment
performance, especially fading and shrinking.
This is particularly troubling for brands and
*Cotterill, D. G., Kessinger, M. B., & Easter, E. P. (2009). Consumers don’t read care labels. AATCC Review, 9(9), 20.
readings
suggested readings
ASTM International. (2008). Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 7.
West Conshockon, PA: ASTM International.
Cotterill, D. G., Kessinger, M. B., & Easter, E. P. (2009). Consumers
don’t read care labels. AATCC Review, 9(9), 20.
Fletcher, K. (2008). Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design
Journey. London: Earthscan.
Hethorn, J., & Ulasewicz, C. (2008). Sustainable Fashion: Why
Now? New York: Fairchild Books.
McDonough, W., & Braungart, M. (2002). Cradle to Cradle:
Remaking the Way We Make Things. New York: North Point
Press.
Musante, G. B. (2013). A matter of fiber veracity. AATCC Review,
13(2), 28–35.
12. Explain why most natural fibers are available as staple only,
but most manufactured and synthetic fibers are available in
either staple or filament form.
13. For apparel on a hot summer day, which would you
prefer—a fiber that absorbs perspiration quickly or one that
wicks perspiration? Explain your response.
14. For apparel on a cold, windy day, which would you
prefer—a fiber with good heat retention or a fiber with good
heat transference? Explain your response.
retailers, because research shows that when 2. Explain these terms in your own words.
consumers are dissatisfied with garments 3. Search through the terms in Table 3.2 and
after care, they tend to fault the retailer, the identify additional terms that might apply
brand, or the manufacturer, even when their to the care of textile products.
own laundering was to blame. To encourage
4. Do you consistently read care labels
consumer compliance with care labels,
before laundering products? Why or why
some retailers and brands have made care
not?
information more prominent at the point of
purchase and on their web sites. 5. What strategies would you suggest a
retailer and a manufacturer do to raise
Discussion Questions consumer awareness of care instructions
1. Find the textile properties used in this and the effects of laundering practices on
discussion that are defined in Table 3.2. garment performance?
Parker, E. (2011). Steps towards Sustainability in Fashion:
Snapshot Bangladesh. Edited by Hammond, L., Higginson, H.
and Williams, D. London, England: London College of Fashion
and Fashioning an Ethical Industry.
Robson, D. (2010). Relating to comfort, fiber diameter, and crimp.
Spin-Off, 36(2), 56–60.
Siegel, S. (2009). What is means to be green. LDB Interior Textiles,
106(6), 8.
Thiry, M. C. (2004). Built to last. AATCC Review, 4(12), 8–11.
Thiry, M. C. (2005). From ready to win to ready to wear. AATCC
Review, 5(9), 18–22.
Thiry, M. C. (2007). Lightning on a small scale. AATCC Review,
7(11), 18–23.
textile fibers and their properties 59
Glisic_Albina/Fotolia Meepoohyaphoto/Fotolia

Frog-Travel/Fotolia Sevulya/Fotolia
Natural Cellulosic
Fibers

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To identify cellulosic fibers.
• To explain the characteristics common to all cellulosic fibers.
• To describe processing, characteristics, and performance unique to each of the
­commonly used cellulosic fibers.
• To articulate the basic steps in processing the natural cellulosic fibers.
• To integrate the properties of natural cellulosic fibers with target market needs.

4
 All plants contain fibrous bundles that give strength to the stem and root, pliability to the
leaves, and cushioning or protection to developing seeds. In some plants, these fibrous bun-
dles can be removed from the plant in an easy and economical process and used in textile
products. These natural cellulosic fibers are classified according to the plant component from

Natural cellulosic fibers are classified which they are removed (Table 4.1): seed, stem (bast), leaf, or miscellaneous component

according to the plant component from (root, bark, husk, or moss). While hundreds of plant fibers have been used since humans first

which they are removed: seed, bast, leaf, discovered how to work with fibers, this chapter will focus on the ones that are significant in

or miscellaneous component. the global textile complex or that offer potential for future growth as plant fibers. Figure 4.1
shows where the fibers in this chapter are produced.

Table 4.1  Natural Cellulosic Fibers

Seed Fibers Bast Fibers Leaf Fibers Miscellaneous Fibers
Cotton Flax Piña Rush
Kapok Ramie Abaca Sea grass
Coir Hemp Sisal Maize
Milkweed Kenaf Henequen Palm fiber
Hibiscus
Nettle
Bamboo*
Jute

*Note: While bamboo has been used in agriculture, papermaking, furniture, and architecture for
thousands of years, most bamboo found in textiles receives extensive chemical processing in the
same manner as rayon. As such the Federal Trade Commission requires that companies describe
this as rayon from bamboo (see Chapter 7). However, because some bamboo is processed directly
from the plant, it is included in this table.

Cotton
Organic cotton
Naturally colored cotton
Coir
Kapok
Flax
Ramie
Hemp
Bamboo
~
Pina
Abaca
Sisal and henequen

*Multiple colors indicate production of more than one fiber.

Figure Countries where natural cellulosic fibers are produced.

4.1
62 chapter four
 Learning Activity 1
Examine Table 4.1. Explain these properties in terms of a t-shirt. How do these terms
relate to the concepts of serviceability: aesthetics, durability, comfort, appearance re-
tention, care, environmental concern, and cost?

Learning Activity 2
Examine Table 4.1. Identify one apparel, interiors, and technical end use appropriate
for cellulosic fibers and explain why, in terms of fiber performance, that end use is ap-
propriate. Use appropriate serviceability terminology.

Learning Activity 3
Using Figure 4.1 and Appendix D, identify the countries where the fibers in apparel and
furnishings comes from.

Cellulosic Fibers
Cotton, a seed fiber, grows within a pod or boll from developing seeds. Flax, a bast fiber, is
obtained from the stem and root of the plant. Sisal, a leaf fiber, is removed from the veins or
ribs of a leaf. Fiber from other plant components such as Spanish moss and cedar bark were
used by Native Americans, but are not currently used in commercial products.
These fibers are all cellulosic, but they differ in the percentage of cellulose present and
in their physical structure. While the arrangement of the molecular chains in these fibers is
similar, it varies in orientation and length, making for different performance characteristics.
Fabrics made from these fibers differ in appearance and hand but have a similar reaction to
chemicals and require similar care. Properties common to all cellulosic fibers are summarized
in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Properties Common to All Cellulosic Fibers

Properties Importance to Consumer
Good absorbency Comfortable for warm weather wear and activewear and interiors
Good for towels, diapers, and activewear
Good conductor of heat Sheer fabrics for warm-weather wear
Ability to withstand high temperature Fabrics can be sterilized; no special precautions necessary in pressing
Low resiliency Fabrics wrinkle and crease unless finished for wrinkle recovery
Low loft; good compressibility Dense, high-count fabrics possible
Wind-resistant fabrics possible
Good conductor of electricity No static buildup
Heavy fibers (density of 1.5) Fabrics are heavier than comparable fabrics of other fibers
Harmed by mineral acids, minimal damage by organic acids Remove acid stains immediately
Attacked by mildew Store clean items under dry conditions
Resistant to moths, but eaten by crickets and silverfish Store clean items under dry conditions
Flammable Ignite quickly, burn freely with an afterglow and gray, feathery ash; loosely constructed
garments should not be worn near an open flame; interior textiles should meet required codes
Moderate resistance to sunlight Draperies should be lined

natural cellulosic fibers 63

 Characteristics Common to All Cellulosic Fibers
All cellulose fibers contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). The basic monomer of
cellulose is glucose. The chemical structure to the left shows two glucose units (the second
one is inverted) that repeat thousands of times to form cellulose. This two-glucose repeating
unit is called cellobiose. The chemical reactivity of cellulose is related to the hydroxyl groups
(–OH) of the glucose unit. The hydroxyl group reacts readily with moisture, dyes, and many
finishes, making it a very versatile fiber. Chemicals such as chlorine bleach damage cellulose
by attacking the oxygen atom between the two ring units or within the ring, rupturing the chain
or ring.
This chapter discusses major natural cellulosic fibers and those of more limited use that
may be present in imported goods or that may be encountered during travel or in certain ca-
reers. While several of these fibers may not be common in apparel, they are important in the
CH2OH H OH
O
interiors industry and may be used as reinforcement fibers in composites. Many other natural
H O H cellulosic fibers will not be discussed because of their minor commercial use.
H OH H
Some fibers that are derived from plants (bamboo, corn starch, and soy fibers) are not
OH H H
H H O
included in this chapter because they are made from noncellulosic parts of the plant or are not
O
H OH CH2OH found in fiber form in the plant. They must undergo several chemical and manufacturing steps
n to become fibers and are discussed in Chapter 7.

Seed Fibers
Seed fibers develop in the seedpod of the plant. In order to use the fiber, it must be separated
from the seed. (The seed is used to produce animal feed and refined cottonseed oil is used in
many human foods.) By far the most important seed fiber is cotton. This section discusses
cotton and some minor seed fibers.

Cotton
Cotton is an important cash crop in more than 80 countries. Its combination of properties—
pleasing appearance, comfort, breathability, easy care, moderate cost, and durability—makes
cotton ideal for warm-weather apparel, activewear, work clothes, upholstery, draperies, area
rugs, towels, and bedding. Even though other fibers have encroached on the use of cotton,
cotton remains an important fiber. Cotton is also a major component of many blends in which
manufactured fibers such as rayon or polyester are added to the fabric.
Cotton cloth was used by the people of ancient China, Egypt, India (where the cotton
spinning and weaving industry began), Mexico, and Peru. In the Americas, naturally colored
cotton was used extensively. Cotton was grown in the southern U.S. colonies as soon as
they were established. Throughout the 1600s and 1700s, cotton fibers were separated from
cotton seeds by hand in a very time consuming and tedious job. A worker could separate only
one pound of cotton fiber from the seeds in a day.
When Eli Whitney mechanized the saw-tooth cotton gin in 1793, things changed. The gin
could process 50 pounds of cotton in a day and more cotton could be prepared for spinning.
Within the next 20 years, a series of spinning and weaving inventions in England mechanized
fabric production. The southern states were able to meet Britain’s greatly increased demand
for raw cotton, unfortunately through slavery. By 1859, U.S. production was 4.5 million bales

64 chapter four
of cotton—two-thirds of the world’s production. Cotton was the leading U.S. export. During
the time of rapidly expanding cotton production in the south, most U.S. fabrics were spun and
woven in New England.
The picture again changed dramatically during the U.S. Civil War. U.S. cotton production
decreased to 200,000 bales in 1864, and Britain looked to other countries to fill the deficit.
After the war, western states began producing cotton and the southern states built spin-
ning and weaving mills. Between World War I and World War II, most of the New England
mills moved south. Factors influencing this move included proximity to cotton producers,
less expensive power and nonunion labor, and relocation incentives from state and local
governments. By 1950, 80% of the mills were in the south. However, during the 1980s and
1990s, most of these mills closed because of increased costs and competition from imports
and companies moving production to developing countries to save on labor and production
costs. These moves, however, often meant a race to the bottom, where companies and
countries tried to compete with each other by cutting wages and living standards for work-
ers, and the production of goods is moved to the places that have the lowest wages and
production costs.
Figure A field of cotton ready to be harvested.
4.2
Production of Cotton  Cotton grows in any place where the growing season is long (cotton
needs 160 to 180 days to mature) and the climate is temperate to hot with adequate rainfall or
irrigation. Cellulose will not form if the temperature is below 70°F. In the United States, cotton
is grown in 17 states, south of a line from southern Virginia to central California, covering more
than 12 million acres. Texas consistently produces the most cotton, followed by Georgia and
Arkansas (Figure 4.2).
The major producers of cotton in the world are China (26.2%), India (24.9%), the United
States (11%), Pakistan (8.0%), and Brazil (5.9%). The United States is the leading cotton
exporter, primarily to Asia, Mexico, and Turkey, significantly contributing to the reduction in
the U.S. trade deficit. Global cotton production in 2013 totaled over 117 million bales (480
pounds per bale). Cotton production is down worldwide because of higher prices for food and
other crops so farmers raise crops that produce the highest income for their families, adverse
weather conditions decreases the amount of fiber produced on a unit of land, and a drop in
demand for cotton means that cotton prices decrease as demand decreases. Other factors Figure Opened cotton boll.
4.3
affecting the U.S. production of cotton include the value of the dollar as compared with other
currencies, imports of cotton goods, changes in government incentives for growing cotton,
weather conditions, and comparable changes in other countries.
Cotton grows on bushes 3 to 6 feet high. After the blossom drops off, the boll or seed-
pod begins to grow. Inside the boll are seven to eight seeds with several hundred thousand
cotton fibers. Each cotton seed may have as many as 20,000 fibers growing from its surface.
When the boll is ripe and about the size of a walnut, the fluffy white fibers expand as they
grow and eventually split open the boll (Figure 4.3).
Cotton is most often picked by machine (Figure 4.4). This cotton contains many imma-
ture fibers—an inescapable result of mechanically stripping the cotton plant. After picking, the
cotton is pressed into a brick weighing approximately 22,000 pounds (Figure 4.5) and taken
to a gin to separate the fibers and the seeds. In a saw gin, the whirling saws pick up the
fiber and carry it to a knifelike comb, which blocks the seeds and permits the fiber to be car-
ried through (Figure 4.6). The fibers, called lint, are pressed into bales weighing 480 pounds Figure Harvester in a cotton field.
each and sold to spinning mills or exported. Picking and ginning influence the appearance of 4.4

natural cellulosic fibers 65


Figure A brick of cotton in the field awaiting
4.5 movement to the local cotton gin. The
information on the end of the brick
identifies the farmer/grower.
Figure Cotton fiber (left) removed from the
4.6 seed (right).
66 chapter four
cotton fibers. Carefully picked cotton is cleaner. Well-ginned cotton is more uniform in ap-
pearance and color. Poorly ginned cotton contains brown flecks of leftover plant material such
as leaves, stems, or dirt that decrease fiber quality. Fabrics made from such fibers include
utility cloth and may be fashionable when a natural look is popular.
After ginning, the seeds are covered with very short fibers—1/8 inch in length—called
­linters. The linters are removed from the seeds and are used to a limited extent as raw
­material in producing rayon and acetate. Linters are used to stuff small decorator pillows and
are used in automotive upholstery, mops, candlewicks, blankets, mattresses, twine, rugs,
and medical supplies. Linters are also converted into cellophane, photographic film, fingernail
polish, and methylcellulose used in makeup and chewing gum. The seeds are crushed and
refined to obtain cottonseed oil used in human foods such as salad dressings and meal for
use in livestock feed, pharmaceuticals, and soap stock. The hulls are used in animal feed,
fertilizer, garden mulch, and oil drilling mud to plug leaks in oil wells.
Efforts in plant breeding focus on producing cotton varieties with better resistance to
insects, disease, herbicides, fungi, and drought. These plants are then more insect, herbi-
cide, and stress-tolerant contributing to finer and more uniform fibers, and thus yarns, and
more durable fabrics. Genetically modified (GM) cotton, also referred to as bioengineered
or bio tech, in which traits from one species are transferred to another to improve perfor-
mance and reduce pesticide use, have increased, with biotech cotton accounting for a third
of world produced cotton. BT cotton, for example, contains a gene from the bacterium Bacil-
lus thuringiensis that wards off certain insects. It is not without controversy, however, particu-
larly in terms of its unknown long-term environmental and health effects. GM crops, especially
those modified to be insecticide and herbicide resistant, are blamed in part for the decline in
pollinator populations such as bees and Monarch butterflies.
Some plant breeders work to eliminate some of the pollution caused by industrial pro-
cessing and dyeing through production of naturally colored cotton in browns and greens.
Physical Structure of Cotton  Although some naturally colored cotton is produced, most
cotton produced and consumed is creamy white in color. The cotton fiber is a single cell,
which grows from the seed as a hollow tube over one thousand times as long as it is thick.
Length  Staple length is very important because it determines how the fiber is handled during
the spinning process. Length also relates to fiber fineness and fiber tensile strength, important
considerations for end use and performance. Longer cotton fibers are finer and make stronger
yarns. Length is determined by removing a sample from a bale of cotton, sorting the fibers by
length, and calculating the average staple length and the variation of length or uniformity ratio.
Cotton fibers range in length from ½ to 2 inches, depending on the genetic variety. Three
groups of cotton are commercially important:
1. Upland cottons (Gossypium hirsutum, the predominant type of cotton produced in the
United States) are 7/8 to 1¼ inches in length and were developed from cottons native to
Mexico and Central America. Approximately 97% of the U.S. crop is an Upland variety.
2. Long-staple cottons, which are 16/16 to 1½ inches in length, were developed from
Egyptian and South American cottons. Varieties include American Pima, Supima,
Egyptian, American Egyptian, and Sea Island cottons. Cotton from the Gossypium
barbadense variety is about 3% of the crop and is mainly produced in California.
3. Short-staple cottons, also known as tree cotton, Gossypium arboreum and
­Gossypium herbaceum, are less than ¾ inch in length and are only commercially cul-
tivated in ­India and Pakistan.
 Lumen

Primary cell wall

Secondary cell wall

Figure Cross section of mature cotton fiber.

4.8

Figure The label on this cotton embroidery

4.7 yarn promotes use of Egyptian cotton,
one of the ELS cottons.

Long-staple fibers are considered to be of higher quality and are used to produce softer,
smoother, stronger, and more lustrous fabrics. Because their perceived value is higher,
they are often identified on the label or tag as Pima, Supima, Egyptian, or Sea Island Figure Layers of cellulose (schematic).
(­Figure 4.7). Or they may be referred to as long-staple or extra-long-staple (ELS) cotton. 4.9

Distinctive Parts  The cotton fiber is made up of a cuticle, primary wall, secondary wall, and
lumen (Figure 4.8). The fiber grows to almost full length as a hollow tube before the secondary
wall begins to form.
The cuticle is a waxlike film covering the primary, or outer, wall. The secondary wall is
made up of layers of cellulose (Figure 4.9). Reversal
The layers deposited at night differ in density from those deposited during the day; this of spiral

causes growth rings, which can be seen in the cross section. The cellulose layers are com-
Fibrils
posed of fibrils—bundles of cellulose chains—arranged in a spiral that sometimes reverses
direction. These reverse spirals (Figure 4.10) contribute to the development of convolutions
that affect the fiber’s elastic recovery and elongation. They are also 15% to 30% weaker than
the rest of the secondary cell wall.
Cellulose is deposited daily for 20 to 30 days, until, in the mature fiber, the fiber tube is Figure Reverse spirals in cotton fiber.
almost solid. The lumen is the central canal, through which nourishment travels during fiber 4.10
development. When the fiber matures, dried nutrients in the lumen may result in dark areas
that are visible under a microscope.

Convolutions  Convolutions are ribbonlike twists that characterize cotton (Figure 4.11). When
the fibers mature and force the boll open, they dry out and the central canal collapses. Reverse
spirals in the secondary wall cause the fibers to twist. The twist forms a natural texture that
enables the fibers to cling to one another. Thus, despite its short length, yarn spinning is easy

Learning Activity 4
(a) (b)
Considering the three lengths of cotton and your experiences as a consumer, state
two or three products that probably utilized Upland cotton, long-staple cotton, and Figure Photomicrographs of cotton: cross-
short-cotton. Consider both apparel and interior products.
4.11 sectional view (a), longitudinal view (b).
Source: British Textile Technology Group.

natural cellulosic fibers 67


Figure Naturally colored cotton fibers and
4.12 fabrics. New swatch (top) becomes
darker with laundering (bottom).
Figure Fiber removed from a single cotton
4.13 boll varies widely in length ranging
from 3/8 to 1 5/8 inches.
68 chapter four
with cotton. However, the convolutions may trap soil, requiring vigorous cleaning to remove it.
Long-staple cotton has about 300 convolutions per inch; short-staple cotton has less than 200.
Fineness  Cotton fibers vary from 16 to 20 micrometers (microns) in diameter. The cross-sec-
tional shape varies with the maturity of the fiber. Immature fibers tend to be U-shaped, with a
thin cell wall. Mature fibers are more nearly circular, with a thick cell wall and a very small central
canal or lumen. Every cotton boll contains some weak, immature fibers that can create prob-
lems in spinning and dyeing. Figure 4.12 illustrates the variation in size and shape of the fibers.
Color  Cotton is available in a range of colors. Naturally creamy white is highly desirable be-
cause it can be dyed or printed to meet fashion and consumer needs. These fibers may yel-
low with age. If it rains just before harvest, cotton becomes grayer.
Naturally colored cotton fibers have been cultivated for thousands of years. As com-
mercial production replaced hand processes, these fibers declined in importance. By the early
20th century, they were difficult to find. Beginning in the 1990s, interest in naturally colored cot-
ton reemerged, particularly in regards to minimizing the environmental impact and sustainability
concerns of conventionally produced cotton. Naturally colored cottons produce less fiber per
acre, but sell for about twice the price of white cotton. Although more than 10 color varieties
have been reportedly bred successfully, only cottons in the brown and green color families are
commercially available due to their better fiber quality. Naturally colored cottons deepen with age
and care, which is contrary to the aging process of most dyed or printed fabrics (Figure 4.12).
Colored cottons are shorter, weaker, less absorbent, and have less uniform properties than
do white cotton, but improvements are expected as plant breeders concentrate on enhancing
these properties. These cottons also have higher metal content than white cottons, probably
because of the natural pigments in the fiber. Naturally colored cottons are produced in Russia,
India, South and Central America, Africa, and the United States. Plant breeders continue to
work to add blue, lavender, and yellow to the current list of naturally colored cottons. Naturally
colored cotton has lower environmental impact, especially in yarn and fabric finishing processes.
Classification of Cotton  Grading and classification of cotton is done by hand and by
­machine HVI (high-volume instrument) systems. Fiber characteristics, including staple length
and color of the cotton from the bale, are compared with standards prepared by the U.S.
­Department of Agriculture. Pricing and end use of the cotton is largely determined by the
length and the grade of the cotton.
Cotton classification describes the quality of cotton in terms of staple length, grade,
and character. Fiber-length classifications for cotton include very-short-staple cotton (less
than 0.25 inch), short-staple cotton (0.25 to 0.94 inch), medium-staple cotton (0.94 to 1.13
inches), ordinary long-staple cotton (1.13 to 1.38 inches), and extra-long-staple cotton (1.38
inches). Staple length is based on the length of a representative bundle of fibers from a bale
of cotton. There are 19 staple lengths, ranging from less than 13/16 inch to 1⅛ inches and
beyond. A sample classified as 15/32 inch is likely to have fibers ranging in length from ⅛ inch
to 13/16 inches, as shown in Figure 4.13.
There are 39 grades of cotton. Grade refers to the color of the fiber and the absence of dirt,
leaf matter, seed particles, motes or dead fibers, and tangles of fiber called neps. Mote fibers do
not absorb dyes, lower fiber quality, and cause defects in fabrics. The best-quality grade is lus-
trous, silky, white, and clean. The predominant grade of cotton produced in the United States
is strict low-middling cotton. Strict in this case means better than. Strict low-middling cotton is
most often used in mass-produced cotton goods and in cotton/synthetic blends.
 This grading system is used primarily for the creamy white fibers that dominate the
market. Color is described as white, light-spotted, spotted, tinged, or yellow. Color is also
described in terms of lightness to darkness: plus, light gray, and gray. This factor is a combi-
nation of grayness and the amount of leaf bits present in white cotton grades.
Character includes such fiber aspects as maturity, smoothness, and uniformity of fibers
within the bale, fiber fineness, strength, and convolutions. Micronaire values, which reflect
both fineness and maturity, are assessed by forcing air through a standard weight plug of cot-
ton fibers compressed to a fixed volume. Lower micronaire results indicate less mature and
coarser fibers, while higher values indicate more mature and finer fibers. Character identifies
the amount of processing necessary to produce a good white fabric for commercial use. Be-
cause of yearly variations in growing conditions and in geographic locations, yarn and fabric
producers carefully select and blend cottons so that the cotton fabrics and products are as
uniform from year to year as possible.

Chemical Composition and Molecular Arrangement of Cotton  Cotton, when picked,

is about 94% cellulose; in finished fabrics it is 99% cellulose. Like all cellulose f­ibers, cotton
contains reactive hydroxyl groups. Cotton may have as many as 10,000 glucose monomers
per molecule connected in long linear chains and arranged in a spiral form within the fiber.
Chain length (average number of glucose monomers per molecule) contributes to fiber strength.
Cotton can be altered by using chemical treatments or finishes. Mercerization (treating
yarns or fabrics with sodium hydroxide [NaOH]) causes a permanent physical change. The
fiber swells and creates a rounder cross section. Mercerization increases absorbency and
improves the dyeability of cotton yarns and fabrics. Liquid ammonia is used as an alternative
to several preparation finishes, especially mercerization. Fabrics treated with ammonia have
good luster and dyeability. When these fabrics are treated to be wrinkle-resistant, they are not
as stiff and harsh as mercerized wrinkle-resistant fabrics.

Properties of Cotton  Cotton is a comfortable fiber. Appropriate for year-round use, it is the
­fiber most preferred for many interiors and for warm-weather apparel, especially where the cli-
mate is hot and humid.
Table 4.3 summarizes cotton’s performance in apparel and interior textiles.

Table 4.3 Summary of the Performance of Cotton in Apparel

and Interior Textiles
Aesthetics Attractive Appearance Retention Moderate
Luster Matte, pleasant Resiliency Poor
Drape Soft to stiff Dimensional stability Moderate
Texture Pleasant Elastic recovery Moderate
Hand Smooth to rough Recommended Care Machine-wash and
Durability Good dry (apparel)

Abrasion resistance Good Hot-water

extraction
Tenacity Good
method or
Elongation Poor dry-clean with
Comfort Excellent caution (interior
textiles)
Absorbency Excellent
Thermal retention Poor

natural cellulosic fibers 69


Cotton, a natural seed fiber, is prized for its
comfort, durability, and easy-care.
70 chapter four
Reviewing the fiber property tables in Chapter 3 will help when comparing cotton’s per-
formance to that of other fibers.
Aesthetics  Cotton is attractive for consumers in apparel and interior end uses. Cotton fab-
rics are widely accepted. Their matte appearance and low luster are the standards that have
been retained with many blends used in apparel and interiors.
Long-staple cotton fibers contribute luster to fabrics. Mercerized and ammonia-treated
cotton fabrics have a soft, pleasant luster resulting from the finishes; cotton sateen’s luster is
due to a combination of fabric structure and finishing.
Drape, luster, texture, and hand are impacted by choice of yarn size and type, fabric
structure, and finish. Cotton fabrics range from soft, sheer batiste to crisp, sheer voile to fine
chintz to sturdy denim and corduroy.
Durability  Cotton has good durability. Cotton is a medium-strength fiber, with a dry breaking
tenacity of 3.5 to 4.0g/d (grams per denier). It is 30% stronger when wet. Long-staple cotton
produces stronger yarns because there are more contact points among the fibers when they
are twisted together. Because of its higher wet strength, cotton can be handled roughly during
laundering and in use.
Abrasion resistance is good; heavy fabrics are more abrasion-resistant than thinner fab-
rics. Fiber elongation is low (3%), with low elasticity.
Comfort  Cotton has excellent comfort properties. Cotton makes very comfortable fabrics
for skin contact because of its high absorbency, soft hand, and good heat and electrical
conductivity. Static buildup is not a problem. It has no surface characteristics that irritate the
skin. Cotton has a moisture regain of 7% to 11%. When cotton becomes wet, the fibers swell
and become more pliant. This property makes it possible to give a smooth, flat finish to cotton
fabrics in pressing or finishing and makes high-count woven fabrics water-repellent. However,
as cotton fabrics absorb more moisture in cool, damp conditions, they feel wet or clammy
and become uncomfortable.
Still, cotton is good for use in hot and humid weather. The fibers absorb moisture and
feel good against the skin in high humidity. The fiber ends in the spun yarn hold the fabric
slightly off of the skin for greater comfort. Moisture passes freely through the fabric, thus aid-
ing evaporation and cooling.
Appearance Retention  Cotton has moderate appearance retention. It has very low resil-
iency. The hydrogen bonds holding the molecular chains together are weak, and when fabrics
are bent or crushed, particularly in the presence of moisture, the chains move freely to new
positions. When pressure is removed, these weak internal forces cannot pull the chains back
to their original positions, so the fabrics stay wrinkled. Creases can be pressed in and wrinkles
can be pressed out, but wrinkling during use and care remain a problem. However, cotton
fibers can be given a durable-press finish or blended with polyester and given a durable-press
finish so they do not wrinkle as easily. Unfortunately, these finishes decrease fiber strength
and abrasion resistance.
Cotton’s poor resiliency means that it is seldom used in pile rugs or carpets. However,
ongoing research is attempting to improve cotton’s performance in this significant market.
All-cotton fabrics shrink unless they have been given a durable-press finish or a
­shrinkage-resistant finish. Untreated cottons shrink less when washed in cool water and drip-
dried; they shrink more when washed in hot water and tumble dried in a hot dryer. When they
are used again, they may stretch out slightly—think of cotton denim jeans or fitted cotton sheets.
 Shrinkage should be low for all-cotton fabrics that have been given a wrinkle-resistant
or durable-press finish or that have been treated for shrinkage. However, more effort may
be needed with handwoven or short-staple cotton fabrics, unless the label includes specific
information about shrinkage.
Elastic recovery is moderate. Cotton recovers 75% from a 2% to 5% stretch. This means
that cotton stays stretched out in areas of stress, such as in the elbow or knee areas of garments.

Care  Cotton can be machine washed and machine dried. Interior furnishings can be hot-­
water extraction cleaned or dry cleaned. Cotton can be washed with strong detergents and
requires no special care during washing and drying. White cottons can be washed in hot wa-
ter. Many dyed cottons retain their color better if washed in warm, not hot, water. If items are
not heavily soiled, cool water cleans them adequately. Cotton releases most soils readily, but
soil-resistant finishes are desirable for some interior and apparel uses. Use of chlorine bleach
is appropriate for spot removal, but should not be used on a regular basis because excessive
chlorine bleaching weakens cellulosic fibers.
Less wrinkling occurs in the dryer if items are removed immediately after drying. Cotton
fabrics respond best to steam pressing or ironing while damp. Fabric blends of cotton and
a heat-sensitive fiber need to be ironed at a lower temperature to avoid melting the heat-­
sensitive fiber. Cotton is not thermoplastic; it can be ironed safely at high temperatures. How-
ever, cotton burns readily.
Cotton draperies should be dry-cleaned. Cotton upholstery may be cleaned using the
hot-water extraction method, with caution. If shrinkage occurs, the fabric may split or rupture
where it is attached to the frame.
Cottons should be stored clean and dry. In damp or humid conditions, mildew can form.
Mildew digests cellulose and may cause holes if enough time elapses. If textiles smell of mil-
dew, they can be laundered or bleached to remove the odor. But if the mildew areas are visi-
ble dark or black spots, they indicate permanent and excessive fiber damage.
Cotton is harmed by acids. Fruit and fruit juice stains should be treated promptly with
cold water for easy removal, because of the acid content and the colorant present in most
fruit. Cotton is not greatly harmed by heavy duty detergents or other alkalis. Cotton is resistant
to organic solvents, so it can be safely dry-cleaned.
Cotton oxidizes in sunlight, which causes white and pastel cottons to yellow and all
cotton to degrade. Some dyes are especially sensitive to sunlight, and when used in win-
dow-treatment fabrics the dyed areas disintegrate.

Sustainability of Cotton  Since cotton is a natural fiber, many consumers who are con-
cerned about sustainability and the environment believe it is a good choice. However, ­although
cotton is a renewable resource, it cannot be produced without environmental ­impact. Main-
stream farming methods that produce conventional cotton make extensive use of ­agricultural

Learning Activity 5
Select an item of apparel you or a classmate is wearing that is all cotton. Identify
one or more performance aspects of the product related to each of the serviceability
­concepts (aesthetics, durability, comfort, appearance retention, care). Has the perfor-
mance of the product been satisfactory? Explain performance satisfaction and perfor-
mance problems in terms of fiber characteristics.

natural cellulosic fibers 71


Although cotton is a renewable resource,
it cannot be produced without significant
environmental impact.
72 chapter four
chemicals to fertilize the soil, fight insects and disease, control plant growth, and strip the
leaves for harvest. Excess rain can create problems with runoff contaminated with these
chemicals, many of which are toxic to other plants, insects, animals, and people. While many
cotton growers have modified agricultural practices to reduce use of agrichemicals and soil
erosion and utilize genetically modified cotton which reduces the amount of pesticides needed
this is not the case for all cotton growers.
Cotton that is harvested by machine is often treated with defoliant chemicals to remove
the leaves. Machine-picked cotton usually also includes impurities such as seeds, dirt, and
plant residue, which requires more effort in cleaning. Hand-picked cotton does not include
these components, but children are sometimes used as slave labor to pick cotton. Further,
opening cotton bales can generate significant amounts of dust that if not removed from the
air can result in lung disorders for workers in that part of the cotton production plant.
Cotton is a water-intensive crop requiring at least 20 inches of rain per year. Sometimes
this cotton is marketed as rain-fed cotton. But in many areas of the world where rainfall is low
or irregular, irrigation is used. Excessive irrigation can upset the water table or the water level
in the soil. In some geographic regions, irrigation is so extremely inefficient, up to 50% of the
water is wasted. Irrigation has created problems in some parts of the world for people and en-
vironments dependent on rivers and lakes. So much water can be diverted for cotton produc-
tion that rivers disappear and lakes dry up, destroying ecosystems and forcing communities
to move away from their traditional homes to the irrigated areas.
Tilling the soil contributes to soil erosion by water and wind. Efforts to improve the pro-
duction of cotton are focusing on use of locally adapted varieties that require fewer agricul-
tural chemicals and less irrigation, wide crop rotation to avoid depleting the soil of necessary
nutrients, and mechanical and manual weed control as opposed to chemical herbicides.
Genetically modified (GM) cotton alters the use of pesticides and is tolerant of herbicides.
Benefits of GM cotton include less use of pesticides, yields equal to or higher than conven-
tional cotton, no loss in fiber quality, less soil erosion because of less tilling of the soil, and
higher incomes for producers. There remains concern, however, about insect resistance to
GM crops and weed proliferation which lead to pesticide application.
Cotton is produced in many parts of the world and is a major cash crop in more than 80
countries. This means that farmers raise cotton to produce income for their families. When cotton
prices and production are good, their incomes increase. However, when cotton prices or pro-
duction falls, incomes suffer a similar decrease. Droughts, decreasing prices for cotton, floods,
disease, or insect problems can create significant hardships for cotton farmers—regardless of
the size of their farm. In some parts of the world, a significant portion of the labor involved in hand
harvesting cotton is performed by forced child labor. Many segments of the global textile com-
plex deplore this practice and refuse to source cotton from areas that violate minimum age laws.
In an effort to provide consumers and producers with more information at the point of
purchase, several terms are used to describe cotton grown under more environmentally
friendly conditions. Organic cotton is produced following state fiber-certification standards
on land where organic farming practices have been used for at least three years. No synthetic
6 Learning Activity
Gather relevant information from multiple authoritative print and electronic sources,
­assess the strengths and limitations of using GM cotton for fabric production.
commercial pesticides or fertilizers are used in organic farming. Integrated pest management
programs help decrease use of pesticides. The BASIC (biological agricultural systems in cot-
ton) program uses approximately 70% fewer pesticides and is an alternative to organic cotton.
Transition cotton is produced on land where organic farming is practiced, but the three-year
minimum has not been met. Green cotton describes cotton fabric that has been washed
with mild natural-based soap but has not been bleached or treated with other chemicals, ex-
cept possibly natural dyes. The term conventional cotton describes all other cottons.
Some retailers and manufacturers have made a commitment to use only organic cot-
ton in their products (Figure 4.14). Organic and transition cottons are more expensive than
conventional cotton. The additional costs are related to the lower fiber yield per acre, require-
ments for processing in facilities that are free of hazardous chemicals, and the smaller quanti-
ties of fibers that are processed and sold.
In order to add color in dyeing and printing, cotton is bleached in a chemical and water
solution and rinsed. Dyes, pigments, and finishing chemicals add to the consumer appeal
of cotton products. All these steps make extensive use of water, other chemicals, and heat.
­Although the industry has improved recycling, reduced waste, and cleaned up wastewater, Figure Organic cotton yarn. Worsted on this
the net environmental effect of processing cotton continues to be a concern. 4.14 label refers to the equipment on which
the yarn was processed and its size.

Identification of Cotton  Microscopic identification of cotton is relatively easy. Convolu-

tions are readily seen along the fiber. Burn tests will verify cellulose, but a more precise identi-
fication is not possible with this procedure. Fiber length helps in determining content, but long
fibers can be broken or cut shorter. Cotton is soluble in strong mineral acids, like sulfuric acid.

Uses of Cotton  Cotton is one of the most important textile fibers in the world, accounting for
around 27.9% of total world fiber use. The U.S. cotton industry accounts for more than $25 ­billion

Learning Activity 7
Work in groups of four. Two students discuss the advantages of increasing use of cot-
ton for apparel, interiors, and technical products. Two students discuss the concerns
related to the sustainability of cotton. Switch roles and repeat the discussion. Summa-
rize four major points each side identified and reach consensus on the topic.

Learning Activity 8
Use three to four yarns from Fabric #48 from your swatch kit. Following the procedures
described in Chapter 3, examine the fibers using the microscope to see the convolu-
tions and variations among the cotton fibers. Identify the maturity of the fiber—mature
fibers are very rounded, while immature fibers are U-shaped or flatter.

Learning Activity 9
Use three to four yarns from Fabric #48 from your swatch kit. Following the procedures
and safety precautions described in Chapter 3, conduct a burn test. Describe the ease
of ignition, the color and odor of the smoke, and the color and texture of the cooled
ash. Compare your results with those included in Table 3.7 or with the chart on the
sheet with the fiber bags in your swatch kit.

natural cellulosic fibers 73

 in products and services annually. Cotton is primarily used for apparel, and then interior, and
industrial applications. All-cotton fabrics are used when comfort is of primary importance and
­appearance retention is less important, or when a more casual fabric is a
­ cceptable. Cotton
blended with polyester in wrinkle-resistant fabrics is widely marketed. These blends retain cotton’s
pleasant appearance, have the same or increased durability, are less comfortable in conditions of
extreme heat and humidity or high physical activity, and have better appearance retention as com-
pared with 100% cotton fabrics. However, removal of oily soil is a greater problem with blends.
Cotton is a very important interiors fabric because of its versatility, natural comfort, and
ease of finishing and dyeing. Towels are mostly cotton—softness, absorbency, wide range of
colors, and washability are important in this end use. Durability can be increased in the base
fabric, as well as in the selvages and hems, by blending polyester with the cotton. However,
the loops of terry towels are 100% cotton so that maximum absorbency is retained.
Sheets and pillowcases of all-cotton or cotton/polyester blends are available in percale,
flannelette, dobby and jacquard weaves, muslin, and jersey. A range of blend levels and
counts are available. Cotton blankets and bedspreads can be found in a variety of weights
and fabric types. Draperies, curtains, upholstery fabrics, slipcovers, rugs, and wall coverings
are made of cotton. Cotton upholstery fabrics are attractive and durable, comfortable, easy to
spot-clean, and retain their appearance well. Resiliency is not a problem with the heavyweight
fabrics that are stretched over the furniture frame. Cotton is susceptible to abrasion, water-
borne stains, and shrinkage if cleaning is too vigorous or incorrect. Small accent rugs made
from cotton can be machine-washed.
Medical, surgical, and sanitary supplies are frequently made of cotton. Since cotton
can be autoclaved (heated to a high temperature to sanitize it), it is widely used in hos-
pitals. ­A bsorbency, washability, and low static buildup are also important properties in
these uses.
Technical uses include abrasives, book bindings, luggage and handbags, shoes and slip-
pers, tobacco cloth, and woven wiping cloths. Recycled denim scraps are used to create
paper currency.
Cotton Incorporated is a research and marketing company that promotes the demand
for and profitability of The Fabric of Our Lives®: cotton. It also promotes the use of all-cotton
and NATURAL BLEND™ fabrics with at least 60% cotton. The National Cotton Council is an
organization of producers, processors, and manufacturers.

Coir
Coir is obtained from the fibrous mass between the outer shell and the husk of the coconut

Figure Coir entry mat. (Cocos nucifera). It is sometimes sold as coco fiber. The long, curly fibers are removed by soak-
4.15 ing the husk in saline water. Coir, which is very stiff, is naturally cinnamon-brown (Figure 4.15).

10 Learning Activity
Consider your own shopping and laundry practices. Discuss with one other person
your laundry habits, do you wash your clothes on cold or hot cycles? Do you choose
low or high heat settings for the dryer? When shopping, do you seek out organic or
transitionally grown cotton products? Why or why not? How do you dispose of your
clothing items that you no longer wish to keep? What impact do these practices have
on the environment?

74 chapter four
It can be bleached and dyed. It has good resistance to abrasion, water, and weather. Available
from Sri Lanka, coir is used for indoor and outdoor mats, rugs, floor tiles, and brushes. Its stiff,
wiry texture and coarse size produce fabrics whose weave, pattern, or design is clearly visible.
These floor textiles are extremely durable and blend with interiors of many styles.

Kapok
Kapok is obtained from the seed of the Java kapok (silk cotton) tree (Eriodendron anfractuo-
sum) or the Indian kapok tree (Bombax malabarica). The fiber is lightweight, soft, hollow, and
very buoyant, but it quickly breaks down. The fiber is difficult to spin into yarns, so it is used
primarily as fiberfill in some imported items from Java, South America, and India (Figure 4.16).
Researchers in India are studying ways of blending kapok with cotton for apparel uses.

Milkweed
Milkweed (Asclepias incarnate and A. syrica) produces a soft, lustrous, hollow-floss seed
hair fiber resembling kapok. Milkweed has been used for fiberfill in comforters, personal flo- Figure Kapok fiberfill from a pillow.
tation devices, and upholstery. It is very difficult to spin into yarns because it is so weak, 4.16
smooth, and straight (Figure 4.17). Milkweed is also known as silkweed fiber and asclepias
cotton.
Additional seed fibers include coir, kapok,
and milkweed.
Bast Fibers
Bast fibers come from the stem of the plant, near the outer edge (Figure 4.18). Hand labor
may be used to process bast fibers, and production has flourished in countries where labor
is cheap. Since the fiber extends into the root, harvesting is done by pulling up the plant with
mechanical pullers or cutting it close to the ground to keep the fiber as long as possible.
Cut fibers are approximately 10% shorter than pulled fibers. After harvesting, the seeds are
­removed by pulling the plant through a machine in a process called rippling.
Bast fibers lie in bundles in the stem of the plant, just under the outer covering or bark.
They are sealed together by a substance composed of pectins, waxes, and gums. To loosen
the fibers so that they can be removed from the stalk, the pectin must be d
­ ecomposed by a

Bast fiber area

Epidermis
Figure Milkweed fiber is lightweight and
Cambium and xylem
4.17 lustrous.
Cortex

Figure Bast fibers are located toward the epidermis of the

4.18 plant stem.

natural cellulosic fibers 75


Figure Flax fiber at different stages of
4.19 processing: plant stems before retting,
fiber after hackling, fiber during yarn
processing, bleached linen yarn (left
to right).
Bast fibers come from the stem of the
plant, near the outer edge and include flax,
ramie, and hemp.
Cottonizing describes the process of
­reducing a bast fiber to a length similar to
that of cotton, making it easier to process.
Flax fibers are prized for their body,
strength, durability, pleasant hand, and
thick-and-thin texture.
Figure Flax growing in a field.
4.20
76 chapter four
bacterial rotting process called retting. The process ­differs for individual ­fibers, but the major
steps are the same. Fiber quality can be greatly ­impacted by the retting process. Retting can
be done in the fields (dew retting) or in stagnant ponds, pools, or tanks (water retting), where
the temperature and bacterial count can be carefully controlled with special enzymes or with
chemicals such as sodium hydroxide. Chemical retting is much faster than any other method.
However, extra care must be taken or the fiber can be irreversibly damaged. Retting can cre-
ate problems with water quality if the retting water is released directly into streams or lakes.
Dew retting is done in many areas because of its minimal environmental impact.
After the stems have been rinsed and dried, the woody portion is removed by scutching,
a process that breaks or crushes the outer covering when the stalks are passed between
fluted metal rollers. Most of the fibers are separated from one a
­ nother, and the short and
irregular fibers are removed by hackling, or combing. This final step removes any remaining
woody portion and arranges the fibers in a parallel fashion. F
­ igure  4.19 shows the plant or
fiber at each step in processing.
Bast fibers characteristically have thick-and-thin variations in their appearance when pro-
cessed into yarns and fabrics. This occurs because fiber bundles are never completely sepa-
rated into individual or primary fibers.
Because the processing of bast fibers is time-consuming and requires specialized
­machinery, researchers have developed ways of speeding up the process and minimizing the
need for special equipment. Cottonizing reduces a bast fiber to a length similar to that of
cotton. These cottonized fibers can be processed on equipment designed for cotton but may
lack some of their more traditional characteristics related to hand, luster, and durability. Flax,
ramie, and hemp are bast fibers that are frequently cottonized.
Flax
Flax is one of the oldest documented textile fibers. Fragments of linen fabric have been found
in prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland; linen mummy wraps more than 3,000 years old
have been found in Egyptian tombs. The linen industry flourished in Europe until the 18th
century. With the invention of power spinning, cotton replaced flax as the most important and
widely used fiber.
Today, flax is a prestige fiber as a result of its limited production and relatively high cost.
The term linen refers to fabric made from flax, but, that term may be misused when it refers
to fabrics of other fibers made of thick-and-thin yarns with a heavy body and crisp hand.
Irish linen always refers to fabrics made from flax. (Because of its historic wide use in sheets,
­tablecloths, and towels, the word linen is used to refer to table, bed, and bath textiles.)
The unique and desirable characteristics of flax are its body, strength, durability, low pill-
ing and linting tendencies, pleasant hand, and thick-and-thin texture. The main limitations of
flax are low resiliency and lack of elasticity.
Most flax is produced in Canada, Russia, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Some flax is also
grown in India, Pakistan, China, and Africa. The majority of flax grown in the United States is
in the Dakotas and Minnesota, because it is a crop that matures rapidly under cool, short-­
season growing conditions (Figure 4.20).
Structure of Flax  Individual fiber cells, called ultimates, are spindle-shaped with pointed
ends and a center lumen. The primary fiber of flax averages 5.0 to 21.5 inches in length
and 12 to 16 micrometers in diameter. Flax fibers (Linum usitatissium) can be identified
­microscopically by crosswise markings called nodes or joints that contribute to its flexibility
(Figure 4.21). The nodes may appear slightly swollen resembling the joints in a stalk of corn
or bamboo. The fibers have a small central canal similar to the lumen in cotton. The cross
section is m
­ any-sided or polygonal with rounded edges. Immature fibers are more oval in
cross-section with a larger lumen.
Flax is similar to cotton in its chemical composition (71% cellulose). Compared to cotton,
flax has a longer polymer (a higher degree of polymerization) and greater orientation and crys-
tallinity. Flax fibers are slightly grayish when dew retted and more yellow when water retted. Be- (a) (b)
cause flax has a more highly oriented molecular structure than cotton, it is stronger than cotton. Figure Photomicrographs of flax: cross-
Short flax fibers are called tow; the long, combed, better-quality fibers are called line. 4.21 sectional view (a), longitudinal view (b).
Line fibers are ready for wet spinning into yarn. The tow fibers must be carded before dry Source: British Textile Technology Group.

spinning into yarns for heavier fabrics for interior textiles.

Properties of Flax Table 4.4 summarizes flax’s performance when used in apparel or

­interior textiles.
Review the fiber property tables in Chapter 3 to compare the performance of flax with
that of other fibers.

Aesthetics  Flax has quite pleasing, excellent aesthetics. It has a high natural luster that is
softened by its irregular fiber bundles. Its luster can be increased by flattening yarns with pres-
sure during finishing.
Because flax has a higher degree of orientation and crystallinity and a larger fiber diam-
eter than cotton, linen fabrics are stiffer in drape and harsher in hand. Finishes that wash and
air blow the fabric produce softer and more drapeable fabrics.

Durability  Flax is strong for a natural fiber. It has a breaking tenacity of 3.5 to 5.0g/d when
dry that increases to 6.5g/d when wet. Flax has a very low elongation of approximately 7%.
Elasticity is poor, with a 65% recovery at only 2% elongation. Flax is also a stiff fiber. With poor

Table 4.4  Summary of the Performance of Flax in Apparel

and Interior Textiles
Aesthetics Excellent
Luster High
Texture Thick-and-thin
Hand Stiff
Durability Good
Abrasion resistance Good
Tenacity Good
Elongation Poor
Comfort High
Absorbency High
Thermal retention Good
Appearance Retention Poor
Resiliency Poor
Dimensional stability Moderate
Elastic recovery Poor
Recommended Care Dry-clean or machine-wash (apparel)
Hot-water extraction or dry-clean (interior textiles.)

natural cellulosic fibers 77

 elongation, elasticity, and stiffness, repeatedly folding a linen item in the same place will cause
the fabric to break. The nodes contribute greatly to flexibility, but they are also the weakest
part of the fiber. Flax has good flat abrasion resistance for a natural fiber because of its high
orientation and crystallinity.

Comfort  Flax has excellent comfort. With a high moisture regain of 12%, it is a good conduc-
tor of electricity with no static buildup. Flax is also a good conductor of heat, so it makes an
excellent fabric for warm-weather wear. Flax has the same high specific gravity (1.52) as cotton.

Care  Linen fabrics can be dry-cleaned or machine-washed and bleached with chlorine
bleaches. It is resistant to alkalis, organic solvents, and high temperatures. For upholstery
and wall coverings, careful hot-water extraction cleaning is recommended to avoid shrinkage.
Linen fabrics have low resiliency and often require pressing. They are more sunlight-resistant
than cotton.
Crease-resistant finishes are used on linen, but the resins may decrease fiber strength and
abrasion resistance. The poor appearance retention, or wrinkling characteristics of linen, makes
it easy to recognize. Linen fabrics must be stored dry; otherwise mildew will become a problem.

Sustainability of Flax  Flax has less of an environmental impact than cotton. The pro-
duction of flax requires fewer agricultural chemicals like fertilizer and pesticides, and irrigation
is seldom required. But the practice of pulling the plants during harvest in order to get lon-
ger ­fibers contributes to soil erosion. Removing the fiber from the stem requires significant
amounts of water, but recycling is often used. Depending on the type of retting used, disposal
of chemicals and contaminated water are other areas of concern. Changes in retting practices
have occurred because of environmental issues. Dew and enzyme retting are more sustain-
able practices than water retting. Hand labor used in some areas where flax is produced
needs to be monitored to avoid exploitation of workers.

Identification Tests  Flax burns readily in a manner very similar to that of cotton. Fiber
length is an easy way to differentiate between these two cellulosic fibers. Cotton is seldom
more than 2.5 inches in length; flax is almost always longer than that. However, cottonized flax
Figure Linen lampshade. will be more difficult to identify. Flax is also soluble in strong acids.
4.22

Uses of Linen  Linen is used in bed, table, and bath items, in other interior items for home
and commercial use, in apparel, and in technical products (Figure 4.22). Linen fabrics are ideal
for wallpaper and wall coverings up to 120 inches wide because their irregular texture adds
­interest, hides nail holes or wall damage, and muffles noise. Linen fabrics are used in uphol-
stery and window treatments because of their durability, interesting and soil-hiding textures,
and versatility in fabrication and design.
Linen apparel includes items for warm-weather use, high fashion, casual, and profes-
sional wear. Technical products include luggage, bags, purses, and sewing thread.
Organizations such as the Center for American Flax Fiber and Flax Council of Canada
promote, publicize, and educate the public regarding flax and its many uses.

Ramie
Figure Ramie blend sweaters Ramie is also known as rhea, grasscloth, China grass, and Army/Navy cloth (Figure 4.23).
4.23 (55% ramie/45% cotton). It has been used for several thousand years in China, Japan, and India. The ramie plant

78 chapter four
 Learning Activity 11
Use a yarn from Fabric #1 from your swatch kit. Following the procedures described
in Chapter 3, examine the fibers using the microscope to see the nodes and varia-
tions among the flax fibers. Describe the differences in surface contour and structure
­between flax and cotton.

Learning Activity 12
Use three to four yarns from Fabric #1 from your swatch kit. Following the procedures
and safety precautions described in Chapter 3, conduct a burn test. Describe the ease
of ignition, the color of the smoke, the color and texture of the ash, and the smell of the
smoke. Compare your results with those included in Table 3.7 or with the chart on the
sheet with the fiber bags in your swatch kit. Describe the similarities and differences
between your results with cotton and linen.

Learning Activity 13
Select an end use for flax other than apparel. Explain its performance characteristics
that make it appropriate for that end use.

(­Boehmeria nivea) is a tall perennial shrub from the nettle family that requires a hot, humid
climate. Ramie is fast-growing and can be harvested as frequently as every 60 days. Thus,
several crops can be harvested each year. An individual plant will survive six to twenty years.
Because it is a perennial, it is cut, not pulled. It has been grown in the Everglades and Gulf
Coast regions of the United States, but it is not currently produced in those areas.
Ramie fibers must be separated from the plant stalk by decortication, in which the bark
and woody portion of the plant stem are separated from the fiber (83% cellulose). Because
this process required a lot of hand labor, ramie did not become commercially important until
less expensive mechanized ways of decorticating ramie were developed. Because ramie is
a relatively inexpensive fiber that can be cottonized and blends well with many other fibers,
ramie or ramie blend items are common in the United States (Figure 4.23). Ramie is produced
in China, Japan, Brazil, the Philippines, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, and India. Ramie must
be degummed by boiling in a weak alkaline solution to remove the wax and pectin along the
cell walls and separate the fiber bundles.

Properties of Ramie Table 4.5 summarizes ramie’s performance in apparel and interior

textiles. Ramie is a white, long, fine fiber with a silklike luster. It is similar to flax in absorbency,
density, and microscopic appearance (Figure 4.24). Because of its high molecular crystallinity
and orientation, ramie is stiff and brittle. Like flax, it will break if folded repeatedly in the same
place. Consequently, it lacks resiliency and is low in elasticity and elongation potential. Ramie
can be treated to be wrinkle-resistant.
Ramie is one of the strongest natural fibers known; its strength increases when it is wet.
It is resistant to insects, rotting, mildew, and shrinkage. Its absorbency is good, but it does
not dye as well as cotton. Ramie can be mercerized to enhance dye absorbency. Ramie does
not retain color well unless it is dry-cleaned.

natural cellulosic fibers 79

 Table 4.5  Summary of the Performance of Ramie in Apparel and
Interior Textiles
Aesthetics Good
Luster Matte
Texture Thick-and-thin
Hand Stiff
Durability Moderate
Abrasion resistance Moderate
Tenacity Good
Elongation Moderate
Comfort Good
Absorbency High
Thermal retention Moderate
Appearance Retention Poor
Resiliency Poor
Dimensional stability Poor
(a) (b)
Elastic recovery Poor
Figure Photomicrographs of ramie: cross-
4.24 sectional view (a), longitudinal view (b). Recommended Care Dry-clean or machine-wash
Source: British Textile Technology Group.

14 Learning Activity
Ramie is often blended with other fibers
Examine the performance properties in Table 4.5. Determine reasons why ramie is usu-
and is often used in apparel such as ally blended with other fibers for apparel end uses. For what performance characteris-
sweaters and for interiors such as window tics is ramie often used in technical applications such as ropes, twines, and geotextiles
treatments. for ground-cover fabrics for erosion control?

Uses  Ramie is used in many imported apparel items, including sweaters, shirts, blouses, and
suits. Ramie is important in interiors for window treatments, pillows, and table linens. It is often
blended with other natural fibers in levels greater than 50% ramie for many apparel and interior
uses. It is used in ropes, twines, nets, banknotes, cigarette paper, and geotextiles for ground-
cover fabrics for erosion control.

Hemp
The history of hemp is as old as that of flax. Hemp resembles flax in macroscopic and micro-
scopic appearance; some varieties of hemp are very difficult to distinguish from flax. Although
hemp is coarser and stiffer than flax, processing and cottonizing can minimize these differ-
ences. Hemp fibers can be very long, from 3 to 15 feet. It is processed in a manner similar
to flax with similar environmental issues. Alternatives to regular retting are enzyme retting and
steam explosion. In steam explosion, steam is used to break apart the fiber and the woody
stem. While the process shortens the staple length and reduces its strength, hemp processed
in this manner is easier to process on cotton spinning equipment.
Depending on the processing used to remove the fiber from the plant stem, it may be
naturally creamy white, brown, gray, almost black, or green. It is 78% cellulose and can be
machine-washed and dried. The plant produces three types of fibers (Figure 4.25). The bast
Figure Young hemp plants.
4.25 fibers from the outer region of the stalk are the longest and finest. These are the fibers most

80 chapter four
often used in 100% hemp and blend fabrics with linen, cotton, or silk for apparel and interi-
ors. The inner two fibers are shorter and most often used in nonwovens and other technical
­applications. The innermost woody core fibers are used for mulch and pet and animal bed-
ding. Hemp is resistant to ultraviolet light and mold. It has only 5% elongation, the lowest of
the natural fibers.
The high strength of hemp makes it particularly suitable for twine, cordage, and thread.
Hemp is resistant to rotting when exposed to water. Although hemp had been an import-
ant technical fiber for centuries, its importance began to decline in the late 1940s because
of competition from synthetic fibers and regulations controlling the production of drugs. The
hemp plant (Cannabis sativa) is a close relative of the plant used to produce marijuana. Both
contain delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the psychoactive component found in the drug.
Hemp is a strong and comfortable fiber
Hemp varieties with less than 1% content of THC, are of no value as a drug source. The U.S.
with good absorbency, used in some
Controlled Substance Act, however, does not distinguish between hemp and marijuana,
apparel and interior products.
and growing either is illegal. Numerous states and national initiatives are working to return
industrial hemp production to the United States.
Because of its comfort and good absorbency (8%), hemp is used for some apparel and
interiors. Hemp is environmentally friendly and does not require the use of pesticides during
its production. It grows so quickly that it smothers weeds. Its root system minimizes soil ero-
sion. Approximately 20% to 30% of the hemp plant is fiber. Hemp produces 250% more fiber
than cotton and 600% more fiber than flax on the same land. All hemp products in the United
States, from twine to clothing, must be imported. Most hemp fiber is imported from China and
the Philippines, but it is also grown in cooler climates in Italy, France, Chile, Russia, Poland,
India, and Canada. Hemp is found in hats, shirts, shoes, backpacks, T-shirts, and jeans.
Hemp also is used as a paper fiber and as litter and bedding for animals. Due to its thermal
insulation properties, some European companies use hemp for car interiors, including dash-
boards and door panels. In some areas, it is being grown on land to extract such pollutants as
zinc and mercury from the soil. Oil from hemp seeds is used to make cooking oil, cosmetics,
and plastic.

Jute
Jute was used as a fiber in Biblical times and probably was the fiber used in sackcloth. Jute,
which is 61% cellulose, is one of the cheapest natural textile fibers. It is grown throughout
Asia, chiefly in India and Bangladesh. The primary fibers in the fiber bundle are short and brit-
tle, making jute one of the weakest of the cellulosic fibers.
Jute is creamy white to brown in color. While soft, lustrous, and pliable when first
­removed from the stalk, it quickly turns brown, weak, and brittle. Jute has poor elasticity and
elongation.
Jute is used to produce sugar and coffee bagging, carpet backing, rope, cordage, and
twine, but it is facing strong competition from olefin for these end uses (Figure 4.26). Because
jute is losing its market, it is being investigated as a reinforcing fiber in resins to create pre-
formed low-cost housing and in geotextiles.
Jute is used in bagging. Burlap or hessian is used for window treatments, area rugs,
and wall coverings. Jute has low sunlight resistance and poor colorfastness, although some
­direct, vat, and acid dyes produce fast colors. It is brittle and subject to splitting and snag-
ging. It also deteriorates quickly when exposed to water. Jute is occasionally used in casual
Figure Examples of jute used in commodity
apparel like walking shorts. 4.26 bags.

natural cellulosic fibers 81

 Kenaf
Kenaf is a soft bast fiber from the kenaf plant. The fiber is long, light yellow to gray, and
harder and more lustrous than jute. Like jute, it is used for twine, cordage, and other technical
purposes. Kenaf is produced in Central Asia, India, Africa, and some Central American coun-
tries. Kenaf is being investigated by researchers as a source of paper fiber and in blends with
cotton.

Hibiscus
Hibiscus is from the same general botanical family as cotton—the Malvaceae family. The
plant (Hibiscus ficulneus) grows as a tall shrub in tropical and subtropical regions (Figure 4.27).
While it is commercially grown and used for clarifying sugarcane juice, the waste material has
been studied for its fiber potential. As with other bast fibers, retting is required to extract the
fiber from the plant stem. Hibiscus fiber can be bleached and has good fastness when dyed
with direct dyes. The fiber is stronger than jute with potential uses in bags, rugs, and some
apparel items when used in blends.
Figure Hibiscus is a tropical and subtropical
4.27 plant that produces bast fiber.
Nettle
Nettle fiber known as aloo or allo is removed from the plant stem of the Himalayan giant net-
tle plant (Giradinia diversifolia). The fiber is stripped from the stem, boiled for several hours, air
dried, and handspun into yarns. The hollow fiber looks and feels similar to raw flax. The nettle
plant is a perennial that grows without the use of fertilizers or pesticides. The fiber is used for
technical products like bags and ropes as well as for apparel and interior textiles. Because the
fiber is hollow, it has good insulating characteristics.
Another nettle fiber from the stinging nettle (Urtica cannabina L.) plant stems was widely
used in Europe until the 15th century when cotton began to replace it because of easier
processing. Stinging nettle is being investigated in Europe as a potentially sustainable fiber
(­Figure 4.28). The plant can be grown in areas where the soil or climate is not conducive
for the production of cotton. Nettle must be pond retted for a few weeks and mechanically
separated from the plant stem. Degumming in an acidic water bath is required. Nettle is 48%
cellulose. It is similar in shape to ramie, coarser than jute, and stronger than ramie. Current
plant breeding programs are attempting to improve fiber characteristics.

Figure Stinging nettle is a potentially new Bamboo

4.28 sustainable fiber source.
There are two types of bamboo fiber on the market. The type that is removed from the bam-
boo culms (above-ground stems of the plant) will be discussed here. The other bamboo fiber
is regenerated from bamboo pulp meaning that it is treated with chemicals and turned into
a viscose solution and will be discussed in Chapter 7. It is the more commonly found bam-
boo-derived product in the market. The natural bamboo fiber (as opposed to the regenerated
bamboo rayon fiber) maintains its natural resistant to insect and microbes. The fiber is also
absorbent, but has a somewhat coarse hand. This type of bamboo is not usually found in the
apparel or interiors market. Bamboo is a type of woody grass that grows quickly without the
use of pesticides, herbicides, or fertilizers (Figure 4.29). Most bamboo is harvested on farmed
plantations. Natural bamboo does not threaten wild bamboo forests or natural habitats. Most
bamboo is processed in China.

82 chapter four
Leaf Fibers
Leaf fibers are those obtained from the leaf of a plant. Most leaf fibers are long and fairly stiff.
In processing, the leaf is cut from the plant and fiber is split or pulled from the leaf. Most leaf
fibers have limited dye affinity and may be used in their natural color. Several leaf fibers are
being used in composites in the European automotive industry.

Piña
Piña is obtained from the leaves of the pineapple plant. The fiber is soft, lustrous, and white
or ivory. Since piña is highly susceptible to acids and enzymes, stains need to be rinsed out
immediately and detergents or enzyme presoaks avoided. Hand washing is recommended for
piña. The fiber produces lightweight, sheer, stiff fabrics. These fabrics are often embroidered
and used for formal and wedding wear in the Philippines. Piña is also used to make mats,
bags, table linens, and other apparel (Figure 4.30). Current research is aimed at producing a
commercially competitive piña fiber that can be blended with other fibers.
Figure Bamboo fiber comes from bamboo, a
4.29 type of woody grass.
Abaca
Abaca is obtained from a member of the banana tree family (Musa textilis). Abaca fibers
are coarse and very long; some may reach a length of 15 feet. Abaca is off-white to brown
in color. The fiber is strong, durable, and flexible. It is used for ropes, cordage, floor mats,
table linens, some wicker furniture, and apparel. It is produced in Central America and the
Philippines. Abaca is sometimes referred to as Manila hemp, even though it is not a true
hemp.

Sisal and Henequen

Sisal and henequen are closely related plants. They are grown in Africa, Central America,
and the West Indies. Both fibers are smooth, straight, and yellow. They are used for better
grades of rope, twine, and brush bristles (Figure 4.31). However, since both fibers are de-
graded by salt water, they are not used in maritime ropes.
Sisal is used for upholstery, carpet, and custom rugs that can be hand painted for a cus-
Figure Piña place mat.
tom look. Sisal provides a complementary texture and background for many interior styles. 4.30

There are two bamboo fibers in the market-

place. The more common bamboo fiber is
regenerated from bamboo pulp making it a
regenerated, manufactured fiber, discussed
in Chapter 7.

Figure Sisal twine (a) and henequen rope (b).

4.31

natural cellulosic fibers 83

 Sisal may be used by itself or in blends with wool and acrylic for a softer hand. The absorbent
powder cleaning method (see Chapter 20) is recommended. Sisal is used in wall coverings,
especially in heavy-duty commercial applications, because of its durability and ease of appli-
cation to a variety of surfaces. Unfortunately, sisal has a tendency to shed and fade out and it
absorbs waterborne stains.

Other Cellulosic Materials

Cellulosic materials such as rush, sea
grass, and wicker are important in interiors
and are prized for their interesting texture
and natural look.
Other cellulosic materials are important in interiors (Figure 4.32). Rush (stems of a marsh
plant), sea grass from China and Vietnam, and maize or cornhusks are used in accent
rugs because of their resistance to dry heat and soil. Rush and palm fiber seats are often
used on wooden frame chairs for a natural look. Water hyacinth leaves are used to make
accessories like baskets and hampers. Yarns made from paper (wood pulp) add interest and
texture to wall coverings for interiors. Wooden slats and grasses are found in window treat-
ments. Grasses are especially appealing for wall coverings; the variable weights, thicknesses,
and textures add a natural look to interiors. They can be applied to any type of wall surface,
treated to be flame retardant, and colored to match the decor.
Wicker furniture is commonly made from tightly twisted paper yarns, rattan, and other
such natural materials as sea grass, abaca (banana leaf), and raffia. Wall panels and wall
coverings are produced from shredded straw and bark because of the interesting texture and
shading produced by these materials.
Bacteria produce cellulose with an extremely uniform structure, high water-holding
­capacity, and multidimensional strength. At present, bacterial cellulose is used in medicine
as a covering for severe burns and other skin injuries. Currently, companies such as Bio Cou-
ture, are working with microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae to create sustainable
fabrics. The question remains however, will consumers be interested in wearing garments
­created by microorganisms.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure Wicker furniture (a), water hyacinth hamper (b), sea grass basket (c).
4.32

84 chapter four
 Learning Activity 15
Select one of the minor bast or leaf fibers. Identify an end use for this fiber and explain
its performance characteristics that make it appropriate for that end use.

Learning Activity 16
Use Fabrics #1, 3, 41, and 53 from your swatch kit. Check the key for the swatch kit
and determine the fiber content of each swatch. Identify an end use for each fabric and
describe the serviceability of that product based on fiber content. Examine Figure 4.1
and locate one or more countries where each of these fibers might have been produced.

Learning Activity 17
Identify a cellulosic fiber that could be promoted as a more sustainable replacement
for cotton for many end uses. Explain why it is more sustainable. What are the road-
blocks preventing this fiber from taking over more of cotton’s market share? What are
the properties in which this fiber is better than cotton? What are the properties in which
this fiber is not as good as cotton? How would you market this fiber to convince con-
sumers that this is a sustainable alternate to cotton?

terms
key terms
Abaca
Bamboo
Bast fiber
Henequen
Hibiscus
Jute
Palm fiber
Pima cotton
Piña
Coir Kapok Race to the bottom
Conventional cotton Kenaf Ramie
Convolutions Leaf fiber Retting
Cornhusks Line Rush
Cotton Linen Sea grass
Cottonizing Lint Sea Island cotton
Cuticle Linters Seed fiber
Decortication Lumen Sisal
Egyptian cotton Maize Supima
Flax Milkweed Tow
Gin Naturally colored cotton Transition cotton
Green cotton Nettle The U.S. Controlled Substance Act
Genetically modified (GM) Nodes Water hyacinth
Hemp Organic cotton Wicker

natural cellulosic fibers 85

 questions
review questions
1. Explain the properties that are common to all cellulosic
fibers.
5. Explain the differences among naturally colored cotton,
organic cotton, green cotton, transition cotton, and
conventional cotton.
2. To what fiber aspects are differences among cellulosic
fibers attributed? 6. Consider the distribution of fibers present in your wardrobe.
3. Compare the performance characteristics of the following Explain which natural cellulosic fibers are present. For each
fiber pairs: cellulosic fiber, locate one or more countries where the
a. Ramie and cotton fiber is produced. Describe your degree of satisfaction or
b. Flax and hemp dissatisfaction with each fiber’s performance. What are the
c. Cotton and hemp general areas where the products excel in performance, and
what are the general areas where problems in performance
4. Identify a cellulosic fiber that would be an appropriate
exist? (Keep these issues in mind when reading Chapter 10
choice for each of the following end uses and explain why
and the discussion on fiber blends and Chapter18 and the
you selected that fiber:
discussion of several special-purpose finishes.)
a. Sheets for a twin bed in a child’s room
b. Tablecloth for an expensive Indonesian restaurant 7. Explain why most cotton that is produced is white or off-
c. Area rug for a home furnishing designer’s showroom white in color. What are the advantages and disadvantages
d. Man’s blazer for summer wear of white versus naturally colored cotton?
e. Socks for an athlete 8. Identify six issues related to cotton and sustainability.
f. Rug for a fair-trade apparel store 9. Compare the processing needed to separate fibers from
g. Erosion control fabric for a freshly seeded slope the plant component for each of these groups: seed fibers,
h. Welcome mat for an entry into a home bast fibers, and leaf fibers.
i. Fiber for paper currency
10. Which of these fibers is the most sustainable: seed fibers,
bast fibers, or leaf fibers? Why?

Case Study
Cotton DNA*
Products containing extra long-staple cotton,
such as Pima and Egyptian cotton are rec-
ognized by consumers due to their durability,
soft hand, and high quality. They typically
demand a higher price than shorter variety,
Upland cottons. While a range of physical
tests can determine the classification and
grade of cotton, they cannot track materials
as they move from the field to the final con-
sumer. Neither, can they ensure the quality of
a product throughout the supply chain.
That is until now! Every living organism has
a unique DNA code that determines the
character and composition of its cells. With
advances made in the understanding of plant
*(2008). The DNA revolution. Textiles, 35(4), 8–10.
DNA, a company named Applied DNA Sci-
ences created fiberTyping®, a patented test
developed in collaboration with Supima, rep-
resenting American extra long-staple cotton
growers. The fiber typing provides a means
to verify extra long-staple fiber content from
raw fiber to finished goods, allowing higher
levels of quality assurance and authentica-
tion to all participations in the global textile
complex.
Discussion Questions
1. Have you ever purchased something
labeled Pima, Supima, or Egyptian cotton?
How did the performance of this product
differ from other ordinary or Upland cotton
products that you purchased?
2. For what reasons would it matter to a
consumer if different lengths of cotton
were included together into a product?
3. For what reasons would authentication of
geographic origin matter to governments
regulating international trade?
4. Can you think of other natural fibers where
this kind of authentication would be of
value to producers? If yes, which fibers?
How would that information be of use?
(Keep these issues in mind when reading
the material in Chapter 5.)

86 chapter four
readings
suggested readings
Borland, V. S. (2002). From flower to fabric. Textile World, 152(10),
52–55.
fibrillation and entanglement of plant fibers. Textile Research
Journal, 83(18), 1906–1917.
Fletcher, K. (2008). Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design Larson, K. (2014). Enduring cotton. Spin-Off, 37(4), 80–83.
Journey. London: Earthscan. Pandey, S. (2007). Ramie fibre: Part 1. Chemical composition and
Gilbert, N. (2013). Case studies: A hard look at GM crops. Nature, chemical properties. Textile Progress, 39(1), 1–53.
497, 24–26. Rhoades, C. H. (2008). Colored cotton. Spin-Off, 32(2), 52–58.
Gordon, S., & Hsien, Y-L. (Ed.) (2007). Cotton: Science and Rivoli, P. (2005). The Travels of a T-shirt in a Global Economy.
Technology. Cambridge, England: Woodhead. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Hann, M. A. (2005). Innovation in linen manufacture. Textile Spady, R. (2014). Happy with hemp. Handwoven, 35(2), 70–71.
Progress, 37(3), 1–42.
Thiry, M. (2011). Naturally good. AATCC Review, 11(3), 22–30.
Hethorn, J., & Ulasewicz, C. (2008). Sustainable Fashion: Why
Thiry, M. (2007). Detecting the fiber. AATCC Review, 7(12), 18–21.
Now? New York: Fairchild Books.
Thiry, M. (2007). Fibers in contention. AATCC Review, 7(12), 22–23.
Huang, G. (2005). Nettle (Urtica cannabina L.) fibre, properties, and
spinning practice. Journal of the Textile Institute, 96(1), 11–15. Yueping, W., Ge, W., Haitao, C., Genlin, T., Zheng, L., Feng, X. Q.,
Ziangpi, Z., Xiaojun, H., Xushan, G. (2010). Structures of
Kang, S. Y., & Epps, H. H. (2008). Effect of scouring on the color of
bamboo fiber for textiles. Textile Research Journal, 80(4),
naturally colored cotton and the mechanism of color change.
334–343.
AATCC Review, 8(7), 38–43.
Watkins, P. (2008). Cotton’s future. Textiles, 35(1), 8–10.
Kimmel, L. B., & Day, M. P. (2001). New life for an old fiber:
Attributes and advantages of naturally colored cotton. AATCC Yafa, S. (2005). Big Cotton. New York: Viking.
Review, 1(10), 32–36. Zawistoski, P. S. (2010). Ramie. Spin-Off, 34(1), 72–76.
Miao, M., Pierlot, A. P., Millington, K., Gordon, S. G., Best, A.,
& Clarke, M. (2013). Biodegradable mulch fabric by surface

natural cellulosic fibers 87

 Robepco/Fotolia

Nh7/Fotolia Gina Smith/Fotolia

Natural Protein
Fibers

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To identify natural protein fibers.
• To know the characteristics common to protein fibers.
• To describe the similarities and differences in characteristics and performance among
the common protein fibers.
• To articulate the processing of natural protein fibers.
• To integrate the properties of natural protein fibers with target market needs.

5
 Many species of animals are covered with hair or fiber that protects them from injury and
weather and provides camouflage. Long before written history, humans discovered that
animal skins and the hair or fibers on them provided protection and warmth. Eventually
humans discovered that the fiber could be removed from some of these animals without
killing them and processed into fabric. While many animal fibers have been used by
humans, this chapter focuses on the fibers from animals grown specifically for that
purpose. Most of these fibers have significant economic impact in the countries that
produce them.

Natural Protein Fibers

Natural protein fibers are of animal origin: wool and specialty wools are the hair and fur of
animals, and silk is the secretion of the silk caterpillar. Figure 5.1 shows the countries that
produce the majority of the natural protein fibers. The natural protein fibers are considered
luxury fibers today. Silk, vicuña, cashmere, and camel hair have always been in this category.
Wool is a widely used protein fiber, but production rates have decreased and costs have
increased. Some individuals also use the protein fibers from their pets in hand-spun woven or
knit textile products.

Wool
Mohair
Angora
Camel hair
Cashmere
Llama and alpaca
~ and guanaco
Vicuna
Yak
Silk

*Multiple colors indicate production of more than one fiber.

Figure Countries that produce natural protein fibers.

5.1

90 chapter five
Characteristics Common to All Natural
Protein Fibers
Protein fibers are composed of various amino acids that have been formed in nature into
polypeptide chains with high molecular weights, containing carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N). Protein fibers are amphoteric, meaning that they have both
acidic and basic reactive groups. Silk and wool differ in some properties because of their
different physical and molecular structures. The protein of wool is keratin, whereas that
of silk is fibroin. The types and percentages of amino acids differ between wool and silk.
There are more types of amino acids in wool and fewer types of amino acids in silk. The
amino acids in wool tend to have larger molecular side groups compared to those found in
silk. This difference means that the wool molecule is bulkier and less compact compared
to the silk molecule. Because the side groups in wool are more likely to form temporary R
bonds with other side groups, wool has better resiliency, or ability to return to its original
CH O
shape after bending. Wool contains sulfur while silk does not. Amino acids that contain
NH2 C
sulfur are especially attractive to insects, thus explaining why wool is more prone to insect Amino group OH
damage. (basic)
Carboxyl group
In the following figure, to the right is a simple chemical formula for an amino acid, where R (acidic)

refers to a simple organic functional group.

Protein fibers have some common properties because of their similar chemical compo-
sition (Table 5.1). These fibers absorb moisture without feeling wet; they are hygroscopic. Protein fibers have several common

This phenomenon explains why items made from protein fibers are comfortable to use. properties because of their similar chemical

Hygroscopic fibers minimize sudden temperature changes at the skin. In the winter, when composition. Important to consumers,

people go from dry indoor air into damp, cold outdoor air, wool absorbs moisture and gener- protein fibers resist wrinkling, are

ates heat, insulating the wearer from the cold. Lighter weight, loose-fitting wools are increas- comfortable to wear, but require attentive

ingly worn year-round. care.

Learning Activity 1
Examine Table 5.1. Explain these properties using correct serviceability terminology
particularly as they relate to wearing a sweater made of wool in the wintertime or a
jacket made of silk in the springtime.

Table 5.1 Properties Common to All Protein Fibers

Properties Importance to Consumer

Resiliency
Hygroscopic
Weaker when wet
Specific gravity
Harmed by alkali
Harmed by oxidizing agents
Harmed by dry heat
Flame resistance
Resists wrinkling. Wrinkles disappear between uses. Fabrics maintain their shape after use.
Comfortable, protects from humidity in cool, damp climate. Moisture prevents brittleness in carpets.
Handle carefully when wet. Wool loses about 40% of its strength and silk loses about 15% when wet.
Fabrics feel lighter than cellulosic fabrics of the same thickness.
Use neutral or only slightly alkaline soap or detergent. Perspiration weakens the fiber.
Chlorine bleach damages fiber and should not be used. Sunlight causes white fabrics to yellow.
Wool becomes harsh and brittle and scorches easily with dry heat. Use steam. White silk and wool will yellow.
Do not burn readily and self-extinguish; have odor of burning hair; form a black, crushable ash.

natural protein fibers 91


While wool represents only 1.3% of world
fiber production, it is important to many
countries’ economies and ways of life.
Figure Rambouillet sheep: ram (a) and ewes
5.2 (b). Rambouillet is one of many breeds
of sheep prized for their fine wool. The
covers on the ewes protect the wool
from contamination from hay, straw,
and animal waste.
92 chapter five
Wool
Because of wool garments and interior textiles’ high initial cost and the cost of their care, many
consumers consider them to be investments. These factors have encouraged the substitution
of acrylic, polyester, or wool/synthetic blends in many products. However, wool’s combined
properties: the ability to be shaped by heat and moisture, good moisture absorption without
feeling wet, excellent heat retention, water repellency, feltability, and flame-retardancy are not
equaled by any manufactured fiber.
Wool was one of the earliest fibers to be spun into yarns and woven into fabric and was
one of the most widely used textile fibers before the Industrial Revolution. The fleece of prim-
itive domesticated sheep consisted of a long, hairy outercoat and a light, downy undercoat.
The fleece used for garment and interiors of present-day domesticated sheep is primarily the
soft undercoat. Kemp refers to the heaviest and coarsest of all hair fibers, are often quite
short, and don’t display dye colors very well. The Spanish developed the Merino sheep,
whose fleece contains no kemp fiber. Some kemp is still found in the fleece of many other
sheep breeds and is best avoided in anything that comes close to the skin.
Sheep raising on the Atlantic seaboard began in the Jamestown colony, Virginia in 1609
and in the Massachusetts settlements in 1630. From these centers, the sheep-raising industry
spread rapidly. In 1643, in the Massachusetts Bay colony, the New England textile industry
got its start when English wool combers and carders began to produce and finish wool fabric.
Following the U.S. Civil War, sheep production expanded with the opening of free grazing
lands west of the Mississippi. By 1884, the peak year, 50 million sheep were found in the
United States; the number of sheep has declined steadily since then.
Production of Wool
Wool is produced in about 100 countries ranging from small family-owned farms to large-
scale commercial operations. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
estimates annual wool production at around 2.1 million tons per year with China (19.7%) and
Australia (18.4%) producing the most wool. Eastern Europe (13.0%), New Zealand (8.1%),
Turkey (2.5%), Argentina (2.3%), and South Africa (2.2%) contribute to the world total produc-
tion. While wool represents only 1.3% of world fiber production, it is important to many coun-
tries’ economies and ways of life.
The United States is a very minor producer of wool (0.7%). Sheep are raised throughout
the United States but most are from ranches in California, Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, and
Texas. The greatest share of U.S. wool production is of medium-grade wools removed from
animals raised for meat. These wools have a larger diameter than the fine wools and a greater
variation in length, from 1½ to 6 inches. They are used for products such as carpeting, where
the coarser fiber contributes high resiliency and good abrasion resistance. The limited amount
of fine wool produced in the United States is largely by four breeds of sheep: Delaine-Merino,
Rambouillet, Debouillet, and Targhee (Figure 5.2). The majority of this fine wool is produced in
Texas and California. It is 2½ inches long. These fine wools are often used for products that
compete with higher-priced Merino wools.
Merino sheep produce the most valuable wool because their fleece is dense and fine
with regular crimp patterns. Australia produces about 50% of the Merino wool. Good-quality
fleeces weigh 15 to 20 pounds each. Merino wool is 3 to 5 inches long. It is used to produce
high-quality, long-wearing products with a soft hand and luster and good drape. Many other
breeds of sheep produce good quality wool that makes fine apparel and furnishings. These
include Corriedale (developed in New Zealand by crossing Lincoln with Merino), Rambouillet
(bred from Merino sheep in France), Cormo (a cross of Correidale and Merino sheep), Booroola
Merino (developed in Australia), Debouillet (from New Mexico), Border Leicester (originating on
the border between England and Scotland), and Delaine Merino (raised in western ranges of
the United States).
Sheep are generally sheared once a year, in the spring. The fleece is removed in just
minutes with power shears that look like large barber’s shears (Figure 5.3). A good shearer
can handle 100 to 225 sheep per day. The fleece is removed in one piece with long, smooth
strokes, beginning at the legs and belly. After shearing, the fleece is folded together and
bagged to be shipped to market.
As alternatives to shearing, both a chemical feed additive and an injection have been
developed. When digested, the feed additive makes the wool brittle. Several weeks later, the Figure Shearing sheep is a physically
fleece can be pulled off the sheep. The injection causes the sheep to shed the fleece a week 5.3 demanding work—even when power
shears are used.
or so later. Both alternatives decrease shearing costs.
Newly removed wool is raw wool or grease wool, which contains between 30% and
70% by weight of such impurities as sand, dirt, grease, and dried sweat (suint). Removing
these impurities produces clean or scoured wool. The grease is purified to lanolin and used
in creams, cosmetics, soaps, and ointments.
Grading and sorting are two marketing operations that group wools of like character
together. Grading is evaluating the whole fleece for fineness and length. In sorting, a
single fleece is separated into sections of fibers of different quality. The best-quality wool
comes from the sides, shoulders, and back; the poorest wool comes from the lower Although different breeds of sheep produce
legs. Wool quality helps determine use. For example, fine wool works well in a lightweight wools with different characteristics,
worsted fabric, while coarse wool works well in carpets. Fineness, color, crimp, strength, labels on wool products rarely state that
length, and elasticity are characteristics that vary with the breed of the sheep. However, information; the fiber is simply identified as
genetic engineering of sheep may alter the physical characteristics and performance prop- wool.
erties of wool.

Types and Kinds of Wool

Many types of wool are used in yarns and fabrics. Although breeds of sheep produce wools
with different characteristics, labels on wool products rarely state that information; the fiber
is simply identified as wool. The term wool legally includes fiber from such animals as sheep,
Angora and Cashmere goats, camel, alpaca, llama, and vicuña.
Sheared wool is removed from live sheep. Pulled wool is taken from the pelts of meat-
type sheep. Recycled wool is recovered from worn apparel and cutters’ scraps. Lamb’s
wool comes from animals less than 7 months old. This wool is finer and softer. It has only
one cut end; the other end is the natural tip (Figure 5.4). Lamb’s wool is usually identified on
a label.
Wool is often blended with less-expensive fibers to reduce the cost of the fabric or to
extend its use. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) defines label terms for wool garments
as follows:

Virgin wool Wool that has never been processed. Use of the single term wool implies a Figure Lamb’s wool fiber: natural tip left, cut
virgin wool and is a helpful marketing tool. 5.4 tip right.
Wool New wool or wool fibers reclaimed from knit scraps, broken thread, and noils.
(Noils are short fibers that are removed in making worsted yarns.)

natural protein fibers 93

 Recycled wool Scraps of new woven or felted fabrics that are garnetted (shredded)
back to the fibrous state and reused. Shoddy wool comes from old apparel and rags
that are cleaned, sorted, and shredded. Recycled wool may be blended with new wool
before being respun and made into fabrics.
Recycled wool is important in the textile complex. However, these fibers may be
damaged by the mechanical action of garnetting and/or wear. The fibers are not as resilient,
strong, or durable as new wool, yet the fabrics made from them perform well. The terms recy-
cled wool and virgin wool on a label do not refer to the quality of the fiber but to the past use
of the fiber.
Quality of wool is based on fiber fineness, length, scale structure, color, cleanliness, and
freedom from damage caused by environment or processing. The coarse fiber content of
wool may be determined because the coarser fibers contribute to the prickle or irritation that
may occur when wearing wool garments. The best-quality commercial wools are white, clean,
long, free of defects and coarse fibers, and contain small-diameter fibers with a regular scale
structure. The FTC also defines superfine wools, so labels claiming a superfine wool content

The quality of wool is based on fiber must meet strict guidelines for fiber size. Manufacturers that sell clothing or household items

fineness, length, scale structure, color, that contain any wool must comply with the Wool Products Labeling Act. First enacted in

cleanliness, and freedom from damage 1939, this act states that product labels must accurately reflect the item’s fiber content, the

caused by environment or processing. country of origin, and the name or registered identification number issued by the FTC to the
manufacturer or marketer.

Physical Structure of Wool

Length  The length of Merino wool and other fine wool fibers ranges from 1½ to 5 inches,
depending on the animal and the length of time between shearings. Long, fine wool fibers,
used for worsted yarns and fabrics, have an average length of 2½ inches. Worsted refers to a
compact yarn and implies longer fibers and greater uniformity of fiber length after it undergoes
a combing process. The shorter fibers, which average 1½ inches in length, are used in woolen
fabrics. Woolen describes a softer and more loosely twisted yarn and implies shorter, less uni-
form in length, and less parallel fibers. Some sheep breeds produce coarse, long wools (5 to
15 inches in length) used in specialty and hand-crafted fabrics.
The diameter of wool fiber varies from 10 to 50 micrometers. Merino lamb’s wool may
average 15 micrometers in diameter. The wool fiber has a complex structure, with a cuticle,
cortex, and medulla (Figure 5.5).

Medulla  When present, the medulla is a microscopic honeycomb-like core containing air
spaces that increase the insulating power of the fiber. It may appear as a dark area when seen
through a microscope, but is usually absent in fine wools.

Cortex The cortex is the main part of the fiber. It is made up of long, flattened, tapered cells
with a nucleus near the center. In natural-colored wools, the cortical cells contain melanin, a
colored pigment.
The cortical cells on the two sides of the wool fiber react differently to moisture and
temperature. These cells are responsible for wool’s unique 3D crimp, in which the fiber
bends back and forth and twists around its axis (Figures 5.6 and 5.7). Crimp may be as high
as 30 per inch for fine Merino wool to as low as 1 to 5 per inch for low-quality wool.

94 chapter five
 Cuticle

Para cortex
Ortho cortex
Medulla

Epicuticle

Scales
Figure Natural crimp in wool.
5.6

Figure Physical structure of wool fiber.

5.5

This irregular lengthwise waviness gives wool fabrics three important properties: cohe-
siveness, elasticity, and loft. Crimp helps individual fibers cling together in a yarn, which
increases the strength of the yarn. Elasticity is increased because crimp helps the fiber act
like a spring. As force is exerted on the fiber, the crimp flattens so that the fiber becomes
straighter. Once the force is released, the undamaged wool fiber gradually returns to its
crimped position. Crimp also contributes to the loft or bulk that wool yarns and fabrics exhibit
throughout use, making it an ideal fiber for end uses such as sweaters.
Wool is a natural bicomponent fiber; it has two different cell types or two components
with slightly different properties in the cortex. The ratio of these cells influences the amount
of crimp in the wool fiber and its affinity for dye. This bicomponent nature is best illustrated
by describing how wool reacts to moisture. One side of the fiber swells more than the other Figure Three-dimensional crimp of wool fiber.
5.7
side, decreasing the fiber’s natural crimp. When the fiber dries, the crimp returns. Wool can
be compared to a giant molecular coil spring. It has excellent resiliency when the fiber is dry
and poor resiliency when it is wet. If dry wool fabric is crushed, it tends to spring back to its This irregular lengthwise crimp or waviness
original shape when the crushing force is released. Wool can be stretched up to 30% longer gives wool fabrics three important
than its original length. Recovery from stretching is good, but it takes place more slowly when properties: cohesiveness, elasticity, and loft.
the fabric is dry. Since steam, humidity, and water hasten recovery, wool items lose wrinkles
more rapidly when exposed to a steamy or humid environment.

Cuticle  The cuticle consists of an epicuticle and a dense, nonfibrous layer of scales. The
epicuticle is a thin, nonprotein membrane that covers the scales. This layer gives water
­repellency to the fiber but is easily damaged by mechanical action. In fine wools, the scales
completely encircle the shaft and each scale overlaps the bottom of the preceding scale, like
parts of a telescope. In medium and coarse wools, the scale arrangement resembles shingles
on a roof or scales on a fish (Figure 5.8). The free edges of the scales project outward and
point toward the tip of the fiber. The scales contribute to wool’s abrasion resistance and felting
property, and they can irritate or prickle sensitive skin.

natural protein fibers 95


(a) (b)
Figure Photomicrograph of wool: cross-
5.8 sectional view (a) and longitudinal
view (b).
Source: British Textile Technology Group.
96 chapter five
Felting, a unique and important property of wool, is based on the structure of the
fiber. Under mechanical action—combining agitation, friction, and pressure with heat and
­moisture—adjacent wool fibers move rootward and the scale edges interlock. This prevents
the fiber from returning to its original position and results in shrinkage, or felting, of the fabric.
Feltability refers to the ability of fibers to mat together.
Felting occurs more rapidly under severe conditions. Wool items can shrink to half their
original size. Lamb’s wool felts more readily than other wools. In soft, knit fabrics the fibers are
more likely to move, so these fabrics are more susceptible to felting than are the firmly woven
fabrics. While felting is an advantage in making felt fabric directly from fibers without spinning
or weaving (see Chapter 15), it makes the laundering of wool more difficult. Treatments to
prevent felting shrinkage are available (see Chapter 18).
Chemical Composition and Molecular Arrangement of Wool
Wool fiber is a cross-linked protein called keratin. It is the same protein that is found in
horns, hooves, and in human hair and fingernails. Keratin consists of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. These combine to form over 17 different amino acids. Five
amino acids are shown in Figure 5.9. The flexible molecular chains of wool are held together
by natural cross links—cystine (or sulfur) linkages and salt bridges—that connect adjacent
molecules.
Figure 5.9 resembles a ladder, with the cross links analogous to the crossbars of the
ladder. This simple structure can be useful in understanding some of wool’s properties.
Imagine a ladder that is pulled askew. When wool is pulled, its cross links help it recover its
original shape. However, if the cross links are damaged or felted, the structure is destroyed
and recovery cannot occur.
A more realistic model of wool’s molecular structure would show this ladderlike structure
alternating with a helical structure. About 40% of the chains are in a spiral formation, with
hydrogen bonding occurring between the closer parts. The ladderlike formation occurs at the
cystine cross links or where other bulky amino acids meet and the chains cannot pack closely
together. The spiral formation works like a spring and contributes to wool’s resiliency, elonga-
tion, and elastic recovery. Figure 5.10 shows the helical structure of wool.
The cystine linkage is the most important part of the molecule. Any chemical, such as
alkali, that damages this linkage can destroy the entire structure. In finishing wool, the linkage
2 Learning Activity
Supplies needed:
• Wool fiber, wool yarn, or wool fabric. Make sure it has not been finished to be
­machine washable. Some wool yarn is marketed as feltable.
• Paper or fabric towels
• Squirt bottles with water and shampoo or detergent added
Take a small handful of wool fiber, a 6-inch piece of wool yarn, or a piece of wool
fabric. Wet the wool with water and shampoo or detergent added to speed wetting.
Work the wool with your hands rolling it back and forth or around. After several ­minutes,
examine the result. Is it felted? Can you separate the individual fibers? Explain what
happened.
 Cystine linkages
Contribute to: CH CH
Strength
Lateral resistance NH NH
React with:
Alkalis CO CO
Hydrogen bonds
Bleaches
Contribute to:
Heat CH CH2 S S CH2 CH
Strength
Sunlight Cystine Elasticity
“Permanent set” NH Linkage NH “Temporary set”
agents
React with:
Non-felting CO CO Moisture
agents
Moth-proofing CH CH
agents
NH NH

CO CO

CH CH

NH NH

CO CO
– +
CH CH2 CH2 COO NH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH
Glutamic Acid Lysine
NH NH

CO CO

CH CH

NH NH
C C H
CO CO
– + C
O N
CH CH2 COO NH3 C NH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH H
Aspartic Acid Argenine C H C
NH NH N
NH
N C O
O
O C
Salt bridge H
C
Contributes to:
Strength C H N O
O C
Reacts with:
Acids O N
H O H
Dyes
N H
H N
Figure Structural formula of the wool molecule. N
C C
5.9 N

can be broken and then reformed. Pressing and steaming can produce minor modifications of
the cystine linkage. Careless washing and exposure to light can destroy the links and damage H - Hydrogen Single bond
C - Carbon Double bond
the fiber.
N - Nitrogen Temporary
O - Oxygen hydrogen bond

Shaping of Wool Fabrics  Wool fabrics can be shaped by heat and moisture—a definite Figure Helical arrangement of the wool
plus in producing wool products. Puckers can be pressed out; excess fabric can be eased 5.10 molecule.

natural protein fibers 97

 and pressed flat or rounded as desired. Pleats can be pressed with heat, steam, and pres-
sure, but they are not permanent to washing.
Hydrogen bonds are broken and reformed easily with steam pressing. The newly formed
bonds retain their pressed-in shape until exposed to high humidity, when the wool returns to
its original shape.

Properties of Wool
Reviewing the fiber property tables in Chapter 3 will help in understanding wool’s performance.

Aesthetics  The aesthetics of wool are variable. Wool has a matte luster. Its’ specific look
varies according to the type of animal the wool came from. Furthermore, drape, luster, texture,
and hand can be varied by choice of yarn structure, fabric structure, and finish. Sheer wool
voile, medium-weight printed wool challis, medium-weight flannels and tweeds, heavyweight
coating, upholstery fabrics, and wool rugs and carpets demonstrate the range of possibilities.
Because of its physical structure, wool contributes loft and body to fabrics. Wool
sweaters, suits, carpets, and upholstery are the standard looks by which manufactured fiber
fabrics are measured. Shorter wool fibers are sometimes blended with longer wool fibers,
specialty wools such as mohair, or other fibers to modify the fabric’s luster or texture.

Durability  Wool’s durability is high. The durability of wool fibers relates to their excellent
elongation (25%) and elastic recovery (99%). When stress is put on the fabric, the crimped
fibers elongate as the molecular chains uncoil. When stress is removed, the cross links pull
the fibers back almost to their original positions. Their moderate abrasion resistance stems
from the fiber’s scale structure and excellent flexibility. Wool fibers can be bent back on them-
selves 20,000 times without breaking, as compared with 3,000 times for cotton and 75 times
for rayon. Atmospheric moisture helps wool retain its flexibility. Wool carpets, for example,
become brittle if the air is too dry. The crimp and scale structure of wool fibers make them so

Wool fibers possess excellent flexibility, cohesive that they cling together to make strong yarns.

elongation, and elastic recovery making Wool fibers have poor tenacity, 1.5 g/d dry and 1.0 g/d wet. However, since wool fibers

them ideal for apparel and interior uses. are so cohesive, fabrics are durable and strong. The combination of excellent flexibility, elonga-
tion, and elastic recovery produces wool fabrics that can be used and enjoyed for many years.

Comfort  Wool is comfortable. Wool is more hygroscopic than any other fiber, with a mois-
ture regain of 13% to 18% under standard conditions. In a light rain or snow, wool resists
wetting and the water runs off or beads on the fabric surface. This should be no surprise since
wool evolved to protect sheep from severe weather. Wool dries slowly enough that the wearer
is more comfortable than in any other fiber during the colder, winter months.
Wool is a poor conductor of heat, so warmth from the body is not dissipated readily.
Outdoor sports enthusiasts have long recognized the superior comfort provided by wool.
Wool’s excellent resiliency contributes to its warmth. Since wool fibers recover well from
crushing, fabrics remain porous and capable of trapping air. This still air is an excellent insu-
lator because it keeps body heat close to the body.
Some people are allergic to the lanolin naturally found in wool; their skin breaks out
in a rash or itches. Most wool from large-scale producers is chemically cleaned before
spinning, and then treated with harsh chemicals causing allergic reactions in chemically

98 chapter five
sensitive individuals. For others, the harsh edges of coarse, low-quality wools are irritating and
uncomfortable.
Wool has a medium specific gravity (1.32). People often associate heavy fabrics with wool
since it is used in fall and winter wear, when the additional warmth of heavy fabrics is desirable.
Lightweight wools are very comfortable in the changeable temperatures of spring and early fall.
One way to compare fiber densities is to think of blankets. A winter blanket of wool is
heavy and warm. An equally thick blanket of cotton would be even heavier (cotton has a
higher density), but not as warm. A winter blanket of acrylic would be lighter in weight (acrylic
has a lower density than either wool or cotton). Personal preferences will help determine
which fiber to choose.

Appearance Retention  Wool receives a high rating for appearance retention. It is a very
resilient fiber, resisting and recovering well from wrinkling. Wool does wrinkle more readily
when wet. Wool maintains its shape fairly well during normal use. Wool apparel may be lined
to help maintain garment shape.
When wool fabrics are dry-cleaned, they retain their size and shape well. When wool
items are hand-washed, they need to be handled carefully to avoid shrinkage. Follow the care
instructions for washable woolens.
Wool has an excellent elastic recovery—99% at 2% elongation. Even at 20% elongation,
recovery is 63%. Recovery is excellent from the stresses of normal usage. Wool carpet main-
tains an attractive appearance for years.

Care  Dry cleaning is recommended for wool unless it is treated to be washable. Wool does
not soil readily, and the removal of soil from wool is relatively simple. Grease and oils do not
spot wool fabrics as readily as with fabrics made of other fibers. Wool items do not need to be
washed or dry-cleaned after every use. Layer wool garments with washable ones next to the
skin to decrease odor pickup.
Gentle use of a firm, soft brush not only removes dust but also returns matted fibers to
their original position. Damp fabrics should be dried before brushing. Garments require a rest
period between wearings to recover from deformations. Hang the item in a humid environ-
ment or spray it with a fine mist of water to speed recovery.
Wool is very susceptible to damage when it is wet. Its wet tenacity is one-third lower
than its relatively low dry strength. When wet, its breaking elongation increases to 35% and
resiliency and elastic recovery decrease. The redeeming properties of dry wool that make it
durable in spite of its low tenacity do not apply when it is wet, so handle wet wool very gently.
Dry cleaning is the recommended care method for most wool items. Dry cleaning mini-
mizes potential problems that may occur during hand or machine washing. Incorrect care
procedures can ruin an item.
Some items can be hand-washed if correct procedures are followed. Use warm water that
is comfortable to the hand. Avoid agitation; squeeze gently. Support the item, especially if it is
knit, so it does not stretch. Air-dry it flat. Do not machine- or tumble-dry or else felting will occur.
Woven or knit items that are labeled machine-washable are usually blends or have been finished
so they can be laundered safely (see Chapter 18). Special instructions for these items often
include use of warm or lukewarm water, a gentle cycle for a short period of time, and drying flat.
Chlorine bleach, an oxidizing agent, damages wool. One can verify this by putting a
small piece of wool in fresh chlorine bleach and watching the wool dissolve. Wool is also very

natural protein fibers 99


Figure Wool blend fabric (50% wool/50%
5.11 polyester intimate blend) before
treatment with chlorine bleach (left);
wool blend fabric after treatment
with chlorine bleach (right). The
altered nature of the fabric on the
right demonstrates that the wool was
dissolved.
sensitive to alkalis, such as strong detergents. The wool reacts to the alkali by turning yellow;
it then becomes slick and jellylike and finally dissolves. If the fabric is a blend, the wool in the
blend disintegrates, leaving only the other fibers (Figure 5.11).
Wool is attacked by moth larvae and other insects such as carpet beetles (Figure 5.12).
Regular use of mothballs or crystals is discouraged due to the toxic nature of these pesti-
cides. However, they can be used, as well as deep-freezing or heating of the fabrics in a
warm-water wash, when evidence of insects is apparent, such as when moth larvae or waste
pellets are seen. Moth larvae also eat, but do not digest, any fiber that is blended with wool.
Unless mothproofed, wool fabrics should be stored so that they will not be accessible to
moths. This means either in airtight containers such as sealed plastic bags or exposing wool
fabrics to light, air, and movement, such as in a frequently opened closets. Home remedies
such as hedge apples or lavender and peppermint essential oils are not recommended as
they may not work, and little is known about how safe they are when concentrated enough to
kill moths. Wool fabrics should be cleaned before storage, as insects are attracted to sweat,
skin flakes, or food stains. Maintaining clean living quarters and frequent vacuuming reduces
the chances of insect infestations.
Wool burns very slowly and is self-extinguishing. It is normally regarded as flame-­resistant.
This is one of the reasons why wool is so popular with interior designers. However, when wool
is used in public buildings, a flame-retardant finish may be needed to meet building code
requirements.
Table 5.2 summarizes wool’s performance in apparel and interior textiles.

3 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #11, 39, 61, 66, and 69 from your swatch kit. Identify an end use for each
fabric and describe the serviceability for each product. How would the serviceability
change if the fabric were made from cotton or another natural cellulosic fiber? Use
Figure 5.1 and locate a country of production for each of the wool fabrics. Remember,
coarser wools may not be imported from Australia or New Zealand.

Figure Insects can cause significant damage

5.12 to wool products. Table 5.2 Summary of the Performance of Wool in Apparel
and Interior Textiles
Aesthetics Variable
Luster Matte
Durability High
Abrasion resistance Moderate
Tenacity Poor
Elongation High
Comfort High
Absorbency High
Thermal retention High
Appearance Retention High
Resiliency High
Dimensional stability Poor
Elastic recovery Excellent
Recommended Care Dry-clean (apparel)

100 chapter five

Sustainability of Wool
Since wool is a natural fiber, many consumers believe it is environmentally friendly. Although
wool can be viewed as a renewable resource, it is not produced without any impact on the
environment. Sustainable management of natural and physical resources is a challenge for
sheep growers. Sheep graze pastures so closely that soil erosion can occur if care is not
taken to avoid overgrazing. Disposal of animal waste is another concern. Sheep manure is
frequently spread over the ground to return nutrients to the soil. However, excessive applica-
tions can create problems during spring thaw or after heavy rains with runoff contaminated
with the manure. In addition, sheep producers have traditionally opposed programs that
contribute to the survival of wolves and other natural predators. Other sustainability issues
relate to the treatment of sheep, shearing practices, and health and back problems associ-
ated with shearing hundreds of sheep daily.
Sheep are susceptible to some diseases that can be transmitted to humans. Most of
these diseases are of concern only to sheep producers; consumers of wool products are not
at risk. However, customs officials and importers check imported wools from some countries
for diseases that can be transmitted via contaminated fibers. Fibers contaminated in this way
will not be imported. Consumers should not be concerned with imported items purchased in
the United States, but they should exercise caution when purchasing wool products in some
other countries.
Sheep are also susceptible to parasitic infections. Treatment to prevent the infec-
tion makes use of pesticides, either through injection or as a surface application as either a
pour-on liquid treatment or the animal is dipped in a bath. If the liquid pesticide is disposed of
improperly, contamination of lakes, streams, and other water systems can occur. The pesti-
cides used are highly toxic to aquatic life.
Organic wool is from sheep that are fed organically grown feed, graze on land not treated
with pesticides, and not dipped in synthetic pesticides. Only a small percentage of the wool
produced is organic, but interest in organic wool is growing. Some sheep are free-range,
meaning that the sheep graze in open pastures.
Merino sheep have wrinkled skin, especially around the tail area. These wrinkles tend
to collect moisture and urine and are attractive areas for flies to lay eggs. To prevent this
problem, ranchers sometimes remove the excess skin from this area. This treatment is more
common with organic wool since the treatment is used to control flies because insecticides
are prohibited with organic wool. Animal right activists object to this practice and to the
shearing of fiber from any animal.
Because of concerns about how sheep and other animals are treated, some companies
use barcodes to enable consumers to trace the path wool takes from the grower through
the production process. This traceback concept allows consumers the ability to trace their
purchases back to the ranch where the sheep were raised. Consumers can go online and
find the origin of the product, proclaiming the specific ranch where the wool was sourced.
Other criteria regarding animal health and welfare, long-term environmental respect, and
fiber-quality standards must be met for products that bear these codes. Promotional orga-
nizations accredit growers who meet specific standards related to fiber quality and animal
welfare; environmental, social, and economic values; and trace the wool from grower through
manufacturer.
While China and Australia lead the world in number of sheep, small-scale farmers and
backyard shepherds in the United States have increasingly concentrated on producing fiber

natural protein fibers 101


Figure Natural-colored Corriedale sheep.
5.13
Although wool can be viewed as a
renewable resource, it is not produced
without any impact on the environment.
102 chapter five
4 Learning Activity
Work in groups of two to four. Describe the sustainability of wool. Identify the positive
and negative aspects of wool in terms of sustainability. Is wool a sustainable fiber?
Explain your answer.
from their animals. These individuals may offer their raw fibers and finished goods, maintaining
an amazing diversity of breeds, or varietal wools specific to the region. Many of these growers
focus on natural-colored fleeces meaning that the fleece is a color other than the standard
off-white. Natural colors include a range from beige to gray to brown and black (Figure 5.13).
Fibershed is the term given to a geographic region that provides the basic resources required
for clothing production, meaning a 100% locally constructed wardrobe made of regional
fibers, dyes, and labor. The local fiber movement is growing in importance in many areas of
the world. Within some communities, ranchers and farmers name their products according to
the animal from which it was shorn.
Other environmental issues relate to the intensive use of water, energy, and chemicals
to clean the greasy wool fiber, produce the fabrics, and finish and dye them. Wool is the
only fiber that requires hot water or solvent cleaning before being processed into a yarn. The
cleaning process produces wool grease sludge with a high pollution index. While the wool
grease is usually reclaimed for use as lanolin, pesticides applied to the wool may remain in the
grease. When an organic solvent is used in cleaning raw wool, it is reclaimed and recycled.
Many wool products require dry cleaning. Some dry-cleaning solvents have been iden-
tified as possible carcinogens and restrictions regarding workplace exposure exist. See
Chapter 20 for more information on dry cleaning.
Uses of Wool
Only a small amount of wool is used in the United States. Domestic consumption of wool
comprises only a fraction of a percentage of all fiber used in the United States. The most
important use of wool is for adult apparel.
Wool suits perform well and look great. They fit well because they can be shaped through
tailoring. The durable fabrics drape well. They are comfortable under a variety of conditions
and retain their appearance during wear and care. Suits are usually dry-cleaned to retain their
appearance and shape. Suit materials are also made of synthetic fiber/wool blends.
The Woolmark ® Company operates a global licensing program that serves as an
endorsement on 100% wool merchandise, or blends of 60% wool, and blends of 30% to 49%
new wool.
Even though the amount of wool used in interiors is low, wool constitutes the standard by
which carpet appearance is judged. A major use of wool is in carpets and custom rugs, often
5 Learning Activity
Go to a home interiors store or the section of a big box retailer that sells interior prod-
ucts. Examine the rugs, upholstery, and wall hangings. What percentage of the items
contains wool? Examine and consider the differences in aesthetics, cost, and recom-
mended care between the products containing wool and those without wool fibers.
special-order or one-of-a-kind rugs. Wool rugs can be machine-woven (Axminster or Wilton
types), hand-woven, or hand-hooked. Most rugs are imported, although some are made in
the United States. Wool carpets and rugs are more expensive than those made from other
fibers because the rich color, texture, and appearance of wool are valued. Wool carpets and
rugs account for a small fraction of the floor-coverings market.
Both wool and wool-blend fabrics are used in upholstery because of their aesthetic charac-
teristics, good appearance retention, durable nature, and natural flame resistance. For residen-
tial use, no additional flame-retardant treatment may be necessary; but for many commercial
and contract uses, wool or wool-blend upholstery fabric may require a flame-­retardant finish.
Handcrafted wall hangings and woven tapestries are often made of wool because textile
artists like the way the fiber handles. Designers, artists, and consumers appreciate the way
the finished item looks and wears. In addition to the one-of-a-kind work of art, use of hand-
crafted wool items provides income for fiber artists and promotes the local fiber movement.
Many school laboratories have fire-safety blankets made of wool. Stadium blankets and
throws are often made of wool for warmth and an attractive appearance.
Wool is used in felts as foundation pads under heavy machinery to help decrease noise
and vibration as well as for other uses. Tiny balls of wool that absorb up to 40 times their
weight in oil are used to clean up oil spills. Wool mulch mats are used for landscape and
horticultural weed control. Fair Trade organizations are working with local groups in several
countries to produce hand-felted items that are sold to consumers in developed countries. In
Figure Fair Trade hand-felted bags provide
addition to providing an income source for the family, this work also encourages the use of
5.14 income for families and preserves
traditional crafts and passing down of cultural traditions associated with herding sheep and heritage breeds of sheep and cultural
goats, processing fiber, and felting (Figure 5.14). textile traditions.

Specialty Wools
Most specialty wools are obtained from the goat, rabbit, and camel families (Table 5.3).
Specialty wools are available in smaller quantities than sheep’s wool and are usually more
expensive. Like all natural fibers, specialty wools vary in quality. Most specialty wool prod-
ucts require dry cleaning. See Table 5.4 for a detailed list of the fibers, characteristics, and
end uses of these specialty wool fibers. These fibers are used in commercial goods as well
as being available from local producers through the local fiber movement in fiber, yarn, and
finished product form. Many hobbyists and fiber enthusiasts raise angora goats, angora
rabbits, llama, and alpaca. Some local producers have branched into yak and camel as well.
Sales venues include local fiber and yarn shops, online retailers, and local and regional events Figure Fiber goods available for sale at a
like fiber fairs and festivals (Figure 5.15). 5.15 regional fiber festival.

Table 5.3  Groupings of Specialty Wools

Goat Family Camel Family Others

Angora goat—mohair Camel hair Angora rabbit—angora

Cashmere goat—cashmere and pashmina Llama Fur fibers
Alpaca Musk ox—qiviut
Vicuña Yak
Guanaco

natural protein fibers 103

 Table 5.4 Summary Table of Specialty Wool Fibers
Fiber Name Source Animal Characteristics End Uses

Mohair Angora goat Resilient, smooth and Novelty loop yarns, suitings,
lustrous fibers. Good flat and pile upholstery
affinity for dyes. fabrics, hand-produced
floor coverings, specialty
drapery applications,
wigs, and hairpieces
Qiviut Musk ox Resembles cashmere Handcrafted items
in hand and texture
but is much warmer,
expensive fiber.
Angora Angora rabbit Very fine, fluffy, soft, Sweaters, suitings, knitting
slippery, and fairly long. yarns
Angora does not take
dye well.
Camel hair Two-humped Provides warmth without Coats, jackets, scarves,
Bactrian camel weight. and sweaters. Blankets
of camel hair and wool
are also available.
Cashmere Cashmere goat Fabrics are warm, Sweaters, coats, suits,
buttery in hand, and jackets, loungewear, and
have beautiful draping blankets
characteristics.
Cashmere is more
sensitive to chemicals
than wool.
Cashgora Breeding of feral Coarser than cashmere Used primarily in less
cashmere goats and not as lustrous. expensive coatings and
with Angora suits
goats
Llama and South American Noted for softness, Apparel such as shawls,
alpaca camel family fineness, and luster. scarves, coats, and
Difficult to dye. handcrafts, and rugs
Vicuña and South American Short, very lustrous, light Suitings, coats, jackets
Guanaco camel family cinnamon in color. Fairly
rare.
Yak Ox Range from coarse to fine The outercoat fibers are
fibers. spun for ropes, cords,
tent covers, and durable
rugs. The soft, fine
undercoat fibers, may be
used in apparel such as
scarves and shawls.

Specialty wool fibers are of two kinds: the coarse, long outer hair and the soft, fine under-
coat. Coarse fibers are used for interlinings, upholstery, tote bags, and some coatings; the
fine fibers are used in luxury coatings, sweaters, shawls, suits, dresses, and interior textiles.
Hand-crafted items make use of both coarse and fine fibers.

Mohair
Mohair is the hair fiber of the Angora goat. Major producers are South Africa, the United
States, Turkey, and Lesotho. Texas is a major producer, but most U.S. mohair is exported.

104 chapter five

The goats (Figure 5.16) are usually sheared twice a year, in the early fall and early spring. Each
adult goat yields about 5 pounds of fiber. The fiber length is 4 to 6 inches if sheared twice or 8
to 12 inches if sheared once a year. Approximately 12% of the crop is kid (baby goat) mohair,
and the remaining 88% is adult mohair.
Mohair fibers are slightly coarse (average diameter of 25 microns for kid mohair and
40 microns for adult mohair) and have a circular cross section. Scales on the surface are
scarcely visible, and the cortical cells may appear as lengthwise striations. There are some
air spaces between the cells that give mohair its lightness and fluffiness. Few fibers have a
medulla.
Mohair is a very resilient fiber because it has fewer scales than wool and no crimp.
Mohair fibers are smoother and more lustrous than wool fibers (Figure 5.17). Mohair is very
Figure Angora goats produce mohair fibers.
strong and has a good affinity for dyes. The washed fleece is a lustrous white. Mohair is less
5.16 Source: EcoView/Fotolia.
expensive than many other specialty wools. Mohair’s chemical properties are very similar to
those of wool. Mohair makes a better novelty loop yarn than wool or the other specialty hair
fibers.
Mohair’s good resiliency is used to advantage in hand-knitting yarns, pile fabrics, and
suitings. Because it resists crushing and pilling, it is used in flat and pile upholstery fabrics
and hand-produced floor coverings. Its natural flame resistance, insulation, and sound absor-
bency make it ideal for specialty drapery applications. Blankets of mohair blends retain heat
well. Mohair is used to produce natural-looking wigs and hairpieces. Mohair is often blended
with wool to add sheen and texture to apparel and interior textiles.
The Mohair Council of America promotes the use of mohair and has established perfor-
mance standards for products using the fiber. (a) (b)
Figure Photomicrograph of mohair: cross-
5.17 sectional view (a) and longitudinal
Qiviut view (b).
Source: British Textile Technology Group.
Qiviut (ké-ve-ute), a rare and luxurious fiber, is the underwool of the domesticated musk ox
(Figure 5.18). A large musk ox provides about 6 pounds of wool each year. The fiber can be
used just as it comes from the animal, for it is protected from debris by the long guard hairs
and has low lanolin content. Qiviut resembles cashmere in hand and texture but is much
warmer. The fleece is not shorn but is shed naturally and is removed from the guard hairs as
soon as it becomes visible. Producers in Alaska and Canada raise musk ox and harvest the
fiber. Qiviut is expensive and used to produce handcrafted items by fiber artists, Inuit, and
other American Indian people.

Angora
Angora is the hair of the Angora rabbit produced in Europe, Chile, China, and the United
States (Figure 5.19). It is harvested up to four times a year by plucking or shearing.
Fiber yield and quality vary with the rabbit and its health and breed, and ranges from
8 to 30 oz. Of the four breeds of Angora rabbits, the two most common types are English
and French. English Angoras produce a fine silky fiber; French Angoras produce a coarser
fiber.
The white or naturally colored fiber is very fine (13 microns), fluffy, soft, slippery, and
fairly long. Angora does not take dye well and usually has a lighter color than other fibers
with which it is blended. It is often blended with wool to facilitate spinning because the slick

natural protein fibers 105


Figure The musk ox produces qiviut fiber.
5.18 Source: Dennisjacobsen/Fotolia.
Figure The Angora rabbit produces a soft,
5.19 luxurious fiber.
Figure Bactrian camels, relaxing at the zoo,
5.20 produce camel hair.
106 chapter five
fiber has poor cohesiveness. Angora is used in apparel such as sweaters and suitings and in
knitting yarn.
If a label states rabbit hair, this means the fiber is from a common rabbit, not an Angora
rabbit. Rabbit hair is often used to make felt for hats, but it is too short to make into yarns for
woven or knit fabrics.
Camel Hair
Camel hair is obtained from the two-humped Bactrian camel (Figure 5.20). Major producers
of camel hair include China, Mongolia, Iran, Afghanistan, Russia, New Zealand, Tibet, and
Australia. Camel hair is an excellent insulator. The hair is collected as it is shed or sheared
from the animals. A camel produces about 5 pounds of hair a year.
Because camel hair gives warmth without weight, the finer fibers are valued for apparel.
They are often used in blends with sheep’s wool, which is dyed the tan color of camel hair.
Camel hair is used in coats or jackets, scarves, and sweaters. Blankets of camel hair and
wool are also available. The fiber from the one-humped Dromedary camel is coarser and used
primarily for ropes and other technical products.
Cashmere
Cashmere is produced by the small cashmere goat (Capra hircus laniger) raised in China,
Mongolia, Tibet, Afghanistan, and Iran. Cashmere production is a main source of income for
the herders in these countries. The fibers vary in color from white to gray to brownish gray.
The goat has an outer coat of long, coarse hair and an inner coat of down. The hair usually
is combed by hand from the animal during the molting season. In dehairing, the coarse
hair is separated from the fine fibers (13 to 18 microns, must not exceed 19 microns). The
downy fine fibers make up only a small part of the fleece, usually about one-half pound
per goat. The fiber is solid, with no medulla and with fine scales. Cashmere is graded by
color, tensile strength, and freedom from contamination with other fibers or plant residue.
Cashmere is used for sweaters, coats, suits, jackets, loungewear, and blankets. Fabrics
are warm, buttery in hand, and have beautiful draping characteristics. Cashmere is more
sensitive to chemicals than wool. Pashmina, an Indian word for cashmere, is a fine fiber
originally produced in parts of northern India, Kashmir, and Pakistan. However, the term
pashmina is not a labeling term recognized by the FTC. Some manufacturers use the term
pashmina to describe a blend of cashmere and silk, still others use the term completely
incorrectly to describe a scarf or shawl made of the manufactured fiber acrylic. Consumers
should take great care in purchasing and caring for these mismarked goods. Cashmere
is sometimes mistaken for shahtoosh, an illegal fiber harvested from slaughtered Tibetan
chiru antelopes. The chiru is on the endangered species list. Sometimes, cashmere is
blended with less expensive sheep’s wool. When labels indicate a blend, no legal problem
exists. However, this is a fraudulent practice when the label does not indicate that the
product is a blend.
Cashgora is a new fiber resulting from the breeding of feral cashmere goats with Angora
goats in New Zealand and Australia. Although the International Wool Textile Organization has
adopted cashgora as a generic fiber term, it is not recognized around the world. The fiber
is coarser than cashmere and not as lustrous. It is used primarily in less expensive coatings
and suits.
Cashmere fiber, because of its high price and high demand by consumers, has been
subject to fraud of several kinds. Items labeled 100% cashmere or pure Mongolian cashmere
may be blended with other fibers such as wool or yak, may be a coarser and lower-quality
cashmere, or may be a fine wool with no cashmere present. Because of these problems,
the Mongolian Fibermark Society has been established to uphold the purity and quality of
Mongolian cashmere and ensure that items bearing the label meet strict quality and authen-
ticity standards. In addition, the FTC defines cashmere, so labels claiming cashmere content
must also meet strict guidelines for fiber size and species.

Llama and Alpaca

Llama and alpaca are domesticated animals of the South American branch of the camel
family (Figures 5.21 and 22). The fiber from their coats is 8 to 12 inches in length and is noted
for its softness, fineness, and luster. Two breeds of alpaca are the suri, which have smooth
distinct locks that are curly, twisted, or straight, and the huacaya with a crimpy, fluffly fleece
Figure The llama from South America is
that is soft and smooth. There are up to 22 shades of color, including white to light fawn, 5.21 prized for its fiber.
light brown, dark brown, gray, and black. Because alpaca is soft, it is often used for apparel,
handcrafts, and rugs. However, it is more difficult to dye than most other specialty wools. For
this reason, it is often used in its natural colors. Scales are less pronounced, so felting is not
as big a problem as with other wools. Its soft hand, beautiful luster, and good draping char-
acteristics are appreciated by fashion designers. Llama is coarser and most often used for
coats, suitings, ponchos, and shawls. As with wool, fibers from the younger llama and alpaca
are finer and softer.

Vicuña and Guanaco

Vicuña and guanaco are rare wild animals of the South American camel family. In the past,
the animals were killed to obtain the fiber. Now, they are sheared in a manner similar to that
of sheep. Vicuña and guanaco are protected animals. Vicuña is one of the softest, finest Figure The alpaca, also from South America,
(13 micron), rarest, and most expensive of all textile fibers. The fiber is short, very lustrous, 5.22 is a smaller animal that produces
and light cinnamon in color. Research is under way to produce genetic crosses of alpaca and valuable fiber.
vicuña. Currently, vicuña are classified as a threatened species. The Peruvian government
labels products containing vicuña to guarantee that the animals were captured, sheared alive,
released, and will not be sheared again for 3 years. A large portion of the profit from the sale
of vicuña is returned to the villagers. However, poaching continues to be a problem. Products
made from vicuña and guanaco are quite expensive, and include suitings, coats, and jackets.

Learning Activity 6
Use Fabric #38 from your swatch kit. Identify an end use for the fabric and describe its
serviceability. Locate a country from Figure 5.1 where this protein fiber could have been
produced.

natural protein fibers 107


Figure The yak, a large ox, produces a fiber
5.23 that is often mixed with cashmere.
Source: Robert Cicchetti/Fotolia.
Silk is a natural protein fiber produced by
the larvae of a moth. Silk is universally
accepted as a luxury fiber.
108 chapter five
7 Learning Activity
Consider the other animal fibers. In terms of sustainability, how do they compare with
wool from sheep? Would any of these be competitive with wool in terms of sustainabil-
ity, production, or properties? Explain your answer.
Yak
Yak fiber is produced by a large ox found in the Himalayan mountain region of Tibet and
Central Asia, with some small herds in the United States (Figure 5.23). The yak produce
fiber that ranges from very fine to very coarse. The outercoat fibers can measure from
4 ½ to 15 inches long, and are spun for ropes, cords, tent covers, and durable rugs.
The soft, fine undercoat fibers, are short, but smooth and lustrous, and may be used
in apparel such as scarves and shawls. Yak fiber is used in the international market
because it is mixed with the much more expensive cashmere to extend its use and
lower the cost. It is coarser than cashmere and often dark brown, black, or golden
in color.
Other Animal Fibers
Particularly within the local fiber movement, other animal fibers are utilized by fiber enthusiasts
for dyeing, spinning, weaving, and knitting. Animals used to produce garments and interior
products include the hair shorn from bison, fur collected from domesticated cats and dogs,
and the undercoat fibers collected from shedding wolves.
Silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber. It is similar to wool in that it is composed of amino acids
arranged in a polypeptide chain, but it has no cross links. Silk is produced by the larvae of
a moth.
According to Chinese legend, silk culture began in 2640 b.c.e., when Empress Hsi Ling
Shi became interested in silkworms and learned how to reel the silk and weave it into fabric.
Through her efforts, China developed a silk industry and a 3,000-year monopoly. Silk culture
later spread to Korea and Japan, westward to India and Persia, and then to Spain, France,
and Italy. Silk fabrics imported from China were coveted in other countries; in India, Chinese
fabrics were often unraveled and rewoven into looser fabrics or combined with other fibers to
produce more yardage from the same amount of silk filament. Several attempts at sericulture
were made in the United States, but none were successful. A few villages in Mexico have
been producing silk since the Spanish introduced it in the 16th century. Today, the major
producers of silk are China, India, and Japan.
Silk is universally accepted as a luxury fiber. The International Silk Association of
the United States emphasized this by its slogan “Only silk is silk.” Silk has a combina-
tion of properties not possessed by any other fiber. It has a dry tactile hand, unique
natural luster, good moisture absorption, lively suppleness and draping qualities, and
high strength.
 Learning Activity 8
Consider the performance aspects of silk. Using correct serviceability concepts, explain
what is meant by the slogan, “Only silk is silk.”

The beauty and hand of silk and its high cost are probably responsible for the develop-
ment of the manufactured fiber industry. Silk is a solid fiber with a simple physical structure.
It is this physical nature of silk that some manufactured fibers attempt to duplicate. Most
successful are those manufactured fibers with a triangular cross section and fine size.

Production of Silk
Sericulture is the production of cultivated silk, which begins when the silk moth lays eggs on
a specially prepared paper. The cultivated silkworm is usually Bombyx mori, as such the silk
can be called bombyx silk or mulberry silk. When the eggs hatch, the caterpillars, or larvae,
are fed fresh, young mulberry leaves (Figure 5.24). After about 35 days and four moltings,
the silkworms are approximately 10,000 times heavier than when hatched and are ready to
begin spinning a cocoon, or chrysalis case. A straw frame is placed on the tray and the silk-
worm starts to spin the cocoon by moving its head in a figure eight. The silkworm produces
silk in two glands and forces the liquid silk through spinnerets, openings in its head. The two
Figure Silkworms feeding on mulberry
strands of silk are coated with a water-soluble protective gum, sericin. When the silk comes 5.24 leaves.
in contact with the air, it solidifies. In 2 or 3 days, the silkworm will spin approximately 1 mile of
filament and will completely encase itself in a cocoon (Figure 5.25). The silkworm then meta-
morphoses into a moth. Usually the silkworm is killed (stifled) with heat before it reaches the Sericulture is the production of cultivated
moth stage. silk.
If the silkworm is allowed to reach the moth stage, it is used for breeding additional
silkworms. The moth secretes a fluid that dissolves the silk at one end of the cocoon so that
it can crawl out. These cocoons cannot be used for filament silk yarns and the staple silk
produced from them is less valuable.
To obtain filament silk, the cocoons that have been stifled are sorted for fiber size, fiber
quality, and defects, then brushed to find the outside ends of the filaments. Several fila-
ments are gathered together and wound onto a reel. This process, referred to as reeling, is
performed in a manufacturing plant called a filature. Each cocoon yields approximately 1,000
yards of usable silk filament. This is raw silk, or silk-in-the-gum, fiber. Several filaments
are combined to form a yarn. The operators in the filature must carefully join the filaments so
that the diameter of the reeled silk remains uniform in size. Uniformly reeled filament silk is the
most valuable (Figure 5.26).
As the fibers are combined and wrapped onto the reel, twist can be added to hold the
filaments together. Adding twist is referred to as throwing, and the resulting yarn is called a
thrown yarn. The specific type of yarn and amount of twist relate to the fabric to be produced.
The simplest type of thrown yarn is a single, in which three to eight filaments are twisted
together to form a yarn. Used for filling yarns in many silk fabrics, singles may have two or
three twists per inch.
Staple silk is produced from cocoons in which the filament broke or in which the
moth was allowed to mature and come out. It is also produced from the inner portions of Figure Silk cocoons.
the cocoon. This silk as well as silk from pierced cocoons or cocoons otherwise unsuitable 5.25

natural protein fibers 109


Figure Reeling of silk.
5.26 Source: Christelle/Fotolia.
Spun silk is less expensive, less durable,
more likely to pill, and of lower quality than
filament silk.
(a) (b)
Figure Photomicrographs of silk fiber: cross-
5.27 sectional view (a) and longitudinal
view (b).
Source: British Textile Technology Group.
110 chapter five
to reeling is known as waste silk. Silk yarns and fabrics derived from waste silk are called
schappe. Waste silk is degummed (the sericin is removed) and combed into parallel fibers
for the spinning into yarn process. The premium, longest fibers are removed, and the shorter
waste fibers, are spun into another product called bourette or silk noil. These fibers are
used to weave silk noil fabric that is fairly matte, and useful for more casual garments. Spun
silk is less expensive, less durable, more likely to pill, and of lower quality than filament silk. It
may also have an odor, particularly noticeable when the fabric becomes wet or warm, when
washed or when the wearer perspires.
Silk produced by any other species of moth than the bombyx mori, is generically known
as wild silk, even when it has been farm raised. Although many species of silkworms produce
wild silk, the two most common are Antheraea mylitta and Antheraea pernyi. The silkworms
feed on oak and cherry leaves in the wild and produce fibers that are much less uniform in
texture and color. The fiber is most often brown; yellow, orange, and green also occur.
Since the cocoons are harvested after the moth has matured, the silk cannot be reeled
and must be used as spun silk. Tussah silk is the most common type of wild silk. It is coarser,
darker, and cannot be bleached. Hence, white and light colors are not available in tussah silk.
Tasar is a type of wild silk from India. Some fabrics are sold simply as wild silk. The term raw
silk is sometimes used incorrectly to describe these fabrics.
Dupioni silk is another type of silk that results when two silkworms spin their cocoons
together. The yarn is irregular in diameter with a thick-and-thin appearance. It is used in such
linenlike silk fabrics as shantung.
Silk fabric descriptions may include the term momme, the standard way to describe silk
fabrics. Momme, pronounced like mummy and abbreviated mm, describes the weight of the
silk. One momme (momie or mommie) weighs 3.75 grams. Most silk fabrics are produced
in several weights. Higher numbers describe heavier fabrics. Other terms such as habutai or
crepe describe the yarn and fabric structure. Silk fabrics are often graded for their degree of
evenness, fiber or yarn size, and freedom from defects. Grade A refers to the highest grade,
only about 10% of the silk produced.
Japan is known for its high-quality silks. India produces handwoven wild silks with a
pronounced texture. Thailand’s handwoven iridescent silks are created by using two yarn
colors in weaving the fabric. With over 30 countries producing silk, there is a wide range of silk
types and qualities on the market. Pure silk and pure dye silk describe 100% silk fabrics that
do not contain any metallic weighting compounds. See Chapter 21 for more information on
labeling silk fabrics.
Fiber enthusiasts in the United States and elsewhere raise silkworms on their own. Eggs
and food pellets for growing silk worms can be purchased online. Silk fiber raised locally is
used by the producer for their fiber art and sold to other enthusiasts through fiber fairs and
festivals held locally and regionally. Locally grown silk is processed and sold to local hand
spinners, spun into yarns of all silk or blends with other fibers, and used to make nonwoven
silk felt and silk jewelry.
Physical Structure of Silk
Silk is the only natural filament fiber. It is a solid fiber, smooth but irregular in diameter along
its shaft. The filaments are triangular in cross section, with rounded corners (Figure 5.27). Silk
fibers are very fine—1.25 denier/filament (dpf). Wild silks are slightly coarser, with slight stria-
tions along the length of the fiber.
Chemical Composition and Molecular Structure of Silk
The protein in silk is fibroin, with 15 amino acids in polypeptide chains. Silk has reactive
amino (NH2) and carboxyl (COOH) groups. Silk has no cross linkages and no bulky side
chains, making it less appealing than wool to carpet beetles and moths. The molecular chains
are not coiled, as in wool, but are pleated and packed closely together. Silk’s high orientation
contributes to its strength. Its elasticity is due to some amorphous areas between the crystal-
line areas.

Properties of Silk
Consult the fiber property tables in Chapter 3 when comparing the performance of silk to that
of other fibers. Table 5.5 compares silk and wool. Silk is the only natural filament fiber.

Aesthetics  Depending on the method of production, silk has variable aesthetics. Since it is
adaptable to a variety of fabrication methods, it is available in many fabric types for interior and
apparel uses. Because of cultivated silk’s smooth but slightly irregular surface and triangular
cross section, its luster is soft, with an occasional sparkle. It is this luster that has been the
model for many manufactured fibers. Fabrics made of cultivated silk have a smooth appear-
ance and a luxurious hand. Silk has a smooth, soft hand, but it is not as slippery as many
synthetic fibers.
Wild silks have a duller luster because of their coarser size, less regular surface, and the
presence of sericin. Fabrics made of wild silk have a more pronounced texture.
In filament form, silk has poor covering power. Before the development of strong
synthetic fibers, silk was the only strong filament, and silk fabrics were often treated with
metallic salts such as tin, a process called weighting, to produce better drape, covering
power, and dye absorption. These fabrics were known as weighted silk. Unfortunately, these
historic weighted silks aged quickly because excessive amounts of metallic salt were used.
Figure 5.28 shows a 19th-century silk bodice that has shattered (disintegrated) as a result

Table 5.5  Comparison of Wool and Silk

Property Wool Silk

Abrasion resistance Moderate Moderate

Breaking tenacity (dry; wet) Low (1.5 g/d; 1.0 g/d) High (4.5 g/d; 2.8–4.0 g/d)
Breaking elongation (dry; wet) Medium (25%; 35%) Medium (20%; 30%)
Absorbency High (13%–18%) High (11%)
Thermal retention Excellent Moderate
Specific gravity Medium (1.32) Medium (1.25)
Resiliency Excellent Moderate
Elastic recovery at 3% stretch High (99%) Medium (90%)
Resistance to strong acids More resistant More sensitive
Resistance to alkalis Harmed Harmed
Resistance to light Poor Poor
Fiber length 1.5–5 inches Natural filament; available in staple
form
Fiber fineness (micrometers) 10–50 11–12

natural protein fibers 111


Figure Close-up of shattered bodice (c. 1885)
5.28 of weighted silk gingham. Note that
only the weighted silk yarns (yellow)
have disintegrated.
The weight of a fabric is important in heat
conductivity—sheer silk fabrics are cool,
whereas heavy silk fabrics are warm.
112 chapter five
of the weighting chemicals added during production. Although this problem is sometimes
referred to as dry rot, it is more commonly known as shattered silk by museum specialists.
At present, no treatment exists to reduce the damage and save garments with this inherent
problem. Silk has scroop, a natural rustle, which can be increased by treatment with an
organic acid such as acetic or tartaric acid. Silk can be dyed and printed in brilliant colors.
Durability  Silk has high durability, but moderate abrasion resistance. Because of its end
uses and cost, silk seldom receives harsh abrasion, however. Silk is one of the strongest nat-
ural fibers, with a tenacity of 4.5 g/d dry. It may lose up to 20% of its strength when wet. It has
a breaking elongation of 20%. It is not as elastic as wool because there are no cross linkages
to retract the molecular chains. When silk is elongated by 2%, its elasticity is only 90%. Thus,
when silk is stretched even a small amount, it does not return to its original length but remains
slightly stretched.
Comfort  Silk has high comfort, and high absorbency, with moisture regain of 11%. Silk may
develop static cling because of the smoothness of the fibers and yarns and the fabric weight.
Silk fabrics are comfortable in summer. Like wool, silk is a poor conductor of heat so that it is
comfortably warm in the winter. The weight of a fabric is important in heat ­conductivity—sheer
fabrics are cool, whereas heavy fabrics are warm. Silk is smooth and soft and not irritating
to the skin. The density of silk is 1.25 g/cc, producing strong and lightweight silk products.
Weighted silk is not as durable as regular silk and wrinkles more readily.
Appearance Retention  Silk has moderate appearance retention and resistance to wrin-
kling. Because silk’s recovery from elongation is low, it does not resist wrinkling as well as
some other fibers.
Silk fibers do not shrink. Because the molecular chains are not easily distorted, silk swells
only a small amount when wet. Fabrics made from true crepe yarns shrink if laundered, but
this is due to the yarn structure, not the fiber content.
Care  Dry cleaning may be recommended for silk items because of yarn types, dyes with poor
fastness to water or laundering, or product or fabric-construction methods. Washable silk
items can be laundered in a mild detergent solution with gentle agitation. However, ­because
silk may lose up to 20% of its strength when wet, care should be taken with wet silks to avoid
any unnecessary stress. Silk fibers are sensitive to abrasion, which can occur when the silk
rubs against itself or the metal washing machine drum. Abraded silk fiber appears whitish. Silk
items should be pressed after laundering. Pure dye silks should be ironed damp with a press
cloth. Wild silks should be dry-cleaned and ironed dry to avoid losing sericin and fabric body.
Silk interior textiles are generally cleaned by the absorbent powder cleaning method.
Silk may water-spot easily. Before hand- or machine-washing, test in an obscure place
on the item to make sure the dye or finish does not water-spot. Silk can be damaged and
yellowed by strong soaps or detergents (highly alkaline compounds) and high temperatures.
Chlorine bleaches should be avoided. Cleaning agents containing hydrogen peroxide and
sodium perborate are safe to use if the directions are followed carefully.
Silk is resistant to dilute mineral acids and organic acids. A crepelike surface effect may
be created by the shrinking action caused by some acids. Silk is weakened and yellowed
by exposure to sunlight and perspiration. For this reason, interior textiles of silk should be
protected from direct exposure to sunlight. Silks may be attacked by insects, especially
carpet beetles. Items should be stored clean because soil may attract insects that do not
normally feed on silk.
Weighted silks deteriorate even under ideal storage conditions and are especially likely to
break at the folds. Historic items often exhibit a condition known as shattered silk, in which
the weighted silk is disintegrating (see Figure 5.24). The process cannot be reversed.
Table 5.6 summarizes silk’s performance in apparel and interior textiles.

Sustainability of Silk
Silk is a natural fiber and a renewable resource. Sericulture uses leaves of the mulberry tree.
These trees grow in regions where the soil may be too poor to grow other crops or in small
and irregular spaces. The trees help retain soil and contribute to the income of small farms.
Mulberry trees are severely pruned when the leaves are harvested and the trees do not
achieve a natural shape. Since mulberry trees are deciduous, leaves are available for only part
of the year and silk production is limited to one generation each year. Because silkworms are
highly sensitive, harmful pesticides and herbicides are not used. Silk chow, is a commercially
available food pellet for silk worms. It provides the hobbyist the opportunity to grow a few silk
worms for their own use. However, while the silk chow makes raising silk year-round possible,
it is costly to buy (especially for rural families) and may impact their ability to harvest silk and
negatively impact their income.
Silkworms are susceptible to disease, predators, and changes in temperature. Research
is underway to increase silk production by developing disease-resistant varieties, producing
artificial diets, and controlling internal environments to induce year-round production.
Researchers are also examining the production of naturally colored silks that do not require
the use of chemical dyes.
Silkworms are raised for the silk they produce. Filament silk is the highest quality and shin-
iest, but there is no way to reel silk and allow the moths to emerge naturally from the cocoon.

Table 5.6 Summary of the Performance of Silk in Apparel

and Interior Textiles
Aesthetics Variable
Luster Beautiful and soft
Durability High
Abrasion resistance Moderate
Tenacity High for natural fibers
Elongation Moderate
Comfort High
Absorbency High
Thermal retention Good
Appearance Retention Moderate
Resiliency Moderate
Dimensional stability High
Elastic recovery Moderate
Recommended Care Dry-clean (apparel) or absorbent powder
cleaning method (interior textiles)

natural protein fibers 113

 Most are killed before they have matured in order to harvest filament silk. Because of this,
some animal rights activists avoid purchasing or using silk items. Some small quantities of
organic, vegetarian, peace, or cruelty-free silk are available from cocoons where the mature
silk moth is allowed to leave the cocoon. Wild silk cocoons may be harvested after the moth
has left the cocoon and are found in open forests. Wild silk is lower in quality than conven-
tional silk because of its staple length.
Silk production is labor-intensive and is concentrated in regions where labor costs
are low. When silk prices fall, these regions suffer accordingly. Child labor may be used in
producing silk. However, in many areas, silk production allows families to work together and
each member’s work contributes to a better economic situation for the family. In the villages
of Mexico, silk production provides economic freedom for women and boosts family income.
Efforts to mechanize the production of silkworms could have a pronounced impact on regions
that have traditionally relied on hand labor to produce silk. Organizations such as the Central
Silk Board in India, a government agency of scientists and humanitarians, works to help
improve the productivity of wild silks and the lives of the indigenous farmers who make their
living on this animal.
Silk production makes extensive use of water and other chemicals to clean the fiber
and remove sericin. Silk sericin is removed from the silk in a hot-water bath (degumming).
The waste water is usually discharged into the ground water system without any treatment.
Some factories that degum silk have developed water treatment procedures so that the water
returned to the environment is clean. Although the use of chemical finishes is relatively low for
silk, the use of dyes is high. Dyeing silk requires use of heat, water, dyes, and other chemicals.
Environmental regulations are minimal in some parts of the world where silk is processed, and
disposal of chemicals is done with little regard for the environment. Although not all silk prod-
ucts require dry cleaning, many do. Dry-cleaning solvents may harm the environment, and
their use and disposal are restricted. For more information on dry cleaning, see Chapter 20.

Uses of Silk
Silk has a drape, luster, and texture that may be imitated by synthetic fibers, but cannot
be exactly duplicated. Because of its unique properties and high cost, silk is used primarily
in apparel and interior products. Other factors that contribute to the continued popularity
of silk are its appearance, comfort, and strength. Silk is extremely versatile, and it can be
used to create a variety of fabrics, from sheer, gossamer chiffons to heavy, beautiful

9 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #5, 19, 36, and 68 from your swatch kit. Identify an end use for each fabric
and describe the serviceability for each product. How would the serviceability change if
the fabric were made from cotton or another natural cellulosic fiber? Use Figure 5.1 and
locate a country where these silk fibers might have been produced.

10 Learning Activity
Is silk a sustainable fiber? Identify the positive and negative aspects of silk in terms of
sustainability. Explain your answer.

114 chapter five

 Learning Activity 11
Because of its unique properties and high
Compare Tables 5.2 and 5.5. Identify end uses where wool would provide better perfor- cost, silk is used primarily in apparel and
mance and end uses where silk would be better. Are there some end uses where both interior products.
would be appropriate but provide differences in serviceability? If yes, give examples and
explain the serviceability differences.

brocades and velvets. Because of silk’s absorbency, it is appropriate for warm-weather wear

and active sportswear. Because of its low heat conductivity, it is also appropriate for cold-
weather wear. Silk underwear, socks, and leggings are popular due to silk’s soft hand, good
absorbency, and wicking characteristics. Silk is available in a range of apparel from one-of-a-
kind designer garments to more moderately priced scarves.
Silk and silk blends are equally important in interior textiles. Silk is frequently used in uphol-
stery, wall-covering fabrics, and wall hangings. Some designers are so enamored with silk
that they drape entire rooms in it. Silk blends are often used in window-treatment and uphol-
stery fabrics because of their soft luster and drape. The texture and drape of wild and dupioni
silks make them ideal for covering ceilings and walls. Occasionally, beautiful and expensive
handmade rugs are made of silk. Liners for sleeping bags, blankets, and bedsheets of silk feel
warm, soft, and luxurious next to the skin.
Silk is also used in the medical field for sutures, prosthetic arteries, and fibroin-based
scaffolds and grafts. The scaffold provides support for regenerating ligaments, tendons, and
other bodily connective tissue. It has been successful in restoring full functionality following
some injuries.

Spider Silk
For several years, researchers have been intrigued with the dragline silk produced by some
spiders of the Nephila and Araneus families because of their exceptional strength, elasticity,
and biodegradability. This silk can be magnetized, conducts electricity, and is stable to high
temperatures. The protein of spider silk is spidroin, but each spider spins several kinds of silk.
Capture silk is highly elastic and hydroscopic, while dragline silk is very strong for its fine size.
It is difficult to produce quantities of the spider silk for research purposes because spiders are
territorial and kill each other before spinning much silk. Spider farms are simply not possible.
Researchers are studying the plausibility of using a transgenic silkworm in which some of
the silkworm genes are replaced with spider genes to produce the dragline spidersilk, the
resulting product is composed of both spider silk proteins and silk from a silkworm. Other host
systems range from bacteria to animals such as genetically modified goats. While researchers
continue to search for solutions for production in large scale, possible applications for this
extraordinarily strong, yet elastic fiber include civil engineering and road construction, protec-
tive clothing, military uses, and for bone and tendon repair in the medical field.

Identification of Natural Protein Fibers

Natural protein fibers can be identified with a microscope fairly easily. Wool fibers have scales
that are visible along the edge and, if the fiber is white or pastel, may be seen throughout the

natural protein fibers 115

 length of the fiber. It is difficult to distinguish among the wool fibers because of their similar
appearance. For example, it is easy to distinguish wool from cotton, but it is difficult to distin-
guish sheep’s wool from camel hair. Correct identification of the various specialty wools is
Silk can be identified with a microscope,
difficult but necessary because of fraudulent blends that are labeled 100% cashmere or other
but with greater difficulty than wool,
luxury fiber. Silk can be identified with a microscope, but with greater difficulty. Since silk is
whose scales are visible along the
a natural fiber, its surface is not as regular as that of most manufactured fibers. The trilobal
edge of the fiber.
cross section may not be apparent, but the fiber has slight bumps or other irregularities.
Natural protein fibers are soluble in sodium hypochlorite. In the burn test, these fibers
smell like burning hair. However, the odor is so strong that a very small percentage of protein
fiber produces a noticeable hair odor. Hence, the burn test is not reliable for blends, nor will it
distinguish among the protein fibers.

12 Learning Activity
Use Fabric #11 from your swatch kit. Following the procedures described in Chapter 3,
examine the fibers using the microscope to see the scales of the wool fiber. Repeat the
process with Fabric #38. Describe the differences and similarities of the microscopic
appearance of both fibers.

13 Learning Activity
Use Fabric #5 from your swatch kit. Following the procedures described in Chapter 3,
examine the fibers using the microscope to see the slightly irregular appearance of silk.
Compare the appearance of silk with that of wool and cashmere.

14 Learning Activity
Use a small portion of the fiber labeled Silk, Wool, and Mohair or three to four yarns
from Fabrics #4, 11, and 38 (cashmere) from your swatch kit. Following the procedures
and safety precautions described in Chapter 3, conduct a burn test of these samples.
Describe the ease of ignition, the color and odor of the smoke, and the color and tex-
ture of the cooled ash. Compare your results with those included in Table 3.7. Use
Figure 5.1 and locate a country where the mohair fiber might have been produced.

15 Learning Activity
Use a small portion of the fiber labeled Silk, Wool, and Mohair or three to four yarns
from Fabrics #4, 11, and 38 (cashmere) from your swatch kit. Following the procedures
and safety precautions described in Chapter 3, place each sample in a container of
chlorine bleach. Describe what happens. Record how long it takes for the fiber samples
to dissolve.

116 chapter five

terms
key terms
Alpaca
Angora
Camel hair
Keratin
Lamb’s wool
Llama
Sericin
Sericulture
Shoddy
Cashgora Medulla Silk
Cashmere Merino Silk-in-the-gum
Clean or scoured wool Mohair Silk noil
Cortex Momme Sorting wool
Crimp Natural bicomponent fiber Spider silk
Dupioni silk Natural protein fibers Traceback
Feltability Qiviut Tussah silk
Felting Raw or grease wool Vicuña
Fibroin Raw silk Virgin wool
Garnetted Recycled wool Weighted silk
Grading wool Reeling Weighting
Guanaco Scales Wild silk
Hygroscopic Schappe Wool
Kemp Scroop Yak

questions
review questions
1. Describe the similarities in the properties common to all
protein fibers.


g. Summer shawl
h. Wall covering
2. For the products listed below, describe the properties of 5. To what fiber aspects are the differences in properties
wool and silk that some manufactured fibers attempt to among the natural protein fibers attributed?
duplicate: 6. Consider the distribution of fibers present in your wardrobe.
a. Carpeting Explain which natural protein fibers are present and how
b. Blanket you are satisfied or dissatisfied with their performance.
c. Blouse Use Figure 5.1 and locate a country of production for
d. Interview suit (wool) each of the natural protein fibers represented in your
e. Interview blouse (silk) wardrobe.
f. draperies
7. Explain why wool is not more commonly used in apparel
g. noise and vibration reduction pads for machinery
and interiors? What are the reasons you do not own more
3. Compare the performance characteristics of the following wool items?
fiber pairs:
8. Would one of the other animal fibers be able to compete
a. Wool and angora
with wool in the market? Why or why not?
b. Cashmere and silk
c. Mohair and llama 9. Select two animal fibers other than wool. Explain the
d. silk and spidersilk differences and similarities between these fibers and wool
e. Alpaca and camel in terms of processing and performance.

4. Identify a natural protein fiber that would be appropriate
for each of the end uses listed below and describe the
properties that contribute to that end use:
a. Area rug in front of a fireplace
b. Upholstery for corporate boardroom
c. Suit for business travel
d. Tie with small print pattern
e. Casual sweater
f. Sutures for medical uses
10. Although silk production was attempted in many parts of
the world in the 16th through the 19th centuries, it usually
failed. Propose five reasons why silk production might not
succeed in an area.
11. Examine items in your closet. Do you own any products
made of silk? Ask one of your parents to also examine
their closet. Do they have any products made of silk? What
components of silk make them ideal for these specific
products?

natural protein fibers 117

 Case Study
A Lao Silk Farm*
Mulberries Organic Silk Farm is near Phon-
savan in Xieng Khouang Province in north-
ern Laos. The owner Madame Kommaly
­established the farm in 1976, and has formed
partnerships with over 200 village families,
who receive training at the farm in silkworm
rearing, reeling, and natural dyeing. They
also learn techniques for weaving traditional
Lao patterns using colors and motifs that
appeal to buyers but also preserve traditional
skills and artistic expression. The successful
marketing of the products produced at the
Farm provides a steady income to one of the
poorest countries of Southeast Asia in which
more than 25% of the people live on less
than one dollar per day, and two-thirds of the
population lives without sanitary facilities or
clean drinking water.
Discussion Questions
1. Use Appendix D and find Lao on the map.
What geographic and climatic elements
make this part of the world an ideal loca-
tion for raising silkworms?
2. Madame Kommaly was nominated for
the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005 for her
contribution to strengthening the social
and economic position of Lao women and
their families. How does her organization
improve life for the women and families
she trains?
3. Describe the process for silkworm rearing
and reeling.
4. Consider your purchasing habits. Are you
influenced by where a garment or interiors
product comes from? Would knowing
the product helps preserve tradition and
promote women’s livelihood encourage
your purchase? Using correct serviceabil-
ity concepts, discuss other factors that
­impact your purchasing decisions.

*Nimetz, C. (2014). A day in the life of a Lao silk farm worker. Spin-Off, 38(2), 72–78.

readings
suggested readings
Chung, H., Kim, T. Y., Lee, S. Y. (2012). Recent advances in
production of recombinant spider silk proteins. Current
Opinion in Biotechnology, 23(6), 957–964.
Nimetz, C. (2014). A day in the life of a Lao silk farm worker. Spin-
Off, 38(2), 72–78.
Ordal, L. (2015). Save our stash: Protect your precious fibers and
Collins, K. (2008). South America’s wild ones, vicuña and guanaco. yarns. Spin-Off, 40(1), 78–80.
Spin-Off, 32(4), 78–84. Rhoades, C. H. (2007). Bactrian camel. Spin-Off, 31(3), 50–57.
De Roy, T. (2002, January/February). Return of the golden fleece. Rhoades, C. H. (2011). Yak. Spin-Off, 35(4), 72–76.
International Wildlife, 32, 13-20.
Robson, D., & Ekarius, C. (2013). The Field Guide to Fleece. North
Druchunas, D. (2015). Hand-combed qiviut: A rare luxury from Adams, MA: Storey Publishing.
Alaska. Interweave Knits, 19(4), 56–58.
Robson, D., & Ekarius, C. (2011). The Fleece and Fiber Sourcebook.
Fletcher, K. (2008). Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing.
Journey. London: Earthscan.
Russo, R. (2011). How it felts. Spin-Off, 35(2), 50–54.
Gilman, V. (2003, June 16). The silk road. Chemical and Engineering
Sinnppoo, K., Arnold, L., & Padhye, R. (2010). Application of wool
News, 27.
in high-velocity ballistic protective fabrics. Textile Research
Greer, S., Banks-Lee, P., & Jones, M. (2007). Physical and Journal, 80(11), 1083–1092.
mechanical properties of chiengora fibers. AATCC Review,
Thiry, M. (2007). Detecting the fiber. AATCC Review, 7(12), 18–21.
7(5), 42–46.
Thiry, M. (2007). Fibers in contention. AATCC Review, 7(12), 22–23.
Hearle, J. W. S. (2007). Protein fibres: 21st century vision Textiles,
34(2), 14–18. Tortora, P. G. (2015). Dress, Fashion, and Technology: From
Prehistory to the Present. London, UK: Bloomsbury.
Hethorn, J., & Ulasewicz, C. (2008). Sustainable Fashion: Why
Now? New York: Fairchild Books. Vester, P. J. (2005/2006). Merino: A golden fleece. Shuttle, Spindle,
and Dyepot, 37(1), 43–47.
Lynde, R. (2013). A weaver’s guide to wool. Handwoven, 34(1),
20–21. Wallack, R. L. (2008). Cashmere: From the land of mystery. AATCC
Review, 8(5), 28–31.
McCuin, J. M. (2009). Women who spin with the wolves. Spin-Off,
33(3), 58–64.

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Artisan263/Fotolia Prescott09/Fotolia

William87/Fotolia Olaru Radian/Fotolia

The Fiber-
Manufacturing
Process

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To articulate the processing of manufacturing fibers.
• To integrate fiber modifications and their impact on product performance.
• To examine the sustainability of manufactured fibers.
• To recognize the impact of manufactured fibers in the global textile complex.
• To identify the differences and similarities among natural and manufactured fibers.

6
 None of the natural fibers possess a perfect combination of characteristics, performance,
availability, or cost. For these reasons, inventors have worked on developing fibers for cen-
turies. In 1664, Robert Hooke suggested that if the proper liquid were squeezed through a
small aperture and congeald, a fiberlike silk might be produced. In 1889, the first manufac-
tured fiber (from a solution of cellulose by Count Hilaire de Chardonnet) was shown at the
Paris Exhibition. In 1910, rayon fibers were first commercially produced in the United States.
Acetate was first commercially produced in 1924. These first manufactured fibers made it
possible for consumers to have silklike fabrics at low cost. In 1939, the first synthetic fiber,
nylon, was made. Since then, many more generic fibers with numerous modifications have
become available.

Manufacturing Fibers
A manufactured fiber is any fiber derived by a process of manufacture from chemical
Manufactured fibers are derived by a
compounds where the original form is not recognizable as a fiber. There are many dif-
process of manufacture from a substance
ferent manufactured fibers available today. The differences among the fibers are due to
that at any point in the process is not a
the chemistry of the polymer. Because it is very difficult for consumers to differentiate
fiber. Generic name refers to the family
among these fibers based on their appearance or hand, each specific type is given a
of manufactured or synthetic fibers that
generic name. These names are not the same as trade names. Generic name refers
have a similar chemical composition,
to the family of manufactured or synthetic fibers that have a similar chemical composi-
based on fiber chemistry. Trade names are
tion, are based on fiber chemistry, and are approved by the Federal Trade Commission
companies’ names for fibers.
(­Table 6.1). Trade names are companies’ names for fibers and may be used in promo-
tion and marketing. Certification requirements for use of a trade name or trademark allow
the owner to set minimum performance standards for a product that carries the trade
name or trademark. Trade names for generic fibers, like Tencel lyocell, are used less of-
ten, while trade names for special fiber modifications, like Supplex nylon, are used widely
to promote products.

1 Learning Activity
Develop a list of the criteria that would make a perfect fiber for a specific end use or
product. Compare your list to the fiber property charts in Chapter 3. Which fiber(s)
come(s) closest to being your perfect fiber? What are the performance areas where this
fiber is less than perfect? Explain the performance areas where synthetic and manufac-
tured fibers excel and where natural fibers excel. Are these areas the same or different?

2 Learning Activity
Examine the list of fibers in Table 6.1. Make a list of the fibers whose names you recog-
nize and a list of fibers whose names you do not recognize. Look at the names on your
first list. Explain why these fibers are ones that you recognize. For example, these fibers
may be present in apparel, home textiles, or home furnishings you own or use. Save the
names on the second list for a learning activity in Chapter 9.

122 chapter six

Table 6.1  Generic Names for Manufactured Fibers
Cellulosic Noncellulosic and Synthetic Mineral
Acetate Acrylic Nylon Glass
Triacetate* Anidex* Nytril* Metallic
Rayon* Aramid Olefin
Lyocell Azlon* PBI
Elasterell-p PLA _________
Elastoester Polyester _________
Fluoropolymer Rubber _________
Lastol Saran* _________
Lastrile* Spandex _________
Melamine Sulfar* _________
Modacrylic Vinal* _________
Novoloid* Vinyon* _________

*Not produced in the United States.

Learning Activity 3
Use Fabrics #20, 25, 42, 45, and 82 and the key from your swatch kit. Identify which of
the terms identifying these fabrics are generic fiber names and which are trade names
or trademarks. Check Table 3.1 to determine which of these fibers are natural, manu-
factured, and synthetic. Appendix C will be useful in differentiating between generic and
trade names.

There are two types of manufactured fibers: regenerated and synthetic. Manufactured
regenerated fibers will be discussed in Chapter 7 and manufactured synthetic fibers will be
discussed in Chapters 8 and 9.
The impact of manufactured fibers on consumer and technical markets has greatly
exceeded original predictions. The first manufactured fibers focused on people who could
not afford the expensive natural fibers like silk. Yet manufactured fibers have caused tre-
mendous changes in people’s lifes and their activities. End uses that in the past were
not possible are now commonplace because of the characteristics of manufactured fi-
bers. Many fashions are directly related to manufactured fibers. The combination of fit and
performance found in spandex and nylon biking shorts, swimwear, and leotards is not
possible with any combination of natural fibers. The common use of carpeting in homes,
businesses, and other facilities is related to the low cost and good performance charac-
teristics of nylon, olefin, and other manufactured fibers. Carpets of wool are too expensive
and do not possess the characteristics appropriate for the many ways carpets are used
today. Manufactured fibers in roadbed underlays, communication cables, and replacement
human body parts are examples of new end uses for fibers. Manufactured fibers have rev-
olutionized daily life!
Manufactured fibers are constantly evolving. They possess the unique ability to be en-
gineered for specific end uses. For that reason, many of these fibers are highly versatile
and found in an amazing array of products. With an expanded understanding of polymer

the fiber-manufacturing process 123

 Table 6.2  Use of Manufactured Fibers
Use Category Percentage Use Category Percentage
Sheer hosiery 100 Carpet 99
Socks/anklets 95 Other interior textiles 99
Sweaters 70 Tires 99
Craft yarn 75 Hose, technical 99
Underwear 60 Belting, technical 99
Lingerie 85 Medical, surgical uses 84
Robes and loungewear 86 Nonwovens 100
Pile fabrics 94 Fiberfill 100
Linings 91 Felts 100
Apparel lace 100 Filtration 99
Narrow fabrics 97 Rope, etc. 98
Top-weight apparel 89 Sewing thread 85
Bottom-weight apparel 77 Reinforcement, paper and 100
tape
Other apparel 95 Reinforcement, plastic 100
and electrical
Bedspreads and quilts 90 Coated fabrics 95
Blankets 92 Transportation fabrics 98
Sheets 52 Narrow fabrics, technical 97
Towels 4 Bags, bagging 95
Window treatments 88 Miscellaneous 89
Upholstery 96

chemistry and fiber production, many problems in the original fiber have been overcome
through changes in the polymer, production, or finishing steps.
With current lifestyles, it is not possible to return to only natural fibers. Table 6.2 sum-
marizes the use of manufactured fibers in the United States in 2012. In the United States,
manufactured fibers comprise 83% of the fiber market: 67% for apparel, 91% for interior
textiles, and 97% for technical products. Amazingly, the manufactured-fiber industry uses
only approximately 1% of the nation’s oil and natural gas supplies. The industry is highly
efficient. One 300-acre polyester facility can produce as much fiber as 600,000 acres of
cotton.

Fiber Spinning
It took years to develop fiber-spinning solutions and invent mechanical devices to convert
the solutions into filaments. The first solutions were made from dissolved cellulose. In the
1920s and 1930s, scientists learned how to build long-chain molecules from simple starting
materials.
The raw material is a natural product such as cellulose or protein, or it is a synthetic
polymer. These raw materials are dissolved in liquid chemicals and made into thick solutions
called spinning solution or dope. For some synthetic polymers such as nylon and polyester,
the polymer is formed, cooled, and broken into small pieces or chips. The chips are heated
toy form a liquid melt, and the melt is used to form the fiber.

124 chapter six

 All manufactured-fiber-spinning processes are based on three general steps:
Spinneret
1. Prepare a viscous dope (a thick solution) or a melt.
2. Force or extrude the dope or melt through an opening in a spinneret to form a fiber.
Filaments
3. Solidify the fiber by coagulation, evaporation, or cooling.

Extrusion is forcing or pumping the dope or melt through the spinneret’s tiny holes.
A spinneret is a small thimblelike nozzle made of platinum or stainless steel (Figure 6.1).
Spinnerets are costly, and new developments are closely guarded secrets. The tiny holes are
made with laser beams and are a critical part of the process. Round holes are common, but
Figure Spinneret showing extrusion of
many other shapes are also used (see Figure 3.3).
6.1 filament fibers.
Each hole in the spinneret forms one fiber. Filament fibers are spun from spinnerets
with 350 holes or fewer. When these fibers are grouped together and slightly twisted, they
A thick liquid is forced through tiny nozzles
form a filament yarn. Filament tow is an untwisted rope of thousands of filament fibers.
to form fibers.
The rope combines the fibers from many spinnerets, each of which has thousands of holes.
The tow is crimped and converted into staple by cutting or breaking to the desired length.
(See Chapter 10 for methods of breaking filament tow into staple fibers.)

Spinning Methods
Spinning is done by three basic methods, which are compared briefly in Figure 6.2 and LIQUID
CHEMICAL
­summarized in Table 6.3. Details of the method are described in later chapters.
SOLUTION
Developing a new fiber requires a huge investment in time and money before any profit can
be realized. First, researchers develop the new fiber. Then a pilot plant is built to translate lab-
oratory procedures to commercial production. Fibers produced by the pilot plant are tested to
Dry Spinning
determine end uses and evaluate suitability. When the fiber is ready, a commercial plant is built.
A patent on the process gives the producer 17 years of exclusive rights to use of the
process—time to recover the initial cost and to make a profit. The price per pound during
this time is high, but it drops later. The patent owner can license other producers to use the
process. Continuing research and development programs address problems that arise and
produce modifications for special end uses.

WARM AIR
Fiber Modifications
One advantage of manufactured fibers is that each step in production can be precisely con-
trolled to modify the fiber. Modifications result from a producer’s continuing research program
to address any limitations, explore each fiber’s potential, and develop properties to expand
the fiber’s versatility. Specific modifications can be selected to improve fiber performance in

Table 6.3  Summary Table: Manufacturing Fibers

COOL
Process Prepare spinning solution. AIR

Extrude the spinning solution.

Solidify the fiber.

Spinning Methods Wet spun.

Dry spun.

Melt spun. Figure Methods of spinning manufactured

6.2 fibers.

the fiber-manufacturing process 125


Figure Both fabrics are 100% polyester: the
6.3 one on the left is made of regular size
apparel fibers while that on the right
is made of microfibers.
126 chapter six
many areas including hand, comfort, soil resistance, and sunlight resistance to reduce prob-
lems or improve performance for specific products. For example, nylon fibers for carpeting are
modified so that they are soil-resistant, cross-dyeable, flame-retardant, antistatic, and larger
and more crush-resistant with a nonround cross-section that hides soil.
The parent fiber is the fiber in its simplest, unmodified form. It is often sold as a com-
modity fiber by generic name only, without benefit of a trade name. Other terms for parent
fiber include regular, basic, standard, conventional, or first-generation fiber.
Fiber modifications are changes in the parent manufactured fiber to improve perfor-
mance relative to a specific end use. Modifications of the parent fiber may be sold under a
brand or trade name. Modifications may also be referred to as types, variants, or x-generation
fibers, where the x could be any number such as second, fifth, or tenth generation.
There are five general ways that a fiber modification can be made.
1. Modify the size and shape of the spinneret to produce fibers of different sizes and
shapes.
2. Modify the fiber’s molecular structure and crystallinity to enhance fiber durability.
3. Add other compounds (additives) to the polymer or dope to enhance fiber performance.
4. Modify the spinning process to alter fiber characteristics.
5. Combine two polymers as separate entities within a single fiber or yarn.
Spinneret Modifications
Because fiber size often dictates end use, it is not surprising that changing the fiber size is
a common modification. The simplest way to do this is to change the size of the opening in
the spinneret. Other ways of changing fiber size include controlling the stretching or drawing
after fiber extrusion or controlling the extrusion rate through the spinneret. Finer fibers, those
with a denier of less than 7, are most often used for apparel. Deniers ranging from 5 to 25 are
used in interior textiles. Technical applications have the widest range of denier, ranging from
less than 1 for polishing lenses for glass and optical applications to several thousand for ropes
and fishing line. Because fibers with extremely tiny sizes are made, macrofiber describes
fibers with a denier greater than 1.0. Microfibers are fibers with deniers of less than 1.0;
most range from 0.5 to 0.8 denier per filament (dpf). Ultrafine fibers are less than 0.3 dpf.
Larger-sized fibers are used where greater strength, abrasion resistance, and resiliency are
required. For example, carpet fibers with deniers in the range of 15 to 24 are more resilient.
Higher-denier fibers resist crushing better than lower-denier fibers.
Microfibers and ultrafine fibers are produced by modifying the spinning technique or by
splitting or separating the filaments. Polyester ultrafine fibers with modified cross sections with
slight fiber irregularities are sometimes referred to as shin-gosen, a Japanese term that means
new synthetic fiber. Technical innovations in fiber production and processing result in prod-
ucts with exceptional consumer performance characteristics. In apparel and interiors, these
fibers mimic the appearance and hand of silk.
A yarn of microdenier fibers or microfibers may have as many as four times more ­fibers
than a regular fiber yarn of the same size. Microdenier generic fibers include polyester, nylon,
acrylic, and rayon in apparel and interiors in staple and filament form. Fabrics made from
these fibers are softer and are more drapeable, silklike, comfortable, and water-repellent.
­Figure 6.3 compares regular and microfiber fabrics.
Microfibers may be present by themselves in fabrics or in blends with no more than
60% natural or other manufactured fibers in order to retain the microfiber’s characteristics.
End uses include coats, blouses, suits, sleepwear, active sportswear, hosiery, upholstery,
window treatments, bedding, and wall coverings. Microfibers required modifications in
yarn-spinning frames, looms and sewing machines, and dyeing and finishing techniques.
Mixed-denier filament bundling combines fibers of several denier sizes in one yarn
(Figure 6.4). Microfibers (0.5 dpf) contribute the buttery hand to the fabric, while the macrofi-
bers or regular denier fibers (2.0 dpf) contribute drape, bounce, and durability. When the fab-
ric is laundered, the macrofibers shrink slightly, forcing the microfibers to the fabric’s surface
and enhancing the hand.
Even smaller than microfibers, nanofibers are fibers with cross sections measuring less
than 1,000 nm. (One nanometer is 1 3 10–9 meters.) A human hair is 80,000 nm. Nanofibers
are much, much smaller than regular or macrofibers used in most apparel and interior textiles.
(See Figure 6.5.) Nanotubes are hollow nanofibers. Nanofibers are made by several tech- Figure Cross section of yarn combining
niques including those discussed with micro- and ultrafine fibers. Another technique, electro- 6.4 microfibers and macrofibers.
spinning, forces the fiber through a tiny spinneret opening into an electric field. Nanofibers and
nanotubes have high surface-to-volume ratios, small pore size, flexible surface functions, bio-
compatibility, and enhanced mechanical and electrical properties. Nanofibers and nanotubes
are used in protective apparel, safety harnesses, and filtration for technical and medical appli-
cations. Smart textiles use nanofibers, nanotubes, and nanotechnology to produce materials
that react to the environment. Micro-, ultrafine, and nanofibers are also used in technical ap-
plications where extremely fine fibers are needed. (For additional nanotechnology applications
in the textile complex, see Chapters 9, 15, and 18.) Microfiber Nanofiber

Fiber Shape  Changing the cross-sectional shape is the easiest way to alter a fiber’s me- Cotton
chanical and aesthetic properties. Changing the shape of the spinneret hole provides many Figure Comparison of fiber size (nano fiber
possibilities: flat, trilobal, quadrilobal, pentalobal, triskelion, cruciform, cloverleaf, and alphabet 6.5 is not to scale; if it were to scale, it
shapes such as Y and T (see Figure 3.3).
would be too small to see): cotton
fiber (apparel), microfiber, and
The flat shape was an early variation. Ribbonlike crystal acetate and sparkling nylon are nanofibers.
extruded through a long, narrow spinneret hole. Flat fibers reflect light much as a mirror does
and produce fabrics with a glint or sparkle.
The trilobal shape is widely used with nylon and polyester fibers (Figure 6.6). It is spun
through a spinneret with three triangularly arranged slits. Fabrics made with trilobal fibers
have a beautiful silklike hand, subtle opacity, soil-hiding capacity, built-in bulk without weight,
heightened wicking action, silklike sheen and color, crush resistance in heavy deniers, and
good textured crimp.
Other fiber shapes that produce similar characteristics are triskelion (a three-sided con-
figuration similar to a boat propeller), pentalobal, octolobal, and Y-shaped. All multilobal fibers,
including trilobal fibers, improve hydrophilic, wicking, and moisture management properties,
making them more comfortable for athletic apparel and sportswear.

Learning Activity 4 Figure Trilobal nylon.

6.6
Outline the steps in manufacturing a fiber. Draw a shape for a spinneret opening that
would produce a fiber with one of these cross-sectional shapes: triskelion, pentalobal,
octolobal, or Y-shaped. Explain why the fiber would take on that shape upon cooling,
drying, or coagulation. For the shape you selected, explain how the properties would be
modified from that of a round parent fiber.

the fiber-manufacturing process 127

 Thick-and-thin fiber types vary in their diameter along their length as a result of uneven
drawing or stretching after spinning. This produces a fiber thinner in some areas and thicker
in other areas producing fabrics with a texture like dupioni silk or linen. The thick nubby areas
dye a deeper color to create interesting tone-on-tone color effects. Many surface textures are
possible by changing the size and length of the slubs.
Hollow or multicellular fibers imitate the air cells of some animal hair, which provides
insulation in cold weather, and the hollow feathers of ducks, which produce buoyancy in wa-
ter. Air cells and hollow filaments in manufactured fibers are made by adding gas-forming
compounds to the spinning solution, by injecting air as the fiber forms, or by modifying the
shape of the spinneret holes. For example, when the spinneret hole is in a C shape or as two
half circles, the dope flows slightly on extrusion so that the perimeter closes up and the center
remains hollow.

Molecular Structure and Crystallinity Modifications

Manufacturers can change the molecular structure and degree of orientation and crystallinity
of fibers, engineering them for specific end uses. Slight changes can improve performance
for an end use. Some modifications occur in the physical arrangement of the polymer within
the fiber. Nanoparticles can be used to control crystallinity and orientation when uniformly dis-
tributed through the spinning solution. Nanoclay particles increase crystallinity and orientation
for melt spun fibers. Other modifications relate to the selection of the compounds used to
change the polymer chain length.
Controlled stretching of fibers immediately after extrusion produces high-tenacity
­fibers. Fiber strength is increased (1) by drawing or stretching the fiber to align or orient the
molecules and strengthen the intermolecular forces, and/or (2) by chemical modification of the
fiber polymer to increase the degree of polymerization. These procedures will be discussed in
more detail in Chapters 7 and 8.
Low-pilling fibers are engineered to reduce their flex life by slightly reducing the
­molecular weight of the polymer chains (decreasing the number of mers in a chain). When
flex-­abrasion resistance is reduced, the fiber pills break off almost as soon as they are formed
retaining the fabric’s smooth appearance. These low-pilling fibers are not as strong as other
types, but they are durable enough for apparel uses, especially knits. (Review the discussion
of molecular weight in Chapter 3.)
Binder staple is a semi-dull, crimped polyester with a very low melting point. Binder
staple develops a thermoplastic bond with other fibers under heat and pressure and is used
in fiberwebs and related uses. For example, in nonwoven apparel interlinings in, binder staple
is mixed with regular staple fibers. When the mixture is heated, the binder staple melts and,
upon cooling, bonds the regular fibers together.
Low-elongation fibers increase fabric strength and abrasion resistance when
weaker fibers are blended with stronger fibers, as in cotton/polyester blends. Low elonga-
tion results from changing the balance of tenacity and extension. High-tenacity fibers have
lower elongation properties. These fibers elongate less so that weaker cotton fibers are
not stretched beyond the breaking point during use in work apparel and other items that
receive hard wear.
Shape memory fibers, another smart textile, have the capacity to change shape in a
predefined way. Chemical groups are incorporated in the fiber during polymerization. These
groups are sensitive to heat, light, or other stimuli and will conform to a specific shape when

128 chapter six

activated by the stimuli. These polymers are also known as active polymers, meaning that
they react to stimuli in the environment.

Additives to the Polymer or Spinning Solution

Fiber additives introduce a new or modified monomer to the polymer chain so that it is a part
of the polymer or adding a compound to the polymer solution or dope so that it is ­included
in the fiber but not as part of the polymer chain. When too much of the additive is used, it
reduces physical fiber characteristics such as strength and hand.

(a)
Delustering  A basic fiber reflects light from its smooth, round surface. It is known as a
bright fiber. (Note that here bright refers to high luster, not intense color.) To deluster a
fiber, titanium dioxide—a white pigment—is added to the spinning solution before the fiber is
extruded. In some cases, the titanium dioxide can be mixed at an earlier stage when the resin
polymer is being formed. The degree of luster is controlled by varying the amount of deluster-
ant, producing dull or semi-dull fibers. Figure 6.7 shows yarns of different lusters.
Delustered fibers can be identified microscopically by the presence of dark spots within
the fiber (see Figure 6.7). The particles of pigment absorb light or prevent reflection of light.
Energy from absorbed light breaks fiber bonds causing degradation or tendering. For this
reason, bright fibers reflect light and suffer less light damage and are better for use in win-
dow-treatment fabrics. The strength of a delustered fiber is slightly less than that of a bright Dull fiber Semi-dull fiber Bright fiber
(b)
fiber. Rayon, for example, is 3% to 5% weaker when it is delustered.
Figure (a) Polyester yarns (left to right: dull,
6.7 semi-dull, bright); (b) fibers as they
Solution Dyeing or Mass Pigmentation  Solution dyeing, or mass ­pigmentation, is would look under a microscope.
the addition of colored pigments or dyes to the spinning solution. These fibers are colored
when they emerge from the spinneret. They are also known as solution-dyed, mass-pig-
mented, dope-dyed, spun-dyed, or producer-colored. If the color is added before the fiber
hardens, it is called gel dyeing. Solution dyeing provides color permanence that is not pos-
sible in any other way. The lightfastness and washfastness are usually excellent. Because
the color is uniformly distributed throughout the fiber, color changes resulting from use are
minimal.
Because of the difficulty in obtaining a deep black dye with good colorfastness proper-
ties, black pigments are often the first ones to be used. Other colors are produced as suitable
colorfast pigments are developed.
Solution-dyed fibers cost more per pound than uncolored fibers. This difference may
be offset later by the cost of yarn or piece (fabric) dyeing. Solution-dyed fibers are used in
upholstery, window treatments, and apparel. A disadvantage of solution-dyed fibers is that
manufacturers must carry a large inventory to fill orders quickly. Manufacturers are less able
to adjust to fashion changes in color because it is not possible to strip color from these fibers
and redye them.

Whiteners and Brighteners  Whiteners and brighteners are added to the spinning
solution to make fibers look whiter and resist yellowing. The additive is an optical bleach
or fluorescent dye that reflects more blue light from the fabric and masks yellowing. These
whiteners are permanent in washing and dry cleaning. They also eliminate the need for
bleaching.

the fiber-manufacturing process 129


Conductive core
Generic synthetic fiber
Figure Antistatic polyester.
6.8
130 chapter six
Cross Dyeable  Cross-dyeable, or dye-affinity, fibers are made by incorporating dye-­
accepting chemicals into the molecular structure. Some parent fibers are nondyeable; others
do not accept certain classes of dyes well. The cross-dyeable types corrected this limitation.
The dye-affinity fibers are far easier to dye than their parent fibers. Several dye-accepting
chemicals are available so that a combination of types of cross-dyeable fibers is used in a
product such as carpet. The carpet is produced and a pattern developed based on the dyes
selected.
Do not confuse cross-dyeable fibers with solution-dyed fibers. Cross-dyeable fibers
are not colored when they emerge from the spinneret, solution-dyed fibers emerge as
colored fibers.
Antistatic Fibers  Static builds up as a result of electron flow. Fibers conduct electricity
­according to how readily electrons move in them. If a fiber has an excess of electrons, it is
negatively charged and it is attracted to something that is positively charged—anything that
has a deficiency of electrons. This attraction is illustrated by the way some apparel clings to
the body. Water is a good conductor of electrons and dissipates static. Because many syn-
thetic fibers have low water absorbency, static charges build up rapidly but dissipate slowly
during dry weather or when fabrics have been rubbed or tumbled together. If the fibers can
be made wettable, the static charges will dissipate quickly and annoying static buildup will be
reduced.
The antistatic fibers give durable protection because the fiber is made wettable by
incorporating an antistatic compound—a chemical conductor—into the fiber. The compound
is added to the fiber-polymer raw material so that it is evenly distributed throughout the fiber.
It changes the fiber’s hydrophobic nature to a more hydrophilic one and raises the moisture
regain so that static is dissipated more quickly. For the antistatic modification to be effective,
the moisture content of the air should be sufficient to provide moisture for absorption—even
cotton builds up static if the air is too dry. Static control is also achieved by incorporating a
conducting core into a fiber (Figure 6.8).
The soil-resistant benefits of the antistatic fibers are outstanding. The antistatic fibers
­retard soiling by minimizing the attraction and retention of dirt particles, and the opacity
and luster in the yarn have soil-hiding properties. Soil redeposition in laundry is dramatically
­reduced. Oily stains, even motor oils, are released more easily.
Sunlight-Resistant Fibers   Ultraviolet light causes fiber degradation as well as color
fading. When ultraviolet light is absorbed, the damage results from a reaction between
the radiant energy and the fiber or dye. Stabilizers such as nitrogenous compounds may
be added to the dope to increase sunlight resistance (SLR). These stabilizers must be
carefully selected for the fiber–dye combination. The SLR fibers are especially important
for window treatments and other interior textiles in glass office buildings and car interiors.
­Delustered fibers are more sensitive to sunlight than bright fibers, so the SLR fibers are
­usually bright.
Flame-Resistant Fibers   Fibers with this modification provide better protection for
­consumers than flame-retardant finishes applied to fabric surfaces (see Chapter 18). Some
flame-resistant fibers are inherently flame-retardant because of their chemical compo-
sition. These include aramid, novoloid, modacrylic, glass, PBI, saran, sulfar, and vinyon.
Other flame-retardant fibers are produced by changing the polymer structure or by add-
ing flame-retardant compounds to the spinning solution. These fiber modifications make
the fibers inherently flame-retardant and include such fibers as rayon, acetate, nylon, and
­polyester.

Antibacterial Fibers  Antibacterial or antimicrobial fibers protect textiles from bacteria,

mildew, and other micbrobial growth, odor, and fiber damage. Chemical compounds that kill
bacteria and other microbes or discourage their growth or function are incorporated in the
spinning solution prior to extrusion or incorporated in fibers during spinning. Several organic
and inorganic compounds are used. However, there is some concern that bacteria may de-
velop resistance to these compounds. Many compounds remain effective for the life of the Manufactured fibers can be modified to
product, but a few diminish in effectiveness over time. make them better for specific end uses.
The antibacterial properties of modified acrylic, acetate, polyester, nylon, and olefin are Common modifications affect drape and
permanent and will not wash out. Some fibers with these modifications inhibit odor-causing durability (fiber size), appearance (shape,
bacteria in hosiery, underwear, and air filters. Other modified fibers are used to minimize mi- luster, color, whiteness, and dyeability), and
crobes’ long-term persistence on textiles and create more hygienic surfaces. Some products performance (strength, pilling, elongation,
made with these modified fibers may require frequent washing to remove microbial debris and antistatic, sunlight resistance, flame resis-
allow the additive to work on living microbes. Antibacterial surface finishes are also frequently tance, and antibacterial).
used (see Chapter 18).

Modifications in Fiber Spinning

When producers started to make staple fiber, mechanical crimping was done to broken fila-
ments and later to filament tow to make the fibers more cohesive and easier to spin into yarns.
Other techniques give permanent crimp to rayon and acetate and provide bulk or stretch to
both filament and staple fibers.
Crimping of fibers is important in many end uses. It adds cover and loft in bulky knits,
blankets, carpets, battings for quilted items, and pillows and stretch and recovery from stretch
in hosiery and sportswear.
For wet-spun fibers, coagulating the fiber in a slightly modified bath produces crimp.
A skin forms immediately around the fiber and bursts, and a thinner skin forms over the rup-
ture. Crimp develops when the fiber is immersed in water. Melt-spun fibers with a helical or
spiral crimp are produced by cooling one side of the fiber faster than the other side as the fi-
ber is extruded. This uneven cooling causes the fiber to curl. The same effect can be achieved
by heating one side of the fiber during the stretching or drawing process. Helical crimp has
more springiness than mechanical sawtooth crimp. These fibers are used where high com-
pressional resistance and recovery are needed.
For thermoplastic fibers, the spinneret holes are drilled at an angle and turbulence is
introduced where the polymer is extruded so that one side of the fiber has uneven internal
tensions. This uneven tension produces a fiber with a helical or zigzag crimp.

Learning Activity 5
Identify an apparel end use where performance would be improved if fibers with this
combination of modifications were used: low pilling, delustered, and antibacterial.
­Explain how performance would be improved with these modifications.

the fiber-manufacturing process 131

 6 Learning Activity
Identify an interior end use where performance would be improved if fibers with this
combination of modifications were used: trilobal, antistatic, and cross-dyeable. Explain
how performance would be improved with these modifications.

Complex Modifications
Bicomponent Fibers A bicomponent fiber is a fiber consisting of two polymers that are
chemically different, physically different, or both. When the two components represent two dif-
ferent generic classes, the fiber is bicomponent-bigeneric. Several types are possible and
may contain one or two generic classes. Bilateral fibers are spun with the two polymers side
by side. In core-sheath fibers, one polymer is surrounded or encircled by another polymer. In
matrix-fibril fibers, short fibrils of one polymer are embedded in another polymer (­Figure 6.9).
In composite fibers, the fibrils, tubes, or particles are nano-sized. They are sometimes referred
to as nanostructured composite fibers.
In 1886, researchers discovered that the two sides of wool react differently when wet. In
1953, researchers discovered that this behavior was the result of wool’s bicomponent nature
produced by different growth rates and chemical composition. This differential behavior was
the key to producing bilateral bicomponent fibers with latent or inherent crimp.
For example, bilateral acrylic fibers can be spun straight and knit into a sweater. When
exposed to heat, one side of the fiber shrinks, creating a helical crimp. The fiber’s reaction to
water occurs during laundering. As the fiber gets wet, one side swells and the crimp straight-
ens out. As the crimp relaxes, the sweater increases in size. The crimp returns as the sweater
dries, and it will regain its original size if properly handled. These sweaters should not be drip-
dried or placed on a towel to dry because the weight of the water and the resistance of the
towel prevent the sweater from regaining its original size. To dry the sweater correctly, either
machine-dry it at a low temperature or place it on a smooth, flat surface and bunch it up to
help the crimp recover.
An example of a bicomponent-bigeneric antistatic fiber is a fiber with a polyester core
surrounded by a sheath of a polyester copolymer impregnated with carbon nanoparticles.
This fiber is used where static creates a potential explosion hazard or where static creates

Spinneret Spinneret Spinneret

A B A B A

Matrix Fibril

Longitudinal section Cross section

Cross section Cross section

(a) (b) (c)

Figure Bicomponent fibers: (a) bilateral, (b) core-sheath, (c) matrix-fibril.
6.9

132 chapter six

 Learning Activity 7
Describe a bicomponent fiber modification that would enhance safety and health for a
turn-out suit for a firefighter. (A turn-out suit includes the jacket, trousers, boots, and
helmet worn by firefighters.) What performance properties would be enhanced with this
modification?

a nuisance. It is used in interior, apparel, and technical applications. Another bicomponent

fiber has a core of polyester with an exterior of ethylene vinyl alcohol that promotes cooling.
In a
­ nother example combining polyester and nylon, fadeless brightly colored fibers are pro-
duced. The iridescent color observed depends on the viewing angle because of the differ-
ent optical properties of the two polymers. Applications include formal apparel, embroidery
thread, and other fashion end uses.
Composite fibers may incorporate such fillers as clay, metal oxides, and carbon black.
Some of these additives were discussed earlier in this chapter. When the fillers are nano-
sized, the fibers have better performance and potential new applications. Adding clay
nanoparticles produces a strong, composite fiber with high electrical, heat, chemical, and
flame resistance and the ability to block ultraviolet light. Nanoparticles of metal oxides in
composite fibers produce fibers with antimicrobial, antistatic, and ultraviolet light blocking
functions.
Nanostructures in fibers result in products with lower weight, better insulation,
and high cracking resistance. Nanosized voids in fibers can be filled with medicine,
fragrance, or biological agents to protect the wearer. Nanostructures are developed
by incorporating organic solvents with low boiling points and supercritical liquids in the
polymer melt. When the temperature is raised or the pressure lowered, the tiny drops of
liquid expand.
See Chapter 10 for a discussion of blended-filament yarns that are another example of a
complex fiber modification.

Performance Fibers  Fiber modifications that provide comfort and improve human per-
formance are important in active sportswear. With recent advances in fiber and fabric tech-
nology, more efficient materials produce lighter-weight, more comfortable products. Several
materials may be combined into one product to manage moisture or wick perspiration away
from the skin, to provide warmth or insulation, to decrease friction and increase speed, and to
protect from sunlight, wind, rain, or snow.
The moisture-management material may be a synthetic fiber with good wicking char-
acteristics, like polyester or olefin. An alternative is a fiber with hydrophilic molecules per-
manently grafted onto the surface that allow for cooling by evaporation during vigorous
exercise. Another alternate is embedding nanoparticles in the fiber to produce evaporation
cooling. Fiber research and development continues to focus on improving insulation. While
fiber insulators build on the principle of trapped air for warmth, advances in fiber size, con-
figuration, and placement have resulted in products that are soft, breathable, and fash-
ionable. Microfibers provide incredibly warm, soft, and lightweight insulation. These fibers
are used in outerwear, pillows, quilts, blankets, sleeping bags, and window treatments to
minimize heat transfer. Fabrics made of microfibers with a special finish are waterproof and
breathable.

the fiber-manufacturing process 133

 Table 6.4 Summary Table: Fiber Modifications
Spinneret Modification Fiber size (macro, micro, ultrafine, and nano)
Shape (trilobal, thick-and-thin, hollow, and others)
Molecular Structure and High tenacity
Crystallinity Low-pilling
Binder staple
Low-elongation
Shape memory
Additives Delustering
Solution dyeing
Whiteners and brighteners
Cross-dyeable
Antistatic
Sunlight-resistant
Flame-resistant
Antibacterial
Fiber Spinning Crimp
Complex Modifications Bicomponent
Bicomponent-bigeneric
Performance

More information on specific fiber performance and trade names is provided in the
appropriate sections of Chapters 7, 8, and 9. Finishes that enhance these performance
fibers are discussed in Chapter 18. Additional aspects of performance fabrics are dis-
cussed in Chapters 12 through 15, with fabrication methods. Table 6.4 summarizes fiber
modifications.

8 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #7, 9, 27, 32, 37, and 119 and the key from your swatch kit. Iden-
tify the fiber content and an end use for each fabric. Identify one or more fiber
modifications that would be appropriate for the manufactured or synthetic fibers
in the fabric. Describe how end use performance will be enhanced with these
­m odifications.

9 Learning Activity
Do an on-line search for one of the fiber modifications listed in Table 6.4. Describe the
information found in terms of characteristics, end use, and Web site. How might con-
sumers make use of this information when searching for textile products?

134 chapter six

Sustainability of Manufactured Fibers
Consumers may criticize manufactured fibers because they are perceived to be harmful to
the environment. Although it is true that many synthetic fibers are processed from petroleum
sources, they use only a small fraction of the by-products of the production of gasoline and
fuel oils. Fibers like nylon, polyester, and olefin are produced from natural gases or from buta-
diene, a by-product of refining crude oil. Fibers from naturally occurring polymers, like rayon
from wood pulp, contribute to excess acid in the air and surface water. Some practices of
harvesting trees to be processed into wood pulp—such as clear-cutting timber, cutting old-
growth forests, and overharvesting national forests—are criticized by environmentalists.
Concerns with manufactured fibers regarding crude oil and hazardous chemical spills,
environmental changes and water use in fracking, recycling, health, and safety cannot be
ignored or minimized. Government regulations, concern for safety, the economic necessity
of reducing costs, and public image concerns have resulted in significant efforts on the part
of fiber producers to minimize the negative environmental aspects of fiber production. Mod-
ified fiber-production processes use fewer hazardous chemicals and recycle the chemicals.
­Record-keeping practices document the production and disposal of waste materials. Mate-
rials that were disposed of at one time are now recycled within the company or sold to other
companies for their use. The generation of hazardous waste and waste-disposal problems
has been reduced significantly. Besides minimizing the impact on the environment, these
practices reduce costs and benefit the consumer with lower retail prices. Some fiber modifi-
cations enhance fiber finishing and further minimize use of hazardous chemicals.
Consumers are also concerned with the disposal of manufactured fibers that do not
naturally degrade. Natural fibers will eventually degrade if exposed to nature. However, with
current landfill waste-disposal, fibers, even natural ones, do not degrade. This is as true for
cotton as it is for polyester. Although the concern for synthetics in landfills is valid, consumers
should be equally concerned about natural fibers.
Recycling of synthetic fibers is very important to the fiber industry. Polyester fibers pro-
duced from preconsumer and postconsumer waste include a range of products from under-
wear to carpeting. Items with trade names that imply recycled components, such as Fortrel
EcoSpun, are popular with environmentally conscious consumers. Some products labeled
100% recyclable will be taken back by the manufacturer and recycled when the consumer
disposes of them.
Manufactured fibers made from plant materials, like rayon (including rayon from bam-
boo), acetate, lyocell, and PLA, are renewable. However, their production raises sustainability
concerns. Some synthetic fibers offer a potential for recycling, but additives and other mate-
rials present in textile products make recycling more difficult. Watch for sustainability discus-
sions in Chapters 7, 8, and 9.

Learning Activity 10
Work in groups of two. Discuss the sustainability of manufactured fibers. Describe three
aspects of manufactured fibers that make some of them sustainable. Describe three
aspects that raise doubts about their sustainability.

the fiber-manufacturing process 135

Manufactured fibers comprise over 65% of Manufactured-Fiber Consumption
world textile consumption and 83% of U.S. In 1928, manufactured fibers accounted for 5% of fiber consumption in the United States;
textile consumption. now, manufactured fibers comprise over 65% of world textile consumption and 83% of
U.S. textile consumption. See Figure 6.10 to compare consumption of manufactured
Worldwide fiber production ­fibers, cotton, and wool. As new manufactured and synthetic fibers appear on the mar-
ket, choices expand and performance options grow. Consumers continue to value natural
Wool All other fabrics
1% <1% fibers, but in many end uses manufactured fibers are clearly superior and provide textile
solutions not possible in the 1920s. New technical products and applications appear with
Cotton
28% each new fiber.

Manufactured versus Natural Fibers

Manufactured fibers provide performance options not possible with natural fibers (see
­Chapters 7 through 9). Manufactured fibers are incredibly versatile and can be extensively
Manufactured modified to meet a wide range of performance needs. Manufactured fibers can be produced
fibers Synthetic fibers quickly in the quantity and quality needed to meet market demand. A comparison of natural
5% 65%
and manufactured fibers is shown in Table 6.5.
Figure Worldwide fiber production.
6.10 Source: Derived from data obtained from
Fiber Organon.

Table 6.5  Comparison of Natural and Manufactured Fibers

Category Natural Manufactured
Production Seasonal; stored until used Continuous
Quality Varies due to weather, nutrients, type, insects, Uniform
or disease
Uniformity Lacking Can be manipulated depending on end use
Physical structure Related to plant or animal source Depends on fiber-spinning processes and after-treatments
Chemical composition Varies with plant or animal source Depends on starting materials and molecular structure
Properties Inherent; but can be changed by yarn, Inherent; but can be changed by varying spinning dope and conditions,
fabrication, or finish yarn, fabrication, or finish
Length Mostly staple; silk is the only filament Any length
Versatility Not as versatile Versatile; changes can be made quickly
Absorbency Highly absorbent Absorbency related to fiber chemistry or modification
Heat sensitivity Not heat sensitive Many are heat-sensitive, but some are heat-resistant
Heat settability Requires fabric finish Many can be heat-set
Research, development By trade organizations By individual companies as well as by trade and promotion organizations
Size Depends on type and variety Any size can be produced

Source: Courtesy of the Fiber Economics Bureau, a division of the American Fiber Manufacturers Association.

11 Learning Activity
List the items you are wearing, that you have with you today (such as a backpack or com-
puter bag), or that you have used during the day (such as a tooth or hair brush, tires on a
bike or bus, or interior textiles). Examine them for fiber content or suggest a likely fiber. How
many of these items are made completely or partially of manufactured fibers? D ­ escribe
how different your day would be if all these items were made of only natural fibers.

136 chapter six

 Learning Activity 12
Visit a big box store and a division of the store that carries textiles, but that you do not
normally shop in. Select five random textile products. Check the labels. How many of
these items are made with at least one manufactured fiber. What percentage of man-
ufactured fibers are present in each of these five items. Now repeat this process in an-
other division of the store. Compare your results with that of other students. What does
this information tell you about the role of manufactured fibers in the market? Which
store divisions that are almost exclusively natural fibers and which are almost exclusively
manufactured fibers? Based on fiber characteristics and performance, suggest three
theories to explain your observations.

Learning Activity 13
Use Table 6.5 and make a list of the positive and negative aspects of natural and
­manufactured fibers. Is one group better than the other? Explain your answer.

terms
key terms
Antibacterial fibers
Antimicrobial fibers
Filament tow
Filament yarn
Nanofiber
Parent fiber
Antistatic fibers Flame-resistant fibers Shape memory fibers
Bicomponent-bigeneric fiber Generic name Solution dyeing
Bicomponent fiber High-tenacity fibers Spinneret
Binder staple Hollow or multicellular fibers Spinning solution or dope
Bright fibers Low-elongation fibers Sunlight resistance
Cross-dyeable fibers Low-pilling fibers Thick-and-thin fibers
Deluster Macrofiber Trade names
Extrusion Manufactured fiber Trilobal shape
Fiber additives Mass pigmentation Ultrafine fiber
Fiber modification Melt Whiteners or brighteners
Fiber spinning Microfiber
Filament fiber Mixed-denier filament bundling

questions
review questions
1. Describe the major steps in producing a manufactured
fiber.
differ and give an example of an apparel or interiors fiber
produced by each of these methods.
2. How can properties and characteristics of manufactured 4. What characteristics of manufactured fibers can be
fibers be manipulated? Why is this not possible or more modified? Identify an end use that would benefit
difficult with natural fibers? from each modification. How are these modifications
3. List the three most common spinning methods used to achieved?
produce manufactured fibers. Explain briefly how they

the fiber-manufacturing process 137

 5. Do fiber modifications reduce fiber performance in any
area? If so, what are the modifications that produce
problems? What are the problems produced?
6. What modifications would be appropriate for each end
use listed below? Explain how these modifications would
enhance performance.
a. Carpeting for hotel lobby
b. Window treatment for office building
c. Woman’s blouse
d. Ski coat
e. Fiberfill for upholstered chair
f. Tow rope
7. Explain the differences among macro-, micro-, ultrafine,
and nanofibers.
8. Explain the difference between a generic fiber and a trade
name. Give an example of each. How are these terms used
to market textile products? In what kinds of products are
you most likely to see a trade name used to promote that
product?
9. Explain the differences and similarities between these pairs
of terms:
a. Solution dyeing and cross-dyeable
b. Bright fiber and brightened fiber
c. Sunlight resistant and flame resistant
d. Generic fiber and bigeneric fiber
10. Why are manufactured fibers produced as filaments and
sometimes cut into staple?
11. Select three categories from Table 6.3 and describe why
natural and manufactured fibers are described in that
manner. Is that description for each major fiber group an
advantage or a disadvantage?
12. Explain why fiber engineering or fiber modification is so
important for the manufactured fibers.
13. Explain the sustainability issues related to manufactured
fibers that concern you the most. Are there similar issues
with natural fibers?
14. Identify four end uses that are made possible by
manufactured fibers. How would your life be different if
these products suddenly were no longer available?

Case Study
Apparel Imports*
A total of 19.43 billion square-meter
equivalents (sme) of apparel imports
were shipped to the United States
during the first 9 months of 2014. Of
that total, 9.87 billion sme were primarily
polyester and regular rayon compared to
9.16 billion sme that were cotton. This
is the first time since 1991 that cotton
apparel imports were lower than those of
manufactured fibers. The United States
is the world’s largest apparel market.
Cotton imports for the first 9 months of
2014 were down 2% compared to the
same time frame of 2013. This drop is
in spite of an increase in demand of 3%.
*Prentice, C. (November 5, 2014). Synthetic fibers surpass cotton to dominate U.S. apparel imports. Reuters (U.S. edition) (http://www.Reuters.comarticle/2014/11-05).
Yarn facilities are ­switching equipment to
process manufactured and synthetic fibers
because of years of high prices for cotton
and improving technology for processing
manufactured and synthetic fibers. China
is working on curbing imports and working
with domestic suppliers. World-wide
inventories of unprocessed cotton fiber
are expected to reach 107.1 million 480
pound bales by August 1, 2015. This is
sufficient cotton to supply demand for one
year. Both cotton and polyester prices
are falling—because of the decreasing
demand for cotton and the lower price for
oil (a key raw material for polyester).
Discussion Questions
1. How will the change in imports impact avail-
ability of cotton and manufactured apparel?
2. Will most consumers be aware of the
change? Have you been aware of the
change?
3. Do you expect this trend to continue?
Why or why not?
4. How will it impact consumer satisfaction
with specific apparel purchases?
5. What might these changes mean in terms
of sustainability?
6. Is the same trend likely to happen with
interior textiles? Why or why not?

138 chapter six

readings
suggested readings
Bide, M. (2013, July/August). Sustainability: A big picture. AATCC
Review, 13(4), 36–40.
Colchester, C. (2007). Textiles Today: A Global Survey of Trends
and Traditions. New York: Thames & Hudson.
Fletcher, K. (2008). Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design
Journey. London: Earthscan.
Hethorn, J., & Ulasewicz, C. (2008). Sustainable Fashion: Why
Now? New York: Fairchild Books.
Holme, I. (2008, May/June). Nanosurfaces gain ground. Textile
Horizons, 28,13.
Holme, I. (2005, January). Nanotechnologies for textiles, clothing,
and footwear. Textile Magazine, 32, 7–11.
Karst, D., & Yang, Y. (2006), Potential advantages and risks of
nanotechnology for textiles. AATCC Review, 6(3), 44–48.
Musante, G. (2012, November/December). Bridging the chasm.
AATCC Review, 12(6), 22–29.
Musante, G. (2013, November/December). The greening of the
textile supply chain. AATCC Review, 13(6), 24–30.
Musante, G. (2014, November/December). Mopping up disasters:
Textiles protect people and the planet. AATCC Review, 14(6),
36–40.
Musante, G. (2015, January/February). Take a hike. AATCC
Review, 15(1), 44–48.
Patanaik, A., Anandjiwala, R. D., Rengasamy, R. S., Ghosh, A.,
& Pal, H. (2007). Nanotechnology in fibrous materials: A new
perspective. Textile Progress, 39(2), 67–120.
Qian, L. (2004). Nanotechnology in textiles: Recent development
and future prospects. AATCC Review, 4(5), 14–16.
Reichard, R. S. (2008). Textiles 2008: Blueprint for survival. Textile
World, 158(1), 22–32.
Rodie, J. B. (2007, November/December). Marked for authenticity.
Textile World News (www.textileworld.com).
Roshan, P., & Roshan, S. P. (2005). Electrospinning: A breakthrough
technology. The Textile Journal, 122(1), 14–16.
Rupp, J. (2008, November/December). Man-made fibers: New
attitude. Textile World News (www.textileworld.com).
Thiry, M. C. (2011, May/June). Made to order. AATCC Review,
11(3), 31–34.
Thiry, M. C. (2007). Small scale: Huge potential. AATCC Review,
7(6), 22–27.
Wei, Q., Mather, R., Ye, F., Huang, F., & Xu, W. (2005, December).
The functionalization of the surface of polymer nanofibres.
Technical Textiles International, 14, 21–23.
Williams, J. F., & Cho, U. (2005). Antimicrobial functions for
synthetic fibers: Recent developments. AATCC Review, 5(4),
17–21.
the fiber-manufacturing process 139
Viktoria17/Fotolia Photographmd/Fotolia

Swisshippo/Fotolia Felix Mizioznikov/Fotolia

Manufactured
Regenerated Fibers

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To identify the manufactured regenerated fibers.
• To describe the similarities and differences in characteristics and performance among
the manufactured regenerated fibers.
• To integrate the properties of the manufactured regenerated fibers with target market
needs.

7

Manufactured regenerated fibers or
regenerated fibers are produced from
naturally occurring polymers of cellulose
or protein, but processing is needed to
convert them into fiber form.
142 chapter seven
The work by Hooke, de Chardonnet, and others led to the development of a new class of
fibers—those made in laboratories and manufacturing facilities. Prior to these developments,
all fibers were natural and most people were aware of the common fibers like wool, silk,
cotton, and linen and understood their properties and performance. However, when the man-
ufactured fibers appeared on the market, consumers realized that the fibers were different
because of their performance and lower cost.
Manufactured Regenerated Fibers
Manufactured regenerated fibers or regenerated fibers are produced from naturally occur-
ring polymers. These polymers do not occur naturally as fibers; they occur in some other
form, such as wood, and processing is needed to convert them into fiber form. The starting
materials for these fibers are cellulose and protein. Most of this chapter will focus on the cel-
lulosic fibers—rayon, lyocell, and acetate—used in apparel, interiors, and technical products.
Regenerated fibers made from protein are discussed at the end of the chapter.
Cellulosic Regenerated Fibers
Rayon
Rayon was the first regenerated cellulosic fiber. Until scientists knew how molecular chains
grew in nature or how they could be produced in the laboratory fiber development was based
on experimentation. Several processes were developed, but most of those have been discon-
tinued because of safety, cost, and environmental issues. Frederick Schoenbein discovered in
1846 that cellulose pretreated with nitric acid dissolved in a mixture of ether and alcohol, but
that fiber was highly explosive. In 1889 in France, Count Hilaire de Chardonnet made rayon by
changing the nitrocellulosic fiber back to cellulose. This dangerous and difficult process was
discontinued in 1949.
In 1890, Louis Despeissis discovered that cellulose dissolved in a cuprammonium solu-
tion, and, in 1919, J. P. Bemberg made a commercially successful cuprammonium rayon. In
1891, in England, Cross, Bevan, and Beadle developed the viscose method.
Commercial production of viscose rayon in the United States began in 1910. The fiber
was sold as artificial silk until the name rayon was adopted in 1924. Viscose rayon’s original
form was a brightly lustrous filament fiber. Rayon was only produced as a filament until the
early 1930s, when a textile worker discovered that broken waste rayon filament could be
used as staple fiber. Starting in 1932, filament tow was crimped and cut it into staple fiber.
Rayon was originally used in crepe and linenlike apparel fabrics. The high-twist crepe yarns
reduced the rayon’s bright luster. Other early rayon fabrics included transparent velvet, shark-
skin, tweed, challis, and chiffon.
Commercial production of viscose and cuprammonium rayon continues. Some imported
rayon is labeled viscose, and rayon made using the cuprammonium process may be labeled
as cupra rayon under the trade name Bemberg®.
The physical properties of rayon remained unchanged until 1940, when high-tenacity
(HT) rayon was developed. Adding zinc to the spinning bath slowed polymer regeneration
while the fiber was drawn, thus increasing orientation and crystallinity. Continued research led
to the commercial development of high-wet-modulus rayon in 1955.
 High-wet-modulus or HWM rayon has different characteristics from regular or viscose
rayon. While HWM rayon is a viscose rayon, in common usage, viscose rayon refers to the
weaker fiber. HWM rayon is also called high-performance (HP) rayon, or polynosic rayon, and
some products may be labeled polynosic or modal rather than rayon. Some labels describe
modal rayon as beech wood fiber. Beech is a fast-growing softwood tree harvested from
managed timbers or woodlands—a more sustainable practice compared to other harvesting
methods.
Rayon is gaining in market share, primarily due to the expanding market in Asia and the
establishment of new manufacturing facilities in that part of the world. Rayon is comparable in
price to cotton.

Production of Rayon  Wet spinning is the most often used to produce rayon. Purified cel-
lulose is chemically converted to a viscous solution, forced through spinnerets into a bath, and
returned to solid 100% cellulose filaments (see Figure 6.2). Table 7.1 compares the processes
for making viscose rayon (regular rayon) and high-wet-modulus rayon. The high-wet-mod-
ulus process maximizes chain length and fibril structure giving HWM rayon enhanced perfor-
mance compared to viscose rayon.

Physical Structure of Rayon  Regular viscose is characterized by lengthwise lines called

striations. The serrated or indented circular cross-section (Figure 7.1) develops from loss of
solvent during coagulation and subsequent collapse of the cross section. This serrated shape
is an advantage in dyeing because it increases the fiber’s surface area. HWM and cupra ray-
ons have rounder cross sections.

Table 7.1 Spinning Process for Viscose and HWM Rayon

Regular or Viscose: Wet Spun High-Wet-Modulus: Wet Spun

  1.  Large sheets of purified cellulose  1. Large sheets of purified cellulose

  2.  Steeped in caustic soda (strong alkali)  2. Steeped in weaker caustic soda
  3.  Liquid squeezed out by rollers  3. Liquid squeezed out by rollers
  4.  Shredder crumbles sheets  4. Shredder crumbles sheets
  5. Aged 50 hours  5. No aging
  6. Treated with carbon disulfide to form cellulose  6. Treated with carbon disulfide to form cellulose xanthate,
xanthate, 32% CS2 39–50% CS2
  7. Mixed with caustic soda to form viscose solution  7. Mixed with 2.8% sodium hydroxide to form viscose
solution
  8.  Solution aged 4–5 days  8. No aging
 9. Solution filtered  9. Solution filtered
10. Pumped to spinneret and extruded into acid bath 10. Pumped to spinneret and extruded into acid bath

10% H2SO4 Spinning bath 1% H2SO4

16–24% Na2SO4 4–6% Na2SO4
1–2% ZnSO4
120 meters/minute Spinning speed 20–30 meters/minute
45–508C Spinning bath temperature 25–35 8C
25% Filaments stretched 150–600%

manufactured regenerated fibers 143

 (a) (b)

Figure Viscose rayon: cross-sectional view (a), longitudinal view (b).

7.1

Filament rayon yarns range from 80 to 980 filaments per yarn and vary in yarn size from
40 to 5,000 denier. Staple fibers and tow range from 1.5 to 15 denier. Micro rayon fibers
are also available. Staple fibers are crimped mechanically or chemically. Rayon fibers are
naturally very bright, which limits use to more formal apparel and interior textile items. Use
of delustering pigments (see Chapter 6) solves this problem. Solution-dyed fibers are also
available.
Rayon is a manufactured fiber composed
of regenerated cellulose. It is known Chemical Composition and Molecular Arrangement of Rayon
for its poor to moderate durability, Rayon—a manufactured fiber composed of regenerated cellulose, as well as
manufactured fibers composed of regenerated cellulose in which substituents have
excellent comfort, and poor to moderate
replaced not more than 15% of the hydrogens of the hydroxyl groups.
appearance retention.
—Federal Trade Commission

Rayon is 100% cellulose and has the same chemical composition and molecular
structure as the natural cellulose in cotton or flax, except that the rayon polymer chains
are shorter and less crystalline. The cellulose used to produce rayon comes from several
sources; most common are wood pulp and bamboo. Sometimes rayon made from bamboo
is marketed simply as bamboo, but that label is incorrect and misleading. FTC regulations
require that the label state rayon or rayon from bamboo. Because it is manufactured, rayon
does not have the cellular structure of the natural fibers. The natural cellulose breaks down
during the aging steps in rayon production, shortening the polymer chains. When the solu-
tion is spun into an acid bath, regeneration and coagulation take place rapidly. Stretching
aligns the molecules to give strength to the filaments. In high-wet-modulus rayon, aging is
eliminated, resulting in slightly longer molecular chains. Because the acid bath is less con-
centrated, regeneration and coagulation are slower and produces more stretch and greater
molecular orientation. Since HWM rayon retains more of its internal structure, its perfor-
mance is more similar to that of cotton than to regular rayon. Table 7.2 compares cotton
with rayon.

Table 7.2  Comparison of Cotton, Rayon, and Lyocell

Properties Cotton Regular Rayon HWM Rayon Lyocell

Fibrils Yes No Yes Yes

Molecular chain length 10,000 300–450 450–750 —
Swelling in water, % 6 26 18 —
Average stiffness 57–60 6–50 28–75 30
Tenacity, grams/denier
Dry 4.0 1.0–2.5 2.5–5.0 4.3–4.7
Wet 5.0 0.5–1.4 3.0 3.8–4.2
Breaking elongation, % 3–7 8–14 9–18 14–16

144 chapter seven

Properties of Rayon  Rayon fibers are highly absorbent, soft, comfortable, easy to dye,
and versatile. Rayon fabrics possess a unique soft drape that designers love for apparel and
interior textiles. Rayon has many technical applications, too. Table 7.3 summarizes rayon’s
performance in apparel and interior textiles. Review the tables in Chapter 3 to compare the
performance of rayon to that of the other fibers.

Aesthetics  Rayon’s aesthetics can be varied significantly by changing fiber luster, length,
and diameter. Based on the combination of variations, ayon fabrics can resemble cotton,
linen, wool, and silk. Rayon can be engineered with physical characteristics similar to those
of other fibers in a blend. If it is used instead of cotton or blended with cotton, rayon can
simulate the look and length of mercerized long-staple cotton. Rayon has an attractive, soft,
fluid drape. Sometimes sizing is used to increase the body and hand. Cupra rayon has a more
silklike hand and luster, especially in smaller deniers.

Durability  Regular rayon has poor durability while HWM rayon has moderate durability. Reg-
ular rayon has amorphous areas and is a weak fiber that loses about 50% of its strength when
wet. Rayon’s breaking tenacity is 1.0 to 2.5 g/d with a breaking elongation of 8 to 14% dry
and 20% wet. This means that rayon will stretch slightly before breaking and is more sensitive
to damage when wet. Because it has the lowest elastic recovery of any fiber, products tend to
stretch out in areas of stress and do not recover well when the stress is removed. This lower
performance when rayon is wet happens because water readily enters the amorphous areas.
The molecular chains separate as the fiber swells, breaking the hydrogen bonds and distort-
ing the chains. When water is removed, new hydrogen bonds form, but in a distorted state.
When ranking rayon fibers from weakest to strongest, they are in this order: viscose rayon,
cupra rayon, and HWM rayon.
Because HWM rayon is more crystalline and oriented structure, the dry fiber is relatively
strong. It has a breaking tenacity of 2.5 to 5.0 g/d, a breaking elongation of 9% to 18% dry
and 20% wet, and an elastic recovery greater than that of cotton.

Table 7.3 Summary of the Performance of Rayon in Apparel

and Interior Textiles
Regular Rayon HWM Rayon

Aesthetics Variable Variable

Durability Poor Moderate
Abrasion resistance Poor Moderate
Tenacity Poor Moderate
Elongation Moderate Poor
Comfort Excellent Excellent
Absorbency High Excellent
Thermal retention Poor Poor
Appearance Retention Poor Moderate
Resiliency Poor Poor
Dimensional stability Poor Moderate
Elastic recovery Poor Moderate
Recommended Care Dry-clean Machine-wash
Dry-clean

manufactured regenerated fibers 145

 Comfort  Both regular rayon and HWM rayon provide excellent comfort. Rayon makes very
comfortable, smooth, soft fabrics that do not irritate the skin. Rayon is absorbent, with a
moisture regain of 11.5% to 12.5% that eliminates static except under extreme conditions.
Thermal retention is low; rayon is good for warm-weather wear, but not as good for cold-
weather wear. Claims that rayon from bamboo are antimicrobial have been refuted by inde-
pendent researchers who found the fabrics have no antimicrobial properties.

Appearance Retention  Rayon has poor appearance retention while HWM rayon has mod-
erate appearance retention. The resiliency of rayon is low. This can be improved in HWM
rayon fabrics by adding a wrinkle-resistant finish, but with a loss of strength and abrasion
resistance. The dimensional stability of regular rayon is low. Fabrics may shrink or stretch
and have low elastic recovery. The performance of HWM rayon is better. It exhibits moderate
­dimensional stability that can be improved by shrinkage-control finishes. The fiber is less likely
to stretch out of shape and has moderate elastic recovery.

Care  Regular rayon should be dry cleaned while HWM rayon can be machine-washed or
dry-cleaned. Regular rayon fabrics have limited washability because of their low strength
when wet. Unless rayon fabrics are resin-treated, they have a tendency to shrink progres-
sively. Most regular rayon fabrics should be dry-cleaned. Many rayon fabrics have had sizing
applied during finishing to increase fabric body and hand. The sizing is likely to water-spot or
streak after wetting with water. Because of the sizing and shrinkage problems, many rayon
apparel products should only be dry cleaned.
The HWM rayon fabrics have greater washability. Their stability and strength are equal to
that of cotton. They can be mercerized and finished to minimize shrinkage. They also wrinkle
less than regular rayon in washing and drying.
The care of interior textiles of rayon or rayon blends poses some real problems.
Although many items can be cleaned with water-based compounds, the lack of labels
on many interior textiles makes this a gamble. Items may shrink, water-spot, or lose color
when cleaned. Manufacturers and suppliers of interior textiles rarely distinguish among reg-
ular or HWM rayons, making it difficult for professionals to recommend appropriate care
for these products. Thus, as a general recommendation, rayon interior textiles should be
cleaned when necessary, but with the understanding that the results may not be completely
satisfactory.
The chemical properties of rayon are similar to those of the other cellulosic fibers. They
are harmed by acids, resistant to dilute alkalis, and not affected by organic solvents. They can
be safely dry-cleaned. Rayon may be damaged by silverfish and mildew. Rayon is not greatly
harmed by sunlight. Since it is not thermoplastic, it can withstand high-temperature pressing.
Rayon burns readily like cotton.

1 Learning Activity
Rayon was first introduced to consumers as artificial silk. Compare the similarities
and difference in serviceability between silk and rayon. What were the factors that
made artificial silk successful in the market in the early 20th century? What perfor-
mance problems would consumers have experienced with a product where the label
implied silk?

146 chapter seven

 Learning Activity 2
Describe the similarities and differences in production and serviceability of viscose (reg-
ular) rayon, modal rayon, and HWM rayon. Identify one apparel and one interior end use
for each rayon type and explain why they are appropriate for that type of rayon.

Learning Activity 3
A friend tells you about a bamboo item purchased as a baby gift for a family member.
Your friend made the purchase because of these claims on the label: antimicrobial, easy
care, soft on baby’s skin, absorbent, strong, durable, abrasion resistant, nonallergenic,
and sustainable. Discuss the issues you would raise with these claims and explain the
areas in which the label is wrong or misleading. Identify the claims that are valid.

Sustainability of Rayon  Although rayon is produced from a naturally occurring polymer,

significant processing is needed to produce a usable fiber. Most rayon is produced from
wood pulp from fast-growing softwood trees. Some of the wood is harvested from tree farms
located on marginal agricultural land. However, other wood used to produce rayon is cut from
mature forests. Environmental issues related to cutting trees include clear-cutting—all trees in
an area are cut, with no trees remaining to hold soil and provide a habitat for birds, animals,
insects, and other plants; cutting old-growth forests that may provide habitat for endangered
species; and harvesting trees in national forests at minimal cost to lumber companies.
Rayon from bamboo is harvested from bamboo, a type of grass plant that grows quickly
without the use of fertilizer or pesticides. The woody bamboo plant (Bambuseae spp.) requires
4 to 5 years to reach the harvest stage. It can be harvested once a year and is a good income
source for people in many isolated rural areas. Because the thicket expands by underground
shoots, the soil is not disturbed by heavy machinery when harvesting the stalks or starting
new plants. Many bamboo farms or plantations practice sustainable production and preserve
wild bamboo forests and natural habitats. Production of bamboo for use in rayon also encour-
ages preservation of cultural heritage, cultural traditions related to growing bamboo, and
many handcrafts. Most of the rayon from bamboo is produced in China.
Processing the pulp from wood and bamboo uses large quantities of acid and other
chemicals that may contribute to water and air pollution. While the process may be described
as carbon neutral (the plants’ growing cycle absorbs an equal amount of carbon dioxide as
is lost at harvest), air emissions of sulfur, nitrous oxides, carbon disulfide, and hydrogen sul-
fide produce high pollution indices if discharged without treatment. Water emissions include
organic matter, nitrates, phosphates, iron, zinc, oil, and grease. The water is low in dissolved
oxygen, creating problems for aquatic life.
Regulations for air and water quality have changed how some rayon is produced. Rayon
is no longer made in the United States because of aging facilities, competition from the global
market, and challenges meeting water- and air-quality requirements. The chemicals used to
process rayon into fiber and to clean it after extrusion are sometimes recovered and recycled,
but these additional steps are costly to perform and monitor. Some producers have reduced
pollutant emissions like hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide, decreased wastewater effluent,
and use closed chemical systems so that up to 99% of the waste liquor can be recovered.

manufactured regenerated fibers 147

 However, not all producers are equally interested in producing rayon in a sustainable way and
regulations vary widely throughout the world.
Sustainable alternatives include rayon made from managed forests or managed bamboo
farms or plantations, rayon processed without chlorine-containing bleach, zinc sulfate, and cat-
alytic chemicals containing cobalt or manganese, or using lyocell instead of rayon in products.
Rayon, a regenerated cellulose fiber, is biodegradable. However, current landfill practices
prevent natural degradation of buried materials. Rayon is not generally recycled. Since rayon
fibers are used in many sanitary products, including disposable diapers, disposal of these
products is an issue. Producing consumer goods from rayon makes extensive use of water,
dyes, and finishing chemicals. Depending on how items have been finished, they may require
dry cleaning. Solvents used in dry cleaning present additional hazards to the environment.
See Chapter 20 for more information on dry cleaning.

Uses of Rayon  Rayon is mostly used in woven fabrics, especially in apparel and interior
textiles such as draperies and upholstery. Woven rayon and wool blend fabrics are used for
upholstery in some commercial airplanes. Rayon also is used in nonwoven fabrics where
absorbency is important: technical wipes and medical supplies (bandages, diapers, sanitary
napkins and tampons). Hollow cupra rayon is used in dialysis machines to filter waste prod-
ucts from blood.

Types and Kinds of Rayon  The only way to determine a specific type of rayon is by the
trade name, such as Modal or Bemberg. Unfortunately, trade names for rayon are seldom
used in marketing to consumers. Besides HWM rayon, other types include solution-dyed,
modified cross section, intermediate- or high-tenacity, optically brightened, high absorbency,
hollow, and microfibers. A microfiber under the trade name MicroModal is available. In addi-
tion, there are several flame-retardant rayons used for upholstery and window treatments.

Lyocell
The development of lyocell in the early 1990s was prompted in part by concern with rayon’s
sustainability. Even though it has been given a separate generic listing by the FTC, it is consid-
ered a subcategory of rayon. Lyocell is produced in Europe and the United States.

Production of Lyocell  Wet spinning is used to produce lyocell (see Figure 6.2). The cellu-
lose polymer is dissolved in a liquid, amine oxide, and spun into a weak bath of amine oxide
rather than a weak acid bath as for rayon. Amine oxide, a solvent with low toxicity and low
skin irritation, dissolves the cellulose in wood pulp without changing its nature. After spinning,
the fiber is washed and dried. The solvent is recovered, purified, and recycled. This process
results in a fiber that is more like cotton than any other manufactured fiber. Table 7.2 com-
pares the properties of cotton, rayon, and lyocell.

Physical Structure of Lyocell  Lyocell does not collapse on itself as rayon does and has
a more rounded cross section and smoother longitudinal appearance (Figure 7.2). Lyocell is
available in a variety of deniers and lengths. Filament yarns are available in a range of filaments
per yarn, depending on end use. Mechanically crimped staple fibers and tow range from less
than 1.0 to 15 denier per filament for use in blends and other staple fiber products.

148 chapter seven

 (a) (b)
Figure Lyocell: cross-sectional view (a), longitudinal view (b).
7.2

Chemical Composition and Molecular Arrangement of Lyocell

Lyocell— a cellulose fiber obtained by an organic solvent spinning process where
Lyocell is a manufactured fiber composed
1)  organic solvent means a mixture of organic chemicals and water, and
2) s olvent spinning means dissolving and spinning without the formation of a of solvent spun cellulose. It is known for its
derivative. moderate durability, excellent comfort, and
—Federal Trade Commission moderate appearance retention.

Lyocell is 100% cellulose, with the same chemical composition and molecular structure
as natural cellulose, but without the cell structure of the natural plant fibers. The polymer chain
length is longer than that of rayon, but shorter than that of cotton. Drawing the fibers after
spinning increases the orientation and crystallinity and makes lyocell more durable.

Properties of Lyocell  The properties of lyocell fibers are more like those of cotton than
other regenerated cellulose fibers. Lyocell fabrics possess a soft, flowing drape that attracts
designers. Lyocell is used in apparel, interior, and technical products. Table 7.4 summarizes
lyocell’s performance in apparel and interior textiles. See the tables in Chapter 3 to compare
the performance of lyocell with that of other fibers.

Aesthetics  As with all manufactured fibers, the aesthetics of lyocell can be varied signifi-
cantly by changing the luster, length, and diameter of lyocell. Lyocell is used by itself and
blended with natural or manufactured fibers. It is made in a variety of fabrics and treated with
a variety of finishes to produce a range of surface effects. With its ability to fibrillate (shatter or

Table 7.4 Summary of the Performance of Lyocell in Apparel

and Interior Textiles
Aesthetics Variable
Durability Moderate
Abrasion resistance Moderate
Tenacity Good
Elongation Poor
Comfort Excellent
Absorbency Excellent
Thermal retention Poor
Appearance Retention Moderate
Resiliency Moderate
Dimensional stability Good
Recommended Care Dry-clean or machine-wash, gentle

manufactured regenerated fibers 149

 split lengthwise into tiny fibers) under certain conditions, lyocell offers unusual combinations of
strength, opacity, and absorbency.

Durability  Lyocell has moderate durability. Lyocell performs more like cotton than rayon. The
strongest of the cellulosic fibers, its breaking tenacity is good (4.8 to 5.0 g/d dry and 4.2 to
4.6 g/d wet, only a 12% loss in strength). Its dry breaking elongation is poor (14% to 16%,
and its wet elongation is 16% to 18%). Because of its unique combination of soft hand and
good durability characteristics, it produces comfortable, long-lasting apparel and interiors. Its
high strength, especially when wet, offers some unusual possibilities for wet processing and
finishing. Applications that require high wet strength are ideal for lyocell. Abrasion resistance
is moderate. When abraded, its tendency to fibrillate produces a fuzzy, hairy texture that is
distracting on smooth fabrics.

Comfort  Excellent comfort properties characterize lyocell. It is a soft, smooth fiber that
makes comfortable apparel and interiors. With a regain of 11.5%, static problems are not
likely. Its soft hand and high absorbency make lyocell ideal for apparel that comes in contact
with the skin and in interior textiles including bed, bath, and table linens, and upholstery. As
with all other cellulosic fibers, thermal retention is poor.

Appearance Retention  Lyocell’s appearance retention is moderate. In terms of resiliency, it

will wrinkle, but not as severely as rayon. The dimensional stability of lyocell is good. While it
does shrink, it does not exhibit the progressive shrinkage of some rayon. Its tendency to fibril-
late with abrasion may create problems with fuzziness, pilling, or other surface changes over
time. Elastic recovery is superior to rayon and acetate.

Care  Products made of lyocell can be either machine-washed on a gentle cycle or dry-
cleaned. Abrasion from machine-washing of dark or intensely colored lyocell fabrics may
produce a decline in hand and irregular color. Gentle agitation minimizes this problem. Dry
cleaning is successful and little alteration color or hand occurs.
Lyocell is sensitive to acids and resistant to dilute alkalis and most organic solvents.
Because of its cellulosic nature, lyocell is sensitive to damage by mildew and some insects.

Sustainability of Lyocell  Lyocell is produced from wood pulp and spun into a solvent bath
in a closed-loop manufacturing process that recovers and reprocesses 99.5% of the amine
oxide solvent, a nontoxic, noncorrosive chemical. The chemicals used for the production of
lyocell are significantly less hazardous to the environment than those used for the production
of viscose rayon. Because the solvent is recycled efficiently and the wood is harvested from
fast-growing eucalyptus trees raised for this end use, lyocell is more environmentally friendly
than rayon and acetate.
The cellulose of lyocell is biodegradable. If the fiber is placed in landfills, however, it will not
degrade. Lyocell is not recycled. As with other cellulosic fibers, producing consumer goods
from lyocell makes extensive use of water, dyes, and finishing chemicals. Depending on how
items have been finished, they may require dry cleaning. Solvents used in dry cleaning present
additional environmental hazards. See Chapter 20 for more information on dry cleaning.

4 Learning Activity
Compare the production processes for rayon and lyocell based on sustainability issues.
Is one of these two fibers more sustainable? If yes, explain your choice.

150 chapter seven

 Learning Activity 5
Compare and contrast the production and serviceability of viscose rayon and lyocell.
Identify one apparel and one interiors end use for these two fibers and explain why each
fiber is appropriate for those end uses. Use the serviceability concepts and fiber proper-
ties in explaining your answer.

Learning Activity 6
As a buyer for a specialty store, you are considering two similar products. One is made
of HWM rayon and the other of lyocell. Which of the two products would be best for a
target market that values comfort, durability, and aesthetics and that is more likely to
purchase items that are considered sustainable?

Uses of Lyocell  Lyocell, more expensive per pound compared to viscose rayon, is found in
a variety of products: professional business wear, leotards, hosiery, casual wear, upholstery,
window-treatment fabrics, and bed, bath, and table linens. It is used in blends with wool, cot-
ton, and other manufactured fibers. In manufacturing of glass and other items, lyocell is used
in conveyer belts because of its strength and softness. In a fibrillated form, lyocell is used for
filters, printers’ blankets, specialty papers, lens polishing cloth, and medical dressings.

Types and Kinds of Lyocell  Because lyocell is a relatively new fiber, there are fewer mod-
ifications available for lyocell as compared with the number of modifications for other man-
ufactured fibers. As the fiber gains market share, more modifications are expected. Current
modifications related to fiber size and length enable it to be blended with other fibers. Tencel
is a trade name used to promote lyocell. A micro lyocell is available under the trade name
MicroTencel.

Acetate
Acetate originated in Europe in the early years of the 20th century. Using a technique that
produced a spinning solution for a silklike fiber, the Dreyfus brothers experimented with ace-
tate in Switzerland. They went to England during World War I and perfected the acetate dope
as a varnish for airplane wings. After the war, they perfected the process of making acetate
fibers. In 1924, acetate became the second manufactured fiber to be produced in the United
States.
More problems had to be solved with the acetate process than with the rayon processes.
Acetate is a different chemical compound compared to the other manufactured and natural
cellulosic fibers. It has few components that form bonds with dyes. Because of this unique
chemistry of acetate, it could not be dyed with any existing dyes. Disperse dyes were devel-
oped especially for acetate.
Acetate was the first thermoplastic, or heat-sensitive fiber. Consumers suddenly had
fabrics that melted under a hot iron—something they had never experienced before. This was
at a time when consumers tended to iron all apparel. The problem was further compounded
when manufacturers introduced acetate as a kind of rayon.
Still another problem with acetate was fume or pollution fading—a condition in which
some disperse dyes changed color (blue to pink, green to brown, gray to pink) when exposed

manufactured regenerated fibers 151


Acetate is a manufactured fiber in which
the fiber-forming substance is cellulose
acetate. It is known for its silky nature, poor
durability, moderate comfort, and poor
appearance retention.
Hydroxyl group
H OH
H O H O
OH* H OH*
H H
O O
O O
CH2OH
Hydroxyl group
Glucose
Figure Acetate is made by acetylating glucose;
7.4 for triacetate, the hydroxyl group marked
with an asterisk (*) would also be
acetylated.
152 chapter seven
Table 7.5 Acetate Manufacturing Process: Dry Spinning
1. Purified cellulose from wood pulp or cotton linters
2. Mixed with glacial acetic acid, acetic anhydride, and a catalyst
3. Aged 20 hours—partial hydrolysis occurs
4. Precipitated as acid-resin flakes
5. Flakes dissolved in acetone
6. Solution is filtered
7. Spinning solution extruded in column of warm air; solvent recovered
8. Filaments are stretched and wound onto beams, cones, or bobbins ready for use
(a) (b)
Figure Acetate: cross-sectional view (a),
7.3 longitudinal view (b).
to atmospheric fumes, now known as atmospheric pollutants. Solution-dyeing corrected this
problem and is used for many manufactured fibers. In 1955, an inhibitor greatly improved dye
performance under all conditions that cause fading. However, fume or pollution fading contin-
ues to be a problem.
Production of Acetate  The basic steps in the acetate manufacturing process are listed in
Table 7.5. While several steps appear similar between the production of acetate and rayon,
acetate uses a difference solvent, is extruded into warm air (a dry spun fiber), and the solvent
is evaporated, recovered, and reused.
Physical Structure of Acetate  Acetate is available as staple or filament. Much more
filament is produced because it gives a silklike look. Staple fibers are crimped and usually
blended with other fibers. The cross section of acetate is lobular or flower petal–shaped.
The shape results as solvent evaporates when the fiber solidifies after extrusion. Notice in
Acetyl group Figure 7.3 that the lobes may appear as a false lumen. The cross-sectional shape can be
varied. Flat filaments give glitter to fabrics.
H OCOCH3
Chemical Composition and Molecular Arrangement of Acetate
H
H H
Acetate—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is cellulose
acetate. Where not less than 92% of the hydroxyl groups are acetylated, the term
CH2OCOCH3
triacetate may be used as a generic description of the fiber.
Acetyl group
—Federal Trade Commission
Acetate
Acetate, an ester of cellulose, has a different chemical structure from rayon or cotton. In
acetate, two hydroxyl groups are replaced by bulky acetyl groups (see Figure 7.4) that prevent
highly crystalline areas. There is less attraction between the molecular chains due to a lack
of hydrogen bonding. Water molecules do not penetrate as readily, contributing to acetate’s
lower absorbency and dye affinity. In triacetate, all three hydroxyl groups are replaced with
the bulky acetyl group. Both acetate and triacetate are thermoplastic.

Properties of Acetate  Acetate has a combination of properties that make it a valuable

textile fiber. It is low in cost and has good draping qualities. Triacetate is similar in perfor-
mance to acetate. However, where the difference is significant, triacetate’s performance will
be discussed, Table 7.6 summarizes acetate’s performance in apparel and interior textiles.
Reviewing the tables in Chapter 3 will help in comparing acetate to the other fibers.

Aesthetics  Acetate has excellent aesthetics. It is widely used in satins, brocades, and taffe-
tas, in which fabric luster, body, drape, and beauty are more important than durability or ease
of care. It has high luster, good drape, and a smooth texture and hand. Acetate maintains a
good white color, an advantage over silk.

Durability  Acetate has poor durability. It is a weak fiber, with a low breaking tenacity of 1.2 to
1.4 g/d. It loses some strength when wet. Other weak fibers have some compensating factor,
such as wool’s good elastic recovery or rayon’s high absorbancy, but acetate does not. Acetate
has a moderate breaking elongation of 25%. Since acetate has poor resistance to abrasion, a
small percentage of nylon is sometimes combined with acetate to produce a stronger fabric.

Comfort  Acetate is moderately comfortable. Because acetate is smooth and slick, it is often
used for linings for coats and jackets, making them easier to put on over long-sleeved shirts
and blouses and adding a finished look to the garment. With a moisture regain of 6.3% to
6.5%, it is subject to static buildup and static cling. The fiber is extremely soft, with no aller-
genic potential. Thermal retention is moderate.

Appearance Retention  Acetate has poor appearance retention. Fabrics have poor resil-
ience and wrinkle during use. Wrinkles from washing are extremely difficult to remove—even
with a hot iron. Acetate has moderate dimensional stability. The fibers are weaker when wet

Table 7.6 Summary of the Performance of Acetate in Apparel

and Interior Textiles
Aesthetics Excellent
Luster High
Drape High
Texture Smooth
Hand Smooth
Durability Poor
Abrasion resistance Poor
Tenacity Poor
Elongation Moderate
Comfort Moderate
Absorbency Moderate
Thermal retention Moderate
Appearance Retention Poor
Resiliency Poor
Dimensional stability Moderate
Elastic recovery Poor
Recommended Care Dry-clean

manufactured regenerated fibers 153

 7 Learning Activity
Make a list of the performance characteristics of acetate that are different from those of
rayon, the natural cellulosic fibers, and the natural protein fibers. Describe how consum-
ers from the 1920s would be challenged by their first purchase of an item of acetate.
Would the consumer know it was acetate and that acetate was not a natural fiber?
(Check Chapter 21 regarding laws related to fiber content labeling.)

and can be shrunk by excess heat. Elastic recovery is poor, 58%, so areas of stress do not
recover well. Triacetate can be heat set to improve resiliency.

Care  Acetate should be dry-cleaned unless other care procedures are identified on the care
label. Acetate is resistant to weak acids and to alkalis. It can be bleached with hypochlorite
or peroxide bleaches, but these are seldom used in the home. Acetate is soluble in acetone.
Acetate cannot be heat-set at a temperature high enough to give permanent shape to fabrics
or a durable embossed effect. Triacetate can be heat set to improve dimensional stability and
it can be machine washed.
Acetate is thermoplastic and heat-sensitive; it becomes sticky at low ironing tempera-
tures (177 to 191°C, 350 to 375°F) and melts at 230°C (446°F). Triacetate has a higher melt-
ing point than acetate.
Acetate has better sunlight resistance than silk or nylon but less than the cellulose fibers.
It is resistant to moths, mildew, and bacteria.

Comparison with Rayon  Rayon and acetate are the two oldest manufactured fibers, filling
an important need for less-expensive fibers in the textile complex. They lack the easy care,
resilience, and strength of the synthetics and have had difficulty competing in some end uses.
Rayon, lyocell, and acetate have some similarities in performance because they are made
from the same raw material, cellulose. The manufacturing processes differ, so the fibers differ
in their individual characteristics and uses. Table 7.7 compares rayon, lyocell, and acetate.

Sustainability of Acetate  Acetate is produced from cellulose and requires a significant

amount of processing to produce a usable fiber. The same concerns identified in the discus-
sion of rayon apply to the wood pulp used to produce acetate. Because acetate is dry-spun, it
is easier for producers to reclaim and reuse the solvent. With current environmental regulations
and economic pressures, solvent recovery and reuse is standard practice in the production of
acetate. Acetate fiber is less likely to degrade naturally as compared with rayon and is not recy-
cled. Acetate is usually dyed with disperse dyes that require special chemical carriers during
dyeing. Acetate items usually require dry cleaning. The solvents used in dry cleaning present
additional hazards to the environment. See Chapter 20 for more information on dry cleaning.

8 Learning Activity
Examine Table 7.7. Make two lists. For the first list, identify the properties of rayon,
lyocell, and acetate that reflect their cellulosic nature (where they are most like the nat-
ural cellulosic fibers). For the second list, identify the properties that reflect significant
differences between these three fibers and the natural cellulosic fibers. You may find
one fiber that is less like the natural cellulosic fibers. Which fiber is that? Suggest why
performance differs for this fiber in some categories.

154 chapter seven

Table 7.7  Comparison of Rayon, Lyocell, and Acetate
Rayon (Viscose) Lyocell Acetate

Wet-spun Solvent-spun (a type of wet spinning) Dry-spun

Regenerated cellulose Regenerated cellulose Chemical derivative of cellulose
Serrated cross section Rounded cross section Lobular cross section
More staple produced Staple and filament produced More filament produced
Scorches Scorches Melts
High absorbency (12.5%) High absorbency (11.5%) Fair absorbency (6.4%)
No static No static Static
Ignites quickly, burns readily Ignites quickly, burns readily May initially shrink from flame, burns quickly,
may drip
Not soluble in acetone Not soluble in acetone Soluble in acetone
Technical uses—absorbent products, dialysis Technical products, filters Few technical uses, some fiberfillv
Color may crock or bleed Color may crock or bleed Color may fume- or pollution-fade
Mildews Mildews Resists mildew
Moderate cost Higher cost Low cost
Poor resiliency Moderate resiliency Poor resiliency
Low strength (1.0–2.5 g/d dry; Higher strength (4.8–5.0 g/d dry; Low strength (1.2–1.4 g/d dry;
0.5–1.4 g/d wet) 4.2–4.6 g/d wet) 1.0–1.3 g/d wet)
Moderate abrasion resistance Moderate abrasion resistance Poor abrasion resistance
Chlorine bleach can be used Chlorine bleach can be used Chlorine bleach can be used
Moderate light resistance Moderate light resistance Moderate light resistance
1.48–1.54 g/cc 1.56 g/cc 1.32 g/cc
Harmed by strong acids Harmed by strong acids Harmed by strong acids
Resistant to alkalis and most solvents Resistant to alkalis and most solvents Resistant to most alkalis; soluble in many
solvents
95% elastic at 2% elongation Unknown 48–65% elasticity at 4% elongation
7–14% breaking elongation dry; 20% wet 14–16% breaking elongation dry; 16–18% wet 24–45% breaking elongation dry; 35–50% wet

Uses of Acetate  While it is a minor fiber, acetate is used in apparel, interior, and techni-
cal products. One important use of acetate is in lining fabrics. The aesthetics of acetate—its
luster, hand, and body—its relatively low cost, and its ease in handling contribute to its wide
use here. However, since acetate is not a durable fiber, the fabric must be carefully selected
for the end use or the consumer will be dissatisfied with the product, when the lining shows
extreme wear while the fashion fabric remains useable.
Acetate is very important in drapery fabrics. Sunlight-resistant modifications contribute
to the fiber’s popularity here, as do its luster and soft drape. Antique-satin draperies made
of blends of acetate and rayon are very common. Draperies with matching bedspreads of
50% acetate and 50% cotton are popular. The same blend is found in lightly used upholstery.
Acetate and acetate-blend fabrics come in an amazing assortment of colors—nearly any
decor can be matched. Another use of acetate is in fabrics for formalwear, such as dresses
and blouses in moiré taffeta, satin, and brocade.
Other important uses of acetate fabrics include bedspreads and quilts, fabrics sold for
home sewing, ribbons, and cigarette filters. Absorbent antibacterial acetate is used in per-
sonal hygiene products, fiberfill, and filters. One of the largest technical uses for acetate is as
a cigarette filter. Since acetate is not biodegradable, discarded cigarette butts thrown on the
ground create environmental problems.

manufactured regenerated fibers 155

 Types and Kinds of Acetate  Types of acetate include solution-dyed, flame-retardant,
sunlight-resistant, fiberfill, textured filament, modified cross section, antibacterial, and thick-
and-thin slublike filament.

Other Regenerated Fibers

Seaweed fiber is a marine plant fiber produced using a process similar to that for lyocell.
Seaweed (from Ascophyllum nodosom) is added to the lyocell spinning solution in rela-
tively low percentages. The manufacturers claim that minerals and vitamins from seaweed
are absorbed through the skin. The fiber is soft, breathable, and comfortable next to the
skin. There are two forms sold under the tradename SeaCell ®: active and pure. SeaCell®
active contains silver, which is an effective antimicrobial agent for bras, underwear, sports-
wear, workwear, carpets, bedding, towels, craft yarn, nonwovens, and hygiene products.
SeaCell® pure does not include the antimicrobial agent and is used in apparel and interior
textiles.
Additional plant source materials being investigated as potential regenerated fibers include
rice and wheat straw, native prairie grasses, and corn stover (stalks, leaves, and husks).
Alginate fibers are polysaccharides processed from brown seaweed. They are short
fibers used primarily for wound dressings because they protect while allowing healing to
occur. Another fiber with medical applications is chitosan, produced from the exoskeleton
of crustaceans and insects. Both fibers are antimicrobial, biocompatible with human tissue,
biodegradable, and biorenewable.
Several fibers from regenerated protein are available in the market. These fibers are
azlon, which is a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is composed of
any regenerated naturally occurring proteins. However, they are most often sold under trade
names. Soya or soy fiber, often sold as SoySilk®, is made from soybean waste from the tofu
manufacturing process. SoySilk is durable with a soft hand, wonderful drape, good colorfast-
ness, excellent absorbency, and good comfort and thermal retention. It is used in imported
apparel and by fiber artists. Soya fiber is sometimes referred to as vegetable cashmere
because of its soft hand. Because of its desirable characteristics and low cost in comparison
to silk and cashmere, it can be used in blends to resemble the more expensive fibers or in
place of them. Silk Latte® and Milkofil® are made from casein, the protein in milk. These fibers
have a soft hand and take dye well, but are not quite as durable as soy fiber. Both soy and
milk fibers are renewable and biodegradable (see Figures 7.5 and 7.6).
While producers of the azlon fibers claim they are sustainable, that is not necessarily the
case. These fibers are renewable, but the production of the raw materials require extensive

(a) (b)
Figure Azlon: cross-sectional view (a), longitudinal view (b).
7.5

156 chapter seven

 Learning Activity 9
Compare the advantages and disadvantages in terms of sustainability for azlon fibers
produced from such protein sources as soybeans and milk.

use of land and water. Milk is produced by cattle that have a significant carbon footprint;
they eat large quantities of grass, hay, and grain to produce milk and generate significant
amounts of methane gas and manure. Soybeans require extensive use of agrichemicals:
herbicides to control weeds, fertilizer to promote heavy yields, pesticides to kill insects
that damage soy plants, and fungicides to reduce disease. In addition, many soybeans are
genetically modified for resistance to adverse growing conditions, to improve yield, and to Figure Silk Latte® fibers and cone of SoySilk®
reduce sensitivity to herbicides. Some individuals object to the use of genetically modified 7.6 yarn.
organisms (GMOs).

Other regenerated fibers include seaweed

Identification of Regenerated Fibers and azlon fibers (made from regenerated

protein).
The regenerated cellulosic fibers appear similar microscopically. Rayon and acetate have stri-
ations and irregular cross sections. Lyocell is more rounded and smoother. Rayon and lyocell
burn like cotton or flax. Acetate burns freely, melts, and decomposes to a black char.
Solubility is an easy way to identify acetate. The acetone test is specific for acetate, Identification of manufactured regenerated

since none of the other fibers dissolves in acetone. See the fiber identification discussion in fibers can be made by using a combination

Chapter 3 for information about the acetone test. of microscopic, solubility, and burn tests.

Learning Activity 10
Use Fabrics #21 and 45 from your swatch kit. Following the procedures described
in Chapter 3, examine the fibers using the microscope to see the striations along the
length of the fibers.

Learning Activity 11
Use three to four yarns from Fabrics #21, 25, and 45 from your swatch kit. Following
the procedures and safety precautions described in Chapter 3, conduct a burn test
of these samples. Describe the ease of ignition, the color and odor of the smoke, and
the color and texture of the cooled ash. Compare your results with those included in
Table 3.7 or with the chart.

Learning Activity 12
Use or three to four yarns from Fabrics #21, 25, and 45 from your swatch kit. Following
the procedures and safety precautions described in Chapter 3, conduct a solubility test
using acetone for these samples. Record your results. Did all three samples dissolve in
the acetone?

manufactured regenerated fibers 157

 13 Learning Activity
Make a list of the manufactured regenerated fibers. Identify four properties for each fiber
on your list. Name an end use that would be appropriate for each fiber and explain your
selection.

terms
key terms
Acetate
Acetone test
Azlon
High-wet-modulus rayon
Lyocell
Manufactured regenerated fiber
Striations
Thermoplastic fiber
Triacetate
Fume or pollution fading Rayon Viscose rayon
Heat-sensitive fiber Seaweed fiber Wet spinning

questions
review questions
1. How do the properties of the manufactured cellulosic fibers
rayon, lyocell, and acetate differ from those of the natural
cellulosic fibers?
2. Identify three difference in properties among viscose rayon,
HWM rayon, and lyocell and explain them based on fiber
chemical composition.
3. What is modal and how does it compare to HWM rayon?
4. Explain the problems that consumers can face when caring
for rayon and acetate.
5. Natural cellulosic fibers can be machine-washed and dried
and ironed with a hot iron. How does care differ among
rayon, lyocell, and acetate?
6. Lyocell is more sensitive to abrasion compared to many
other fibers. Explain what happens with lyocell and how
that characteristic is used to advantage for some end uses
for lyocell.
7. How can the manufactured regenerated fibers be changed
to enhance their performance for specific end uses?
8. For each end use listed here, identify a fiber discussed in
this chapter that would be appropriate. Indicate why you
selected that fiber as well as any fiber modifications that
might enhance the fiber’s performance for that end use.
a. Inexpensive kitchen wipes
b. Draperies for a master bedroom
c. Lining for suit jacket
d. Summer-weight suit
e. Upholstered chair for a formal dining room
f. Filter for a coffee maker
9. For each end use in Question 8 above, identify at least two fiber
modifications that would improve product performance and
consumer satisfaction. Describe how each modification would
improve performance. Would a consumer be aware of these
modifications? How might they be conveyed to the consumer?
10. Describe why azlon and lyocell are considered, by some, to
be sustainable fibers. What are the sustainability issues with
rayon and acetate?
11. Theorize three reasons why manufactured regenerated
protein fibers are not more common.
12. As a designer, you are shown a sample of fabric. The
vendor claims it is silk, but you doubt that claim. Explain
how you would determine the fiber content of the sample.

158 chapter seven

 Case Study
Soy Fiber*
In 2013, approximately 268 million metric tons
of soybeans were produced globally. Soybeans
are usually processed for oil for cooking or
biodiesel fuel. After the oil is extracted, a high-
protein meal remains that is normally fed to
livestock. A 60 pound bushel of soybeans
produced about 11 pounds of crude oil and
47 pounds of meal. Currently, only a small
percentage of the meal is processed into
soy fibers that are wet spun and used for
a variety of end uses ranging from intimate
garments to carpet to nonwovens. Ongoing
research is exploring melt and dry spinning
methods, producing nanofibers, producing
soy/polyester and soy/olefin fibers, Alternate
end uses would probably include composites
(fiber and resin materials), filters, biomedical
applications, and geotextiles. However, several
problems must be addressed for the research
to proceed to the product stage: soy proteins
are temperature sensitive (an issue with melt
spinning) and soy fibers are brittle and weak
due to the number of amino acids present.
Discussion Questions
1. In what fiber generic category is soy fiber?
What are the general characteristics of
that fiber?
2. How could soy fiber be promoted
as being sustainable? Are there any
sustainability problems with soy fiber?
3. Since the fiber is processed from a
by-product of the production of oil,
would you expect this fiber to be priced
competitively? Why or why not?
4. Do you own anything made from soy
fiber? If yes, how satisfied are you with
that product? Why did you buy it?

Pelc, C. (2014, July/August). Cool beans. AATCC Review, 14(4), 26–30.

*

readings
suggested readings
Anon. (2012, November 6). Knowing your fibers or when bamboo
isn’t bamboo anymore. AATCC News.
Anon. (2012). South Pacific viscose. Textiles, 39(3/4), 8–10.
Fletcher, K. (2008). Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design
Journey. London: Earthscan.
Hardin, I. R., Wilson, S. S., Dhandapani, R., & Dhende, V. (2009,
October). An assessment of the validity of claims for “bamboo”
fibers. AATCC Review, 9(10), 33–36.
Hearle, J. W. S. (2007). Protein fibres: 21st century vision. Textiles,
34(2), 14–18.
Hethorn, J., & Ulasewicz, C. (2008). Sustainable Fashion: Why
Now? New York: Fairchild Books.
Musante, G. B. (2013, March/April). A matter of fiber veracity.
AATCC Review, 13(2), 28–35.
Pelc, C. (2014, July/August). Cool beans. AATCC Review, 14(4),
26–30.
Qin, Y. (2004). Novel antimicrobial fibres. Textiles, 31(2), 14–17.
Reichard, R. S. (2008, January/February). Textiles 2008: Blueprint
for survival. Textile World News (www.textileworld.com).
Rodie, J. B. (2007, May/June). Spotlight on bamboo. Textile World
News (www.textileworld.com).
Thiry, M. C. (2004). Back to nature—textile fibers come full circle.
AATCC Review, 4(1), 7–11.
Thiry, M. C. (2011, May/June). Made to order. AATCC Review,
11(3), 31–34.
Tullo, A. H. (2008, September 29). Growing plastics. Chemical and
Engineering News, 86, 21–25.
Woodings, C. (2001, July/August). Regenerated cellulose—from
commodity to specialty item. Technical Textiles International,
10, 3–6.

manufactured regenerated fibers 159

Thanksforbuying/Fotolia Mario Beauregard/Fotolia

Pink Badger/Fotolia Alena Ozerova/Fotolia

Synthetic Fibers

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To know the characteristics common to most synthetic fibers.
• To identify the synthetic fibers used in apparel and interiors.
• To describe the similarities and differences in characteristics and performance among
the common synthetic fibers.
• To integrate properties of the common synthetic fibers with target market needs.

8
 Synthetic fibers, the second type of manufactured fibers, have helped shape the world as we
know it. The major difference between manufactured regenerated fibers and manufactured
synthetic fibers is the fiber-forming raw material. Regenerated fibers are produced from natu-
rally occurring polymers. The polymers for synthetic fibers are synthesized or made from small
simple molecules. Although sometimes referred to as manufactured synthetic fibers, chemical
fibers, or noncellulosic manufactured fibers, synthetic fibers is most common.

Synthetic Fibers: An Overview

The fiber-forming compounds used to produce synthetic fibers are made from raw mate-
rials, often petroleum-based chemicals or petrochemicals, using complex procedures
that are beyond the scope of this book. Synthetic fibers are fibers made from synthetic
polymers that are, in turn, made from basic raw materials. The synthetic fiber industry is
huge (Table 8.1) and growing larger. In the past decade, China, India, Malaysia, and other
countries in Asia have constructed new synthetic fiber production facilities to meet growing
internal and export demand for these fibers. In spite of this growth, estimates suggest that
less than 1% of the total petroleum-based compounds consumed in one year are used to
make fibers.
The materials are polymerized or connected into an extremely long linear chemical called
a polymer. For many fibers, the polymer’s basic repeating unit, the monomer, is fairly sim-
ple; for others, the repeating unit is more complex. Two basic polymerization processes are
(a) 3(A = B) –A–B–A–B–A–B–
Addition polymerization used: addition and condensation. In addition polymerization, a double bond between two
(b) 3D – H + 3E – OH – D – E – D – E – D – E – + 3H2O adjacent carbon atoms in the repeating unit is broken and reforms as a single bond connect-
Condensation polymerization
ing two repeating units, until a long-chain polymer is formed. In condensation polymerization,
Figure Polymerization: (a) addition and as monomers combine, water or another small molecule is eliminated as a by-product of the
8.1 (b) condensation. reaction (Figure 8.1).
Different chemicals produce nylon, polyester, olefin, and acrylic. These four fibers are
the most widely used synthetic fibers and are found in a wide variety of apparel, interior, and
technical applications. The next chapter will focus on other synthetic fibers that have spe-
cial properties and end uses. Synthetic fibers have many common properties and processes
(Table 8.2).
Synthetic fibers are viewed negatively by some consumers for a variety of reasons:
inappropriate end uses, poor fashion image, damage to the environment, and poor comfort
characteristics. Marketing strategies have strengthened the industry and are changing the
perception of these fibers. Synthetic fibers offer much in terms of high-tech versatility, easy
care, durability, and high-fashion appeal. Research and development continue to improve
performance, reduce environmental impact, improve sustainability, and expand end uses.

Table 8.1  Worldwide Demand for Fibers (in Metric Tons)

Fiber 2012 Percent

Cotton 23,462 28
Other natural fibers 1,524 2
Synthetic fibers 55,015 65
Manufactured cellulosic fibers 4,048 5
Total 84,049 100

162 chapter eight

Table 8.2 Properties Common to Synthetic Fibers
Properties Importance to Consumers

Heat-sensitive
Resistant to most chemicals
Resistant to insects, fungi, and rot
Low moisture absorbency
Oleophilic
Electrostatic
Abrasion resistance good to excellent
(acrylics lowest)
Strength good-to-excellent
Resilience excellent
Sunlight resistance good to excellent
(nylon modified to improve
resistance)
Flame resistance
Density or specific gravity
Pilling
Fiber size and cross-section easily
modified
Crystallinity and orientation controlled
by drawing
Low elongation modifications possible
Fabrics shrink and melt when exposed to excess heat. Holes may appear. Pleats, creases, and 3D shapes
can be heat-set. Fabric can be stabilized by heat setting. Yarns can be textured for bulk. Furlike fabrics are
possible.
Used in technical applications in which chemical resistance is required.
Storage is no problem. Used in geotextiles, sandbags, fishing lines, tenting, etc.
Products dry quickly, resist waterborne stains. Poor comfort in humid weather. Difficult to dye. Static
problems more likely. Does not shrink when wet.
Oil and grease stains must be removed by dry-cleaning agents.
Static cling and shocks may occur. Static sparks may pose risk of explosions or fires in unusual situations.
Resistant to wear and holes. Used in many technical applications.
Make good ropes, belts, and hosiery. Resist breaking under stress. High-tenacity modifications possible.
Easy-care apparel, packable for travel. Less wrinkling during wear. Resilient carpeting.
Used in outdoor furniture, indoor/outdoor carpet, curtains/draperies, flags, banners, and awnings.
Varies from poor to excellent. Check individual fibers.
Most are lightweight. More product per unit mass.
May occur in products made of staple fibers. Low pilling modifications available.
Easily engineered low-cost modifications reduce costs and improve end use performance.
Improved strength, pliability, toughness, and elasticity.
Adds strength and abrasion resistance to blends with cellulosic fibers for apparel and interiors.

Learning Activity 1
Examine the list of properties in Table 8.2. Identify products where these properties
would be used to enhance a product or where they might create a problem with a prod-
uct. (In some instances, a property can be identified as both enhancing performance as
well as being problematic.) Explain the impact of that property on product performance.
For apparel or interior products, describe how that property would influence consumer
satisfaction with the product.

Common Properties of Synthetic Fibers

Heat Sensitivity  Many synthetic fibers are heat-sensitive. Heat sensitivity refers to fibers
that soften or melt with heat; those that scorch or decompose are heat-resistant. Awareness
of heat sensitivity is important in manufacturing because of the use of heat in dyeing, scour-
ing, singeing, and other finishing and production processes. Heat sensitivity is also important Before glazing
to consumers because of the heat encountered in washing, ironing, and dry cleaning.
Fibers differ in their level of heat sensitivity. These differences are shown in Table 3.5.
If the iron remains in one spot too long, the heat builds up. When heat-sensitive fabrics get
After glazing
too hot, the yarns soften and pressure from the iron flattens them permanently (Figure 8.2).
Figure Heat and pressure cause permanent
Glazing is the melting and flattening of yarns and fibers exposed to excess heat. While it is
8.2 flattening of the yarn. Glazing is a
often a problem to the consumer if the iron is too hot, glazing during finishing produces delib- permanent change in fiber or yarn
erate texture and surface effects. cross section.

synthetic fibers 163

 Heat-sensitive fibers make altering apparel difficult because creases, seams, and hems
are hard to press in or out. Fullness cannot be shrunk out for shaping, so patterns have to be
adjusted. However, nanoclay is improving the heat resistance of nylon and polyester.

Chemical Resistance  Most synthetic fibers are resistant to most chemicals, including
water, solvents, acids, and bases. Chemical resistance means that these fibers do not absorb
water or other liquids, resist soiling by most soils, are more difficult to dye, and resist solvents.
Low absorbency can create problems with comfort and static. Chemical resistance means a
broader range of technical applications for synthetic fibers.

Pilling  Fiber tenacity affects pilling, the formation of tiny balls of entangled fiber ends on a
fabric’s surface. Pilling occurs on staple-fiber fabrics, where fiber ends entangle due to abra-
sion. The pills may break off before the item becomes unsightly, but most synthetic fibers are
so strong that surface pills accumulate. Pills are of two kinds: lint and fabric. Lint pills are more
unsightly because they contain fibers from the item as well as fibers picked up during care,
through contact with other fabrics in use and through static attraction. Fabric pills consist of
fibers from the fabric and are less obvious. Pilling can be minimized by fiber modification or
finishes.
Compact weaves, high yarn twist or plied yarns, and longer-staple fibers reduce pilling.
Resin finishes of cotton and fulling of wool also help reduce pilling.

Static Electricity  Static electricity is generated by friction when a fabric is rubbed against
itself or other objects. If the electrical charge is not removed, it builds up on the surface. When
the fabric comes in contact with a good conductor, a shock, or electron transfer, occurs. This
transfer may produce sparks that, in some environments, can cause explosions. Static builds
up more rapidly in dry, cold regions.
Static attracts soil, dust, and lint that is unappealing. Brushing to remove the soil simply
increases the attraction. Static cling is another problem. Fabrics cling to equipment in pro-
duction facilities; cutting and handling these fabrics are more difficult. Clothes cling to the
wearer and are uncomfortable and unsightly. Antistatic finishes are applied to many fabrics at
the factory, but they may not be permanent. Consumers can minimize static by using fabric
softeners.
Additives to the spinning solution reduce static build-up. Examples include additives
that improve fiber absorbency and nanoparticles that improve electrical conductivity.
Fibers that are modified to reduce static problems are more expensive than nonmodified
fibers.

Oleophilic  Fibers with low moisture absorption usually have a high affinity for oils and
greases. They are oleophilic. Absorption of oily substances causes these fibers to swell. Oily
stains are very difficult to remove and may require prespotting with a concentrated liquid soap
or a dry-cleaning solvent.

Common Manufacturing Processes

Melt Spinning  Many synthetic fibers are melt-spun. The basic steps in melt spinning for
filament and staple fibers made from filament tow are shown in Figure 8.3. Melt spinning can

164 chapter eight

 Spinning Spinning
continuous filament staple

Melt Melt

Melt-Spinning Process

I. Polymerization of Raw Material

Air
Air Chemicals react under pressure to cooler
cooled form a polymer resin that is extruded
as fiberlike strands or as a solid sheet
Individual and then cut into chips. An autoclave Undrawn “tow”
filaments melt the chips. The melt is pumped to
brought the spinneret. Delusterants or other
together additives may be combined with the
as yarn Drawing rolls
melt.

II. Extrusion and Cooling

The fiber emerges from the spinneret.

Fiber size is determined by the size
of the holes and the speed with which
Drawing
the fiber is withdrawn from the spinneret.
The fibers are cooled by contact with Crimping rolls
cold air. The same melt is used for
either filament or staple.

Feed rolls III. Drawing or Stretching after Cooling Heat-set

Filament fibers can be drawn four to
Draw zone
five times their original length to orient
Draw rolls the molecular chains and develop the
fiber’s mechanical properties and Cut or
hand. The fibers are heat-set and broken to
wound on cones or spools. desired
Twister length
(low twist
Staple fibers emerge as undrawn tow.
or several
It is drawn, crimped and heat-set, cut
turns per Baled
to the desired length, and baled.
inch) 400–500 lb.
Liquid finish container

Figure The melt-spinning processes: filament (left) and staple (right).

8.3

Learning Activity 2
Compare the processes used to melt spin fibers with those used to wet and dry spin
fibers. Make a list of the similarities and differences among the three processes. How
do the processes compare in terms of sustainability?

be seen by using flame, tweezers, and nylon or polyester fiber or fabric. Heat the fiber or fab-
ric until some of it melts, then quickly draw or pull out the melt with tweezers (see Figure 8.4).
In commercial melt spinning, the melt is forced through heated spinneret holes. The fiber
cools in contact with the air, solidifies, and is wound on a bobbin.

Drawing  After fiber extrusion, its chainlike molecules are in an amorphous or disordered
arrangement. The filament fiber is drawn or pulled to develop the desirable strength, pliability,

synthetic fibers 165

 3 Learning Activity
Remove three to four yarns from Fabric #9 from your swatch kit. Roll it into a small bun-
dle and place the tip or edge of the bundle between the jaws of a tweezers. Following
the safety precautions described in Chapter 3 for the burn test, slowly bring the fiber
bundle toward the flame, but not close enough so it ignites. Melt the bundle in the heat.
Once the bundle has melted, immediately remove it from the flame and use a second
pair of tweezers to pull out a fiber from the melt. Repeat this same procedure for Fabrics
#1 and 4. Name the fiber in each fabric and describe what happened. Based on the
generic fiber present, explain your results.

(a) toughness, and elasticity properties. Some fibers are cold-drawn; others must be hot-drawn.
Drawing aligns the molecules in a more parallel arrangement and brings them closer together
so they are more crystalline and oriented. The amount of draw (draw ratio) varies with intended
use, determines the decrease in fiber size, and controls the increase in strength.

(b)
Figure Melt-spinning a synthetic fiber by
8.4 hand (a) and extruding melt in fiber
form (b).
Heat Setting  Heat setting uses heat to stabilize the shape and dimensions of yarns or
fabrics made of heat-sensitive fibers. The yarn or fabric is heated to bring it to a temperature
specific for the fiber being heat-set—the glass transition temperature (Tg ). At this temperature,
the fiber molecules move freely to relieve stress within the fiber. Tension remains until the fiber
has cooled, locking this shape into its molecular structure. After cooling, the fabric or yarn
will be stable to any heat lower than that at which it was set. Higher temperatures may cause
shrinkage or other changes. Heat setting may be done at any stage of finishing, depending on
the fiber’s heat resistance and end use (Table 8.3).
Common Fiber Modifications
Fiber Shape and Size  Since many synthetic fibers are melt-spun, changing the fiber’s
cross-sectional shape is relatively easy. Altering the shape of the spinneret hole changes fiber
shape. Figure 3.3 illustrates several common modifications. Hollow fibers for fiberfill provide
better thermal properties and lighter weight. For example, a 12-void fiber is 40% lighter than a
fiber without the voids. Trilobal, pentalobal, and multilobal fibers are used for apparel and inte-
riors, especially carpeting. Voided fibers hide soil on carpeting. Flat-ribbon fibers add sparkle
to formalwear and special-occasion apparel. Channel fibers are used in active sportswear to
wick moisture away from the skin’s surface. Fiber size can range from very large for technical
applications to very small for apparel and interior textiles.

Table 8.3 Heat Setting

Advantages
Permanent embossed
designs
Permanent pleats and
shape
Stable size, even for knits
Crush-resistant pile
Wrinkle-resistant apparel
Disadvantages
Set creases and wrinkles may not be removed in ironing or in
garment alteration.
Care must be taken in washing or ironing to prevent setting
wrinkles.

166 chapter eight

 Microfibers are filament or staple fibers with a denier per filament (dpf) of less than 1.0;
most range from 0.5 to 0.7 dpf. They are produced by conventional melt spinning, splitting
bicomponent fibers, or dissolving one of the components of bicomponent fibers. All three
techniques provide commercially important microfibers for apparel, interior, and techni-
cal applications. End uses include fashion apparel, intimate apparel, performance athletic
apparel, upholstery, wall coverings, bedding, window-treatment fabrics, medical applications,
and wiping cloths for the precision and glass industries.
Nanofibers and nanotubes (hollow fibers) are much smaller than microfibers with diame-
ters or cross sections less than 100 nanometers (1 nanometer = 1 : 10–9 meters). Unfortunately,
microfibers are sized based on the denier system (a weight per unit length system), while nano-
fiber size is based on fiber diameter. Because of the incredibly tiny size, special spinning meth-
ods are used. Two methods are most common. In electrospinning, the polymer solution is
extruded into a strong electrical field. In centrifugal spinning, the polymer solution is extruded
in high centrifugal force. Nanofibers and nanotubes provide unusually high surface-to-volume
ratios, flexibility in surface function, and enhanced mechanical and electrical properties.

Low-Pilling Fibers  Low-pilling fibers are engineered to minimize pill formation. By

reducing the molecular weight slightly, the fiber’s flex life is decreased. When flex abrasion
resistance is reduced, fiber pills break off almost as soon as they are formed, thus maintaining
the fabric’s original appearance. The low-pilling fibers are not as strong as the parent fibers,
but are durable enough for most apparel and interior uses. They are especially applicable for
soft knitting yarns. Some low-pilling fiber modifications are designed for blending with other
fibers. For example, low-pilling polyester blends well with cotton, rayon, or lyocell.

High-Tenacity Fibers  Even though synthetic fibers are known for their high strength, fiber
tenacity can be increased for end uses in which high strength is needed, such as tow ropes,
air bags, and parachute cords. Fiber strength can be increased in two ways. First, drawing
or stretching a fiber to align or orient the molecules strengthens the intermolecular forces.
Second, molecular chain length is increased by chemical modification or by changing the
time, temperature, pressure, or catalysts used in the polymerization process. Long molecules
are harder to pull apart than short molecules. Most high-tenacity fibers are produced by
combining drawing with molecular-chain-length modifications. Composite fibers of nylon or
polyester and nanoclay have improved breaking strength.

Low-Elongation Fibers  Synthetic fibers often are blended with cellulosic fibers to add
strength and abrasion resistance. However, the greater elongation potential of synthetic fibers Many synthetic fibers are melt-spun.
creates problems unless low-elongation varieties are used in the blend. Low-elongation varieties Modifications for size, shape, pilling,
stretch less under force but are as strong as regular fibers. The primary end uses are apparel tenacity, and elongation are common.
and interior items that receive hard use, such as work apparel and heavy-duty upholstery fabrics.

Learning Activity 4
From the list of common fiber modifications of synthetics, select two and explain how
the modifications enhance product performance. Identify an appropriate apparel, inte-
riors, and technical application for each modification selected. Describe how product
serviceability and satisfaction would be improved for each product.

synthetic fibers 167

 Identification of Synthetic Fibers
Burn tests can be used to identify some synthetic fibers because of the melting and dripping
that occurs. However, the burn test is not good for blends or for fibers that are flame-retar-
dant or heat-resistant. The burn test also cannot be used to identify a specific generic fiber
since the differences are minor or masked by fiber additives or finishes (see Table 3.7).
Microscopic appearance is not a reliable method to identify synthetic fibers because their
appearance can be modified easily and they have no unique visible characteristics at either
the microscopic or the macroscopic level. Photomicrographs included in this chapter clearly
illustrate this.

Solubility tests and instrumental analysis Solubility tests and sophisticated spectroscopic instrumental analyses are the only pro-

are the options for differentiating among cedures that differentiate among the synthetic fibers. Table 3.8 lists solvents commonly used

synthetic fibers. to identify synthetic fibers. Several of these solvents are toxic and hazardous. Appropriate
care should be taken when using any solvent.

Synthetic Fibers
Nylon
Nylon was the first synthetic fiber and the first fiber developed in the United States. In 1928,
the DuPont Company established a fundamental research program as a means of diversifica-
tion. DuPont hired Dr. Wallace H. Carothers, an expert on high polymers, to direct a team of
scientists. The team created many polymers, starting with single molecules and building long
molecular chains. One team member discovered that a solution could be formed into a stable
solid filament. This stimulated the group to concentrate on textile fibers. By 1939, DuPont was
making polyamide fiber in a pilot plant. This fiber—nylon 6,6—was introduced in women’s
hosiery, for which it was an instant success. The name nylon was chosen for the fiber, but the
reason for that choice is not known. At that time there were no laws specifying generic names
for fibers.

5 Learning Activity
Use three to four yarns from Fabrics #10 and 86 from your swatch kit. Following the
procedures and safety precautions described in Chapter 3, conduct a burn test of these
samples. Describe the ease of ignition, the color and odor of the smoke, and the color
and texture of the cooled ash. Compare your results with those included in Table 3.7 or
chart to which you have access. Based on your observations of nylon and acrylic during
the burn test, what differences and similarities would you expect from repeating the test
for polyester and olefin?

6 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #9, 86, 96, and 120 from your swatch kit. Following the procedures
described in Chapter 3, examine the fibers using the microscope. Describe the sim-
ilarities and differences in appearance among these four fibers. Are there any unique
characteristics that can be used to identify these fibers? (Consider the surface contour
and appearance of natural fibers like cotton, flax, wool, and silk.)

168 chapter eight

 Nylon had a combination of properties unlike any other fiber in use in the 1940s. It was
stronger and more resistant to abrasion; it had excellent elasticity and could be heat-set.
Permanent pleats became a reality. For the first time, gossamer-sheer fabrics were dura-
ble and machine-washable. Nylon’s high strength, light weight, and resistance to chemicals
made it suitable for technical products such as ropes, cords, sails, and parachutes.
As nylon entered more end-use markets, problems became apparent—static buildup,
poor hand, poor comfort in skin-contact fabrics, and low resistance to sunlight. As problems
appeared, solutions were developed.

Production of Nylon  Nylon or polyamides are made from various substances. The numbers
after the word nylon indicate the number of carbon atoms in the starting materials. Nylon 6,6 is made
from hexamethylene diamine with six carbon atoms and adipic acid, also with six carbon atoms.
While nylon 6,6 was being developed in the United States, scientists in Germany were
working on nylon 6. It is made from a single six-carbon substance, caprolactam 4. Because of
the different starting materials, performance also differs (Table 8.4).

Physical Structure of Nylon  Nylon is available in multifilament, monofilament, staple in

a variety of lengths, and tow in a wide range of deniers and shapes and as partially drawn
or completely finished filaments. Fiber luster includes bright, semi-dull, and dull, with varying
degrees of polymerization and strengths. (a) (b)
Regular nylon has a round cross section and is uniform throughout the filament Figure Nylon: cross-sectional view (a),
(Figure 8.5). Microscopically, the fibers look like fine glass rods. Fibers are transparent unless 8.5 longitudinal view (b).
they have been delustered or solution-dyed. Source: British Textile Technology Group.

Table 8.4  Comparison of Nylon 6,6 and Nylon 6

Nylon 6,6 Nylon 6

Made of hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid Made of caprolactam

O O O

C (CH2)4 C NH (CH2)6NH NH (CH2)5 C

n n

Characteristics Characteristics
Heat setting 205°C (401°F) Heat setting 150°C (302°F)
Pleats and creases heat-set at higher temperatures Softening point 220°C (428°F)
Softening point 250°C (482°F) Better dye affinity than nylon 6,6; takes deeper shades
Difficult to dye Softer hand
Greater elasticity, elastic recovery, and fatigue resistance
Better weathering properties, including sunlight resistance

Performance Performance
Tenacity Breaking Elastic Tenacity Breaking Elastic
Dry/Wet Elongation, % Recovery, % Fiber Type Dry/Wet Elongation, % Recovery, %
5.9–9.8/5.1–8.0 15–28 89 High-tenacity 6.5–9.0/5.8–8.2 16–20 99–100
filament
2.3–6.0/2.0–5.5 25–65 88 Regular-tenacity 4.0–7.2/3.7–6.2 17–45 98–100
filament
2.9–7.2/2.5–6.1 16–75 82 Staple 3.5–7.2/— 30–90 100

synthetic fibers 169

 At first, the uniformity of nylon filaments was a distinct advantage over the natural fibers,
especially silk. However, the perfect uniformity of nylon produced woven fabrics with a dead,
unattractive feel. Changing the fiber’s shape reduces this condition. Nylon and other melt-
spun fibers retain the shape of the spinneret hole. Thus, where performance is influenced by
fiber shape, producers adjust the shape as needed. For example, in nylon carpets, trilobal
fibers and square fibers with voids give good soil-hiding characteristics (Figures 8.6 and 8.7).

Chemical Composition and Molecular Arrangement of Nylon

Figure Trilobal nylon. Nylon—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is any long-
8.6 chain, synthetic polyamide in which less than 85 percent of the amide linkages are
attached directly to two aromatic rings.
C NH

O
—Federal Trade Commission

Nylons are polyamides; the recurring amide groups contain the elements carbon, oxy-
gen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. Nylons differ in their chemical arrangement, accounting for slight
differences in some properties.
The molecular chains of nylon are long, straight chains of variable length with no side
chains or cross linkages. Cold-drawing aligns the chains so that they are oriented with the
Figure Nylon fiber with voids.
lengthwise direction and are highly crystalline. High-tenacity filaments have a longer chain
8.7
length than regular nylon. Staple fibers are not cold-drawn after spinning, have lower degrees
of crystallinity, and have lower tenacity than filament fibers.
Nylon is related chemically to the protein fibers silk and wool. Both have similar dye sites
that are important in dyeing, but nylon has far fewer dye sites than wool.

Properties of Nylon  Nylon’s performance in apparel and interior fabrics is summarized

in Table 8.5. Compare nylon’s performance to that of other fibers by reviewing the tables in
Chapter 3.

Aesthetics  Nylon has variable aesthetics that can be altered by selecting appropriate fiber
modifications or by the choice of yarn or fabric structure or fabric finishes. Nylon has been

Table 8.5 Summary of the Performance of Nylon in Apparel

Nylon, a synthetic polyamide fiber is known
and Interior Textiles
for its excellent durability, high appearance
retention, low absorbency, sensitivity to Aesthetics Variable

sunlight, and ability to be engineered to Durability Excellent

Abrasion resistance Excellent
meet end-use requirements.
Tenacity Excellent
Elongation High
Comfort Poor
Absorbency Poor
Thermal retention Moderate
Appearance Retention High
Resiliency High
Dimensional stability High
Elastic recovery Excellent
Recommended Care Machine-wash (apparel)
Absorbent powder method (interior textiles)

170 chapter eight

very successful in hosiery and in knitted fabrics, such as tricot and jersey, because of its
smoothness, light weight, and high strength. The luster of nylon can be selected for the end
use—it can be lustrous, semilustrous, or dull. Trilobal nylons have a pleasant luster.
The drape of fabrics made from nylon can be varied, depending largely on fiber and yarn
size and fabric structure selected. High-drape fabrics are used in draperies, in sheer overlays
for lingerie, and in formalwear. Stiff fabrics include taffetas for formalwear, parkas, interiors, or
technical uses. Very stiff fabrics include webbing for luggage handles and seat belts.
Smooth textures are common. Texture can be varied by using spun yarns or by changing
the fabric structure. The smooth hand associated with nylon fabrics results from the filament
yarn and compact structure. Textured-yarn fabrics are bulkier.
Nonround fibers are generally used in upholstery and carpets because round fibers mag-
nify soil and look dirty quickly. Trilobal, pentalobal, and voided fibers hide soil—even though
the product may be soiled, the soil is not apparent. In addition, voids and flat sides of the
fibers scatter light, hide soil, and closely duplicate the matte luster of wool and other natural
fibers (see Figures 8.6 and 8.7).

Durability  Nylon has excellent durability. Abrasion resistance and tenacity are excellent.
Elongation is high. High-tenacity fibers are used for seatbelts, tire cords, ballistic fabric, and
other technical uses. Regular-tenacity and staple fibers are used in apparel and interior tex-
tiles. High-tenacity (HT) fibers are stronger but have lower elongation than regular-tenacity
fibers. During production the high-tenacity fibers are drawn to a greater degree than are
­regular-tenacity fibers making the HT fibers more crystalline and oriented. HT nylon fibers are
used in technical products, such as towropes, where high strength and low elongation are
essential.
In addition to excellent strength and high elongation, nylon has excellent abrasion resis-
tance. A major end use for nylon is carpet (Table 8.6). The ideal carpet is durable, resilient,
and resistant to pilling, shedding, fading, traffic, abrasion, soil, and stains. Nylon meets or
exceeds many of these demands. Nylon is also popular in pile upholstery fabrics because of
its excellent durability and high resiliency.

Table 8.6  Comparison of Wool and Synthetic Carpet Fibers

Fiber Characteristic Wool Nylon Polyester (Triexta) Olefin

Diameter Coarse 15–18 denier or blends of various 15 denier or larger, blends of 15 denier or larger, blends of
deniers various deniers various deniers
Length Staple Staple or filament blends of various Staple or filament blends of Staple or filament blends of
lengths various lengths various lengths
Crimp 3D crimp Sawtooth crimp, 3D crimp, Sawtooth crimp, 3D crimp Sawtooth crimp, 3D crimp
bicomponent, textured filament
Cross section Round to oval Round, trilobal, multilobal, voided Round, trilobal, multilobal, voided Round, multilobal, voided
square, 5-pointed star square square
Resiliency and Good Medium to excellent Moderate Moderate
resistance to crushing
Resistance to abrasion Good Good to excellent Good to excellent Good to excellent
Resistance to Poor Good to excellent Good to excellent Excellent
waterborne stains
Resistance to oily stains Good Poor, unless modified or treated Poor, unless modified or treated Poor, unless modified or treated
Fire retardancy Good Modified fiber or topical finish Modified fiber or topical finish Modified fiber
Static resistance Good Poor to good, can be modified Poor to good, can be modified Good

synthetic fibers 171

 This combination of properties makes nylon the perfect fiber for women’s hosiery and
tights. No other fiber has been able to compete with nylon for pantyhose and tights. The high
elongation and excellent elastic recovery of nylon account for its outstanding performance
here. Tights and hosiery experience high degrees of elongation; nylon recovers better after
high elongation than other fibers do. Nylon can also be heat-set, to retain its shape during
wear. Filament hosiery develops runs because the fine yarns break and the knit loop is no
longer secure. Sheer hosiery is less durable than opaque tights. Microfiber nylon tights are
warmer and softer than tights made of regular-sized apparel fibers.
Nylon is used for lining fabrics in some coats and jackets. Nylon linings are more dura-
ble; however, the cost is greater because of the greater difficulty in sewing and higher costs
compared to acetate fabrics. Nylon is not durable as a window treatment fabric because it
is weakened by the sun. Sunlight- or ultraviolet-resistant modified fibers are used in sheer
curtains, draperies, car interiors, seatbelts, and other technical applications where sunlight
exposure is high.

Comfort  Nylon has poor comfort. It has poor absorbency. Even though its absorbency is
the highest of the synthetic fibers (4.0% to 4.5% for nylon 6,6 and 2.8% to 5.0% for nylon 6),
nylon is not as comfortable to wear as the natural fibers.
Compact yarns of filament nylon originally were used in men’s woven sports shirts. The
shirts became transparent when wet from perspiration and felt clammy, especially in warm,
humid weather. Today, textured and spun yarns used in knit fabrics produce more comfort-
able shirts. Knit fabrics of nylon are more comfortable than woven nylon fabrics because heat
and moisture escape more readily through the additional air spaces within the fabric. Polymer
modifications improve the comfort of nylon apparel. A hydrophilic fiber with improved absor-
bency and wicking is used in thermal underwear, actionwear, footwear, and accessories.
The factors that make nylon uncomfortable in one set of conditions make it comfortable
in other conditions. Nylon has moderate thermal retention. It is widely used for wind- and
water-resistant jackets, parkas, tents, and umbrellas. The smooth, straight fibers pack closely
together in yarns that can be woven into a compact fabric with very little space for wind or
water to penetrate.
Another disadvantage of low absorbency is the development of static electricity by fric-
tion in low humidity. This disadvantage can be overcome by using antistatic nylon modifica-
tions, antistatic finishes, or blends with high-absorbency, low-static fibers.
Static creates problems with comfort, soiling, and use. Antistatic fiber modifications and
finishes are common carpet modifications. Sometimes, small amounts of metallic and carbon
fibers are used to minimize static in carpets. Antistatic nylon is used in lining fabrics and slips.
With a specific gravity of 1.14, nylon is one of the lightest fibers on the market. When
compared to polyester, nylon yields 21% more yardage per pound of fabric. This lighter weight
corresponds to lighter products and lower costs for moving and finishing fabrics. Actionwear
and sports gear take advantage of nylon’s light weight and excellent durability.

Appearance Retention  Nylon fabrics are rated high for appearance retention. Nylon is
highly resilient because of heat-setting. The same process is used to make permanent pleats,
creases, and embossed designs. Nylon carpet yarns are heat-set before they are incorporated
into the carpet. Heat setting improves the excellent compressional resiliency of nylon fibers in
the pile yarns. Compressional resiliency is the ability of carpet fibers to spring back to their
original height after being bent or otherwise deformed. Traffic paths do not develop quickly.
In addition, depressions from heavy furniture are less likely to be permanent. Steaming these

172 chapter eight

areas can minimize marks from heavy furniture. Most carpet fibers are made in a high denier,
often 15 or greater because higher-denier fibers have better compressional resiliency and
appearance retention.
Dimensional stability is high. Nylon resists shrinkage because of heat setting and because
the low-absorbency fiber is not affected by water. Elastic recovery is excellent. Nylon recovers
fully from 8% stretch; no other fiber does as well. At 16% elongation, it recovers 91% imme-
diately. This property makes nylon an excellent fiber for hosiery, tights, ski pants, swimsuits,
and other actionwear. Nylon does not wrinkle much in use, is stable, and has excellent elastic
recovery, so it retains its appearance during use.
Solution-dyed and sunlight-resistant carpet fibers are available for areas where fading,
especially from exposure to sunlight, may be a problem. These carpets are specifically aimed
at the low-priced contract/commercial markets and for automotive interiors. An ultraviolet-­
resistant nylon fiber is used in flags, life vests, and other technical applications.

Care  Nylon apparel can be machine-washed and dried. Interior textiles can be cleaned by
the absorbent powder method (Chapter 20). Nylon introduced the concept of easy-care gar-
ments. Nylon fabrics retain their appearance and shape during use and care.
The wet strength of nylon is 80% to 90% of its dry strength. Wet elongation increases
slightly. Little swelling occurs when nylon is wet. Compare the swelling of these fibers: nylon,
14%; cotton, 40% to 45%; and viscose rayon, 80% to 110%. These properties contribute
greatly to nylon being an easy care fiber.
To minimize wrinkling, warm wash water, gentle agitation, and gentle spin cycles are
best. Hot water may cause wrinkling in some fabrics. Wrinkles set by hot wash water can be
permanent, but hot water may help remove greasy and oily stains.
Nylon is a color scavenger. White and light-colored nylon fabrics pick up color from other
fabrics or dirt that is in the wash water. A red sock that loses color into the wash water of a
load of whites will turn the white nylon fabrics pink that is difficult to remove. Prolonged use
of chlorine bleach may cause white nylon to yellow. Discolored nylon and grayed or yellowed
nylon can be avoided by following correct laundry procedures.
Since nylon has low absorbency, it dries quickly. Short drier times are needed. Nylon reacts
Figure The melted and fused remains of
adversely to overdrying or dryers set on high heat. Figure 8.8 shows the melted and fused result 8.8 nylon garments dried in an overheated
of a nylon garment dried in an overheated gas dryer with socks of a different fiber content. gas dryer.
Nylon experiences problems with static, particularly when the air is dry, so a fabric soft-
ener should be used during cleaning. Nylon should be pressed or ironed at a low temperature
setting, 270 ºF to 300 ºF, to avoid glazing. Home-ironing temperatures are not high enough to
press seams, creases, and pleats permanently in items or to press out wrinkles acquired in
washing.
The chemical resistance of nylon is generally good. Nylon has excellent resistance to alkali
and chlorine bleaches but is damaged by strong acids. Atmospheric pollutants can damage
nylon or create problems with some dyes used with nylon. Certain acids, when printed on the
fabric, create a puckered effect. Nylon dissolves in formic acid and phenol.
Nylon is resistant to the attacks of insects and fungi. However, food soil on carpets may
attract insects. Nylon has low resistance to sunlight. Bright fibers have better sunlight resis-
tance than delustered fibers because the damaging energy is reflected and not absorbed.
Sunlight-resistant modifications of nylon are available.
Carpet soiling can be a real problem. Soiling in carpets is related to fiber cross section,
carpet color, and fiber opacity/translucence. Round cross sections magnify soil. Nonround

synthetic fibers 173

 7 Learning Activity
Make a list of the performance properties of nylon. Select an end use, identify it as
apparel, interiors, or technical, and group the properties as being beneficial or not bene-
ficial for that end use. Now, select another end use from a different category and repeat
the assessment of nylon’s fiber properties.

cross sections, such as trilobal, pentalobal, and voided, hide soil (see Figures 8.6 and 8.7).
Soil-resistant fiber modifications in carpeting minimize soil adherence and permanent staining.
In addition, many carpets now combine soil-resistant fiber modifications with soil-resistant
finishes. See Chapter 18 for information on soil-resistant finishes for carpets.

Sustainability of Nylon  Nylon resists natural degradation and does not degrade quickly.
It resists molds, mildew, rot, and many chemicals. Although most nylon is susceptible to dam-
age from sunlight, the damage does not occur quickly enough to minimize disposal problems
with nylon products. Nylon is processed from petrochemicals, so there are concerns regard-
ing the political, social, and pollution impact of the petrochemical industry: drilling in sensitive
environments, pipelines and other transportation issues, oil spills, refinement and production
of the chemicals from which nylon is made, and use of and disposal of hazardous chemicals.
The production of nylon consumes more energy than does the production of polyester or cot-
ton. Nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas, is emitted from nylon production facilities.
The processing of nylon from raw fiber into finished product uses few, if any, chemicals
to clean the fiber. This is because nylon and other synthetic fibers, unlike the natural fibers,
are not contaminated with soil and other materials like leaf bits during production. Since nylon
is a melt-spun fiber, no residue from chemical baths needs to be rinsed from the fiber and no
solvents, like those used with wet- or dry-spun fibers, need to be reclaimed. In addition, less
water, salt, and acid is used to dye the fiber. Removal of excess dye from nylon fabrics uses
less water than for some common dyes used for natural and regenerated cellulose fibers.
Chemical finishes are rarely needed to enhance consumer satisfaction with nylon products
because the fiber can be engineered for specific end uses. Thus, once nylon fiber is pro-
duced, further processing of nylon has minimal impact on the environment.
Nylon is made from materials that are by-products of oil refineries. Nylon’s raw materials
are substances that were once considered waste products. Nylon recycling is a reasonable
alternative to disposal. Two problems with recycling nylon relate to the presence of other
materials added to the melt in producing the original material and the wide variety of nylon
polymers on the market.
An economical commercial carpet recycling program converts nylon carpet fiber to
caprolactam (a nylon 6 raw material). In other recycling programs for nylon carpet fiber, the
fiber is shaved from the carpet’s surface and mixed with plastic and concrete. Lightweight
and durable composite materials of fiber and plastic or fiber and concrete make recycled
picnic tables and poured concrete foundations. Unfortunately, not all discarded nylon carpet
is recycled. In some cases, this is because a significant percentage of the nylon used in car-
pet is applied to olefin or other backing materials complicating recycling. Additives used to
enhance performance of nylon carpet make recycling more challenging because of the dye,
delusterant, and soil- and stain-resistant compounds present with most nylon carpet pile.

174 chapter eight

Uses of Nylon  Nylon is one of the most widely used fibers. The single most important
use of nylon is for carpets. Tufted carpets are an excellent end use for nylon because of its
aesthetic appearance, durability, appearance retention, and ability to be cleaned in place.
The combination of nylon fiber and the tufting process results in relatively low-cost and highly
serviceable carpeting, contributing to the widespread use of carpeting in both residential and
commercial buildings.
A second important use of nylon is for apparel. Nylon lingerie is attractive and durable,
has good appearance retention, and is easy care. Panties, bras, nightgowns, pajamas, and
lightweight robes are frequently made from nylon.
Women’s tights and sheer hosiery are important end uses for nylon. No other fiber has
the combination of properties that make it ideal for that use. Very sheer hosiery is often 12 to
15 denier instead of a heavier-denier yarn or monofilament. Hosiery yarns may be monofila-
ment or multifilament stretch nylon and plain or textured and regular or microdenier in size.
Short socks or knee-high socks are sometimes made from nylon. Frequently they are
nylon blends with cotton or acrylic. Nylon adds strength and stretch. It is not unusual for nylon
to be used in the toe and heel of socks to add wear life. Active sportswear and actionwear
in which comfort stretch is important—leotards, tights, swimsuits, and ski wear—are other
end uses for nylon. Nylon-taffeta windbreakers and parkas are common in cool and windy
weather. Lining fabrics for jackets and coats can be made of nylon.
Some performance nylon fibers are modified to have a cottonlike hand with improved
pilling resistance and are used in the inner layers of workwear, hunting apparel, and moun-
taineering apparel. Other nylons for outdoor use and hunting apparel have been modified to
be stain- and tear-resistant, quiet (making minimal rustling or other noise that might scare off
game animals), quick-drying, and warm. These fabrics are used in outer layers of workwear
and hunting and hiking apparel. Supplex™, a microfiber nylon, is modified to be softer, more
supple, and less bulky than regular nylon, providing greater freedom of movement in outer-
wear, beachwear, and actionwear. Supplex™ is wind-resistant, water-repellent, breathable,
and durable.
Technical uses for nylon are broad and varied. Nylon is used for the tire cord that goes
rim to rim over the curve of some radial tires, but polyester, heat-resistant aramid, and steel
are replacing nylon because of its tendency to flat-spot. Flat spotting occurs when a car has
been parked for some time and a flattened place forms on the tire. The ride is bumpy for the
first mile or so until the tire recovers from flattening.
The average car uses 25 pounds of fiber, a good share of which is likely to be nylon. Car
interiors in which nylon is used include upholstery fabric (called body cloth), carpet for the
interior, trunk lining, door and visor trims, head liners on interior roofs, and seatbelt webbing.
Some are modified to be sunlight-resistant, heat-resistant, or high-tenacity. In addition, nylon
is used in clutch pads, brake linings, yarns to reinforce radiator hoses and other hoses, and
airbags.
Additional technical uses include parachute fabric, cords and harnesses, glider tow
ropes, ropes and cordage, conveyor belts, fishing nets, mail bags, webbings, consumer uses,
sporting goods, and leisure fabrics. Consumer uses include umbrellas, clotheslines, tooth-
brush and hairbrush bristles, paintbrushes, and luggage. Sporting goods include tents, sleep-
ing bags, spinnaker sails, fishing lines and nets, racket strings, backpacks, and duffle bags.
Leisure goods include soft luggage, backpacks, book bags, camera bags, golf bags, hunting
gear, and horse blankets.

synthetic fibers 175

 8 Learning Activity
Examine your wardrobe and home/apartment/dormitory. Make a list of the items that
are all nylon or a blend of nylon and another fiber. [Be sure to consider interiors (car-
peting, upholstery) and technical products (brushes, umbrellas) in addition to apparel.]
Select one item from each of the three categories from your list and describe the char-
acteristics of nylon that have contributed to the serviceability of each textile product.
How do these contributions enhance or detract from your satisfaction with the product?
How could nylon have been modified to reduce your areas of dissatisfaction? What fiber
modifications are most likely present for each product you selected? How do those
modifications improve performance?

Nylon microfibers are used in apparel and interiors. These fibers are 26% to 36% softer
than regular nylon fibers and range in size from 0.7 to 1.0 dpf, as compared with a denier of
2.0 dpf for regular nylon. The micro nylons are used in a variety of applications. These fibers are
water-repellent, wind- and wear-resistant, vapor-permeable, and comfortable. They are used
in 100% nylon formations and in blends with natural fibers like wool and cotton (Table 8.7).

Types and Kinds of Nylon  It has been said that as soon as a new need arose, a new type
of nylon was produced to fill the need. This has led to a large number of types of nylon that
are identified by trademarks.
Table 8.8 illustrates many modifications of nylon. Table 8.9 lists trade names for several
producers of nylon. Appendix C lists additional trade names for nylon.

Table 8.7  Nylon Microfibers

Producer Trade Name Size, dpf End Use

Honeywell International Silky Touch 0.8 Lingerie, swimwear

INVISTA Supplex 1.0 Woven actionwear
MicroSupplex 0.7 Woven actionwear

Table 8.8 Types and Kinds of Nylon

Cross Section Dyeability Crimp or Textured Other

Round Acid dyeable Mechanical crimp Antistatic

Heart-shaped Cationic dyeable Crimp-set Soil hiding
Y-shaped Disperse dyeable Producer textured Bicomponent
8-shaped Deep dye Undrawn Fasciated
Delta Solution dye Partially drawn Antimicrobial
Thick-and-thin Heather Steam-crimped Sunlight-resistant
Trilobal Optically whitened Bulked continuous filament Flame-resistant
Triskelion Latent crimp Delustered
Trinode High-tenacity
Pentagonal Cross linked
Hollow
Voided
Microfibers

176 chapter eight

Table 8.9 Some Trade Names and Producers
Nylon 6,6 Trade Names Producer Nylon 6 Trade Names Producer

Anso (all options), Caprolan, Silky Touch, Ultra Honeywell Antron (all options), Supplex, MicroSupplex, Solar Max, INVISTA
Touch, Zefsport, Zeftron (all options) International Stainmaster
Nylon 6ix Beaulieu of Ultron (all options), Wear-Dated Solutia, Inc.
America, Inc.

Learning Activity 9
Use two of these fabrics from your swatch kit: #7, 14, 63, 87, 88, and 120. Use the
swatch set key to verify that each fabric you selected incorporates nylon. For your
swatches, has nylon been modified to resemble a natural fiber? If yes, which natu-
ral fiber and what modifications help nylon macroscopically resemble the natural fiber?
Identify an end use for each sample and explain how nylon would be a serviceable fiber
for that end use. If two or more fibers are present in the fabric, how has nylon been
modified to make it more compatible with the other fiber?

Learning Activity 10
Identify one apparel, interiors, and technical end use appropriate for nylon and explain
why, in terms of fiber performance that end use is appropriate. From the list in Table 8.8,
list appropriate modifications for each end use and explain how performance would be
enhanced with these modifications.

Polyester
The first polyester fiber, Terylene, was produced in England. It was first introduced in the
United States in 1951 by DuPont. The outstanding wet and dry resiliency of polyester and its
excellent dimensional stability after heat setting made it an instant favorite.
Sometimes referred to as the workhorse fiber, polyester is the most widely used synthetic
fiber. Its filament form is extremely versatile, and its staple form can be blended with many
other fibers, contributing desirable properties to the blend without destroying those of the
other fiber. Polyester’s versatility in blending is one of its unique advantages. Today, polyester
is the most widely used fiber in the world.
The polyester polymer is endlessly engineerable, with many physical and chemical varia-
tions possible. Modified fibers improve polyester’s performance. The standard round shape is
easily modified to other shapes for different properties. High-tenacity staple polyester is used
in durable-press fabrics to reinforce cotton fibers weakened by finishing. Other polyesters
have a hand and absorbency more like the natural fibers. The properties of polyester are listed
in Table 8.10.

Production of Polyester  Polyester is produced by reacting dicarboxylic acid with dihy-

dric alcohol. The fibers are melt-spun by a process very similar to that used to make nylon.
The polyester fibers are hot-drawn to orient the molecules and improve strength, elongation,
and stress/strain properties. Since polyester is melt-spun, it retains the shape of the spinneret
hole. Modifications in cross-sectional shape are inexpensive and easy to produce.

synthetic fibers 177

 Table 8.10  Properties of Polyester
Properties Importance to Consumers

Resilient—wet and dry Easy-care and packable apparel and interiors

Dimensional stability Machine-washable
Sunlight-resistant Good for window treatments
Durable, abrasion-resistant Technical uses, sewing thread, work clothes
Aesthetics superior to nylon Blends well with other fibers, silklike

Physical Structure of Polyester  Polyester fibers are produced in many types. Filaments
are high- or regular-tenacity, bright or delustered, white or solution-dyed. Delusterant pro-
duces a speckled microscopic appearance. Delustered staple fibers are available in a range
of deniers. They may be regular, low-pilling, or high-tenacity. Polyester is not as transparent
as nylon fibers. It is white, so fibers normally do not need to be bleached. However, whiter
types of polyester fibers have optical whiteners added to the fiber-spinning solution. Regular
polyester fibers are smooth rodlike fibers with a circular cross section (Figure 8.9). Cross-
(a) (b) sectional shapes include round, trilobal, octolobal, oval, hollow, voided, hexalobal, and pen-
Figure Polyester: cross-sectional view (a),  talobal (star-shaped).
8.9 longitudinal view (b).
Chemical Composition and Molecular Arrangement of Polyester
Source: British Textile Technology Group.
Polyester fibers—manufactured fibers in which the fiber-forming substance is any
long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85 percent by weight of an ester
of a substituted aromatic carboxylic acid, including, but not restricted to, substituted
terephthalate units, and para substituted hydroxybenzoate units,
P(— R — O — C — C6H4 — C — O —), P(— R — O — C6H4 — C — O —).

O O O

Where the fiber is formed by the interaction of two or more chemically distinct
polymers (of which none exceeds 85 percent by weight), and contains ester groups
as the dominant functional unit (at least 85 percent by weight of the total polymer
content of the fiber), and which, if stretched at least 100 percent, durably and rapidly
reverts to its unstretched length when the tension is removed, the term elasterell-p
may be used as a generic description of the fiber.

—Federal Trade Commission

Polyester fibers are made from terephthalate polymers: polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
poly 1,4 cyclohexylene-dimethylene terephthalate (PCDT), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT),

Polyester is a synthetic polymer made of an and polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT). While the properties of each polymer differ, in most

ester of a substituted aromatic carboxylic cases the differences are minor and do not result in noticeable changes in consumer perfor-

acid. It is known for its excellent durability, mance. These polymers may be homopolymers or copolymers. Most copolymers are pill-­

high appearance retention, poor comfort, resistant, lower-strength staple fibers used primarily in knits, blends, and carpets. Polyester

and wide use in apparel and interiors. fibers have straight molecular chains that are packed closely together and are well oriented,
with very strong hydrogen bonds.

Properties of Polyester  Polyester’s performance in apparel and interiors is summarized

in Table 8.11. To understand polyester’s performance in comparison with that of the other
fibers, examine the tables in Chapter 3.

Aesthetic  Polyester has variable aesthetics that are easily altered by selecting appropriate
fiber modifications or by the choice of yarn or fabric structure or fabric finishes. Polyester

178 chapter eight

Table 8.11 Summary of the Performance of Polyester in Apparel
and Interior Textiles
Aesthetics Variable
Durability Excellent
Abrasion resistance Excellent
Tenacity Excellent
Elongation Low
Comfort Poor
Absorbency Poor
Thermal retention Moderate
Appearance Retention High
Resiliency Excellent
Dimensional stability High
Elastic recovery High
Recommended Care Machine-wash (apparel)
Absorbent powder (interior textiles)

fibers blend well, maintaining a natural fiber look and texture, with the advantage of easy care
for apparel and interiors. While the fabrics look like the natural fiber in the blend, their improved
appearance retention during use and care clearly illustrates the presence of polyester.
Thick-and-thin yarns of polyester and rayon give a linen look to apparel and interior fab-
rics. Wool-like fabrics are found in both summer-weight and winter-weight suit fabrics.
Trilobal polyester fibers grew out of research with a silk finishing company to develop a
manufactured filament with the aesthetic properties of silk. The unique properties of silk—­
liveliness, suppleness, and drape of the fabric; dry tactile hand; and good covering power of
the yarns—result from (1) silk’s triangular shape; (2) its fine denier per filament; (3) its loose,
bulky yarn and fabric structure; and (4) its highly crimped fabric structure. Researchers applied
these results to polyester. Trilobal silklike polyesters are made into fabrics and processed by a
silk-finishing treatment with caustic soda producing a thinner, less uniform fiber, yarn, or fabric
without basically changing the fiber.
Polyester microfibers are particularly suited to high-fashion apparel and interiors because
of their versatility and durability. Designers find the microfibers’ drape and hand exciting and
challenging. Consumers willingly pay the additional cost for microfiber products. Microfibers
yield softer and more drapeable fabrics than conventional fibers. Figure 8.10 illustrates the
differences among fiber sizes. Items of polyester microfibers, both 100% polyester and blends Cotton (3 dpf)

with other fibers, include coats, suits, blouses, dresses, active sportswear, wall coverings,
upholstery, sleeping bags, tents, filters, and toweling. These very fine fibers exhibit unparal- Silk (1 dpf)

leled softness, fluidity, drape, and appearance. Shin-gosen polyesters are the most silklike
Regular polyester (2 dpf)
of the very fine polyesters because of slight irregularities along the fiber. Some modifications
combine a microchannel with the trilobal cross section; others have tiny microcraters along
Microfiber polyester (0.5 dpf)
the fiber’s surface. The techniques used to produce the microfibers and shin-gosen fibers
Figure Comparison of fiber diameter: cotton,
are similar, but not identical, and the resultant fibers have slightly different performance and 8.10 silk, regular polyester, and microfiber
appearance characteristics. polyester.

Durability  Polyester’s durability is excellent. The abrasion resistance and tenacity of poly-
ester is excellent. Wet strength is comparable to dry strength. The high strength is produced
by hot drawing to develop crystallinity and by increasing the molecular weight. Table 8.12

synthetic fibers 179

Table 8.12 Performance Aspects of Modified Polyester Fibers
Fiber Modification Tenacity, g/d Breaking Elongation, % End Use

High-tenacity filament 6.8–9.5 9–27 Tire cord, technical uses

Regular-tenacity filament 2.8–5.6 18–42 Apparel and interiors
High-tenacity staple 5.8–7.0 24–28 Durable-press items
Regular-tenacity staple 2.4–5.5 40–45 Apparel and interiors

demonstrates the variability of breaking tenacity with end use. The stronger fibers are drawn
more; their elongation is lower than that of the weaker fibers. This is particularly dramatic in
the case of partially oriented filament fibers that are sold to manufacturers who draw them
more during the production of textured yarns. Their tenacity is 2.0 to 2.5 g/d, a lower strength
than staple fibers with an elongation exceeding that of the other fibers, 120% to 150%. Sold
in yarn form, these polyesters are known as partially oriented yarn (POY). Elongation is lower
than that of other synthetic fibers—a positive feature when blended with natural fibers.
Because of its better sunlight resistance, polyester is common in end uses in which sun-
light resistance is essential for durability, such as vehicle interiors, tarpaulins, and seatbelts.

Comfort  Polyester has poor comfort properties. Absorbency is poor for polyester, 0.4% to
0.8%. Poor absorbency lowers the comfort factor of skin-contact apparel and upholstery.
Woven fabrics made from round polyester fibers can be very uncomfortable in warm, humid
weather. Moisture does not escape easily from between the skin and the fabric, making the
fabric feel slick and clammy.
Comfort can be improved by using blends with absorbent fibers or comfort-modified
fibers, a thin and open fabric structure, spun—not filament—yarns, trilobal rather than round
fibers, and finishes that absorb, or wick, moisture. Soil-release finishes improve the wicking
characteristics of polyester, thus improving fabric breathability and comfort. Finishes and fiber
modifications also increase the comfort of polyester.
Blends of polyester and cotton are more comfortable in humid weather than are 100%
polyester fabrics. Moisture is wicked along the outer surface of polyester fibers to the fabric
surface, where it evaporates. Polyester is resilient when wet, so the fabric does not mat.
Polyester is light in weight and dries quickly.
Polyester exhibits moderate thermal retention. It is generally not as comfortable as wool
or acrylic for cold-weather wear. Blends with wool successfully improve comfort. Polyesters
have been specifically engineered for fiberfill. Fiber modifications (hollow fibers, binder staple,
and crimped fibers) perform very well.
Their low absorbency makes polyester more prone to static problems than other fibers in
the heat-sensitive group. The static potential of polyester is reduced by modifying the fiber’s
cross section, incorporating water-absorbing compounds in the melt prior to extrusion, or
adding topical finishes such as soil-release and antistatic compounds. Cross-sectional mod-
ifications may incorporate compounds that produce a porous fiber surface that traps mois-
ture. Other cross-sectional modifications expand the surface area per unit mass ratio, thus
slightly increasing the absorbency. The specific gravity of polyester fibers ranges from 1.22
to 1.38. Hollow variants for fiberfill are lower in density. The lower density and specific gravity
means that polyester products weigh less than comparable products made of natural or
regenerated fibers.

180 chapter eight

 An antistatic bicomponent core-sheath fiber combines a polyester core and a softer poly-
ester copolymer sheath that is impregnated with carbon-black particles. As little as 2% of this
fiber in a blend significantly reduces static buildup. It is used in carpeting and upholstery, fil-
ters, protective outerwear, felts, electrical components, ropes, and other applications in which
static buildup can be hazardous or annoying.
Stretch polyesters are available. Elasterell-p is a generic subclass of such a polyester
that is based on biotechnology and the fermentation of corn glucose. Compared to nylon,
production of elasterell-p (also known as PTT or Triexta™) uses 30% less energy and emits
63% less greenhouse gas. It can be stretched at least 100% with excellent recovery. It has
good tenacity and is durable and easy care with a pleasing hand. It can be dyed easily and
heat-set. Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) has the ability to stretch 10% to 15% with
good recovery. This is substantially better than that of regular polyester. PTT fibers are dura-
ble, easy care, soft, have good bulk, and dye easily. With better stretch and softer hand,
the stretch polyesters are ideal for many apparel products including lingerie, hosiery, active
sportswear, and underwear. PTT or Triexta™ is commonly found in carpets under the trade
name Sorona™. Carpets made of this fiber are less resilient than nylon, but softer. Their luster
is more like that of nylon. Carpets are stain resistant and hydrophobic. Ideally, these carpets
work best in moderate traffic areas. Triexta™ is also used in automotive carpeting, upholstery,
and window treatments.

Appearance Retention  Polyester has high appearance retention. Polyester has excellent
resiliency. Resiliency refers to the extent and manner of recovery from deformation. Polyester
has a high elastic recovery rate with low elongation, an important factor for apparel and interi-
ors. When only small deformations are involved, as in wrinkling, polyester recovers better than
nylon. This recovery is similar to that of wool at higher elongations, which helps explain the
success of polyester and wool blends. Nylon exhibits better recovery at higher elongations,
so it performs better in products that are subject to greater elongation—hosiery, for example
(a) (b)
(Table 8.13).
Polyester has an advantage over wool in many uses, since wool has poor wrinkle recov-
ery when wet. In high humidity, polyester fabrics do not shrink and are very resistant to wrin-
kling. However, when polyester products wrinkle and where wrinkles are set by body heat and
moisture, pressing may not remove them.
Excellent resiliency makes polyester especially good for fiberfill in quilted fabrics such as
quilts, bedspreads, parkas, and robes, and in padding for furniture, futons, and mattresses.
If the fiber is flattened on one side or made asymmetrical, it takes on a tight spiral curl of
(c) (d)
outstanding springiness. Fiberfill of a blend of fiber deniers gives different levels of support.
Figure Hollow polyester fibers: (a) fiber
Lumpiness in pillows can be prevented by running hot needles through the batt to spot-weld
8.11 with one void, (b) fiber with four
the fibers to each other. Fiberfills with one, four, seven, or more hollow channels are available voids, (c) fiber with seven voids,
(Figure 8.11). and (d) fiber with 13 voids.

Table 8.13 Tensile Recovery from Elongation

Percent Elongation

Fiber 1% 3% 5% 15%

Polyester 90.6 76.1 63.3 39.8

Nylon 81.0 87.7 86.2 77.2

synthetic fibers 181

 To summarize, the resiliency of polyester is excellent; it resists wrinkles and, when wrin-
kled, it recovers well whether wet or dry. Elastic recovery is high for most apparel items. The
dimensional stability of polyester is high. When properly heat-set, it retains its size. It can be
permanently creased or pleated.
Pilling was a severe problem with fabrics made using unmodified polyester. Low-pilling
fibers minimize the problem and are suitable for use in blends. The finishing process of singe-
ing also helps control pilling.

Care  Polyester is easy care—machine wash or absorbent powder cleaning. Polyester has
revolutionized consumer laundering. This revolution occurred because of heat setting and
the development of durable-press or wrinkle-resistant finishes. Care instructions for poly-
ester/cotton durable-press fabrics are relatively simple: Wash in warm water; machine-dry
with medium heat; remove promptly when dry; hang; and touch up with a steam iron if
necessary.
The excellent abrasion resistance and tenacity and the high elongation of polyester are
the same whether the fabric is wet or dry. The low absorbency of polyester (0.4%) means
that it resists waterborne stains and is quick to dry. The excellent resiliency of polyester
keeps it looking good during use and minimizes wrinkling during care so only light pressing
may be required. Because of heat setting, dimensional stability and shape retention are
excellent.
Warm-water washing is generally recommended to minimize wrinkling. Hot water may
contribute to wrinkling and color loss. However, hot water (120° F to 140° F) may be needed to
remove greasy or oily stains or built-up body soil. Polyester is oleophilic so it retains oily soil. A
familiar example of this is ring around the collar. In polyester or polyester/cotton blend shirts,
the soil usually responds to pretreatment before laundering.
The oleophilic nature of polyester may result in redeposition of oily soil on fabrics, mak-
ing them look dingy. Fortunately, polyester is not the color scavenger that nylon is. Soil-
release finishes improve soil removal. Another problem with polyester, especially noticeable
with apparel, is bacterial odor. This problem occurs when soil has built up on the fabric,
promoting bacterial growth and odor. Use of hot-water wash, such laundry agents as borax,
which minimizes odor, or bleach to remove the soil buildup and kill the bacteria minimize
odor. Several detergents focus on odor removal. Antibacterial modifications and finishes also
minimize odor.
Polyester fibers are resistant to acids and alkalis and can be bleached with chlorine and
oxygen bleaches. Polyester fibers are resistant to biological attack and to sunlight damage,
especially important for sheer drapery casement fabrics.

Sustainability of Polyester  Many sustainability issues that were discussed with regard to
nylon also apply to polyester. See the earlier discussion in this chapter. However, several major
differences exist. The production of polyester uses less energy than the production of nylon,

11 Learning Activity
Make a list of the performance properties of polyester. Select an end use, identify it as
apparel, interiors, or technical, and group the properties as being beneficial or not bene-
ficial for that end use. Now, select another end use from a different category and repeat
the assessment of polyester’s fiber properties.

182 chapter eight

 Learning Activity 12
Examine your wardrobe and home/apartment/dormitory. Make a list of the items that
are all polyester or a blend of polyester and another fiber. (Be sure to consider interiors
and technical products in addition to apparel.) Select one item from each of the three
categories from your list and describe the characteristics of polyester that have contrib-
uted to the serviceability of each textile product. How do these contributions enhance
or detract from your satisfaction with the product? How could polyester have been
modified to reduce your areas of dissatisfaction? What fiber modifications are most
likely present for each product you selected? How do those modifications improve
performance?

but more energy than the production of cotton. Polyester uses small amounts of water during
its production. Some polyester is made with chemicals that contain heavy metal and toxic
compounds that contaminate water and soil, and have a long-term impact on the environment.
Polyester is extensively recycled using either mechanical or chemical processing. In
mechanical recycling, post- and pre-consumer waste from bottle-grade, not fiber-grade, poly-
ester is used. Chemical recycling starts with polyester garments or products, a fiber-to-fiber pro-
cess, to create better quality polyester fibers. Fiber-to-fiber recycling is more sustainable because
it is a closed-loop system and nothing ends in landfills. Production of recycled polyester creates
significantly less environmental pollution compared to virgin fibers made from new raw materials.
Air pollution is reduced by as much as 85%. Challenges that were overcome in the production
of recycled polyesters included achieving appropriate levels of purity of the polyester polymer
and improving spinning methods to make fibers of appropriate quality with a comfortable hand.
Current research to bleach dyed and printed fabrics may improve the recyclability of polyester
apparel and interior textiles. Research into bioengineered and bio-based polymers may replace a
large percentage of the synthetic chemicals currently used in the production of polyester.
Examples of trade names for recycled polyester fibers include Fortrel Ecospun and Ecofil
by Wellman, Inc., and Polartec Recycled by Malden Mills. Products made from recycled poly-
ester include apparel and carpeting. Consumers like these products, even though the price is
usually higher than that for virgin-fiber products.

Uses of Polyester  Polyester is the most widely used manufactured fiber in the United
States. It is very important in woven fabrics for apparel and interiors. Polyester filament yarns
may be used in one or both directions of a fabric. Frequently, spun yarns blended with cot-
ton or rayon are finished to be durable press. Blended fabrics are attractive, durable, and
comfortable (except in very hot and humid conditions), retain their appearance well, and are
easy care. Their excellent performance contributes to their widespread use and continued
popularity. Woven fabrics are used in top-weight and bottom-weight apparel, sheets, blan-
kets, bedspreads, curtains and draperies, mattress ticking, table linens, and upholstery fab-
rics. Filaments are used in sheer curtains, where their excellent light resistance and fine denier
make them particularly suitable for ninon and marquisette.
A second important use of polyester is in knitted fabrics. Polyester, as well as polyester/
cotton blend yarns, is used. Knit fabrics of polyester wear well, are comfortable, retain their
appearance well, and are easy care.
The first use of polyester filaments was in knit shirts for men and blouses for women.
The use of filament polyester increased tremendously when textured yarns were developed.

synthetic fibers 183

 Both smooth and textured filaments are used in such career apparel as uniforms and in such
interior textiles as warp-knit upholstery and window-treatment fabrics.
A third important use of polyester is in fiberfill. Used in pillows, comforters, bedspreads,
furniture padding, placemats, winter apparel, sleeping bags, and pillows, polyester dominates
the market. Other fiberfill materials include down, feathers, and acetate. The polyester used
for fiberfill is engineered for resiliency and loft. Its durability, comfort, and easy care also make
it appropriate for this end use. Fiberfill is not visible during use—but poor performance shows
up in lumpy products or hollow areas.
Nonwoven or fiberweb fabrics are a fourth important use of polyester. Nonwoven fab-
rics are used as interfacings or interlinings, pillow covers, and furniture and mattress interlin-
ings. They are used where the durability of rayon is inadequate and where absorbency is not
needed. Olefin is a strong competitor in many technical uses. Nonwoven polyester is used in
medical softgoods applications including nonabsorbent bandages and pads for heart moni-
tors. Other fiberweb products include base fabrics for coatings and laminates.
Tire cord is a fifth important use of polyester. Polyester tires do not flat spot as nylon tires do.
A small percentage of carpets are polyester; they have a softer hand than most nylon
carpets. Polyester carpets are not as traffic-resistant as nylon carpets. However, polyester
carpets perform well in low-use areas like bedrooms. Polyester carpets suffer from a walked
down look after a period of wear in heavy-traffic areas. Heat-setting the fibers minimizes the
problem. Some polyester carpet fiber has enhanced resistance to matting and crushing.
Polyester is used for many other consumer and technical uses: pile fabrics, tents, ropes,
cording, fishing line, cover stock for disposable diapers, garden hoses, sails, seatbelts, filters,
fabrics used in road building, seed and fertilizer bags, sewing threads, and artificial arteries,
veins, and hearts. Polyester is used in replacement blood vessels, heart valves, and support
tissue. Research continues to increase technical applications. For example, a new polyester,
polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) is a high-performance, high-strength polyester used in tech-
nical hoses, belts, tire cords or other cordage, sailcloth, engineered reinforcements, narrow
fabrics, and felts. PEN has good dimensional stability with low elongation and low shrinkage.

Types and Kinds of Polyester  Table 8.14 describes fiber modifications and fibers engi-
neered for special end uses. Often a combination of one or more modifications is used.

Table 8.14 Variants of Polyester

Cross Section Dyeability Crimp or Textured Tenacity Shrinkage Other

Round Disperse dyeable Producer-textured Regular tenacity High shrinkage Pill-resistant

Thick and thin Cationic dyeable Partially oriented Intermediate tenacity Normal shrinkage Homopolymer

Trilobal Solution-dyed Undrawn filament High-tenacity Low shrinkage Copolymer

Triangular Optically whitened High elongation Heat stabilized Bicomponent

Trilateral Deep dye Mid-modulus Chemically stabilized, Bigeneric

adhesive activated
Pentalobal Extra bright High-modulus Polished high luster

Scalloped oval Bright heather Binder fiber

Octolobal Dark heather Soft luster

Heptalobal

Hollow (one, four, seven,

or more channels)

184 chapter eight

 Learning Activity 13
Use two of these fabrics from your swatch kit: #8, 27, 29, 32, 78, 89, 90, and 121. Use
the swatch set key to verify that each fabric you selected incorporates polyester. For
your swatches, has polyester been modified to resemble a natural fiber? If yes, which
natural fiber and what modifications help polyester macroscopically resemble the nat-
ural fiber? Identify an end use for each sample and explain how polyester would be a
serviceable fiber for that end use. If two or more fibers are present in the fabric, how has
polyester been modified to make it more compatible with the other fiber?

Learning Activity 14
Identify one apparel, interiors, and technical end use appropriate for polyester and
explain why, in terms of fiber performance that end use is appropriate. From the list
in Table 8.14, list appropriate modifications for each end use and explain how perfor-
mance would be enhanced with these modifications.

Learning Activity 15
Using the serviceability concepts, debate the advantages and disadvantages from a
consumer’s perspective of an organic cotton T-shirt versus a polyester T-shirt made
from recycled beverage bottles. Go back to your response to Review Question 5 in
Chapter 2. Did your response change? If yes, how and why?

Olefin
In the 1920s, many attempts were made to polymerize ethylene, a by-product of the natural
gas industry. Ethylene was polymerized and used as an important plastic in the early to mid-
1940s during World War II, but filaments made from it did not have sufficiently consistent
properties for use in textile fibers. In 1954 in Germany, Karl Ziegler developed a process that
raised the melting point of polymerized ethylene filaments, but it remained too low for many
uses. In Italy, Giulio Natta successfully made linear polypropylene polymers of high molecular
weight suitable for most textile applications. By 1957, Italy was producing olefin fibers; U.S.
production of olefin fibers started in 1960.
Olefin has a combination of properties that makes it good for interiors, apparel that does
not need ironing, and technical uses. Olefin fibers are strong and resistant to abrasion, inex-
pensive, chemically inert, thermoplastic, and static-resistant.

Production of Olefin  Two processes are used to produce olefin. The high-pressure
system (10 tons per square inch) produces film and molded materials. The low-­pressure
system, at a lower temperature and in the presence of a catalyst and hydrocarbon sol-
vent, is less expensive and produces a polymer more suitable for textile uses. Olefin
is melt-spun into water or cool air and cold-drawn to six times its spun length. Olefins
crystallize very rapidly, so that spinning conditions and after-treatment greatly affect fiber
properties. Olefin is an inexpensive fiber with extremely good performance characteristics
for many end uses. The low price of olefin, coupled with its properties, explains its wide-
spread use.

synthetic fibers 185


(a) (b)
Figure Olefin: cross-sectional view (a),
8.12 longitudinal view (b).
Source: British Textile Technology Group.
Olefin is a manufactured fiber of synthetic
ethylene, propylene, or other olefin units.
It is known for its high durability, moderate
comfort, excellent appearance retention,
low absorbency, and oleophilic nature.
186 chapter eight
Gel spinning is a spinning method in which the dissolved polyethylene polymer forms a
viscous gel in the solvent. The gel is extruded through the spinneret, the solvent is extracted,
and the fiber is drawn. This process produces very-high-strength fibers.
An ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene is produced as a crystalline nanofiber
in sizes ranging from 30 to 50 nanometers (nm). These incredibly tiny fibers with improved
mechanical properties compared to conventional olefin are used in technical applications.
Physical Structure of Olefin  Olefins are produced as monofilament, multifilament, staple
fiber, tow, and slit or fibrillated film yarns with variable tenacities. The fibers are colorless, usu-
ally round in cross section, and have a slightly waxy feel (Figure 8.12). The cross section can
be modified depending on end use.
Chemical Composition and Molecular Arrangement of Olefin
Olefin—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is any long-
chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85 percent by weight ethylene,
propylene, or other olefin units except amorphous (noncrystalline) polyolefins
qualifying . . . as rubber. Where the fiber-forming substance is a cross-linked
synthetic polymer, with low but significant crystallinity, composed of at least
95 percent by weight of ethylene and at least one other olefin unit, and the fiber is
substantially elastic and heat resistant, the term lastol may be used as a generic
description of the fiber.
—Federal Trade Commission
Both polypropylene and polyethylene may be referred to as olefin. Polyethylene is a
simple linear structure of repeating —CH2— units and is used in ropes, twines, and utility fab-
rics. Polypropylene has a 3D structure with a backbone of carbon atoms and methyl groups
(—CH3) protruding from the chain. Giulio Natta observed that three configurations were pos-
sible when propylene was polymerized and that when all the methyl groups were on one side
of the chain, the molecular chains could pack together and crystallize. Natta developed the
process to produce this form. He and Karl Ziegler received the Nobel Prize in chemistry in
1963 for their work.
Ziegler’s work on catalysts to polymerize ethylene and Natta’s discovery of stereospe-
cific polymerization made high-molecular-weight crystalline polypropylene polymers possible.
Stereospecific polymerization means that the molecules are arranged so that all the methyl
groups have the same spatial arrangement. Natta called this phenomenon isotactic. In the
atactic form, the methyl groups are randomly arranged, resulting in an amorphous polymer
that would qualify as rubber.
H H H
H C H C H C
C H C H C H
CH3 CH3 CH3
Methyl groups
Olefin fibers have no polar groups. The chains are held together by crystallinity alone;
the fiber is highly crystalline. The absence of polar groups makes dyeing a problem. Solution-
dyeing is expensive and less versatile than other methods of adding color to fibers or fab-
rics. An acid-dyeable olefin is available, but dyed olefins comprise a fraction of the market.
Polypropylene is used in apparel, interiors, and technical products.
Properties of Olefin  Olefin’s performance in apparel and interiors is summarized in
Table 8.15. Review the fiber property tables in Chapter 3 to compare the performance of ole-
fin with that of the other fibers.

Aesthetics  Olefin’s aesthetic characteristics are variable based on the fiber modification, yarn
structure, fabrication method, and finishes used in the product. Olefin is usually produced with
a medium luster and smooth texture, but the luster and texture are often modified to improve
performance related to the end use. Many sizes of olefin fibers are available. Smaller fibers are
available for interiors and apparel. Finer-denier fibers produce a softer, more natural drape.
Olefin has a waxy hand; crimped fibers with modified cross sections have a much more
attractive hand and are most often used for apparel and interiors. Drape can be engineered
for end use by selection of fiber modification, fabric construction method, and finish.
Current olefins do not look artificial, as the early olefins did. Contemporary olefins are
modified easily by changing cross section, fiber size, crimp, and luster. Olefin fibers are
most often solution-dyed; many producers provide a wide variety of color choices for olefins
designed for interiors or apparel. Some interior designers prefer olefin to most other fibers
because of its attractive appearance and other positive performance aspects, coupled with its
relatively low cost compared to similar products made from different fibers.

Durability  Olefin has high durability. It is produced with different strengths suited to the end
use. The tenacity of polypropylene ranges from 3.5 to 8.0 g/d; that of polyethylene, from
1.5 to 7.0 g/d. Wet strength is equal to dry strength for both types. An ultra-high-strength ole-
fin, Spectra by Honeywell International, has a tenacity of up to 30 g/d and is used in technical
products. Fibers produced for less demanding end uses have tenacities ranging from 4.5 to
6.0 g/d. Olefin fibers have very good abrasion resistance. Elongation varies with the type of
olefin. For olefins normally used in apparel and interior textiles, the elongation is 10% to 45%,
with excellent recovery. Upholstery and commercial carpets of olefin and olefin blends com-
bine excellent performance with low cost.

Table 8.15 Summary of the Performance of Olefin in Apparel

and Interior Textiles
Aesthetic Variable
Luster Medium
Durability High
Abrasion resistance Very good
Tenacity High
Elongation Variable
Comfort Moderate
Absorbency Poor
Thermal retention Good
Appearance Retention Excellent
Resiliency Excellent
Dimensional stability Excellent
Elastic recovery Excellent
Recommended Care Machine-wash, dry at low temperature (apparel)
Absorbent powder (interior textiles)

synthetic fibers 187

 Olefin products are durable and strong. With olefin’s low density, it is possible to produce
highly durable, lightweight products. Resistance to abrasion and chemicals is excellent. This
combination of characteristics and low cost means that olefin is very competitive with other
fibers with equal or superior durability. Olefin is ideal for end uses for which durability, low
cost, and low density are critical, such as ropes and cables of great size or length.

Comfort  Olefin provides moderate comfort. It is nonabsorbent, with a moisture regain of

less than 0.1%. Because of this poor absorbency, most olefin fibers are mass-pigmented or
solution-dyed. However, when modified nanoclay particles are incorporated in composite ole-
fin fibers, it can be dyed. Olefins are nonpolar in nature and are not prone to static electricity.
Because of its excellent wicking abilities, olefin is used in active sportswear, socks, and under-
wear, and as a cover stock in disposable diapers. It does not absorb moisture and minimizes
leakage. In cold-weather wear and active sportswear, olefin keeps the skin dry by wicking
moisture away from the skin’s surface.
Olefin has good thermal retention. It is also the lightest of the textile fibers. Polypropylene
has a specific gravity of 0.90 to 0.91; polyethylene, 0.92 to 0.96. This low specific gravity
provides more fiber per pound for better cover. As producers learned to deal with its low
softening and melting temperatures, difficulty in dyeing, and unpleasant hand, olefin is used
in warm, lightweight sweaters and blankets. It takes 1.27 pounds of nylon or 1.71 pounds of
cotton to cover the same volume as 1 pound of olefin.
An inner-layer barrier fabric of olefin is used in activewear. The barrier fabric combines
wind resistance with air permeability and a good moisture vapor transport rate. Moisture
vapor transport rate (MVTR) measures how quickly moisture vapor, such as evaporated
perspiration, moves from the interior side of the fabric, next to the body, to the exterior. A
high MVTR describes a fabric with good comfort characteristics, especially when the wearer
is active.
Lastol, an elastic olefin, is a generic subclass fiber with superior stretch and recovery
properties compared to other olefin fibers. Lastol has low levels of crystallinity, a different
molecular structure, more resistance to solvents, and more tolerance to a wider range of tem-
peratures. It is used in easy-care stretch apparel. Lastol provides a comfort stretch compared
to the harder and more compressional stretch of spandex (see Chapter 9). It is also more
resistant to chemicals encountered in use or care like chlorine and acid and to the higher tem-
peratures and harsher conditions encountered in commercial and industrial laundries. Lastol
is also used in fabrics like denim where a distressed look is created during finishing because
of its better resistance to finishing chemicals.
With modified cross section, crimp, and fiber size, olefin upholstery fabrics are extremely
comfortable. In upholstery, olefins with deniers of 1.7 to 2.0 produce comfortable textures.
Olefin fibers with a similar small denier are used in apparel. Soft and lightweight olefin fibers
with excellent wicking are prized by both amateur and professional athletes for the edge they
contribute to performance.

Appearance Retention  Olefin has excellent appearance retention. It has excellent resiliency
and recovers quickly from wrinkling. Dimensional stability is excellent. Shrinkage resistance
is excellent as long as it is not heated. It also has excellent elastic recovery. Olefin retains its
attractive appearance for years. Since the fiber can be heat-set, wrinkles are minimal. Crimp
and other 3D effects are permanent. The fiber does not react with most chemicals, so it does
not soil or stain readily. Designers find olefin carpeting and upholstery fabrics ideal for a wide
variety of end uses.

188 chapter eight

Care  Olefin is easy care: machine-wash and dry at low temperatures for apparel and absor-
bent powder cleaning for interiors. Olefin’s easy-care characteristics make it suited to a num-
ber of end uses. It dries quickly after washing. Dry cleaning is not recommended because
olefins are swollen by some dry-cleaning solvents. Petroleum-based dry-cleaning solvents are
acceptable for cleaning olefins, but if perchloroethylene (PCE) is used, the damage cannot be
reversed.
Since olefin is not absorbent, waterborne stains are not a problem. The fiber does not
pick up color from stains or items that bleed in the wash. The major problems with olefin
relate to its oleophilic and heat-sensitive nature. Oily stains are extremely difficult to remove.
Exposure to oil may cause the fiber to swell. Exposure to excess heat causes the fiber to
shrink and melt. Interior items of olefin should never be treated with soil-removal agents that
contain perc since this solvent will alter the appearance of any treated areas.
Olefin has excellent resistance to acids, alkalis, insects, and microorganisms. It is affected
by sunlight, but stabilizers correct this disadvantage. Outdoor carpeting made of olefin fibers
can be hosed off.
Olefins have a low melting point (325° F to 335° F), which limits their use in apparel. Warm
or cold water should be used for spot cleaning or washing. Olefin fabrics should be air-dried.
Olefins should be dried and ironed at low temperatures.

Sustainability of Olefin  Many sustainability issues discussed with nylon also apply to ole-
fin. See the earlier discussion in this chapter. Olefin is an easier fiber to recycle than most
other fibers. It is extensively used in a basic unmodified form to protect bales of fiber and rolls
of fabrics used in apparel and interiors. Many packaging materials and technical products
used in other industries are also in a basic form that can be melted and reused with minimal
effort to purify and process them back into fiber form.
Since olefin is seldom dyed, the sustainability problems related to dyeing are minimal.
Because olefin can be engineered for specific end uses, the problems related to recycling or
disposing of finishing chemicals are of little concern.
Probably one of the most significant sustainability impacts of olefin is its use in products
that protect the environment. Erosion-control fabrics used in landscaping and along high-
ways protect newly seeded areas and prevent soil erosion from water and wind. Weed-barrier
fabrics and protective covers for vegetables and flowers minimize the use of herbicides and
insecticides by farmers, gardeners, and homeowners. Hazardous-waste-transport containers
are lined with olefin.

Uses of Olefin  Olefin is found in an ever-widening array of end uses. In apparel, it is used
for underwear, socks, sweaters, glove liners, and active sportswear. A fine-denier olefin is
used in blends for activewear, exercise apparel, and athletic apparel. A microdenier olefin is
used as a wind-, water-, and cold-barrier layer in active and outdoor wear. Thinsulate, a low-
bulk, ultra-fine-microdenier fiberfill of olefin produced by 3M, is used in footwear, ski jackets,
and other outerwear for which a slim silhouette is desired.
In interiors, olefin is used by itself and in blends with other fibers in carpeting as face
yarns; as nonwoven, needle-punched carpets and carpet tiles; and as upholstery, draperies,
and slipcovers. Because of olefin’s lower resiliency, most olefin carpets are made with low
pile made of tightly looped yarns. Olefin carpets work best in low traffic areas in homes and in
light to medium commercial applications. Olefin has almost completely replaced jute in carpet

synthetic fibers 189

 backing because of its low cost, easy processing, excellent durability, and suitability for a wide
variety of face yarns, end uses, and finishing procedures. It is used for nonwoven fabrics for
furniture webbing because it is versatile, efficient, easy to handle, and economic. Antimicrobial
and antifungal olefins are also used in woven mattress covers and contract floor coverings.
It is in technical applications that olefin really proves itself. Olefin’s popularity is due to its
versatility, serviceability, and low cost in a wide array of applications. Olefin makes an ideal
geotextile—textiles that are used in contact with the soil. Olefin roadbed-support fabrics pro-
vide water and particle barriers between road surfaces and the underlying soil foundation.
Roadbed-support and stabilizer fabrics are used on roadways, rail lines, and parking lots to
extend their life.
Because of its low cost and resistance to sunlight, olefin is used in some car interiors
for floor coverings, upholstery, headliners, sun visors, instrument panels, arm rests, pack-
age-shelf fabric, door and side panels, and carpeting in trunks and cargo areas. Because of
its resistance to moisture and sunlight, it is a popular fiber in boats for interiors and finishing
fabrics and as surface coverings on docks and decks. It is found in dye nets, cover stock for
diapers, filter fabrics, laundry bags, sandbags, flags and banners, substrates for coated fab-
rics, ropes, and twines. Tyvek is used in wall-panel fabrics, envelopes, and protective apparel.
Table 8.16 lists modifications of olefin. Table 8.17 compares the characteristics of nylon, poly-
ester, and olefin, the three melt-spun fibers discussed in this chapter.

Table 8.16 Types and Kinds of Olefin Fibers

Heat-stabilized Acid-dyeable
Light-stabilized Solution-dyed
Modified cross section Bicomponent
Pigmented Fibrillated
Antimicrobial and antifungal Soil-blocking
Flame-retardant

Table 8.17  Comparison of Melt-Spun Fibers

Nylon Polyester Olefin

Breaking tenacity, g/d 2.3–9.8 filament 2.8–9.5 filament 3.5–8.0 filament

2.9–7.2 staple 2.4–7.0 staple
Specific gravity 1.14 1.22 or 1.38 0.91
Moisture regain % 4.0–4.5 0.4–0.8 Less than 1
Melting point 482 or 414°F 540 or 482°F 325–335°F
Safe ironing temp 270–300°F 325–350°F 250° F to lowest setting
Effect of light Poor resistance Good resistance Poor resistance

16 Learning Activity
Make a list of the performance properties of olefin. Select an end use, identify it as
apparel, interiors, or technical, and group the properties as being beneficial or not bene-
ficial for that end use. Now, select another end use from a different category and repeat
the assessment of olefin’s fiber properties.

190 chapter eight

 Learning Activity 17
Olefin is not a common apparel fiber, but it is used for interiors and technical products.
Use Fabric #96 and list three technical end uses that would be appropriate for this
textile. Describe the properties of olefin that make it a good choice for these end uses.

Learning Activity 18
For the end uses described in Learning Activity 17, examine the list of fiber modifica-
tions in Table 8.16. List appropriate modifications for each end use and explain how
performance would be enhanced with these modifications.

Acrylic
Acrylonitrile, the substance from which acrylic fibers are made and from which the generic
name is derived, was first made in Germany in 1893. The marketing of acrylic may take
advantage of their wool-like characteristics. Terms like virgin acrylic, mothproof, and moth-re-
sistant appeal to consumers but do not convey anything significant, since acrylics are inher-
ently moth-resistant and are not recycled.

Production of Acrylic  Some acrylic fibers are dry- or solvent-spun and others are wet-
spun. In dry spinning, the polymers are dissolved in solvent, such as dimethyl formamide,
extruded into warm air, and solidified by evaporation of the solvent. After spinning, the fibers
are stretched hot, 3 to 10 times their original length, crimped, and marketed as cut staple or
tow. In wet spinning, the polymer is dissolved in solvent, extruded into a coagulating bath,
dried, crimped, and collected as tow for use in the high-bulk process or cut into staple and
baled.

Physical Structure of Acrylic  The cross-sectional shape of acrylic fibers varies as a result
of the spinning method used to produce them (Figure 8.13). Dry spinning produces a dog-
bone shape. Wet spinning imparts a round or lima bean shape to some fibers. Differences in
cross-sectional shape affect physical and aesthetic properties and are a factor in determining
appropriate end use. Round and lima bean shapes have a higher bending stiffness, which (a) (b)
contributes to resiliency, and are appropriate for upholstery, bulky sweaters, and blankets. Figure Acrylic: cross-sectional view (a) and
Dog-bone shape gives the softness and luster desirable for other uses. 8.13 longitudinal view (b).
All the production of acrylic fibers in the United States is staple fiber and tow. Staple fiber Source: British Textile Technology Group.

is available in deniers and lengths suitable for all spinning systems. Acrylic fibers vary in shrink-
age potential. Bicomponent fibers were first produced as acrylics. Some filament-yarn acrylic
fabrics are imported, mostly in window treatments. Some microfiber acrylics are available.
Acrylic is a manufactured fiber in which
Chemical Composition and Molecular Arrangement of Acrylic
the polymer is composed of synthetic
Acrylic fibers—manufactured fibers in which the fiber-forming substance is any long-
acrylonitrile units. Acrylic is known for its
chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85 percent by weight acrylonitrile units.
wool-like appearance and its moderate
CH2 CH durability, comfort, and appearance
CN retention in apparel and interior end uses.
—Federal Trade Commission

synthetic fibers 191

 Fibers of 100% polyacrylonitrile have a compact, highly oriented internal structure that
makes them virtually undyeable. They are an example of a homopolymer, a fiber composed
of a single substance. Schematically, a homopolymer could be diagrammed (where X refers
to the substance that is polymerized to create the polymer):
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX Homopolymer

Most acrylics are produced as copolymers, with up to 15% of the repeating units some-
thing other than acrylonitrile. This produces a more open structure and permits dye absorp-
tion into the fiber. The other repeating units furnish dye sites that can be changed for specific
dye classes so that cross dyeing is possible. The percentages of other repeating units and
their arrangement in relation to each other will vary. Copolymer fibers are composed of two or
more compounds and could be diagrammed (where X refers to one compound used to pro-
duce the polymer and W refers to another compound used to produce a more open polymer):
XXXWXXXXXXWXXXXXXWXXX Copolymer

In graft polymer acrylics, the other repeating unit does not become a part of the main
molecular chain. It is a side chain attached to the backbone chain of the molecule. These
molecular chains have a more open structure, less crystallinity, and better dye receptivity.
Some fibers have molecules with chemically reactive groups; others are chemically inert. A
chemically inert molecule (X in the diagram below) can be made reactive by grafting reactive
groups (Z in the diagram below) onto the backbone.
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Z Z Z
Graft polymer
Copolymer acrylics are not as strong as the homopolymers or graft polymer acrylics.
Since acrylics are used mostly in apparel and interiors, the reduced strength is not a major
concern.

Properties of Acrylic  Acrylic fibers are soft, warm, lightweight, and resilient. They make
easy-care fabrics. Because of their low specific gravity and high bulk, the acrylics have been
called the warmth without weight fibers. Acrylics have been successful in end uses, such as
sweaters and blankets, that had been dominated by wool. They are superior to wool in their
easy-care properties and are nonallergenic. Bulky acrylic yarns are popular in socks, fleece
and fake-fur fabrics, and craft yarns. Table 8.18 summarizes the performance characteristics
of acrylic. The fiber property tables in Chapter 3 compare the properties of acrylic to those of
other fibers.

Aesthetics  Acrylic is wool-like in its aesthetic properties. Acrylic is attractive and has a soft,
pleasant hand. Bulky spun yarns are usually textured to be wool-like. Indeed, acrylic fabrics
imitate wool fabrics more successfully than any of the other manufactured fibers.
Apparel and interior items of all acrylic or acrylic blends are attractive. Their luster is
matte as a result of delustering, the irregular cross-sectional fiber shape, and fiber crimp.
Since these products are almost always staple fibers, their wool-like appearance is main-
tained. Bulky yarns and bicomponent fibers contribute further to the wool-like appearance
and texture.

Durability  Acrylics are moderate in durability. They are not as durable as nylon, polyester, or
olefin fibers, but in apparel and interiors, the strength of acrylics is satisfactory. Dry tenacity
is moderate, ranging from 2.0 to 3.0 g/d. Abrasion resistance is also moderate. Breaking

192 chapter eight

Table 8.18 Summary of the Performance of Acrylic in Apparel
and Interior Textiles
Aesthetics Wool-like
Durability Moderate
Abrasion resistance Moderate
Tenacity Moderate
Elongation Moderate to high
Comfort Moderate
Absorbency Poor
Thermal retention Moderate
Appearance Retention Moderate
Resiliency Moderate
Dimensional stability Moderate
Elastic recovery Moderate
Recommended Care Machine-wash; follow care label (apparel)
Dry-clean or absorbent powder (interior textiles)

Table 8.19  Comparison of the Durability of Acrylic with Wool

Fiber Property Acrylic Wool

Abrasion resistance Good Fair

Breaking tenacity 2.0–3.0 g/d dry 1.5 g/d dry
1.8–2.7 g/d wet 1.0 g/d wet
Breaking elongation 35% 25%
Elastic recovery 92% 99%

elongation is moderate to high at 35%. Elongation increases when the fiber is wet. The overall
durability of acrylic fibers is moderate, similar to that of wool and cotton.
Interior textiles made from acrylics or acrylic blends are durable. They provide reasonable
resistance to abrasion for upholstery fabrics. They are sufficiently strong to withstand launder-
ing, dry cleaning, and absorbent powder cleaning, depending on the product. Pilling can be
a problem with staple fiber fabrics. However, low-pilling fiber modifications are available, and
some fabric finishes reduce pilling.
Because of its exceptional resistance to weathering, acrylic is widely used in awnings and
tarpaulins. Table 8.19 compares acrylic to wool in durability properties.

Comfort  Acrylic is moderate in comfort. Compared to the other synthetic fibers, the sur-
face of acrylic fibers is less regular and indented (Figure 8.14). In spite of their poor absor-
bency (moisture regain of 1.0% to 2.5%), acrylics are moderately comfortable because
of their irregular surfaces. Instead of absorbing moisture and becoming wet to the touch,
acrylic fibers wick moisture to the fabric’s exterior, where it evaporates more readily and Figure Acrylic magnified 3000× shows a
cools the body. 8.14 pitted and irregular surface.
Another factor that makes acrylics comfortable is that the fibers and yarns can be made
with high bulk. Acrylic fibers can be produced with a latent shrinkage potential and retain
their bulk indefinitely at room temperature. The resulting bulky fabrics have moderate thermal
retention meaning that they retain body heat well and are warm in cold temperatures. Bulky
knit sweaters are a common example of this.

synthetic fibers 193

 The structure of the yarn and fabric can be modified to create a warmer or cooler prod-
uct. In general, acrylics are more comfortable than nylon and polyester, but not as comfort-
able as cotton in hot, humid weather or as wool in cold or cool, humid weather.
The specific gravity of acrylic is similar to that of nylon. Thus, the fabrics are lightweight
and durable. This means that bulky sweaters of acrylic are not as heavy as wool sweaters.
Acrylic blankets are lighter than similar wool blankets.

Appearance Retention  Acrylic has moderate appearance retention. Acrylic fibers exhibit
moderate resiliency and elastic recovery, so they resist wrinkling during use and care. They
have moderate dimensional stability. Acrylics shrink when exposed to high temperatures and
steam; the fibers do not hold up well under hot, wet conditions.
Acrylic fibers cannot be heat-set like nylon and polyester because acrylic does not melt,
but rather decomposes and discolors when heated. However, some acrylics can have pleats
or creases set in that are not affected by normal use or care. With the careful application of
heat and/or steam, the crease or pleats can be removed.
Acrylic also differs from nylon and polyester; fabrics may shrink or stretch some during
care. Acrylics will pill because the fibers fibrillate, or crack, with abrasion.
The bulk characteristics are permanent if acrylic or acrylic blend products receive appro-
priate care. Acrylic is less likely to mat than some fibers. With solution-dyeing of some uphol-
stery, drapery, and awning fabrics, colors are permanent. Awning fabrics of solution-dyed
acrylic are popular in finishing window exteriors, entries, and outdoor entertainment areas.

Care  Acrylic can be machine-washed and dry cleaned or absorbent powder cleaned.
However, because of the difference among acrylics, it is especially important to follow the
instructions found on the care labels. Table 8.20 compares the care for acrylic with that for
wool. There are several basic acrylic fibers with slightly differing properties due to the polymer
composition, manufacturing methods, and fiber modifications.
Acrylic has good resistance to most chemicals except strong alkalis and chlorine
bleaches. This is not surprising; fibers containing nitrogen are usually susceptible to damage
from alkali and chlorine. Except for the furlike fabrics, acrylic fabrics have good wash-and-
wear characteristics. They do not wrinkle if handled properly and if directions on the care label
are followed.

Table 8.20  Comparison of Care for Acrylic and Wool

Fiber Property Acrylic Wool

Effect of alkalis Resistant to weak alkalis Harmed

Effect of acids Resistant to most acids
Effect of solvents Can be dry-cleaned
Effect of sunlight Excellent resistance
Stability Generally retains shape
Permanence of creases Creases can be set and
removed by heat
Effect of heat Thermoplastic—sticks at
450–49° F
Resistance to moths and Resistant
fungi
Effect of water None
Resistant to weak acids
Dry cleaning recommended
Low resistance
Subject to felting, shrinkage
Creases set by heat and
moisture—not permanent
Scorches easily, becomes brittle
at high temperatures
Harmed by moths; mildew forms
on soiled, stored wool
May felt or mat, noticeable odor
when wet

194 chapter eight

 Some items made from high-bulk yarns of bicomponent fibers need to be machine-dried
to regain their shape after washing. If they are blocked, dried flat, or drip-dried, they may be
too large or misshapen. Rewashing and tumble drying should restore the original shape.
Some acrylics can be dry-cleaned. However, with some fabrics the finish is removed,
resulting in a harsh feel. Thus, care labels should be followed. Acrylics are resistant to moth
damage and mildew and have excellent resistance to sunlight.
Following the recommended care procedures for acrylic or acrylic blend products is
especially important for electric blankets made from acrylic. Electric blankets should never be
dry-cleaned. Dry-cleaning solvents dissolve the protective coating on the wiring of the blan-
ket, resulting in a high risk of electric shock or fire. Steam cleaning of interior textiles like drap-
eries, upholstery, and area rugs is generally not recommended because acrylics may shrink.
Antimicrobial and antifungal acrylics are used in apparel, interior, and technical applica-
tions. Products include nursing uniforms, socks, shoe liners, sportswear, upholstery, room
separating curtains in hospitals and nursing homes, surgical barrier fabrics, and technical
filters.

Sustainability of Acrylic  Acrylic is resistant to natural sources of degradation, includ-

ing molds, mildew, rot, and many chemicals. Because acrylic is processed from petrochem-
icals, concerns include drilling in sensitive environments, oil spills, and disposal of hazardous

Learning Activity 19
Make a list of the performance properties of acrylic. Select an end use, identify it as
apparel, interiors, or technical, and group the properties as being beneficial or not bene-
ficial for that end use. Now, select another end use from a different category and repeat
the assessment of acrylic’s fiber properties.

Learning Activity 20
Examine your wardrobe and home/apartment/dormitory. Make a list of the items that
are all acrylic or a blend of acrylic and another fiber. [Be sure to consider interiors (area
rugs or upholstery) and technical products (like brushes) in addition to apparel.] Select
one item from each of the three categories from your list and describe the characteris-
tics of acrylic that have contributed to the serviceability of that textile product. How do
these contributions enhance or detract from your satisfaction with the product? How
could acrylic have been modified to reduce your areas of dissatisfaction? What fiber
modifications are most likely present for each product you selected? How do those
modifications improve performance?

Learning Activity 21
Use two of these fabrics from your swatch kit: #80, 86, 105, and 119. Use the swatch
set key to verify that each fabric you selected incorporates acrylic. For your swatches,
has acrylic been modified to resemble a natural fiber? If yes, which one and what modi-
fications were done so that acrylic macroscopically resembles the natural fiber? Identify
an end use for each sample and explain how acrylic would be a serviceable fiber for
that end use. If two or more fibers are present in the fabric, how has acrylic been modi-
fied to make it more compatible with the other fiber(s)?

synthetic fibers 195

 chemicals. The chemicals from which acrylic is made require significant processing before
they are polymerized to form acrylic. With wet- or dry-spun fibers, recycling of solvents is
needed to improve sustainability. Wet-spun acrylics also require washing and drying to
remove chemicals from the coagulating bath. Different types of acrylic are made from slightly
different raw materials; potential hazards to the environment differ depending on which raw
materials and processes are used in production. Acrylic uses approximately 30 per cent more
energy and substantially more water during production compared to polyester. Acrylic is not
recycled. Because acrylics can be engineered for specific end uses, chemical finishing is not a
concern. Acrylics may be dyed; processing of dye wastes is a concern.

Uses of Acrylic  Acrylic is a relatively minor fiber in terms of use. Although more acrylic is used
in apparel, it is also important in interior and some technical products. Knitted apparel items of
acrylic include fleece fabrics, sweaters, and socks. Occasionally, fleece fabrics of acrylic are
used in active sportswear. Acrylic pile fabrics and fun furs are used for coats, jackets, linings, or
soft stuffed animals. Antistatic acrylics are used in apparel for computer-clean rooms.
Craft yarns, another important end use of acrylic fibers, are often made of a heavier denier
(5 to 6 denier). Many sweaters, baby garments, vests, and afghans are knitted or crocheted
with these yarns. Acrylic yarns are also used for embroidery, weaving, and other crafts.
Upholstery fabrics have a wool-like appearance and may be flat-woven fabrics or velvets
with good durability and stain resistance. Drapery fabrics of acrylic are resistant to sunlight
and weathering. Acrylics are used in lightweight and winter-weight blankets. Rugs of acrylic or
blends look more wool-like than several other synthetic fibers. Acrylic blankets and area rugs
have easier care requirements and cost less compared to wool.
Acrylics are found in a number of technical uses for which their chemical and abrasion
resistance and good weathering properties make them suitable: awnings and tarpaulins, lug-
gage, boat and other vehicle covers, outdoor furniture, tents, filtration fabrics, carbon fiber
precursors, office room dividers, and sandbags. When exposed to chemicals, fibers with
good chemical resistance, like acrylic, show little or no loss of physical structure or fiber prop-
erties. Acrylic is used as an asbestos replacement fiber for many technical products. Acrylic
awnings withstand exposure to sun, wind, and rain for years without fading, cracking, hard-
ening, peeling, or rotting. A cross-linked superabsorbent acrylic, Oasis, is used in nonwoven
filters to remove water from fuels, solvents, and other organic liquids, in packaging for meats,
and in gaskets and seals.

Types and Kinds of Acrylic  Common trade names for acrylic include Creslan, BioFresh,
MicroSupreme, Wear-Dated, and Weatherbloc. Fiber variants tailored for a specific end use
are produced. See Table 8.21 for a list of fiber and yarn types available.

Table 8.21 Types and Kinds of Acrylic Fibers and Yarns

Homopolymer Copolymer
Graft polymer Bicomponent
Blends of various deniers Blends of homopolymer and copolymer
Helical, nonreversible crimp Reversible crimp
Surface modified Variable cross section—round, acorn, dog-bone
Variable dyeability—cationic, disperse, Solution-dyed
acidic, basic

196 chapter eight

 Learning Activity 22
Identify one apparel, interiors, and technical end use appropriate for acrylic and
explain why, in terms of fiber performance that end use is appropriate. From the list
in Table 8.21, list appropriate modifications for each end use and explain how perfor-
mance would be enhanced with these modifications.

Learning Activity 23
Identify the sustainability of these four fibers: nylon, polyester, olefin, and acrylic. How
do these fibers compare to the sustainability of the manufactured or natural fibers? Are
there any commonly used apparel or interior fibers that are fully sustainable? What are
some of the concerns regarding sustainability of each group of fibers?

Learning Activity 24
Compare the characteristics of nylon, polyester, olefin, and acrylic in terms the service-
ability concepts. What are the areas where these fibers are similar in serviceability? To
what factors can you contribute that performance?

terms
key terms
Acrylic
Compressional resiliency
Copolymer
Heat setting
High-tenacity fibers
Homopolymer
Oleophilic
Pilling
Polyamides
Drawing Lastol Polyester
Dry spinning Low-pilling fibers Polyethylene
Elasterell-p Melt spinning Polypropylene
Glazing Moisture vapor transport rate Synthetic fibers
Graft polymer Nylon Wet spinning
Heat sensitivity Olefin

questions
review questions

1. Explain the differences in chemical composition between
these pairs of fibers:
a. Polyamide (nylon) and polyester
3. Describe the major performance characteristics of nylon,
polyester, olefin, and acrylic.
4. Identify the spinning process used to produce nylon,
b. Polyethylene and polypropylene polyester, olefin, and acrylic. How does the spinning
c. Acrylic and wool process relate to the fiber’s cross-sectional shape?
d. Polyester and flax
5. How do the characteristics of these fibers differ from those
2. Explain the differences in properties between the pairs of of the natural fibers and those produced from naturally
fibers listed in Question #1. occurring polymers?

synthetic fibers 197

 6. Identify a synthetic fiber that would be an appropriate
choice for each end use listed below and explain, using
performance characteristics, why you selected that fiber:
a. Carpet for department store boutique area
b. Swimsuit
c. Wool-like dress trousers
d. Geotextile for a roadbed underlay
e. Lead rope for horses or ponies
f. Upholstery fabric for theater seats
g. Silk-like dress for formal wedding
h. Sheer window treatment fabric for a master bedroom
i. Awning fabric for patio
7. For each fiber selected for the end uses in Question #6,
what problems might be encountered during the use or
cleaning of that textile product? How do those problems
relate to fiber characteristics?
8. For each fiber selected for the end uses in Question #6,
explain fiber modifications that would be appropriate for
that end use. How would those modifications enhance the
serviceability of the textile product?
9. Many consumers assume that synthetic fibers are not
sustainable. Make a list of the factors about these fibers
that would support consumers’ assumptions. Make a
second list of factors about these fibers that would refute
consumers’ assumptions.
10. Explain why polyester is frequently blended with cotton.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of such
blends?
11. What are the similarities and differences between silk
and the microdenier modifications of nylon and
polyester?
12. Polyester fleece has become a popular choice for colder
climates. Explain the properties of polyester that make it a
good choice for such a fabric. What modifications would
enhance its performance for this end use?
13. Olefin has become a popular choice for interiors. Explain
the properties of olefin that make it a good choice for
that end use. What modifications would enhance its
performance for this end use?
14. Using performance characteristics, explain why nylon is
such a popular choice for carpeting. Identify common
modifications used in carpeting and explain how those
modifications enhance performance.

Case Study
Green Chemistry*
Cancer researchers studied the DNA in
tumors called glioblastomas to help find
a cure for a specific type of cancer. While
they have not found a cure, they did find
an enzyme that, when inserted into yeast
microorganisms, allowed them to make a
molecule, 2-hydroxyadipate dehydrogenase,
that is needed to make adipic acid from
sugar. Adipic acid is a precursor in the
production of some nylons. Currently, adipic
acid is made from petroleum products. The
discovery of this enzyme is only one small
step among many that is needed to make
enough adipic acid for it to be economically
feasible for making nylon. Currently microbial
processes are used to make simple carbon
compounds like lactic acid that are used
in producing another synthetic fiber (see
Chapter 9).
Discussion Questions
1. See the discussion on producing nylon.
Where and for which type of nylon is
adipic acid used?
2. How would using microbial adipic acid
make nylon more sustainable?
3. In what, if any, properties would nylon from
microbial adipic acid different from nylon
made from petroleum-based adipic acid?
4. What criteria would be used to determine
if the process of creating microbial
adipic acid from natural sugars is more
sustainable compared to the current
practice of using petroleum-based
adipic acid? (Hint: It might be helpful to
look at the discussion of the large-scale
production of cotton since concerns
regarding large-scale farming practices
are similar regardless of the crop.)

*Brown, E. (2012, September 24). Green chemistry: Cancer research yields nylon? Los Angeles Times.

198 chapter eight

readings
suggested readings
Anon. (2013). New routes to friendlier fibres. The International
Textile Magazine, (4), 18–221.
Bide, M. (2009, July). Fiber sustainability: Green is not black.
AATCC Review, 9(7), 34–37.
*Brown, E. (2012, September 24). Green chemistry: Cancer
research yields nylon? Los Angeles Times.
Colchester, C. (2007). Textiles Today: A Global Survey of Trends
and Traditions. New York: Thames & Hudson.
Fletcher, K. (2008). Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design
Journey. London: Earthscan.
Foster, L. E. (Ed.). (2006). Nanotechnology: Science, Innovation,
and Opportunity. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hayes, L. L. (2011, July/August). Synthetic textile innovations:
Polyester fiber-to-fiber recycling for the advancement of
sustainability. AATCC Review, 11(4), 37–41.
Hethorn, J., & Ulasewicz, C. (2008). Sustainable Fashion: Why
Now? New York: Fairchild Books.
Karst, D., & Yang, Y. (2006). Potential advantages and risks of
nanotechnology for textiles, AATCC Review, 6(3), 44–48.
Musante, G. B. (2012, September/October). Life-saving implants.
AATCC Review, 12(5), 22–26.
Qian, L., & Hinestroza, J. P. (2004), Application of nanotechnology
for high performance textiles. Journal of Textile and Apparel,
Technology, and Management, 4(1), 1–7.
Rawal, A., Shah, T., & Anand, S. (2010). Geotextiles: Production,
properties and performance. Textile Progress, 42(3), 181–226.
Roshan, P., & Roshan, S. P. (2005, January/February).
Electrospinning: A breakthrough technology. The Textile
Journal, 14–16.
Tao, X. (Ed.). (2001). Smart Fibres, Fabrics, and Clothing.
Cambridge, England: Woodhead Publishing.
Thiry, M. C. (2009, August). Fibers that perform. AATCC Review,
9(8), 24–29.
Vonwiller, E. (2000, August). The secret life of industrial textiles.
America’s Textiles International, 29, 40–42.
Wei, Q., Mather, R., Ye, H., Huang, F., & Xu, W. (2005, December).
The functionalization of the surface of polymer nanofibers.
Technical Textiles International, 14, 21–23.
Zhao, L., Hu, H., & Wang, S. (2011). Fuzzy-integrative judgment
on the end-use performance of knitted fabrics made with
polytrimethylene terephthalate blended yarns. Textile Research
Journal, 81(17), 1739–1747.
synthetic fibers 199
 Jackf/Fotolia Kosoff/Fotolia

Olena_Isaieva/Fotolia

Sasint/Fotolia
Special-Use Fibers

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To describe the characteristics and performance of the elastomeric fibers related to
target market needs and end-use requirements.
• To identify the properties of high-performance fibers based on end-use requirements.

9

Elastomers are natural or synthetic
polymers that, at room temperature, can
be stretched repeatedly to at least twice
the original length and that, after removal
of the tensile load, will immediately and
forcibly return to approximately the original
length. Elastomeric fibers include spandex,
rubber, elastoester, elasterell-p, lastol,
and anidex.
Power stretch is the ability of a fiber or
fabric to exhibit high retractive forces that
mold, support, or shape the body and is
important in end uses for which holding
power and elasticity are needed. Comfort
stretch is the ability of a fiber or fabric
to elongate slightly as the body moves
and to recover a significant portion of that
elongation when the stretching force is
removed and is used in products for which
only elasticity is desired.
202 chapter nine
This chapter focuses on special-use fibers—fibers with unique characteristics. Some of these
fibers are in common consumer products, but consumers may not be aware of them. Other
fibers are used in technical applications, have contributed significantly to many scientific and
engineering advances, and are often described as high-performance fibers. The fibers are
organized by purpose: elastomeric or high performance.
These fibers are produced in much smaller quantities compared to the majority of the fibers
discussed in previous chapters. They are used either in small quantities in products or in items
with a relatively small market segment. For example, spandex may comprise as much as 20%
of the fiber in a swimsuit or leotard or only as little as 2% in a blouse. Graphite fiber used in the
frame of a bicycle adds structural support. The potential for growth in this segment of the textile
complex is excellent. The price per pound of these fibers can be 50 to 100 times more than that
of common apparel and interior fibers. Sustainability and environmental impact of these fibers
are relatively minimal because of their low production levels. Several of these high-performance
fibers remove harmful chemicals from the environment, monitor conditions as components of
smart textiles, or provide safety for workers in adverse or hazardous environments.
Elastomeric Fibers
An elastomer is a natural or synthetic polymer that, at room temperature, can be stretched
repeatedly to at least twice its original length and that, after removal of the tensile load, will
immediately and forcibly return to approximately its original length. Elastomeric fibers include
spandex, rubber, elastoester, elasterell-p, lastol, and anidex. Anidex, another elastomeric
­fiber, is no longer produced in the United States.
The type of stretch and elasticity expected in a textile product depends on its end use.
Power stretch is the ability of a fiber or fabric to exhibit high retractive forces that mold, sup-
port, or shape the body. This type of stretch is important in end uses for which holding power
and elasticity are needed. Elastic fibers with a high retractive force are used to attain this
kind of stretch. End uses include foundation garments, surgical-support garments, swimsuits,
­garters, belts, and suspenders.
Comfort stretch is the ability of a fiber or fabric to elongate slightly as the body moves
and to recover a significant portion of that elongation when the stretching force is removed.
This type of stretch is important in products for which only elasticity is desired. Comfort-
stretch fabrics look like nonstretch fabrics. Their weight is lighter than that of power-stretch
fabrics and they are used in apparel and interior textiles to enhance comfort and fit.
Rubber
Rubber—manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is comprised of
natural or synthetic rubber, including:
1. A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is a hydrocarbon
such as natural rubber, polyisoprene, polybutadiene, copolymers of dienes and
hydrocarbons, or amorphous (noncrystalline) polyolefins.
2. A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is a copolymer
of acrylonitrile and a diene (such as butadiene) composed of not more than
50 percent but at least 10 percent by weight of acrylonitrile units.
CH2 CH
CN
 The term lastrile may be used as a generic description for fibers falling in this
category.
3. A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is a polychloroprene
or a copolymer of chloroprene in which at least 35 percent by weight of the fiber-
forming substance is composed of chloroprene units.

CH2 C CH CH2

Cl

—Federal Trade Commission

Natural rubber, the oldest elastomer and the least expensive, is obtained by coagulation of
latex from the rubber tree Hevea brasiliensis. In 1905, sheets of rubber were cut into strips for
yarns used in foundation garments. During and shortly after World War II, the first synthetic
rubbers were developed. These synthetic rubbers are cross-linked diene polymers, copoly-
mers containing dienes, or amorphous polyolefins. To develop elastomeric properties, both
synthetic and natural rubbers are vulcanized or cross-linked with sulfur. Both types have a large
cross section. Round fibers are extruded while rectangular fibers are cut from extruded film.
Rubber has an excellent elongation—500% to 600%—and excellent recovery. Its low
tenacity—0.34 g/d—limits its use in lightweight garments. The finest rubber yarns must be
three times as large as spandex yarns to be as strong. Because of rubber’s low dye accep-
tance, hand, and appearance, it is covered by a yarn of another fiber or by other yarns in
the fabric.
Rubber has been replaced in many uses by other elastomers, but it is used in narrow
elastic fabrics with synthetic rubber being more common.
Even though antioxidants are added to the spinning solution, rubber lacks resistance to
oxidizing agents and is damaged by aging, sunlight, oil, and perspiration. It resists alkalis but is
damaged by heat, chlorine, and solvents. It should be washed carefully and never dry cleaned.
Neoprene, a type of synthetic rubber made from polychloroprene, is used as an elasto-
meric fiber or a supported elastic film. It is resistant to acids, alkalis, alcohols, oils, caustics,
and solvents. It is found in protective gloves and apparel, wetsuits, framing for window glass,
technical hoses and belts, anticorrosive seals and membranes, and coatings for wiring.

Spandex
The first manufactured elastic fiber was introduced in 1958. Spandex generated much interest
because it was superior to rubber in strength and durability. Spandex is produced by INVISTA
Inc. as Lycra™. Spandex is known as elastane in many other parts of the world; elastane is
acceptable for spandex in the United States.

Production  Spandex fibers are made by reacting preformed polyester or polyether molecules
with diisocyanate and polymerizing. Filaments are obtained by wet or solvent spinning. Spin-
ning solution additives include delustering agents, dye receptors, whiteners, and lubricants.

Physical Structure  Spandex is produced as monofilament or fused multifilament yarns in (a) (b)
several deniers. Monofilaments are round in cross section, whereas fused multifilaments are
Figure Spandex: cross-sectional view (a),
coalesced or partly fused together at intervals and are found in fibers with deniers of 40 and 9.1 longitudinal view (b).
above (Figure 9.1). Spandex is delustered and is usually white or gray. Source: British Textile Technology Group.
special-use fibers 203
 Deniers range from 20 to 4300. Twenty-denier spandex is used in lightweight support
hosiery that requires a large amount of stretch. Much coarser yarns, 1500 to 2240 denier,
stretch less and are used for support in hosiery tops, swimwear, and foundation garments
(Figure 9.2).

Chemical Composition and Molecular Arrangement

Figure Comparison of several spandex fibers
9.2 (left to right): spandex wrapped with
cotton yarn (core spun), three fine
filaments used as a yarn, heavy-
denier monofilament, and fused
multifilament.
Spandex is a long-chain synthetic
segmented polyurethane. It is known for
its excellent elongation and elasticity,
and moderate aesthetics, durability, and
comfort properties in apparel and interiors.
Spandex—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is a
long-chain synthetic polymer consisting of at least 85 percent of a segmented
polyurethane.
—Federal Trade Commission
Spandex is a generic name, but it is not derived from the chemical name of the fiber,
as are most manufactured fibers. The name was coined by shifting the syllables of the word
expand.
Spandex consists of rigid and flexible segments in the polymer chain; the flexible seg-
ments stretch, and the rigid segments hold the chain together. When force is applied, the
folded, or coiled, flexible segments straighten out; when force is removed, they return to their
original positions (Figure 9.3). Varying proportions of rigid and flexible segments control the
amount of stretch.
Properties  Table 9.1 compares the performance of spandex and rubber in apparel and in-
terior fabrics. The tables in Chapter 3 include the performance characteristics of all the fibers.

Rigid segments Rigid segments

Flexible segments Flexible segments

(a) (b)

Figure Spandex molecular chains: (a) relaxed and (b) extended.

9.3

Table 9.1 Summary of the Performance of Spandex and Rubber

in Apparel and Interior Textiles
Spandex Rubber

Aesthetics Moderate Poor

Durability Moderate Poor
  Abrasion resistance Poor Poor
 Tenacity Poor Poor
 Elongation Excellent Excellent
Comfort Moderate Poor
Appearance Retention Good Good
Resiliency Good Good
Dimensional stability Good Good
Elastic recovery Excellent Excellent
Recommended Care Machine-wash or dry-clean Wash with care

204 chapter nine

Table 9.2  Durability Factors of Spandex, Rubber, and Nylon
Fiber Property Spandex Rubber Nylon

Breaking tenacity, g/d 0.6–0.9 0.34 3.0–9.5

Breaking elongation, % 400–700 500–600 23
Flex life Excellent Fair Excellent
Recovery from stretch, % 99 (at 50% elongation) 97 (at 50% elongation) 100 (at 3% elongation)

Aesthetics Spandex, seldom used alone in fabrics, is moderate in its aesthetic properties.

Other fibers produce the desired hand and appearance. Even in power-stretch fabrics for
foundation garments and surgical hose, where beauty is not of major importance, nylon, cot-
ton, or other fibers are used. Spandex, with its dyeability and good strength, results in sheer
garments fashionable colors and prints.
Spandex needs no cover yarns since it takes dye. Eliminating the cover yarn reduces cost
and fabric weight and produces an attractive and comfortable lightweight fabric. However, in
uses in which spandex will come in contact with the skin, it is normally covered.

Durability  Spandex has moderate durability. As shown in Table 9.2, spandex is more resis-
tant to degradation than rubber. [Nylon is included in the table because it has more stretch
than other manufactured filaments and illustrates differences between hard fibers (fibers with
low elasticity) and elastomeric fibers.]
Spandex is resistant to the body oils, perspiration, lotions, and cosmetics that degrade
rubber. It has a good shelf life, meaning that it does not deteriorate with age as quickly as
does rubber. Its flex life is 10 times greater than that of rubber.

Comfort  Spandex has moderate comfort properties. Spandex fibers have a moisture regain
of 0.75% to 1.3%, making them uncomfortable for skin contact. Lighter-weight foundation
garments of spandex have the same holding power as heavy garments of rubber. Spandex
has a specific gravity of 1.2 to 1.25, which is greater than that of rubber. However, because of
the greater tenacity of spandex, lower-denier yarns result in lightweight products.

Appearance Retention  Spandex has good appearance retention. Spandex has superior
aging resistance as compared with rubber, resists soiling, and has excellent elasticity and
elongation properties. Spandex has good resiliency and dimensional stability. Spandex items
retain an attractive appearance. However, over time, the coarser spandex fibers may rupture
and work through the fabric. When ends of the thick fibers appear on the surface, those
areas of the fabric have lost their elasticity and elongation properties. This problem, known as
­grin-through, cannot be remedied. It occurs most often in products that have aged or have Figure Grin-through in a swimsuit made of
been stressed to extremes (Figure 9.4). 9.4 nylon and spandex.

Care  Care for spandex is machine-wash or dry-clean. Spandex is resistant to dilute acids,
alkalis, bleaches, and dry-cleaning solvents. Spandex is thermoplastic, with a melting point of
446°F to 518°F.

Uses  Spandex supports, shapes, or molds the body or keeps textiles from stretching out of
shape during use (Table 9.3). Blends of 2% to 40% spandex with other fibers are common. It
is used primarily in knit foundation garments, actionwear, compression sportswear to reduce
chafing and friction, intimate apparel, shapewear, hosiery, interiors, and narrow fabrics. It
is used in chlorine-resistant and competitive swimwear, skiwear, leotards and other dance-
wear, leggings, biking shorts, and other body-fitting apparel. Higher percentages of spandex

special-use fibers 205

 Table 9.3 Stretch Properties of Spandex
Major End Uses Important Properties

Athletic apparel Power stretch, washable, lightweight, body-contouring

Foundation garments
Bathing suits
Outerwear and sportswear
Support and surgical hose
Elastic webbing
Slipcovers, bottom sheets
Power stretch, washable, lightweight, support
Power stretch, resistance to salt and chlorine, dyeable, body-fitting
Comfort stretch
Power stretch, lightweight, support, compression
Power stretch
Comfort stretch, washable

1 Learning Activity
Identify an item you own that incorporates spandex. Explain how the serviceability of
that item would change if rubber replaced the spandex. Would your satisfaction with
the product change? If yes, how would it change?

in these products provide greater body contouring or support properties. A small amount of
spandex is used in woven apparel fabrics in a variety of end uses in response to fashion and
comfort demands. Medical uses include surgical and support hose, bandages, and surgical
wraps. In interiors, it is used in fitted sheets and slipcovers.

Elastoester, a subclass of polyester,
has good elongation and elasticity,
excellent strength retention to wet heat,
resistance to chemicals, and easy-care
properties. Elasterell-p, a long-chain
synthetic bicomponent polyester, has good
elongation and excellent recovery, and
good durability and comfort properties.
Lastol, a synthetic long-chain cross-linked
copolymer olefin, has good elongation and
elasticity, improved chemical stability and
heat resistant.
Elastoester
An elastomer based on polyether-ester by the Japanese textile firm Teijin, Ltd., is sold under
the trade name Rexe™. Elastoester is a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming sub-
stance is composed of at least 50% by weight aliphatic polyether and at least 35% by weight
polyester (Federal Trade Commission). Elastoester has an elongation potential of 600%, a
tenacity of 1.0 g/d, and elasticity of 80% at elongations over 200%. These properties are
slightly less than the properties of spandex. However, elastoester is washable and has supe-
rior strength retention in wet heat and after treatment with alkalis and superior resistance to
chlorine bleach. Treatment increases dyeability and print clarity and produces a more silklike
hand. It is used in fashion outerwear and fitted interior textiles.
Elasterell-p
Elasterell-p is an elastic bicomponent polyester with a helical coil. (See Chapter 8.) It has
good inherent stretch with excellent recovery. The strong and durable fiber is easy care with a
pleasing hand. Elasterell-p’s stretch and recovery characteristics can be engineered for spe-
cific end uses by adjusting spinning conditions. It is used in active sportswear, leisure wear,
and underwear. Multelastester is another term for this fiber.

Lastol
Lastol is an elastic cross-linked copolymer olefin with low but significant crystallinity, composed
of at least 95% by weight of ethylene. (See Chapter 8.) It has superior stretch (500%) and recov-
ery properties compared to other olefin fibers. Because it is more chemically stable than other
olefins and more resistant to heat, it is used in activewear and other easy-care stretch apparel.

206 chapter nine

 Learning Activity 2
Compare the performance characteristics among spandex, elastoester, elasterell-p,
and lastol. Identify an appropriate end use for each of these four elastomeric fibers.
Explain why you matched each fiber with that end use.

Learning Activity 3
Examine your apparel and interior textiles for products that contain an elastomeric fiber.
Look at the label to determine the elastomeric fiber present. Create a table identify-
ing the generic type, percentage present, product type, and, if possible, the structure
of the elastomer (small-diameter fiber, large diameter fiber, yarn wrapped with another
textile, or film). Are you satisfied with the performance of the product? With the elasto-
mer? Compare your table with the table of other students? What general conclusions
about generic elastomeric fibers, product type, structure, and consumer satisfaction
can you make?

High-Performance Fibers
The high-performance fibers have specific physical or chemical properties that make them
superior for specialized applications. In almost all cases, their costs are prohibitive for normal High-temperature fibers can be used

apparel and interior products. Clearly, these fibers provide sufficient performance for their cost continuously at temperatures over

or they would not be used. With their unique properties (high strength, high impact resistance, 200°C without significant decomposition

resistance to chemicals, heat, and flame), high-performance fibers are very important as tech- and retain the majority of their physical

nical textiles. Many of these fibers are high-temperature fibers. They can be used continuously properties.

at temperatures over 200°C without significant decomposition and retain the majority of their
physical properties.

Aramid
Aramid—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is a long-chain
synthetic polyamide in which at least 85 percent of the amide linkages are attached Aramid, a long-chain synthetic aromatic
directly to two aromatic rings. polyamide, is known for its exceptional
( C NH ) strength, fire, and chemical resistance, and
excellent impact resistance and is used in
O
protective apparel and technical products.
—Federal Trade Commission

Nylon is a polyamide fiber; aramid is an aromatic polyamide fiber. DuPont chemist Stephanie
Kwolek developed a nylon variant with exceptional heat and flame resistance. It was introduced
in 1963 under the trade name Nomex® nylon. DuPont introduced another variant of nylon in
1973 as Kevlar®. Aramid has exceptional strength in addition to fire resistance. The Federal
Trade Commission established the generic classification of aramid in 1974. An aromatic ring is
a six-sided carbon compound with alternating double and single bonds represented in chem-
ical notation as a circle in a six-sided carbon ring. The location at which the amide linkages
are attached determines the type of aramid and its properties. Nomex® is a normal tenacity
meta-aramid, or m-aramid, with a lower specific gravity and heat resistance and a higher regain
compared to Kevlar™, which is a high-tenacity para-aramid, or p-aramid (Table 9.4).

special-use fibers 207


(a)
Figure Aramid: cross-sectional view (a),
9.5 longitudinal view (b).
Source: British Textile Technology Group.
Figure Fractional horse-power V-belt
9.6 reinforced with aramid fibers for
electric motor applications.
208 chapter nine
Table 9.4  Properties of Aramid
Property m-Aramid p-Aramid
Tenacity, dry 4.3–5.1 g/d—filament 21.5 g/d
3.7–5.3 g/d—staple
Specific gravity 1.38 1.44
Moisture regain, % 6.5 3.5–7.0
(b) Effect of heat Decomposes at 700°F Decomposes at 900°F
Very resistant to flame Very resistant to flame
Does not melt Does not melt
Chemical structure m-aramid p-aramid
O O H H O H
C C N N C O H N
C N n
n
Aramid can be wet- or dry-spun and is usually round or dog-bone shaped (Figure 9.5).
Aramid has high tenacity and high resistance to stretch and to high temperatures. It main-
tains its shape and form at high temperatures. Its resistance to most chemicals is good to
excellent. It is only moderately resistant to sunlight. Aramids are oleophilic and prone to static
buildup unless finished. Aramid fibers have excellent impact and abrasion resistance.
Lightweight and fatigue- and damage-resistant, Kevlar® aramid is five times stronger than
steel on an equal-weight basis and 43% lower in density than fiberglass. It is used in rein-
forcements of radial tires and other mechanical rubber goods, flexible body armor, and fire
fighters turnout gear. Kevlar® is found in protective apparel, cables, and cordage, and as a
replacement for asbestos in brake linings and gaskets. Body-armor undervests are relatively
lightweight and bullet- and knife-resistant. Kevlar® is used as a plastic-reinforcement fiber for
boat hulls, aircraft, aerospace uses, off-shore energy production platforms, and other com-
posites (Figure 9.6).
Nomex®, with its excellent resistance to heat and combustion with low smoke gener-
ation, is used in protective apparel, such as firefighters’ and race-car drivers’ suits, tech-
nical products like hot-gas filtration systems and electrical insulation, and consumer goods
like ironing boards and laundry presses. Nomex is softer and more comfortable in daily-use
garments compared to Kevlar®. Nomex Omega® by DuPont includes an expanding air layer
that insulates firefighters from heat. Sometime, both Nomex® and Kevlar® are used in apparel
where high strength and comfort are required.
Hollow aramid fibers produce fresh water from sea water through reverse osmosis. The
fiber’s thin, dense skin allows only water to pass through. Aramids are difficult to dye and
have poor resistance to acids. Solution-dyed aramids are more common; aramid can be dyed
intense colors for high-visibility protective apparel. Aramid is used in mechanical rubber goods,
marine and sporting goods, and structural composites for boats and aircraft. Composites of
aramid fibers intermixed in resins are used in civil-engineering structures like bridges and ele-
vated highway-support structures.
Glass
Glass—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is glass.
—Federal Trade Commission
 Glass, an incombustible textile fiber that does not burn, is especially suitable for end
uses where the danger of fire is a problem—such as in draperies for public buildings. The Glass fiber is used primarily in technical

problems of severe skin irritation from tiny broken fibers limit the use of glass fibers in apparel. products because of its heavy weight

The process of drawing out glass into hairlike strands dates back to ancient times. The and brittle nature and resistance to flame,

Phoenicians probably produced the first glass fiber. Glass fiber was first used commercially in chemicals, and sunlight.

the 1920s.
The raw materials for glass are sand, silica, and limestone, combined with additives of
feldspar and boric acid. They are melted in large furnaces at 2,400°F. For filament yarns,
fine streams of glass flow through the holes in the base of each furnace’s melting
chamber to a winder in the room below. The winder revolves faster than the glass that
flows from the furnace, thus stretching the fibers and reducing them in size before
they harden. The round rodlike filaments are shown in Figure 9.7. For staple fibers,
the glass flows out in thin streams from holes in the base of the furnace, and jets of
high-pressure air or steam break the strands into fibers 8 to 10 inches long. They(a) (a) (b) (b)
are collected on a revolving drum in a thin web to be formed into a sliver, or soft, Figure Glass: cross-sectional view (a),
untwisted yarn. Table 9.5 summarizes several types of and end uses for glass fibers. 9.7 longitudinal view (b).
Beta Fiberglas®, by the Owens Corning Fiberglas Corporation, has one-sixth the denier
of common glass fibers. The extremely fine filaments are resistant to breaking and abrasion.
Beta Fiberglas® has about half the strength of regular glass fiber, but its tenacity of 8.2 is still
greater than that of most fibers. It is used in products like window-treatment fabrics, for which
greater fiber flexibility is needed.
Owens Corning produces a bicomponent fiber, Miraflex ®, of two forms of glass fused
together into a single filament. As the fiber cools, the components cause the filament to twist
in an irregular fashion along its length. The resulting fiber is soft, resilient, flexible, and form fill-
ing. It can be carded or needled to make a fiber batt used in home insulation and composites Figure Bicomponent glass fiber has irregular
(Figure 9.8). 9.8 twists along its length.
Glass has a tenacity of 9.6 g/d dry and 6.7 g/d wet. Glass has a low elongation of only
3% to 4% but excellent elasticity in this narrow range. Glass fibers are brittle, exhibit poor flex
abrasion resistance, and break when bent. It is very heavy, with a specific gravity of 2.48 to
2.69, nonabsorbent, and resistant to sunlight and most chemicals. Glass is flameproof and
melts at 2,400 F. Trade names include Fiberglas®, Beta glass®, Chemglass®, J-M fiberglass®,
PPG fiberglass®, and Vitron®.
Do not machine-wash glass textiles because of excessive fiber breakage. Tiny glass fiber
bits in the washing machine will contaminate the next load and irritate the skin of people who
use those textiles. Even hand washing may produce severe skin irritation. Care labels should
disclose this possibility.

Table 9.5  Types of Glass Fiber

Type Comments

A Alkali-containing glass used in fibers

AR Alkali-resistant glass used in reinforcing cement
C Chemically resistant glass used in fibers
E Almost universally accepted formulation used in many fibers and related products;
high-electrical resistance; used in glass-reinforced plastics
HS Magnesium–aluminum–silica glass; high-strength
S Similar in composition to HS glass; used in composites

special-use fibers 209

 Glass textiles do not require frequent washing, however, because they resist soil;
spots and stains can be wiped off with a damp cloth. No ironing is necessary. Items can be
smoothed and hung to dry. Oils used in finishing may turn white fabrics gray, attract dirt and
soil, and oxidize with age. Unfortunately, washing does not whiten the material, and dry clean-
ing is not recommended.
Glass fiber is used in interiors in flame-retardant draperies. Here, the fiber performs best
if bending and abrasion from drafts, opening/closing the fabric, and abrasion from people and
pets is minimized. Its heavy weight may require the use of special drapery rods.
Glass fiber has wide technical use for noise abatement, fire protection, temperature con-
trol (insulation), and air purification. Glass is commonly used in insulation for buildings. Use
care when working with glass fiber because it has been identified as a possible carcinogen.
Glass is common as a reinforcement fiber in molded plastics (called composites) in boat,
car, and airplane parts. Civil engineering research is evaluating composites containing glass
fibers as a repair material for highways and bridges. Glass is found in geotextiles, filters, fire
blankets, ironing-board covers, space suits, heat- and electrical-resistant tapes and braids.
Flame-resistant glass-mattress covers are used in hotels, dormitories, and hospitals. Glass
fibers are used to reinforce fabric used for printed circuits in electronics. A lightweight, dura-
ble, water-resistant material in fashion colors is used to support broken bones as they heal.
Owens Corning is researching glass yarns suitable for apparel.
Optical fibers, very fine fibers of pure glass, use laser beams, rather than electricity, to
remove electrical interference. Optical fibers are found in communication and medical equip-
ment and novelty lamps.

Metal and Metallic Fibers

Metallic—a manufactured fiber composed of metal, plastic-coated metal, metal-
Metallic fibers of metal, plastic-coated coated plastic, or a core completely covered by metal.
metal, metal-coated plastic, or a core —Federal Trade Commission
covered by metal are heavy, but good
Gold and silver have been used since ancient times as yarns for fabric decoration. More
conductors of electricity. They are used
recently, aluminum yarns, aluminized plastic yarns, and aluminized nylon yarns have replaced
as decoration in apparel and interiors and
gold and silver. Metallic fibers (fibers of metal, plastic-coated metal, metal-coated plas-
to reduce static in apparel, interior, and
tic, or a core covered by metal) can be coated with transparent films to minimize tarnishing.
technical products.
A ­common film is Lurex® polyester. Metal fibers are used to add a decorative touch to apparel
and interiors.
Two processes are used. The laminating process seals a layer of aluminum between
two layers of acetate or polyester film, which is then cut into strips for yarns (Figure 9.9). The
film may be colorless so the aluminum foil shows through, or the film and/or the adhesive
Plastic film may be colored before laminating. The metalizing process vaporizes the aluminum under high
pressure and deposits it on the polyester film. These fibers are thinner, more flexible, more
Adhes durable, and more comfortable.
ive
e
Aluminum Ad hesiv Fabric containing a large amount of metal can be embossed. Ironing is a problem when
foil metallic film yarns are used because the plastic may melt. To remove wrinkles, set the iron on
Slit here
Plastic film its end and draw the edge of the fabric across the sole plate of the iron.
Stainless steel fibers were developed in 1960; copper, aluminum, and other met-
Figure Laminating layers to produce a metal als have also been made into fibers and yarns. Stainless steel has had the most extensive
9.9 yarn. development.

210 chapter nine

 The use of stainless steel as a textile fiber was an outgrowth of research for fibers to
meet aerospace requirements. Superfine stainless steel filaments (3 to 15 micrometers) are a
bundle of fine wires (0.002 inch) pickled in nitric acid and drawn to their final diameter. Metal
yarns require special treatment to deaden yarn twist; otherwise, the yarns act like tiny coiled
springs.
Stainless steel fibers are produced as both filament and staple. They are used in complex
yarns and can be either woven or knitted. Only 1% to 3% of the metal fiber blended with other
fibers reduces static permanently. Although it cannot be dyed, producers claim that small
amounts will not affect the color of white fabrics.
Static is an annoying problem associated with carpets related to comfort and soiling.
Stainless steel is used in some carpets to reduce static. Only one or two fibers per tuft carry
the static from the face fiber to the backing. This kind of carpet yarn is used where static is a Figure Copper wiring for a lamp in a
9.10 transparent covering.
special problem, such as in rooms where sensitive computer equipment is kept. It is also suit-
able for upholstery, blankets, and work apparel. Stainless steel fibers are used for tire cord,
wiring, missile nose cones, and in corrective heart surgery.
Metal fibers of stainless steel, copper, and aluminum are blended with other fibers to
produce static-free apparel worn in clean rooms in computer-production facilities and in other
places where static creates a nuisance or hazardous conditions. Metals are much heavier
than the organic materials that compose most fibers—the specific gravity of metal fibers is
7.88, as compared with 1.14 for nylon. They cannot bend without leaving permanent crease
lines, are stiff or too springy, and do not have the hand associated with textiles. Reduction in
the denier of the fiber improves its properties, but the finer fibers are more expensive. Metal
fibers are used in technical products like wiring and cables (Figure 9.10). Metallic fibers are
also used in cut-resistant gloves for butchers and meat cutters.

Modacrylic Fibers
Modacrylic fibers—manufactured fibers in which the fiber-forming substance is
any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of less than 85 percent but at least
35 percent by weight acrylonitrile units except when the polymer qualifies as rubber.

—Federal Trade Commission

Modacrylic fibers are modified acrylics first produced in the United States in 1949. Modacrylic
is made from acrylonitrile with a larger proportion of other polymers [vinyl chloride (CH2CHCl), Modacrylic is a synthetic polymer of
vinylidene chloride (CH2CCl2), or vinylidene dicyanide (CH2CCN2)]. modified acrylonitrile. It is known for its fire
Modacrylics were the first inherently fire-resistant synthetic fibers; they do not support resistance, soft hand, and warmth.
combustion, are very difficult to ignite, are self-extinguishing, and do not drip. They are used in
protective apparel and contract interior textiles.
Modacrylic is made by polymerizing the components, dissolving the copolymer in ace-
tone, pumping the solution into a column of warm air (dry-spun), and stretching while hot.
S.E.F.® (self-extinguishing flame) is one trade name.
The modacrylics are creamy white and are produced as staple or tow. Their cross sec-
tion is dog-bone or irregularly shaped. Various deniers, lengths, crimp levels, and shrinkage
potentials are available.
Modacrylic has properties similar to acrylic, but modacrylic is flame-retardant. (See
Chapter 8.) Modacrylic is soft, resilient, abrasion and fire resistant, quick drying, and resists
acids and alkalis. Furlike fabrics, wigs, hairpieces, and fleece-type pile fabrics are made of

special-use fibers 211


Figure Furlike fabric of modacrylic. Note how
9.11 the sleek guard hairs and the soft, fine
underhairs simulate the appearance
of fur.
212 chapter nine
modacrylic fibers with different amounts of crimp and shrinkage potential. Mixing several fiber
types produces furlike fabrics with fibers of different pile heights: long, polished fibers (guard
hairs) and soft, highly crimped undercoat fibers (Figure 9.11). Fabrics are sheared, embossed,
and printed to enhance their resemblance to real fur.
Modacrylic has an attractive appearance similar to that of acrylic. Luster varies from a
soft, matte luster that resembles wool to a brighter luster that resembles the shiny guard
hairs of fur.
Modacrylics are less durable than acrylics, with a strength similar to that of wool. Abrasion
resistance is similar to acrylic. Elastic recovery is superior to that of acrylic.
Modacrylics are poor conductors of heat. Fabrics are soft, warm, and resilient with a
­tendency to pill. Their absorbency is low, varying from 2% to 4% moisture regain.
Modacrylics combine flame retardancy with a relatively low specific gravity (1.35). This
means that products, like flame-retardant draperies, are not extremely heavy.
Modacrylic fibers exhibit moderate resiliency. They have moderate dimensional stability
and high elastic recovery. These fibers pill more quickly, are more sensitive to heat, mat more
readily, and are not as resilient as acrylics. They retain color well. Modacrylics are resistant to
acids, weak alkalis, most organic solvents, mildew, and moths. They have very good resis-
tance to sunlight and flame.
Modacrylics can be washed or dry cleaned with special care. The heat-sensitive fibers
shrink at 250°F and stiffen at temperatures over 300°F. For machine-washing, use warm
water and tumble dry at a low setting. The lowest iron setting should be used. Some furlike
fabrics are dry cleanable; some require special care in dry cleaning (no steam, no tumble or
tumble only on cold); and some should be cleaned by a furrier method.
Modacrylics are more sensitive to loss of appearance from improper care than the
acrylics. The precautions regarding steam cleaning discussed with acrylics also apply to
modacrylics.
Modacrylic is resistant to natural degradation. The concerns expressed for acrylic gen-
erally apply to modacrylic. Modacrylic is more sustainable compared to acrylic. Modacrylic is
produced only using dry spinning and the solvent, acetone, is easy to reclaim and recycle.
Modacrylic is used in small quantities.
Modacrylics are used in applications where environmental resistance is needed or where
flame retardancy is necessary or required by law or building codes (see Chapter 21). End uses
include outdoor fabrics, awnings, and marine applications; protective apparel (e.g., shirts
and trousers for electric line personnel); interior textiles (e.g., upholstery, window-treatment
fabrics, and blankets); awnings, and such technical applications as filters, paint rollers, and
stuffed toys. Because of its heat sensitivity, modacrylic is used to produce realistic fake furs
and wigs or hairpieces that can be curled with a curling iron. Many modacrylics are mass-­
pigmented rather than dyed.
4 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #10, 42, 59, and 88 from your swatch kit. Use the swatch set key to iden-
tify the fibers present in each of these fabrics. Identify an end use for each swatch.
Describe how modacrylic, glass, spandex, and metallic fibers would enhance the per-
formance of that product.
Novoloid
Novoloid—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance
contains at least 35 percent by weight of cross-linked novolac (a cross-linked
phenolformaldehyde polymer).

—Federal Trade Commission

First commercially produced in 1972, novoloid shows outstanding flame resistance to

the 2,500°C flame from an oxyacetylene torch. Rather than melt, burn, or fuse, the yarns
carbonize.
Novoloid has an elasticity of 35%. It has good resistance to sunlight and is inert to acids
and organic solvents but susceptible to highly alkaline substances. It is gold in color Novoloid
has a tenacity of 1.5 to 2.5 g/d, a specific gravity of 1.27, and a regain of 6.0%. It is used for
protective apparel, chemical filters, gaskets, and packing materials. Fierce competition from
other specialty fibers is shrinking its market. It is used as a precursor for carbon fibers.

PBI
PBI—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is a long-chain
aromatic polymer having recurring imidazole groups as an integral part of the
polymer chain.

—Federal Trade Commission

PBI is a condensation polymer that is dry-spun. Its specific gravity is 1.39; if the fiber has
been stabilized, the specific gravity is 1.43. PBI has a tenacity of 2.6 to 3.1 g/d and a breaking
elongation of 30%. PBI has a high moisture regain of 15%, but it is difficult to dye. It is usually
mass-pigmented. PBI does not burn in air, melt, or drip and has very low shrinkage when
exposed to flame. Even when charred, PBI fabrics remain strong, supple, and intact. Because
of its heat resistance, it is used in heat-resistant protective apparel for firefighters, astronauts, Figure Heat-resistant gloves made from PBI.
military personnel, fuel handlers, race car drivers, welders, foundry workers, and hospital 9.12
workers (Figure 9.12). It has excellent chemical resistance. PBI is used extensively in space
and aerospace applications. The fiber is found in interiors textiles for aircraft, hospitals, and
submarines and in flue-gas filters in coal-fired boilers and in reverse-osmosis membranes.
Additional applications include semiconductors and electronics.

Sulfar
Sulfar—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is a long-chain
synthetic polysulfide in which at least 85 percent of the sulfide (—S—) linkages are
attached directly to two aromatic rings.

—Federal Trade Commission

Sulfar is produced by melt spinning. It is gold in color. Sulfar has a tenacity of 3.0 to 3.5
g/d and a breaking elongation of 25% to 35%. It has excellent elasticity. Moisture regain is
low (0.6%), and specific gravity is 1.37. Sulfar is highly resistant to acids and alkalis and is
not soluble in any known solvent below 200°C (392°F). It has excellent thermal resistance.
Sulfar is used in filtration fabrics, paper-making felts, electrolysis membranes, high-perfor-
mance membranes, rubber reinforcement, electrical insulation, firefighting suits, sports and
performance apparel that requires low moisture absorption and high wicking characteristics,

special-use fibers 213

 and protective apparel. Sulfar helps maintain a clean environment because of its use in incin-
erator filters in plants that generate electricity by burning garbage.

Saran
Saran—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is any long-chain
synthetic polymer composed of at least 80 percent by weight of vinylidene chloride
units (—CH2CCl2—).

—Federal Trade Commission

Saran is a vinylidene-chloride/vinyl-chloride copolymer developed in 1940. The raw mate-

rial is melt-spun and stretched to orient the molecules. Both filament and staple forms are
produced. Much of the filament fiber is used as a monofilament for seat covers, furniture
webbing, and screenings, and in dolls’ hair and wigs. The staple form is made straight,
curled, or crimped. The inherent curled form is unique in that it closely resembles the curl of
natural wool.
Saran with its good weathering properties, chemical resistance, and stretch resistance
is an unusually tough, durable fiber. Saran has a tenacity of 1.4 to 2.4 g/d, with no change
when wet, an elongation of 15% to 30% with excellent recovery, and good resiliency. It is an
off-white fiber with a slight yellowish tint.
Like the other melt-spun fibers, saran is perfectly round and smooth. It has a moisture
regain of less than 0.1%, so it dries rapidly. It is difficult to dye, so, mass pigmentation is used.
Saran has no static charge. It is heavy, with a specific gravity of 1.7. Saran does not sup-
port combustion. When exposed to flame it softens, then chars, and decomposes at 115°C
(240°F). It has excellent size and shape retention and is resistant to acids, alkalis, and organic
solvents. Exposure to sunlight causes light-colored objects to darken, but no strength loss
occurs. Saran is immune to biological attack.
Saran fiber is being replaced by other fibers that cost less or that have a better combi-
nation of properties. Saran is used as an agricultural protective fabric to shade delicate plants
such as tobacco and ginseng, in dry and wet filters, window treatment fabrics for trains and
buses, and in rugs, draperies, and upholstery. Saran is most widely used in films and plastics.

Vinyon
Vinyon—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is any long-
chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85 percent by weight of vinyl chloride
units (—CH2CHCl—).

—Federal Trade Commission

Commercial production of began in 1939. Vinyon is a copolymer of 86% vinyl chloride and
14% vinyl acetate. The raw material is dissolved in acetone and dry-spun. It is also known as
polyvinyl alcohol.
Vinyon is white and somewhat translucent. Vinyon is very sensitive to heat. It softens at
150°F to 170°F, shrinks at 175°F, and should not be pressed or ironed. It is unaffected by
moisture, chemically stable, resistant to insects and biological attack, a poor conductor of
electricity, and flame-retardant. These properties make vinyon especially good as a bonding
agent for rugs, papers, and nonwoven fabrics. The amorphous undrawn fibers have a tenacity
of 0.7 to 1.0 g/d. These fibers have a warm, pleasant hand. Elongation ranges from 12% to
125%. Specific gravity ranges from 1.33 to 1.43. Moisture regain is 0.1%.

214 chapter nine

 Imported vinyon is used for wigs, flame-retardant Christmas trees, filter pads, fishing
lines and nets, and protective apparel. When used in film form, often labeled vinyl, vinyon is
used for rainwear, umbrellas, upholstery protectors in showrooms, and thousands of other
applications.

Vinal
Vinal—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is any long-chain
synthetic polymer composed of at least 50 percent by weight of vinyl alcohol units
(—CH2CHOH—) and in which the total of the vinyl alcohol units and any one or more
of the various acetal units is at least 85 percent by weight of the fiber.

—Federal Trade Commission

No vinal fibers are produced in the United States. Modified fibers are imported from Japan
and Germany for use in some protective apparel because of their inherent flame-retardant
properties. Vinal is also known as polyvinyl chloride.
When vinal fibers are extruded, they are water-soluble and must be cross-linked with
formaldehyde to make them non–water-soluble. The fiber has a smooth, slightly grainy
appearance. Vinal has a tenacity of 3.5 to 6.5 g/d, an elongation of 15% to 30%, and is 25%
weaker when wet. The specific gravity of vinal is 1.26. It has a moisture regain of 5.0%. It does
not support combustion but softens at 200°C (390°F) and melts at 220°C (425°F). It has good
chemical resistance and is unaffected by alkalis and common solvents. Concentrated acids
harm the fiber. Vinal has excellent resistance to biological attack. Mass pigmentation is used
to color the fiber.
Technical uses for vinal include protective apparel, fishing nets, filter fabrics, tarpaulins,
and brush bristles. In water-soluble forms, the fiber is used as a ground fabric to create laces
and other sheer fabrics. Once the fabric has been produced, the vinal ground is dissolved and
the sheer fabric remains. It is also used as a bonding agent for nonwovens.

Fluoropolymer
Fluoropolymer—a manufactured fiber containing at least 95 percent of a long-
chain polymer synthesized from aliphatic fluorocarbon monomers.

—Federal Trade Commission

Polytetrafluoroethylene is the most common fluoropolymer. It is used as a coating for cook-

ware, as a soil-resistant finish, and as a fiber with the trade name Teflon ®. It is also known
as PTFE. Heat
The monomer is polymerized under pressure and heat in the presence of a catalyst to
achieve this repeat unit: (—CF2—CF2—). Emulsion spinning, in which polymerization and
1. Polymer is dispersed as fine
extrusion occur simultaneously, is used (Figure 9.13). It has a tenacity of 1.6 g/d, with low particles in a carrier.
elongation and good pliability. The fiber is heavy, with a specific gravity of 2.3. It has unusually 2. Dispersed polymer is extruded
through a spinneret and coalesced
high resistance to heat and chemicals. It can withstand temperatures up to 260°C (500°F) by heating.
3. Carrier is removed by heating
without damage. It is resistant to sunlight, weathering, and aging. It has an exceptionally low
or dissolving.
coefficient of friction and high resistance to deformation. It is tan in color but can be bleached
Expensive
white with sulfuric acid. It is used in high temperature filters, bearings, mechanical packing like Used only for those fibers that are insoluble
seals and gaskets that do not leak and resist damage from heat and chemicals, protective Carrier required

apparel, extra-vehicular activity (EVA) spacesuits, and specialty applications for the energy, Figure Emulsion spinning.
metals, chemicals, and minerals industries. 9.13

special-use fibers 215


Figure Wind energy turbine blades often use
9.14 carbon fibers.
Carbon nanofibers and nanotubes have
remarkable strength, high elasticity, low
density, heat resistance, and large thermal
and electrical conductivity.
216 chapter nine
Gore-Tex ® is a trade name for fabrics that have a thin microporous film of PTFE
applied to a fabric for use in outerwear. It is wind- and liquid/water-resistant but water-
vapor-­permeable. Gore-Tex® can be dry cleaned but if it is not rinsed well, function will be
impaired. BlisterGuard ® is a sock made of cotton, wool, acrylic, nylon, or polyester with
fluoropolymer in the heel, pad, and toe areas to reduce friction between foot and shoe.
Teflon ® is used in hazardous material protective apparel. Fluorocarbon is used in filter
fabrics (to reduce s­ mokestack emissions), packing fabrics, gaskets, technical felts, cov-
ers for presses in commercial laundries, electrical tape, and as a layer of some protective
fabrics.
Carbon
Carbon is a fiber that is at least 96% pure carbon. It is made from precursor fibers such
as rayon and polyacrylonitrile or from petroleum pitch that are heated to remove oxygen,
nitrogen, and hydrogen. The fiber has exceptional heat resistance and does not ignite or
melt. It maintains its full strength of 1.5 g/d after prolonged exposure to temperatures of
more than 200°/C. Carbon has a specific gravity of 1.4, a moisture regain of 10%, and
an elongation of 10%. Carbon fibers have very low coefficients of thermal expansion, are
chemically inert, and biocompatible. They also dissipate static quickly and are stiffer than
many other fibers. It is much stronger and much lighter weight than steel and aluminum. It
has superior fatigue resistance compared to all known metallic structures and is one of the
most corrosion-resistant materials available. Because of these properties and its comfort-
able hand, carbon is used in protective apparel; to reinforce lightweight metal components
in athletic equipment like golf club shafts, boat hulls, masts, oars, tennis rackets and string,
skis and snowboards, hockey sticks, fishing rods, and bicycle bodies; in aerospace uses;
in bone grafts; in wind energy t­urbine blades; and as a substitute for asbestos in technical
products like brakes (Figure 9.14). Composite carbon fiber/resin is used in bridge repair and
highway support columns. Carbon is used as a coating of nylon for antistatic carpeting,
upholstery, apparel, and technical brushes and belts. It is used in radar-transparent military
aircraft communication satellites and rocket-motor nozzles. It is competitive in cost to most
other high-­performance fibers.
A significant end use for carbon is in nanofibers and nanotubes of extremely tiny
size (Chapter 6). Carbon nanofibers and nanotubes have unusual properties: remarkable
strength, high elasticity, low density, heat resistant, and large thermal and electrical con-
ductivity. These nanomaterials have been described as having the strength of steel and
the flexibility of a rubber band. Applications and potential applications include such smart
textile end uses as mechanical relays and switches, thermal sensors, acoustic and pres-
sure sensors, chemical sensors, medical sensors, radiation detectors, and acceleration
sensors.
Carbon or carbon black nanoparticles from coconut shells, bamboo, and other organic
materials are used much like activated charcoal. When incorporated at the 5% to 20% level
in nylon and polyester fibers, the carbon black nanoparticles provide cooling action, ultraviolet
protection, odor absorption or resistance, and static resistance for textile products. These
composite fibers also have improved abrasion resistance and tensile strength.
Table 9.6 compares selected properties of aramid, glass, PBI, sulfar, PTFE, and carbon.
Table 9.6  Comparison of Selected Chemical-, Heat-, and Fire-Resistant Fibers: Aramid, Glass,
PBI, Sulfar, PTFE, and Carbon
Tenacity, Elongation, Elasticity, Specific
Fiber g/d % Dry % Regain, % Gravity Heat/Chemical Resistance

p-Aramid 21.5 4.0 100 3.5–7.0 1.44 Difficult to ignite, does not melt, decomposes
at 900°F, resistant to dilute acids and bases,
degraded by strong mineral acids, excellent solvent
resistance
Glass 9.6 3.1 100 0 2.48–2.69 Does not burn, softens at 1,350°F, resists most acids
and alkalis, unaffected by solvents
PBI 2.6–3.0 25–30 — 15 1.43 Does not ignite or melt, chars at 860°F, unaffected by
most acids, alkalis, and solvents
Sulfar 3.0–3.5 35–45 100 0.6 1.37 Outstanding heat resistance, melts at 545°F, outstanding
resistance to most acids, alkalis, and solvents
Fluoro-polymer 0.9–2.0 19–140 — 0 2.1 Extremely heat-resistant, melts at 1,550°F, most
chemically resistant fiber known
Carbon 1.5 0.7 100 — 1.75–2.2 Does not melt, excellent resistance to hot, concentrated
acids and alkalis, unaffected by solvents, degraded by
strong oxidizers (chlorine bleach)

Melamine
Melamine—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is a synthetic
polymer composed of at least 50 percent by weight of a cross-linked melamine
polymer.

—Federal Trade Commission

Melamine has a dry tenacity of 1.8 g/d, a 12% breaking elongation, 5% regain, a specific
gravity of 1.4, fair abrasion resistance, and good-to-excellent resistance to ultraviolet light and
chemicals except concentrated acids. Melamine is known for its heat stability, low flamma-
bility, low thermal conductivity, and resistance to solvents. Its cost is moderate. It is used in
products that require resistance to high temperatures and competes with meta-aramid, PBI,
sulfar, and polyimide because of its lower cost. Melamine is available in white and dyeable
forms. It is used in protective apparel, fiber-blocking fabric for aircraft seating, upholstered
furniture in high-risk applications, and filters.

Other High-Performance Fibers

Polyimide (PI or PEI) from polyetherimide has a dry tenacity of 3.7 g/d, a 20% breaking
elongation, 3% regain, a specific gravity of 1.41, good abrasion resistance, excellent resis-
tance to heat, and good-to-excellent resistance to chemicals except alkalis. It is moderately
high in cost. Because of its properties and its irregular cross section, it is used in filters for hot
air or gas and corrosive liquids and in gaskets and seals, protective apparel, and fire-block
seating (a layer between the upholstery and the padding to minimize flame spread) used in
public-use areas like theatres, passenger planes and trains, and hotels.
Polyphenylene benzobisoxazole (PBO) is another high–temperature-resistant non-
flammable polymer fiber based on repeating aromatic rings. It has a specific gravity of 1.5, a

special-use fibers 217

 regain of 2%, and a breaking elongation of 3.5%. It has very good tensile strength and is used
primarily as a reinforcing fiber in resins; ropes for sailing and other salt water uses; hot-air
balloons; aerospace applications; heat-resistant felts; industrial slings; reinforcement fiber for
belts and tires and for sporting goods such as fishing rods, golf clubs, bicycle spokes, and ski
poles; and for protective apparel including firefighters resistant clothing and equipment, safety
gloves, race car drivers’ suits, and electrical-resistant gloves.
Ceramic fibers are composed of metal oxide, metal carbide, metal nitride, or other
mixtures. The fibers were developed because aerospace, metallurgical, nuclear, and
chemical industries required fibers with better thermal resistance than provided by glass
fibers. These fibers are used where high strength, high thermal structural stability, light-
weight, and stiffness are required. Nanoparticles of clay (aluminosilicate) and metal oxides
are used in composite fibers to add resistance to microbes, heat, electricity, chemicals,
ultraviolet light, static, and flame for protective apparel and technical applications. Because
of its lighter weight, high hardness, high compressive strength, and impact resistance,
ceramic fiber composite systems are found in armor for military vehicles, helicopters, fixed-
wing aircraft, and boat hulls. Ceramic fibers are also used in furnace and boiler liners, door
seals for furnaces and kilns, insulation for gas turbines, and high-temperature seals and
gaskets.
Polylactic acid (PLA), a renewable product made from fermented cornstarch (a natural
sugar) and melt-spun to produce polylactide, is defined by the Federal Trade Commission as
85% by weight of lactic acid ester derived from naturally occurring sugars. It is a biopolymer,
meaning that the polymer is from renewable sources like plants. While PLA is currently made
from cornstarch, other plants and plant components are additional potential sources for the
starch starting material. PLA is a melt-spun fiber with a specific gravity of 1.25, low regain,
good elasticity, and high tenacity. The producer claims that PLA has luster, drape, and hand
similar to silk, quick drying properties, and good wrinkle resistance. It is available in staple and
filament form. It also has good flame and ultraviolet resistance. Concerns relate to its color-
fastness and dyeability, but research is addressing that problem. It is used in apparel, interior
textiles as fiberfill, agricultural and landscaping applications, sanitary and medical products,
filters, and food-packaging materials. It is also found in craft yarn. PLA is biodegradable. While
producers claim that PLA is highly sustainable, production of the starch source material is
not always sustainable because of modern farming practices that make extensive use of fer-
tilizers, herbicides, and other agricultural chemicals to boost production and control weeds,
insects, and disease. In addition, much of the corn starch is produced from GMO corn that is
extensively genetically modified.
Basalt, a natural material derived from volcanic rocks, can be spun into a filament when
melted at high temperatures. It has good thermal, electrical, and sound insulating properties.

Modacrylic, novoloid, PBI, sulfar, It can replace asbestos in most end uses and can be used in composites as a reinforce-

fluoropolymer, carbon, melamine, and ment fiber. It is similar in structure to glass, but has an opaque golden brown color. It is

PLA have unusual performance and safety heavy with good elasticity and high strength, even at high temperatures. It is not as brittle

characteristics. They are most often used in as ceramic fibers and resists vibration damage. Basalt fibers are used in thermal and sound

technical products because of their unique insulation in engines, pipes, structural plastics, automotive parts, plastics, and frictional mate-

resistance to chemicals, heat, and flame. rials (like bearings and felts). Compared to many other special-use fibers, basalt is relatively
inexpensive.

218 chapter nine

 Learning Activity 5
Select three fibers that provide chemical, heat, or fire resistance and identify appropriate
technical end uses for them. Explain why each fiber is appropriate for that end use.
What are the end uses that you might come in contact with on a regular or daily basis
or in an emergency situation?

Learning Activity 6
Explain how the fibers discussed in this chapter have made your life more comfort-
able, safer, and more worry-free. How do the fibers in this chapter help reduce the cost
of road maintenance, the sustainability of energy production and manufacturing, and
­reduce air and water pollution?

Learning Activity 7
Use three to four yarns from Fabrics #10 and 64 from your swatch kit. Following the
procedures and safety precautions described in Chapter 3, conduct a burn test of these
samples. Describe the ease of ignition, the color and odor of the smoke, and the color
and texture of the cooled ash. Compare your results with those included in Table 3.7.

Learning Activity 8
Based on your activities today, identify four fibers from this chapter that might have
made your activity more comfortable, safer, easier, or possible. Identify the most likely
fibers that contributed to these activities. In what kinds of products are those fibers
found?

Learning Activity 9
Select a sport or athletic activity that you participate in or enjoy watching. Review the
fibers in this chapter and make a list of those fibers that might be used in this sport or
athletic activity and where or how they might be used. Be sure to consider apparel,
shoes, protective gear, equipment, and auxiliaries like rope, nets, hulls, oars, or other
items. For each fiber on your list, identify properties that explain why that fiber might be
used. If you purchased any of the items on your list, did you search for a product with
that fiber? If yes, why?

special-use fibers 219

 10 Learning Activity
Find the lists of fibers from Learning Activity 2 in Chapter 6. Review the fiber names on
both lists. Place these fibers in one of three categories: elastic fiber, high performance
fiber, and rarely used fiber. Skim through Chapters 7–9 to determine if your placement
was correct.

terms
key terms
Aramid Gore-Tex® Polyimide (PI or PEI)
Basalt Grin-through Polylactic acid (PLA)
Carbon High-performance fibers Power stretch
Ceramic Lastol Rubber
Comfort stretch Lastrile Saran
Elastane Melamine Spandex
Elasterell-p Metallic fibers Stainless steel
Elastoester Modacrylic Sulfar
Elastomer Neoprene Vinal
Emulsion spinning Novoloid Vinyon
Fluoropolymer PBI
Glass Polyphenylene benzobisoxazole (PBO)

questions
review questions
1. Compare the performance characteristics and serviceability
of rubber and spandex.

explain why that fiber was selected. (Some of these fibers
may actually be used in blend form in the product.)
a. Insulation for electrical wiring
2. What are the differences and similarities between power
and comfort stretch? Select one end use for each and b. Form fitting athletic apparel
explain why the end use requires that kind of stretch. c. Theater costume for a performance of King Lear
d. Apron for welder
3. Explain why many woven fabrics include a small
e. Firefighting suit
percentage of spandex. How does the presence of
f. Hot-gas filter in facility burning waste to generate
spandex alter product serviceability?
electricity
4. What is the difference in serviceability between a pair of g. Support fiber in resin for auto-body repair
all-cotton slacks and a pair of 95% cotton/5% spandex h. Furnace filter
slacks? i. Fishing rod
5. Explain why glass, metal, carbon nanotubes, and ceramic j. Hiking socks
are included as textile fibers. k. Automotive exhaust system
6. Identify a fiber from this chapter that would be an l. Hot-air balloon
appropriate choice for each end use listed below, and m. Realistic looking wig or hairpiece

220 chapter nine

 7. Compare and contrast the following pairs of fibers in terms 10. Select four fibers not used for Question 9 and identify
of serviceability: technical end uses for these fibers. How do the fibers affect
a. Polyester and elastoester the quality of your life?
b. Spandex and nylon 11. Besides rubber and spandex, name two other elastomeric
c. Nylon and aramid fibers and explain how their properties differ from spandex.
d. Glass and stainless steel Identify an end use for each.
e. Fluoropolymer and carbon
12. Explain how metal or metallic fibers are made. How does
8. Explain why nanofibers and nanotubes are important end this process differ from the processes used to produce
uses for carbon. most manufactured or synthetic fibers?
9. Select four high-performance fibers and explain their role in
sustainability and environmental quality.

questions
section review questions
1. Differentiate among natural, regenerated, and synthetic
fibers. Give an example of each.
cellulosic fiber, manufactured regenerated protein fiber,
synthetic fiber, elastomeric fiber, and high-performance fiber.
2. Identify four characteristics for each fiber listed below that 5. Identify which fiber from Question 2 is the best in terms of
contribute to its importance in the textile complex: Identify sustainability and explain why. Which fiber is the poorest in
an apparel, interior, and technical end use for each fiber. terms of sustainability? Explain why.
a. Acrylic 6. Explain how a fiber can be modified in the following ways:
b. Aramid a. Fiber size
c. Cotton b. Fiber shape
d. Hemp c. Orientation and crystallinity
e. Linen d. Pilling
f. Lyocell e. Luster
g. Metallic fibers f. Solution dyeing
h. Modacrylic g. Cross-dyeable
i Nylon h. Antistatic
j. Olefin i. Sunlight resistance
k. PBI j. Flame resistance
l. PLA k. Antibacterial
m. Polyester l. Fiber crimp
n. Ramie
7. To what groupings of fibers does Question 6 apply? Do all
o. Rayon
parts of Question 6 apply to all fibers in your group or
p. Silk
groups? Why do those modifications not apply to all fibers?
q. Spandex
r. Sulfar 8. Describe four nanotechnology uses with textile fibers. How
s. Vinyon does nanotechnology change fiber performance?
t. Wool 9. For the fibers in Question 2, organize them by chemical
3. Identify which of the fibers in Question 2 can be modified composition: cellulosic, protein, or synthetic. List the
during fiber spinning to enhance performance. How does properties common to each chemical grouping.
that modification enhance performance? 10. Select four high-performance fibers. List their properties
4. Group the fibers in Question 2 by type: natural cellulosic and end uses.
fiber, natural protein fiber, manufactured regenerated

special-use fibers 221

 Case Study
Undergarments for Firefighters*
Firefighters work in physically demanding
and dangerous situations and in all kinds
of weather and terrains. Their turnout
gear is designed to be fire resistant
and heat reflective. (Turnout gear refers
to the protective apparel worn at the
scene of a fire: helmet, jacket, gloves,
trousers, and boots.) However, even
with the most technologically advanced
gear, the environment inside the uniform
can become dangerously hot making
it difficult for the firefighter to function.
Unless action is taken, the firefighter
can suffer heat stress and heat stroke
that can lead to circulatory collapse and
even death. Wearing undergarments
*Musante, G. (2013, May/June). Bridging the chasm. AATCC Review, 13(3), 38–39.
that reduce the risk would be best, but
this has traditionally been the choice of
the firefighter. Soon, firefighters may be
required to wear undergarments that
are specifically designed to reduce the
risk of temperatures inside the turnout
gear entering the danger zone. The
undergarments are specially designed
to support the body’s natural cooling
function and include a layer of insulation
to buffer against heat build-up and to
absorb sweat and move it away
from the body. These undergarments
would have application to workers in other
industries where high temperatures are
encountered.
Discussion Questions
1. What properties of the undergarments
would be important for this end use?
2. What fibers are most likely used in
firefighters’ traditional undergarments?
How would these fibers perform in
the high-temperature settings likely
encountered in a fire?
3. Besides those risks mentioned in
the summary, what other risks might
firefighters be exposed to if their
undergarments get too warm or if sweat
accumulates at the surface of the skin?
4. What fibers are likely used in the turnout
suits? Why are these fibers used?

readings
suggested readings
Anonymous. (2008, December 2). PBI to expand capacity, add
jobs. Textile World News (www.textileworld.com).
Anonymous. (2003, June). Specialty and performance fibres
for industrial uses—2003. Technical Textiles International,
12, 22–27.
Fletcher, K. (2008). Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design
Journey. London: Earthscan.
Foster, L. E. (Ed.). (2006). Nanotechnology: Science, Innovation,
and Opportunity. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hethorn, J., & Ulasewicz, C. (2008). Sustainable Fashion: Why
Now? New York: Fairchild Books.
Isaacs, M. (2009, May). The world’s military units depend on
textiles. AATCC Review, 9(5), 28–31.
Lunt, J. (2004). Ingeo PLA fibres: Chemistry, manufacture, and
application. Textiles Magazine, 31(3), 15–16
Musante, G. (2013, May/June). Bridging the chasm. AATCC
Review, 13(3), 38–39.
Musante, G. (2012, November/December). Bridging the chasm.
AATCC Review, 12(6), 22–29.
Ozgen, B. (2012). Physical properties of Kevlar and Nomex plied
and covered yarns. Textile Research Journal, 83(7), 752–760.
Qian, L. (2004). Nanotechnology in textiles: Recent developments
and future prospects. AATCC Review, 4(5), 14–16.
Radhakrishnaiah, P. (2008, July/August). Extreme textiles. Textile
Horizons, 28, 16–17.
Roshan, P., & Roshan, S. P. (2005, January/February),
Electrospinning: A breakthrough technology. The Textile
Journal, 122(1), 14–16.
Rovner, S. L. (2009, July 27). 21st century armor. Chemical and
Engineering News, 87(30), 48–53.
Sanket, V., & Mihir, G. (2010). Basalt benefits. The International
Textile Magazine, (2), 40–41.
Thiry, M. C. (2009, August). Fibers that perform. AATCC Review,
9(8), 24–29.
Wilson, A. (2012). Qualified quartet. The International Textile
Magazine, (1), 21–23.
Xiaorui, T., Mingkui, W., & Feng, A. (2013, September/October).
Qualitative identification of polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) fiber.
AATCC Review, 13(5), 50–55.

222 chapter nine

This page intentionally left blank
Michele.Pautasso/Fotolia Vvoe/Fotolia

Ambrose/Fotolia

Antiksu/Fotolia Mpk1970/Fotolia
Section III

yarns
10 Yarn Processing

11 Yarn Classification
Antoniotruzzi/Fotolia Chaphot/Fotolia

Martinan/Fotolia Mariavu/Fotolia
Yarn Processing

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To describe the production processes, types, and qualities of yarns from
filament and staple fibers.
• To integrate fiber properties with yarn properties.
• To know fiber blends and their impact on product performance.
• To describe sustainability issues related to yarn processing.

10

A yarn is a continuous strand of textile
fibers, filaments, or materials in a form
suitable for knitting, weaving, or otherwise
intertwining to form a textile fabric.
Most apparel and interior fabrics are produced from yarns. A yarn is a continuous strand of
textile fibers, filaments, or materials, which is suitable for knitting, weaving, or otherwise inter-
twining to form a textile fabric. This chapter explores the process of making a yarn from fibers
or other starting materials. For filament yarns, this is a relatively quick and easy process. Spun
yarns undergo a series of operations to make the fibers parallel and in the form of a yarn.
Yarn processing attracts a great deal of attention within the textile complex, but not
much consumer interest. However, yarn type and quality impact product cost, quality, and
performance. Thus, understanding yarn production will provide additional knowledge about
products made from yarns.
Many changes continue to occur in the ways yarns are made. Efforts focus on improv-
ing productivity, decreasing costs, increasing uniformity and quality, solving problems, and
developing new systems or approaches to deal with changes in other segments of the textile
complex. For example, yarn-processing systems are modified for microfibers, and yarn char-
acteristics are modified to cope with the greater speeds of fabrication equipment. In fact,
yarns often limit fabric-production rates. Computer systems monitor yarn production and
quality of yarns.

Filament yarns are almost always made
from manufactured fibers by extruding a
polymer solution through a spinneret and
solidifying it in fiber form. The grouping of
the filament fibers with the addition of twist
creates the filament yarn.
Filament Yarns
Filament yarns are made from manufactured fibers, except for the tiny percentage that is fil-
ament silk. Manufactured filament yarns are made by extruding a polymer solution through a
spinneret and solidifying it in fiber form. Then the individual filaments are brought together with
or without a slight twist (see Figure 8.3). The grouping of the filaments with the addition of twist
creates the filament yarn. The spinning machine winds the yarn on a bobbin. The yarn is then
rewound on spools or cones and is a finished product, unless additional treatments such as
crimping, twisting, texturing, or finishing are required (see Figure 10.1). Filament yarns reach their

Bulk
Texturing
yarn

Fiber
Polymer Fiber Slight Smooth
cooagulation
dope extrusion* twist added multifilament
(drawn as
yarn
needed)

*Filament number,
size, and shape Monofilament
are predetermined. yarn

Tape or
network
yarn

Figure Production sequence for filament yarns.

10.1

228 chapter ten

maximum strength at a low twist—3 to 6 turns per inch (tpi)—then strength remains constant or
decreases.
Throwing, originally a process for twisting silk filaments, evolved into the twisting of
manufactured fibers and then into texturing. Throwing provides the fabricator with the specific
yarn needed for a particular product. Some fiber producers texture yarns as a final step in the
fiber-spinning process; occasionally a trade name is associated with a textured filament yarn.

Smooth-Filament Yarn
Filament yarns are more expensive per pound than staple fibers. The number of holes in the
spinneret determines the number of filaments in the yarn. Filament fiber cost is almost equal
to filament yarn cost so staple fibers are cheaper at this point, but the cost of producing a
spun yarn quickly eats up the lower fiber cost. Regular-, conventional-, or smooth-filament Smooth-filament yarns are uniform as they
yarns are uniform as they come from the spinneret. Their smooth nature gives them more come from the spinneret. The fibers are
luster than spun yarns or textured filament yarns, but the luster varies with the amount of parallel. There are no protruding ends, so
delusterant in the fiber and the amount of twist in the yarn. Maximum luster is obtained with they do not lint or pill. They give little bulk,
bright filaments with little or no twist (Figure 10.2). Very-high-twist yarns, like crepe yarns, loft, or cover to fabric. Fabrics made from
reduce filament luster. With thermoplastic fibers, the twist can be heat-set. Filament yarns them shed soil.
generally have either high twist or low twist.
Filament yarns have no protruding ends, so they do not lint; the fibers are very parallel;
they resist pilling; and fabrics made from them easily shed soil. Filaments of round cross sec-
tion pack well into compact yarns that give little bulk, loft, or cover to fabric. Compact yarns
are used in wind- and water-resistant fabrics. Compactness is a disadvantage in end uses in
which bulk and absorbency are necessary for comfort. Nonround filaments create more open
space for air and moisture permeability and produce greater cover.
Filament yarn strength depends on the strength of the individual fibers and the number of
filaments in the yarn. The strength of each filament is fully utilized. In order to break the yarn,
all the filaments must be broken. The strength of filament fibers is usually greater than that of
staple fibers. For example, staple polyester tenacity is 3 to 5.5 g/d (grams per denier); filament
polyester tenacity is 5 to 8 g/d.
Fine-filament yarns are soft, supple, and strong, but not as abrasion-resistant as
coarse filaments. For durability, fewer and coarser filaments in the yarn are most advanta-
geous. Compare the difference in durability between a taffeta used for windbreakers and
a taffeta used for backpacks. Both are probably nylon, but the windbreaker taffeta uses
finer fibers in a finer yarn compared to the coarser fibers and larger yarn in the backpack
taffeta. The windbreaker taffeta is resistant to wind and water, but flexible and comfortable
Figure Monofilament yarn, smooth-filament
to wear. The backpack taffeta is stiffer and less pliable, but stronger and more abrasion 10.2 yarn of many filaments, and textured-
resistant. filament yarn (left to right).

Learning Activity 1
Examine your book bag and determine if it is made of filament or spun yarns. For
what reasons might your bag be made of filament yarns? Spun yarns? Identify prod-
ucts where readily shedding soil would be important; where little bulk, loft, or cover is
needed; and where wind and water resistance is important. Find these items either in
your home or a store and identify the yarn type.

yarn processing 229


Monofilament yarns consist of a
­single-coarse-filament fiber used primarily
in technical products.
Figure Tape and network yarns used in
10.3 technical products.
Tape yarns are inexpensive yarns produced
from extruded polymer films.­­Network
yarns are made of fibers connected in a
network arrangement and are less bulky
and dense compared to tape yarns. Both
yarns are used in technical products.
Bulk yarns have greater covering power
or apparent volume compared to conven-
tional yarns of equal linear density and of
the same basic material with normal twist.
230 chapter ten
Monofilament Yarns
Monofilament yarns are primarily for technical uses. These yarns consist of a sin-
gle-coarse-filament fiber. End uses include sewing thread, fishing line, fruit and vegetable
bags, nets, and other woven or knitted fabrics for which low cost and high durability are most
important. Metallic fibers are used as monofilament yarns for the sparkle they produce in
apparel and interiors and for their ability to minimize static electricity in carpeting, clean-room
apparel, and technical applications.
Tape and Network Yarns
Tape yarns are inexpensive yarns produced from extruded polymer films (Figure 10.3).
Extrusion is the standard method of spinning fibers and some films. The split-fiber method is
less expensive than the traditional fiber extrusion process and requires a minimal investment
in equipment. Although some fiber polymers cannot be processed by the split-fiber method,
polypropylene is often processed in this way because it is easy and inexpensive and produces
strong yarns. Tape yarns are ribbonlike in appearance but can also take on the more rounded
appearance of traditional yarns.
Pellets of polypropylene with appropriate additives are melted and then extruded as a
film 0.005 to 0.020 inch thick onto a chilled roll or cooled quickly by quenching in water. The
film is slit into tapes approximately 0.1 inch wide and heat-stretched to orient the molecular
chains. The stretching can be carried to a point at which the film fibrillates (splits into fibers),
or the film is passed over needles to slit it. Twisting or other mechanical action completes the
fibrillation.
Yarns as low as 250 denier have been made from split fibers. Tape yarns are coarse and
usually used in carpet backing, rope, cord, fishnets, bagging, and interiors support fabrics for
which ribbonlike yarn is needed.
Olefin films are slit into yarns that are used for the same textile products as split-fiber
olefin. Slit-film-tape yarns are much more regular and may be thicker than fibrillated film-tape
yarns. Tape yarns are slightly more expensive and their production is slower.
Network yarns are made of fibers that are connected in a network arrangement. They
have a ribbonlike characteristic similar to tape yarns, but are bulkier and less dense. These
yarns are produced by incorporating air into the polymer to create a foam. When the foam is
extruded and stretched, tiny air cells rupture, forming an interconnected fibrous web. Although
their strength is not as great as that of multifilament, monofilament, or tape yarns, these net-
work yarns have interesting bulk and comfort characteristics. Uses include technical products
in which bulk and low density are more important than high strength (see Figure 10.3). See
Table 10.1 for a comparison of monofilament, smooth, tape, and network yarns.
Bulk Yarns
According to the ASTM Internation, a not-for profit organization that provides a forum for
the development and publication of standards defines “A bulk yarn is one that has been
processed to have greater covering power or apparent volume than that of a conventional
yarn of equal linear density and of the same basic material with normal twist.” Often these
bulk yarns are referred to as bulk-continuous-filament (BCF) yarns or textured filament
yarns. BCF yarns include any continuous-filament yarn whose smooth, straight fibers have
Table 10.1 Summary Table: Filament, Tape, and Network Yarns
Yarn Type Process Characteristics End Uses

Monofilament Created from polymer dope, extruded Single-coarse-filament fibers. Matte to Sewing thread, fishing line, bags, nets,
through spinneret high luster. metallic fibers.
Smooth Filament Uniform as they come from spinneret. Fabrics made from them resist pilling, do Apparel, interior, and technical end-use
not lint, shed soil easily. Compact. applications.
Tape Produced from extruded polymer films. Inexpensive, produces strong yarns. Used in carpet backing, ropes, interior
furnishings for support fabrics.
Network Made from fibers connected in a network Ribbonlike, bulkier, and less dense than Technical products where bulk and low
arrangement. tape yarns. density are important.

been displaced from their closely packed, parallel position by the introduction of some form of
crimp, curl, loop, or coil (Figure 10.4).
The characteristics of bulk yarns are quite different from those of smooth-filament
yarns. Bulking gives filaments the aesthetic properties of spun yarns by altering the sur-
face characteristics and creating space between the fibers. These yarns have an irregular
surface, soft twist, and continuous nonparallel fibers that resist being pulled apart. Fabrics
are more absorbent, more permeable to moisture, more breathable, and more comfortable,
and they have better bulk, cover, and elasticity. Static buildup is lower. Bulk yarns do not
pill or shed.
There are three classes of bulk yarns: bulky yarns, stretch yarns, and textured yarns.
They will be discussed after the texturing processes are described.
Figure Typical bulk yarn.
Texturing Filament Yarns  The texturing processes discussed here are primarily me- 10.4
chanical methods used with thermoplastic fibers. Heat and chemical methods are used to
achieve texture with bicomponent fibers.
In the false twist process, the spindle whirls at 600,000 revolutions per minute and gen-
erates such an intense sound that it adversely affects health and hearing. In the continuous
process, the yarn is twisted, heat-set, and untwisted as it travels through the spindle. The fila-
ments form a relaxed, distorted helical coil (Figure 10.5). When the yarn is pulled at each end,
the yarn stretches as the coils straighten out. This is one of the most important and cheapest
methods used to add bulk and stretch to filament yarns.
In draw-texturing, unoriented filaments or partially oriented filaments (often referred to as par-
tially oriented yarns—POY) are fed through the double-heater false-twist spinner, then stretched
Figure Drawing of a yarn made using the
10.5 false-twist process.
slightly and heat-set. Draw-texturing is a fast and inexpensive way to make textured bulk yarns.
The stuffer box produces a sawtooth crimp of considerable bulk. Straight-filament yarns
are pushed into one end of a heated box (Figure 10.6) and then withdrawn at the other end in
crimped form. The volume increase is 200% to 300%, with some elasticity. The stuffer box is
a fast, inexpensive, and popular method for carpeting yarns.
Conventional filament yarns are fed over an air jet (Figure 10.7) at a faster rate than they
are drawn off. The blast of air forces some of the filaments into very tiny loops; the velocity
of the air affects the size of the loops. This is a slow, relatively costly, but versatile process.
Volume increases with little or no stretch. Air-jet yarns maintain their size and bulk under ten-
sion because the straight areas bear the strain and the loops remain relatively unaffected.
In the knit–deknit process, a small-diameter tube is knit, heat-set, unraveled, and wound Figure Bulky yarn processed by the stuffer-
on cones (Figure10.8). Crimp is varied by changing stitch size and tension. The gauge used to 10.6 box method are used in apparel.

yarn processing 231

 Table 10.2  Summary Table of Bulk Yarns
Characteristic Bulky Yarns Stretch Yarns Textured Yarns

Nature Inherently bulky High degree of yarn curl High degree of bulk
Fiber type May be hollow or Any thermoplastic fiber Fibers that develop crimp
crimped fibers with moisture, heat, or
chemical treatment
Stretch Little stretch 300–500% stretch Moderate amount of
stretch
Characteristics Sawtooth, single Torque and nontorque Loopy, high bulk, crimped
Figure BCF yarns that have been air- fiber loops
10.7 processed maintain their size and bulk Processes Stuffer box, air jet, False-twist, knit–deknit, Air jet, flat-drawn textured,
under tension. draw-texturing, draw-texturing, friction draw-texturing, friction
friction texturing texturing texturing

2 Learning Activity
Work in groups of two or three. Explain the process used to produce these filament
yarns: monofilament, multifilament, and tape. Identify an end use for each type and
­explain why that yarn would be serviceable in that end use.

make a fabric must differ from that used in yarn texturing, or pinholes will form when texturing
and knit gauges match.
Figure Knit-deknit fabric is heat-set, then
According to the ASTM, “Bulky yarns are formed from inherently bulky manufactured
10.8 unraveled to create texture in filament
yarns. fibers that are hollow along part or all of their length or from fibers that cannot be closely packed
because of their cross-sectional shape, fiber alignment, stiffness, resilience, or natural crimp.”
Bulky texturing processes can be used with any kind of filament fiber or spun yarn. The
Bulky yarns are formed from inherently
yarns have less stretch than either stretch or textured yarns. Bulky yarns are used in a wide
bulky manufactured fibers that are hollow
array of products including carpeting, lingerie, sweaters, and shoelaces.
along part or all of their length or from fibers
The ASTM defines “stretch yarns as thermoplastic filament or spun yarns with a high
that cannot be closely packed ­because of
degree of potential elastic stretch (300% to 500%), rapid recovery, and a high degree of
some fiber characteristic. Stretch yarns are
yarn curl.” Stretch yarns have moderate bulk. Stretch yarns of nylon are used extensively in
thermoplastic filament or spun yarns with
men’s and women’s hosiery, pantyhose, leotards, swimwear, leggings, football pants, and
a high degree of potential elastic stretch,
jerseys. Apparel manufacturers like stretch yarns because fewer sizes are needed since one-
rapid recovery, and a high degree of yarn
size items fit wearers of different sizes. Stretch yarns are not the same as yarns made with
curl. Textured or bulked yarns are filament
­elastomeric fibers.
or spun yarns with notably greater apparent
The ASTM defines textured or bulked yarns as “filament or spun yarns with notably
volume than a conventional yarn of similar
greater apparent volume than a conventional yarn of similar filament count and linear density.”
filament count and linear density.
These yarns have much lower elastic stretch than stretch yarns, but greater stretch than bulky
yarns. They are stable enough to present no unusual problems in subsequent processing or
in consumer use. Fabrics made from these yarns maintain their original size and shape during
wear and care.
Spun yarns are continuous strands of sta- Table 10.2 summarizes the three major types of bulk-filament yarns.
ple fibers usually held together by twist.
They have a fuzzy surface and protruding
fiber ends, greater amounts of twist com-
pared to filament yarns, short fibers that
Spun Yarns
pull apart, and partially parallel fibers. Spun yarns are continuous strands of staple fibers held together in some way. Often,
mechanical twist takes advantage of fiber irregularities and natural cohesiveness to bind the

232 chapter ten

fibers together into one yarn. The process of producing yarns from staple fibers by twisting is
an old one, but methods of producing spun yarns without twist are also used.
Spun yarns have a fuzzy surface, greater amounts of twist compared to filament yarns,
short fibers that pull apart, and partially parallel fibers. Spun yarns have protruding fiber ends
that prevent close contact with the skin. A fabric made of spun yarn is more comfortable next
to the skin than a fabric of smooth-filament yarn.
Many of the insulating characteristics of a fabric are due to the structure of the yarns
used in that fabric. There is more space between fibers in a spun yarn than in a filament
yarn. Spaces in a yarn trap air; yarns with more trapped air insulate better than yarns with
less trapped air. A spun yarn with low twist has more air spaces than a spun yarn with
a high twist and, thus, has better insulating characteristics. For that reason, most fab-
rics designed for warmth have lower-twist yarns. If wind resistance is desired, fabrics with
high-twist compact yarns and a high count are more desirable because air permeability
is reduced.
The strength of the individual staple fiber is less important to the strength of spun yarn
than it is to filament yarns. The strength of spun yarn depends on the fibers’ cohesiveness or
clinging power and on the points of contact resulting from twist or other binding mechanisms
used to produce the spun yarn. The greater the number of points of contact, the greater the
resistance to fiber slippage within the yarn. Fibers with crimp or convolutions have a greater The strength of the individual staple fibers
number of points of contact. The friction of one fiber against another also gives resistance to is less important in the strength of spun
lengthwise fiber slippage. A fiber with a rough or irregular surface—wool scales, for ­example— yarn than it is in filament yarns.
creates more friction than a smooth fiber.
The mechanical spinning of staple fibers into yarns is one of the oldest manufacturing
arts and has been described as an invention as significant as that of the wheel. The basic
principles of spinning are the same now as they were when yarns were first made. Of course,
advances in engineering and technology have increased the speed of spinning and the quan-
tity of yarn produced.
Primitive spinning consisted of drawing out fibers held on a stick called a distaff, twist-
ing them by the rotation of a spindle that could be spun like a top, and winding up the

Learning Activity 3
Use Fabrics #5, 9, 42, 62, and 64 from your swatch kit and/or Yarns #4 and 5 from your
yarn kit. Examine the yarns in each fabric and group them as smooth, textured filament
and monofilament, or multifilament. For the fabric swatches, are all the yarns in a fabric
the same structure? (Some fabrics may include yarns of other types). For the filament
yarns, describe the relationship between the length or width of the fabric swatch and
the length of the fiber. Describe the most noticeable differences between smooth and
textured filament yarns. Examine the illustrations of texturing methods to identify the
procedure most likely used for each of the textured yarns used in this activity.

Learning Activity 4
Find two apparel goods that you regularly wear that are composed of (1) spun yarns
and (2) filament yarns. Consider the difference in aesthetics and comfort between these
two products. Compare your results to three classmates. What are the similarities
­between the products made from spun versus filament yarns?

yarn processing 233

 (a) (b)
Figure Drop spindle (a), spinning wheel (b).
10.9

spun yarn (Figure 10.9). The spinning wheel was invented in India and was introduced to
Europe in the 14th century. The factory system began in the 18th century, when James
Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny that turns more than one spinning wheel at a
time. Other inventions for improving the spinning process followed and led to the Industrial
Revolution, when power machines took over hand processes and made mass production
possible. Machines were developed for each separate step in the spinning process.
Spinning continues to evolve. Progress has been made in reducing the number of steps,
automating the process, improving yarn quality, and making it faster, simpler, and more eco-
nomical with higher production speeds and more user-friendly computerization. Spun-yarn
processes are shown in Table 10.3.

Processing Staple Fibers

Spinning may be done by several systems (cotton, woolen, worsted or long-staple, and flax),
which are adapted to such fiber characteristics as length, cohesiveness, diameter, elasticity, and
surface contour. These systems are used to process both natural and manufactured fibers as well

Table 10.3 Spun-Yarn Processes

From Staple Fiber From Filament Tow

Conventional ring Tow-to-top

Open-end Tow-to-yarn
Air jet High-bulk yarns
Direct
Compact
Vortex
Twistless
Self-twist

234 chapter ten

as blends of these fibers. Because the cotton system is the most widely used system, it is dis-
cussed here in detail. Table 10.4 and Figure 10.10 summarize the steps in producing a spun yarn.

Opening  Machine-picked cotton contains a high percentage of trash and dirt. The fibers
have been compressed very tightly in a bale that may have been stored for many months.
Opening loosens, cleans, and blends the fibers. Cotton varies from bale to bale, so blending
the fibers from several bales achieves more uniform quality in the finished yarn. Manufacturers
must produce yarns with consistent characteristics and performance so that basic fabrics do
not differ by season or year.
Material removed from the bale of fiber in the opening step includes very short fibers, soil,
plant debris, and other foreign matter. This waste may be discarded or purchased with the short
fibers recycled into yarns, fiber batts, or other textile products. Recycling this waste improves
spinners’ bottom line since they do not have to pay landfill or hauling fees and are selling a sec-
ondary output from their facilities. Recycling these materials improves sustainability since new
fibers do not have to be produced for the kinds of products made from these short fibers.

Carding  Carding partially aligns the fibers and forms them into a thin web that is brought
together as a soft, very weak rope of fibers called a carded sliver. A sliver is a ropelike strand
of fibers. The carding machine consists of a revolving cylinder and an outer belt covered with
fine, short wire teeth that remove trash and neps (entangled clumps of short, undeveloped or
underdeveloped fibers).
While large commercial facilities have long banks of machines that process fiber and pro-
duce thousands of yards/meters of yarn per hour, most of this equipment is enclosed. As part
of the local fiber movement, small fiber mills operate in many areas cleaning and processing
locally grown fiber. Because the equipment is smaller and it is easier to see the major parts
that do the work in yarn production, that equipment is shown here (Figure 10.11).

Table 10.4 The Cotton System

Operation Purpose
Opening Loosens bales, blends and cleans fibers.
Carding Cleans and aligns fibers, forms carded sliver.
Drawing Parallels and blends fibers, forms drawn sliver.
Combing Parallels and removes short fibers, forms combed sliver (for long-staple
fibers only).
Roving Inserts slight twist, forms roving.
Spinning Reduces size, twists, winds finished yarn on bobbins.
Winding Rewinds yarn to spools or cones.

Ring
Opening Carding Drawing
spinning

Roving Winding

Figure Carding partially aligns fibers. This

Open-end 10.11 carding machine is used in a small
Combing
spinning
fiber mill that processes fiber for
hobbyists, fiber artists, and others
Figure Production sequence for spun yarns. who produce small quantities of
10.10 natural fibers.

yarn processing 235

 Slower Faster
Figure Drawing rolls.
10.12
Woolen yarn
Worsted yarn
Figure Woolen and worsted yarns: short-
10.13 staple wool fibers in carded or woolen
yarn (top); long, parallel wool fibers
in combed or worsted yarn (bottom).
Carded (blue) and woolen (black) yarns
and combed (red) and worsted (black)
yarns unraveled from fabric.
Figure The wrapper on this linen yarn for the
10.14 fiber artist indicates that it has been
wet processed.
236 chapter ten
Drawing  Drawing increases the parallelism of the fibers and combines several carded or
combed slivers into one drawn sliver. This blending operation contributes to greater yarn uni-
formity. Drawing is done by sets of rollers, with each set rolling faster than the preceding set
(Figure 10.12). As slivers are combined, their size is reduced.
The drawing step is repeated once more for carded slivers. At this stage, fibers of differ-
ent generic types often are combined into a blended drawn sliver. Because each fiber differs
in its physical properties, conditions for the carding and initial drawing steps differ for each
fiber in a blend. Blending during the drawing process also eliminates mixed wastes.
Combing  If long-staple fibers are to be spun, another step is added to the process.­
­Combing produces a yarn that is superior to a carded yarn in smoothness, fineness, even-
ness, and strength.
Combing aligns fibers in a parallel arrangement. It also removes short fibers so that fibers
in the combed sliver will be more uniform in length. The combing operation and long-staple
fibers are costly. As much as one-fourth of the fiber is combed out as waste and reprocessed
into short-staple carded yarns. Carded yarns of short-staple fibers have more protruding fiber
ends than combed yarns, which are made of long-staple fibers. Protruding ends contribute to
greater comfort and warmth and produce dull luster, fuzzy appearance, shedding of lint from
broken-off fiber ends, and formation of surface pills. Fiber ends can be removed from the fab-
ric’s surface by singeing (see Chapter 16).
When working with cotton or cotton blends, the term combed yarn is used. When work-
ing with wool or wool blends, the term worsted yarn is used. Yarns that have not received
this process are carded yarns (cotton and cotton blends) or woolen yarns (wool or wool
blends). Combed yarns are drawn once before combing and two more times after combing
(Figure 10.13).
Fiber Processing for Other Systems  In the woolen system, oil is added to wool fibers
to facilitate processing. A condenser divides the carded web into strips, and a small amount
of twist is inserted. Ring spinning is usually used to produce the bulky, soft, and fuzzy yarns.
In the worsted system, longer wool and manufactured fibers are passed several times
through gill boxes ensuring even fiber distribution in the sliver and making the fibers more
parallel. After gilling, slivers are combed, gilled another time, drawn, and spun into compact,
smooth, strong yarns.
In the flax system, a hackling machine with a revolving belt with embedded pins removes
the short and tangled fibers and nonfibrous matter. Yarns made from the shorter and less
parallel fibers are tow or hackled yarns; yarns made from longer and more parallel fibers are
line or well-hackled yarns. The fibers are processed either wet or dry by different processes
depending on the desired yarn. Wet processed yarns are the finest, smoothest, and strongest
ones available (Figure 10.14).
Comparison of Carded-Combed and Woolen-Worsted Yarns  The length and paral-
lel alignment of fibers in spun yarns are major factors in the kind of fabric produced, the cost
of the yarns and fabrics, and the terminology used to designate these characteristics.
Yarns made from carded sliver are called carded yarns. Carded sliver of short wool fibers
is made into woolen yarns, and the fabrics are called woolen fabrics. (The term woolen refers
to yarn type and is not a synonym for wool).
Table 10.5  Comparison of Carded and Combed Yarns
The length and parallel alignment of fibers
Component Carded Combed in spun yarns are major factors in the kind
Fiber length Short staple Long staple of fabric produced, the cost of the yarns
Yarn Less regular in size and appearance More regular in size and appearance and fabrics, and the terminology used to
Medium-to-low twist Medium-to-high twist designate these characteristics.
More protruding ends Fewer protruding ends
Bulkier, softer, fuzzier Parallel fibers, finer count
More sensitive to abrasion Longer wearing, stronger
More fibers present Fewer fibers present Sliver

Fabric May become baggy in areas of Smoother surface, lighter weight

stress
Fabrics vary from soft to firm Do not sag
Blankets always carded Take and hold press
Wide range of uses Fabrics range from sheers to
suitings
Less expensive More expensive
Yarn term based Cotton and other staple fibers: Cotton: combed
on fiber type carded
Flax: tow or hackled Flax: line or well-hackled
Wool: woolen Wool: worsted

Yarns made from combed sliver are called combed yarns. With wool, the combed sliver
is referred to as top, and the yarns made from top are called worsted yarns. The short fibers
removed in combing are called noils and are a source of fibers for woolen yarns. Fine-combed
cotton yarns are made from the fibers that are more than 1⅛ inches long.
Roving
Carded and combed yarns are compared in Table 10.5.

Figure Roving.
Roving  The roving step reduces the drawn sliver, increases the parallel alignment of the
10.15
fibers, and inserts a small amount of twist in the strand, now called the roving (Figure 10.15). It
is a softly twisted strand of fibers about the size of a pencil.

Inserting Yarn Twist

Most spun yarns are made using either ring (conventional) or open-end spinning. Each of
these basic systems will be discussed in this section. Alternate methods will be discussed at
the end of this section.

Ring or Conventional Spinning  Ring or conventional spinning consists of a series

of operations designed to (1) clean and make parallel staple fibers, (2) draw them out into a Ring or conventional spinning consists of a
fine strand, and (3) twist them to keep them together and give them strength. Ring spinning series of operations that cleans and makes
is the most important spinning method for short staple fibers. It remains the standard by parallel staple fibers, draws them out into a
which spun yarns are judged. Even with continuous spinning, higher speeds, and automa- fine strand, and twists them to keep them
tion, spinning remains a long and expensive process. Ring-spun yarns are finer, smoother, together and give them strength. Ring
have better quality, are more uniform, and create fewer problems in fabrication. Ring spinning spinning is the most important spinning
is more versatile than alternate spinning systems. Many fine-spun yarns are processed by method for short staple fibers.
this system.

yarn processing 237

 5 Learning Activity
Identify in your swatch kit two fabrics, one made from carded yarns and one made from
combed yarns. Use Table10.5 to compare these fabrics. What are potential end uses
for the carded and combed fabric based on their respective characteristics? Based on
fiber content (see the key for the swatch kit), what would you predict for performance.
Because of the difference in yarn type, how would performance differ between the two
fabrics?

6 Learning Activity
Use a cotton ball or bundle of wool fiber. Pinch a small triangle of fibers and start to pull
it away from the rest of the fibers. Roll your thumb back away from the tip of your index
finger to add some twist to the draw triangle as you continue to pull the triangle away
from the other fibers. Continue this process until you have created a yarn 4 or so inches
Roving long. How long did it take you to make the yarn? How regular is your yarn? How long
would it take to create enough yarn to make a fabric?

Spinning adds yarn twist. A spinning frame holds a number of individual units. Ring spin-
ning draws, twists, and winds in one continuous operation. The traveler (Figure 10.16) carries
the yarn as it slides around the ring, thus inserting the twist. Ring spinning is a slow process
with rates of 25,000 to 30,000 rpm, as compared with rates up to 150,000 rpm for open-
end spinning. Ring-spun yarns are preferred for knits and fine blends of polyester and cotton
because of their more comfortable hand.
Blending can also take place during roving or spinning because several fiber strands are
combined in these processes. Blending is usually done during roving or spinning to achieve a
color blend.
For woolen yarns, ring-frame spinning, similar to ring spinning of cotton yarns, is com-

Ring monly used.

Open-End Rotor Spinning  Open-end rotor spinning eliminates formation of the rov-
Traveler ing. Knots are eliminated, larger packages of yarn are formed, less operator supervision is
needed, and production speeds are about four times that of ring spinning. Open-end yarns
Figure Ring spinning.
have a harsher hand and are weaker and more sensitive to abrasion, but more uniform and
10.16
more opaque in appearance. While moderately thin yarns are possible, ring spinning is used
to produce thinner yarns. Open-end yarns are preferred for toweling and other pile yarn fab-
rics, denim, sheeting, and base fabrics for laminated fabrics.
Turbine In the more commonly used rotor-air-jet spinning process, sliver is separated so that
individual fibers are fed by an air stream and deposited on the inner surface of a high-speed
rotor. As the fibers are drawn off, twist is inserted by the rotation of the rotor, making a yarn
Yarn (Figure 10.17). Rotor-spun yarns have a higher twist at the center of the yarn.
Fiber input Friction spinning, another type of open-end spinning, combines rotor and air tech-
Stationary plate
niques. The sliver is separated into fibers that are spread into carding or combing rolls and
Figure Open-end rotor spinning. delivered by air to two cylinders rotating in the same direction, which pull the fibers into
10.17 a yarn. The feed angle into the cylinder controls fiber alignment. Friction-spun yarns are

238 chapter ten

more even, freer of lint and other debris, and loftier, but they are weaker as compared with
­conventional yarns. Friction spinning may be used to process very-short-waste staple fiber
into yarns.

Alternate Spun-Yarn Processes

These processes simplify yarn spinning by eliminating some steps in ring spinning. They are
more automatic and have higher production rates compared to ring spinning. Most processes
eliminate one or more of these steps: drawing, roving, ring spinning, and rewinding. However,
the two dominant spinning systems are ring and open-end spinning.
In air-jet spinning, a narrow sliver is fed into a machine with two nozzles facing in oppo-
site directions. Each nozzle blows air against the sliver forcing the outermost fibers to wrap
around the sliver, which produces a yarn. Air-jet yarns are less elastic, weaker, and rougher
than either ring- or rotor-spun yarns.
Table 10.6 compares ring spinning, rotor spinning, and air-jet spinning. See Figure 10.18
to examine the similarities and differences of yarns produced by these three spinning
methods.

Learning Activity 7
A supplier has several options regarding a fabric your firm wants for an all-cotton
high-fashion item. The different options include ring spun, open-end spun, or air-jet-
spun yarns. Using Table10.6, describe the positive and negative features of each fabric.
Which yarn would you prefer? Why that yarn over the other two?

Table 10.6  Comparison of Ring-Spun, Rotor-Spun, and Air-Jet-Spun Yarns

Yarn Characteristic Ring-Spun Open-End Rotor-Spun Air-Jet-Spun

Fiber parallelism High Medium High at yarn core, less at yarn edge
Fiber orientation All areas helical Yarn core helical Axial orientation in yarn core
Yarn structure Compact Less compact Less compact
Insulation Low Moderate Good
Yarn hairiness High Lower Lower
Yarn stiffness Low More rigid Depends on structure
Abrasion resistance Medium Low High
Pilling propensity Low Pronounced Less than rotor- and ring-spun
Yarn strength Good Low Medium
Surface roughness Low Medium Medium
Yarn size Wide range Not as fine as ring Not as fine as ring, but finer than rotor
Yarn evenness Least even Most even Less even than rotor
Comfort Best Moderate Lowest
Thermal retention Moderate Moderate Best
Hand (Softness) Moderate Low High
Preferred for Knits Higher-weight apparel, interior textiles Bedding, interior textiles

yarn processing 239

 Ring Spun

Open-End

Air-Jet

Figure Compare these three yarns: ring-spun (top), open-end spun (middle), and air-jet
10.18 spun (bottom).

Direct spinning eliminates the roving and uses the ring-spinning device to insert twist. The
sliver is fed directly to the spinning frame. These heavier yarns are used for pile fabrics and
carpets.
Compact spinning is a variation of ring spinning that condenses the roving before final
twist insertion and creates a smoother compact or condensed yarn. Compact spun yarns
are considered superior to ring spun yarns. Compact spun yarns are smaller, stronger with
better elongation and reduced hairiness. Yarns with better fiber alignment and fewer defects
are produced. Because of their smoothness and compact nature, these yarns create fewer
problems with yarn breakage in weaving and better weaving efficiencies. While compact spin-
ning is gaining in use, its popularity is limited because of its newness and higher technology
demands for spinning equipment.
Vortex spinning produces a yarn that has an outer layer of fibers wrapped around a cen-
ter of parallel fibers. While high speeds are possible, the sliver must have clean and strong
fibers of uniform length. After the sliver has reached a desired fineness, high-speed or vortex
air currents wrap the fibers around a hollow stationary spindle. Yarn twist develops as the
fibers swirl around the spindle before they are pulled through the hollow center. Shorter fibers
are removed in the process.
Twistless spinning eliminates the twisting process. A roving is wetted, drawn out, sprayed
with sizing or adhesive, wound on a package, and steamed to bond the fibers together. The
yarns are ribbonlike in shape and stiff because of the sizing. They lack strength as individual
yarns but gain strength in the fabric from the pressure within the components of the fabric.
The absence of twist gives the yarns a soft hand, good luster, and opacity after the sizing is
removed. The yarns are easy to dye and have good durability but are not suitable to very open
fabric structures.
Reversal point
In self-twist spinning, two strands of roving are carried between two rollers, which draw
out the roving and insert twist. The yarns have areas of S-twist and areas of Z-twist. When the
Rollers Self-twist spinner two twisted yarns are brought together, they intermesh and entangle, and when pressure is
Figure Self-twist spinning. released, the yarns ply over each other (Figure 10.19). This process can be used to combine
10.19 staple strands, filament strands, or staple and filament strands.

Spinning Filament Tow into Spun Yarns

Filament tow of any manufactured fiber can be made into spun yarns by direct spinning with-
out disrupting the continuity of the strand. The two systems are tow-to-top or tow-to-yarn.

240 chapter ten

 Three guide rolls
Tow-to-Top (Sliver) System  The tow-to-top system bypasses the opening, picking,
125 lbs pressure
and carding steps of conventional spinning. In this system, the filament tow is reduced to
staple and formed into sliver (or top) by either diagonal cutting or break stretching. The sliver is Cushioned
top roll Steel back roll
made into regular-spun yarn by conventional spinning.
The diagonal-cutting stapler changes tow into staple of equal or variable lengths and Fibers break
here
forms it into a crimped sliver. In the break-stretch process, the tow is stretched and the fibers 125 lbs pressure
Cushioned
break at their weakest points without disrupting the strand’s continuity. The resulting staple
bottom roll
fibers vary in length.

Tow-to-Yarn System  Tow-to-yarn spinning is done by a machine called a direct Fluted steel roll
­spinner. Light tow (4,400 denier) passes between two pairs of nip rolls. The second pair of nip
rolls breaks the fibers at their weakest points. The resulting staple-fiber strand is drawn out to Figure Direct spinning of yarn from
yarn size, twisted, and wound on a bobbin (Figure 10.20). 10.20 filament tow.

High-Bulk Yarns
High-bulk yarns are spun yarns essentially free from stretch. Some of the staple fibers have High-bulk yarns are spun yarns with no
assumed a relatively high random crimp caused by shrinkage of low-crimp fibers. stretch but significant bulk and loft.
Some fibers can be produced with a latent shrinkage potential and retain their bulk
indefinitely at room temperature. Latent-shrinkage fibers are achieved by heating, stretch-
ing, and then cooling while in the stretched condition. These heat-stretched fibers are called
high-shrinkage fibers and are combined with nonshrinkage fibers in the same yarn, which is
made into a product. Heat treatment of the product causes the high-shrinkage fibers to relax
or shrink, forcing the nonshrinkage fibers to bulk (Figure 10.21). This makes high-bulk sweat-
ers, knitting yarns, and other products. High-shrinkage fibers migrate to the center of the
yarn. Thus, if fine-denier nonshrinkage fibers are combined with coarse-denier high-shrinkage
fibers, the fine-denier fibers concentrate on the outer surface of the yarn. Regulating the heat
stretching controls the bulk.

Learning Activity 8
Figure High bulk yarn before (top) and after
Use Fabrics #39, 40, 42, and 53 from your swatch kit. Examine the yarns in each fabric 10.21 steaming (bottom).
and group them as carded/woolen or combed/worsted. Untwist yarns from each fabric
and measure the fiber length. How do the fiber lengths compare between the carded/
woolen and combed/worsted yarns? Describe the most noticeable differences between
these two types of yarns.

Learning Activity 9
Compare the yarns and fabrics used in Learning Activities 3 and 8. Describe the differ-
ences between these major yarns types (filament and spun) in terms of fiber length, yarn
appearance, hairiness, and uniformity.

yarn processing 241


A blend is an intimate mixture of fibers of
different generic type, composition, length,
diameter, or color spun together into one
yarn. Mixture refers to yarns of different
generic types combined to make a fabric.
In a combination, ply yarns are used with at
least one of the plies of a different generic
fiber type than the other plies.
242 chapter ten
This high-bulk principle can be used to achieve interesting effects, such as guard hairs
in synthetic furs and sculptured high–low carpets. Higher-density carpet pile or furlike fab-
rics can be made by using a high-shrinkage-type fiber for the ground yarns. When the yarns
shrink, the fibers are brought much closer together.
Fiber Blends
While many products are made of fabrics of a single generic fiber, many other products com-
bine two or more generic fibers. This is done because each fiber contributes unique perfor-
mance properties to the product. For many products, a higher degree of consumer satisfaction
is achieved when two or more fibers are present. There are three ways that this can be done.
A blend is an intimate mixture of fibers of different generic type, composition, length,
diameter, or color spun together into one yarn. In intimate blends, both fibers are present in
the same yarn in planned proportions. Fiber types cannot be ­separated; they are next to each
other throughout the yarn. When intimate blend yarns are untwisted and examined through a
microscope, both fibers are visible in the viewing area.
Mixture refers to yarns of different generic types within a fabric. In a mixture, yarns of
one generic type are used as one component of the fabric (e.g., the warp or the base struc-
ture yarn in knits) and yarns of another generic type are used as a second component of the
fabric (e.g., the filling or as the pile component in velour). When these fabrics are unraveled,
the fibers can be separated by placing all yarns of one component in one pile and all yarns of
the second component in another pile.
In a combination, ply yarns are used. At least one strand of the ply yarn is of a ­different
generic fiber type from the other strands of the ply yarn. For example, glitter and sparkle is
incorporated in fabric by using a metallic monofilament as part of a plied fancy yarn.
Blends, mixtures, and combinations produce fabrics with properties that are different
from those obtained with one fiber only. While this discussion relates to blends because they
are the most common, it also applies to mixtures and combinations.
Blending is done for several reasons:
1. To produce fabrics with a better combination of performance characteristics. Although
blends never perform as well in the areas of performance as fabrics of only one fiber,
blends help compensate for poor performance. For example, in end uses for which du-
rability is important, nylon or polyester blended with cotton or wool increases strength
and resistance to abrasion, while the comfort of wool or cotton is maintained. For exam-
ple, 100%-cotton fabrics are not as durable as polyester/cotton blends, and polyester/
cotton blends are less absorbent and less comfortable than 100%-cotton fabrics.
2. To improve spinning, weaving, and finishing efficiency and to improve uniformity.
3. To obtain better texture, hand, or fabric appearance. A small amount of cashmere
may be used to give a buttery or slick hand to wool fabrics, or a small amount of
rayon may give luster and softness to a cotton fabric. Fibers with different shrinkage
properties are blended to produce bulky, lofty fabrics or more realistic furlike fabrics.
4. To minimize fiber cost. Expensive fibers can be extended by blending them with less
expensive fibers. Labeling requirements help protect consumers from unscrupulous
labeling practices.
5. To obtain cross-dyed or unique color effects such as heather. Fibers with unlike dye
affinity are blended together and dyed at a later stage in processing.
Blending is a complicated and expensive process, but the combination of properties it
provides is permanent. Blends offer better serviceability of fabrics as well as improved appear-
ance and hand.
Table 10.7  Fiber Properties
Properties Cotton Rayon Wool Acetate Nylon Polyester Acrylic Olefin Lyocell

Bulk and loft 1 1 4 1 1 4 1

Wrinkle recovery 1 1 4 3 3 4 3 3 1
Press (wet) retention 1 1 1 2 3 4 1
Absorbency 4 4 4 2 1 1 1 1 4
Static resistance 4 4 3 2 2 1 2 3 4
Resistance to pilling 4 4 2 4 2 3 2
Strength 3 2 2 2 4 4 2 4 4
Abrasion resistance 2 1 3 1 4 4 2 4 1
Stability 3 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 3
Resistance to heat 4 4 3 2 2 2 3 1 4

4, excellent; 3, good; 2, moderate; 1, low

Table 10.7 rates selected fiber properties. Note that each fiber is deficient in one or more
important properties.

Blend Levels
A blend of fibers that complement each other may give more satisfactory all-around perfor-
mance than a fabric made from 100% of one fiber. For example, compare three fabrics, one of
Fiber A, a second of Fiber B, and a third of a combination of Fibers A and B across five proper-
ties. A fabric made of 50% A and 50% B will have values for each property that are neither as
high as possible nor as low as possible (Table 10.8). By blending the fibers, a fabric with inter-
mediate values is obtained, but the values do not directly correspond to the fiber percentages.
Blending is done to produce fabrics with a
Research by fiber manufacturers has determined the ideal percentage of each fiber for
better combination of performance charac-
various products. It is difficult to generalize about percentages because they vary with fiber
teristics; to improve processing efficiency
type, fabric construction, and end use. For example, a small amount of nylon (15%) improves
and uniformity; to obtain better texture,
the strength of wool, but 60% nylon is needed to improve the strength of rayon. For stability,
hand, or appearance; to reduce fiber cost;
50% acrylic blended with wool in a woven fabric is satisfactory, but 75% acrylic is necessary
or to obtain unique effects.
in knitted fabrics.

Learning Activity 10
For each of the properties listed in Table 10.7, combine different fibers to see how a
blend might be used to produce a fabric with satisfactory performance in all properties.

Fiber producers have controlled blend levels fairly well by setting standards for fabrics
identified with their trademarks. For example, a company that produces polyester may rec-
ommend a blend level of 65% polyester/35% cotton in lightweight or m
­ edium-weight fabrics,
whereas 50% polyester/50% cotton is recommended for suit-weight fabrics.
By using specially designed fiber variants, it is possible to obtain desired performance and
appearance in fabrics. For example, fading, shrinkage, and softening over time are desirable
characteristics for denim jeans, but are undesirable in most other apparel. For this market, a
polyester variant is available for blending with cotton that fades, softens, and shrinks uniformly.

yarn processing 243


Fiber A
Short Fiber
Long Fiber
Fiber B
(a) (b) (c)
Figure Cross section of yarn showing fiber
10.22 location in blends combining fibers
of similar diameter: (a) blended at
the opening stage, (b) blended at the
roving stage. Part C shows a blend of
coarse and long fine fibers.
Figure Combining filament and spun yarns in
10.23 a fabric can be used to create subtle
pattern variations in texture and luster.
Fiber A Fiber B
Blender
Figure Blended-filament yarn. Different fibers
10.24 are spun, then blended to form a yarn.
244 chapter ten
Table 10.8 Effect of Blending on Performance
KNOWN VALUES ACTUAL VALUES
Predicted Values Actual Values
Property A B of 50/50 A and B of 50/50 A and B
1 12 4 8 9
2 9 12 10.5 11
3 15 2 8.5 6
4 7 9 8 8
5 12 8 10 10.5
11 Learning Activity
Identify five products that you own that contain fiber blends. Write down the product
and the percentage fiber in each blend. Using Table 10.7 suggest why these fibers were
blended for the end use.
Blending Methods
Blending of staple can be done at any stage prior to the spinning operation, including open-
ing-picking, drawing, or roving. One of the disadvantages of direct spinning is that blending
cannot be done before the sliver is formed.
The earlier the fibers are blended in processing, the better the blend. Figure 10.22 shows
a cross section of yarns in which the fibers were blended in the opening stage (a) and in which
the fibers were blended at the roving stage (b). Long, fine fibers tend to move to the center of a
yarn, whereas coarse, short fibers migrate to the outside edge of a yarn (Figure 10.22c).
Fabrics are also produced that are mixtures of bulk-filament yarns and spun yarns
(Figure 10.23). These fabrics may have filament yarns in only one direction and spun yarns in the
other, or they may have different yarns in bands in the warp or filling to create a design in the fabric.
Blended-Filament Yarns
A blended-filament yarn has unlike filament fibers of different deniers or generic types
blended together (Figure 10.24). This usually improves the performance and appearance of
apparel and interior fabrics (Figure 10.24).
Fasciated or Rotofil Yarns  These yarns combine coarse filaments for strength and fine
broken filaments for softness to improve fabric texture and hand. The yarn has a low-twist
staple fiber core wrapped with surface fibers to add integrity to the yarn. Air-jet spinning is
used to produce these yarns.
Sustainability of Yarn Processing
Although yarn processing may not be recognized as having significant environmental impact,
several concerns should be discussed. The rotors used in false-twist texturing of filament
yarns rotate at such high speeds that workplace safety regulations require that workers in
these areas wear hearing protection to prevent permanent hearing loss.
 The opening step generates large quantities of dust, fiber bits, and other airborne con-
taminants. Workplace safety regulations require dust control in these areas. Small vacuum
heads move through the mill removing dust, loose fiber, and other airborne debris. Controlling
humidity levels minimizes dust or the buildup of static electricity, which may create problems
with equipment operation.
Opening, carding, and combing steps for the production of spun yarn generate a significant
amount of waste, which includes very short fibers, entangled fibers, plant debris, soil, and other for-
eign matter. At one time, this waste material was discarded as unusable. Now, mills sell this waste
to specialists who produce yarns and other fiber products from recycled waste fiber for use in
apparel, interiors, and technical products. Plant debris and soil are sold to gardeners for compost.
Ring spinning is concentrated in countries with lower labor costs because the technol-
ogy available in those countries is not highly advanced and less-skilled labor can service and
maintain ring-spinning equipment. In addition, spare parts for ring-spinning machines are
more readily available and are relatively inexpensive. Power disruptions that may occur in
less developed countries do not create significant problems with ring spinning. Open-end
and rotor spinning require higher energy consumption, more skilled labor, more expensive
replacement parts, and more expensive technology.
Lubricants and oils added during spinning to reduce friction can be from either petroleum
or natural sources. Those from natural sources are renewable; most of the natural source oils
are also biodegradable.

Learning Activity 12
Use Fabric #20 from your swatch kit. Determine the fibers present by examining the key for
the swatch set. Predict the serviceability of this fabric based on its blend level. How would
you expect the serviceability of this fabric to change if it were all cotton or all polyester?

Learning Activity 13
You are shopping with a friend who is trying to decide between two shirts. One is all
cotton and the other is a 50% lyocell and 50% polyester blend. Your friend wants your
advice as to which shirt to purchase if all other factors (fit, price, style, etc.) are similar.
What do you recommend and why? Would your answer change if durability and easy
care were the most important factors? Would your answer change if comfort were the
most important factor?

Learning Activity 14
Work in groups of four. One pair of the group should investigate the sustainability of
producing textured filament yarns. The second pair of the group should investigate the
sustainability of producing combed spun yarns. Discuss your findings with the people in
your group. Is one type of yarn more sustainable than another? If yes, why? If products
were to be made only of this one yarn type, how would serviceability change for items
usually made with the other yarn type?

yarn processing 245

 terms
key terms
Air-jet spinning
Blend
Blended-filament yarn
Filament yarn
High-bulk yarn
Mixture
Stretch yarn
Tape yarn
Textured or bulked yarn
Bulk-continuous-filament (BCF) yarn Monofilament yarns Texturing
Bulk yarn Open-end rotor spinning Throwing
Bulky yarn Opening Tow-to-top system
Carded yarn Ring or conventional spinning Tow-to-yarn system
Carding Roving Woolen yarn
Combed yarn Sliver Worsted yarn
Combination Smooth-filament yarn Yarn
Combing Spinning
Drawing Spun yarn

questions
review questions
1. Explain the processes used to produce each of these yarns:
smooth filament, BCF, carded spun, and worsted spun.
a.
b.
c.
75% silk, 25% cotton
70% polyester, 30% wool
65% rayon, 35% polyester
2. Using the serviceability concepts, explain why cotton
and polyester are often blended for interior and apparel d. 75% acrylic, 20% wool, 5% cashmere
items. e. 65% polyester, 35% cotton

3. Compare and contrast the appearance, processing, and
performance of the yarn pairs listed:
a. Carded and combed yarns
b. Smooth and bulk-filament yarns
c. Woolen and worsted yarns
d. BCF and woolen yarns
4. How would the performance of two similar products differ
if one were made of carded cotton yarns and the other of
combed cotton yarns?
9. Assume you are working for a retailer and a supplier indicates
that the woven cotton shirts can be made with either ring
spun or compact spun yarns. Explain which you would prefer
and why you would prefer one yarn over the other.
10. Assume you are working for a design firm that produces
knit sweaters. A supplier indicates that the textured recycled
polyester yarn can be made with either a bulk-continuous-
filament yarn or a high-bulk yarn. Explain which you would
prefer and why you would prefer one yarn over the other.

5. What are the differences between two products where one
is a blend of nylon and wool and the other a mixture of
nylon and wool?
6. How does a fabricator decide how much cotton and how
much polyester to use in creating a cotton/polyester fabric?
7. Explain how blend levels are measured. How closely should
the fiber content information and the actual blend level be?
8. Using Table10.7, identify the properties each of the fibers
brings to the following blends. What is a disadvantage each
fiber brings to the blend?
11. Explain the contributions yarn brings to textile products.
How does yarn affect product serviceability?
12. Explain how spun and filament yarns differ and identify
product categories where you are most likely to see one
rather than the other. What are the major characteristics
that each of these yarn types are known for?
13. Explain how you can differentiate between these five yarns:
carded-spun yarn, combed-spun yarn, smooth-filament
yarn, monofilament yarn, bulk-continuous-filament yarn.
Give an example of an end use for each.

246 chapter ten

 Case Study
Yarn Energy Storage*
Wearable electronics are increasingly
important in sports, medicine, military,
and government applications. Currently,
electronic textiles are limited by the need
for a power source, such as a battery.
Researchers are searching for textile energy
sources that are flexible, wearable, and part
of the fiber or yarn. One possible solution
explored by Drexel University researchers
is to first treat cellulosic spun yarns with
a molten salt, then embed the yarn with a
material, such as activated carbon particles,
by sliding the yarn through a syringe filled
with a mixture of the liquid material. The
yarn is then pulled through the needle of the
syringe, which physically presses the car-
bon into the fibers, and it is wrapped onto a
spool. The liquid is removed by washing the
yarn, which also traps the carbon particles
in the surface of the yarn. The result is a
complex composite fibrous material that is
flexible and has the capacitive properties of
activated carbon.
Discussion Questions
1. Compare the process of creating this
energy storage yarn with a spun yarn.
What are the similarities and differences?
2. Identify potential uses for this for sports,
medicine, military, and government
applications.
3. For what reasons do you think
the researchers focused on cellu-
losic fibers spun into yarns rather
than synthetic fibers spun into
filament yarns?
4. What are the potential positive and
­negative environmental impact
from the development and use of
these yarns?

*Jost, K., Durkin, D. P., Haverhals, L. M., Brown, E. K., Langenstein, M., DeLong, H. C., Truelove, P. C., Gogotsi, Y., & Dion, G. (2015). Flexible electronics: Natural fiber
welded electrode yarns for knittable textile supercapacitors. Advanced Energy Materials, 5(4), 1–8.

readings
suggested readings
Alagirusamy, R., Fangueiro, R., Ogale, V., & Padaki, N. (2006).
Hybrid yarns and textile preforming for thermoplastic
composites. Textile Progress, 38(4), 1–71.
Jost, K., Durkin, D. P., Haverhals, L. M., Brown, E. K.,
Langenstein, M., DeLong, H. C., Truelove, P. C., Gogotsi, Y., &
Dion, G. (2015). Flexible electronics: Natural fiber welded
Ali, U., Wang, X., & Lin, T. (2013). Direct electrospinning of nanofiber electrode yarns for knittable textile supercapacitors. Advanced
yarns. AATCC Review, 13(2), 57–63. Energy Materials, 5(4), 1–8.

Anonymous. (2009, March 7). Optimize spinning profits during
power cuts. w w w.fibre2fabric.com/news/yarnnews/
newsdetails.aspx?news_id=69931
ASTM International. (2007). Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol.
7.01. West Conshohocken, PA: Author.
Lawrence, C. A. (2003). Fundamentals of Spun Yarn Technology.
New York: CRC Press.
Mirzaei, M., Gharehaghaji, A. A., & Zarrebini, M. (2012). A new
method of yarn hariness reduction by air suction during
carding. Textile Research Journal, 82(20), 2128–2136.

Becerir, B., & Omeroglu, S. (2007). Comparison of color values Oxenham, W. (2004, January). Spinning. Textile World, 154(1),
of plain cotton fabrics knitted from ring- and compact-spun 32–39.
yarns. AATCC Review, 7(7), 41–46. Teal, P. (2013). The transformation of the spinning industry.
Becerir, B., Omeroglu, S., & Alpay, H. R. (2006). Assessing color Spin-Off, 37(2), 38–42.
differences of cotton fabrics made from ring- and compact-
spun yarns after abrasion. AATCC Review, 6(10), 37–41.

yarn processing 247

 Manifeesto/Fotolia Sylvie Bouchard/Fotolia

Andreja Donko/Fotolia The_Lightwriter/Fotolia

Yarn Classification

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To classify yarns based on their characteristics and structure.
• To integrate the relationships among yarn type, yarn characteristics, yarn quality,
and product performance.

11
 Yarns contribute significantly to fabric and product performance. Fabric producers must select
from among a wide variety of yarns. Their selection impacts the fabric’s hand, appearance,
drape, durability, comfort, and many other areas of performance. For example, yarns with
high twist create the texture in true crepe apparel and interior fabrics. Yarns with low twist are
napped in flannel fabrics and blankets. Yarn may enhance good fiber performance or partially
compensate for poor fiber performance. The effectiveness of a finish may depend on the yarn
choice. There are many different yarn types available. Factors that are used to identify and clas-
sify yarns include fiber length (staple/filament), yarn twist, yarn size, and yarn regularity/irregu-
larity along its length. This chapter explains yarn identification, classification, and performance.

Yarn Characteristics and Structure

Fiber Length
Most common yarn names reflect fiber length and fiber alignment in the yarn. When a yarn

A spun yarn is composed of short-staple is unraveled from a fabric and examined, it may appear uniformly smooth, uniformly bulky, or

fibers that are twisted or otherwise fuzzy, with protruding fiber ends. It can be untwisted until it separates into individual fibers.

bonded together, resulting in a fuzzy yarn These fibers are either short, typically 1/2 to 21/2 inches, or as long as the piece of fabric from

with protruding fiber ends. A filament which the yarn was pulled.

yarn is composed of long smooth fibers A spun yarn is composed of short-staple fibers that are twisted or otherwise bonded

grouped together or slightly twisted together, resulting in a fuzzy yarn with protruding fiber ends. Better-quality and more-expen-

together. Uniformly bulky yarns are sive spun yarns are produced from longer-staple fibers.

called textured-bulk-filament yarns or just A filament yarn is composed of long fibers grouped together or slightly twisted together.

textured-bulk yarns. Smooth-filament yarns have straight, almost parallel fibers. Uniformly bulky yarns are called
textured-bulk-filament yarns or just textured-bulk yarns. Table 11.1 summarizes the

Table 11.1 Summary Table of Spun, Smooth-Filament, and Textured-Bulk Yarn Characteristics

Spun Yarns Smooth-Filament Yarns Textured-Bulk Yarns (BCF)

     I. Fabrics are cottonlike or wool-like.
  II. Fiber strength is not well utilized.
   III. Short fibers twisted into continuous strand
with protruding ends.
1. Dull, fuzzy.
2. Lint.
3. Subject to pilling.
4. Soil readily.
5. Warm (not slippery).
6. Loft and bulk depend on size and twist.
7. Do not snag readily.
8. Stretch depends on twist amount.
9. More cover (more opaque).
  IV. Absorbency depends on fiber. Most
absorbent type.
1. Good for skin contact.
2. Less static buildup.
   V. Size expressed in yarn number.
  VI. Various amounts of twist used.
VII. Most complex process.
     I. Fabrics are silklike.  
  II. Fiber strength is well utilized.
 
   III. Long continuous, closely packed strand.
1. Smooth, lustrous.  
2. Do not lint.
3. Do not pill readily.
4. Shed soil.
5. Cool, slick.
6. Little loft or bulk.
7. Snagging depends on fabric
construction.
8. Stretch depends on twist amount.
9. Less cover (less opaque).
  IV. Absorbency depends on fiber. Least
absorbent type.  
1. Can be clammy.
2. Static can be a problem.
   V. Size in denier.
 
  VI. Usually very low or very high twist.
 
VII. Least complicated process
VII. Moderately complex process.
    I. Fabrics have the strength of filament yarns but
resemble the luster and hand of spun yarns.
 II. Fiber strength is not completely utilized.
  III. Long continuous, irregular, porous, flexible
strand.
1. Bulky, dull.
2. Do not lint.
3. Pill less readily than spun yarns.
4. Soil more easily than smooth filament.
5. Warmer than smooth filament.
6. Lofty, bulky, and/or stretchy.
7. Snag easily.
8. Stretch depends on process.
9. More cover (more opaque).
IV. Moderately absorbent as compared with
smooth-filament yarns of same fiber.
1. Good for skin contact.
2. Static can be a problem.
  V. Size in denier.
 VI. Usually low twist.

250 chapter eleven

 Learning Activity 1
Examine the textile products you have with you today. Identify the fiber length in each of
these items: staple or filament. If filament, are they smooth filament or BCF yarns? Use
the information in Table 11.1 to describe the serviceability and characteristics of these
textile products.

Figure From top: Spun yarn, smooth-filament

properties related to the use of these yarn types in fabrics. (See Figure 11.1.) Processing of all 11.1 yarn, textured-bulk-filament yarn.
three types was discussed in Chapter 10.

Yarn Twist
Twist, the spiral arrangement of the fibers around the yarn’s axis, is produced by rotating one
end of a fiber strand while holding the other end stationary. Twist binds the fibers together
and contributes strength to the spun yarn. Twist is specified by the number of turns per unit
length: turns per inch (tpi) or turns per meter (tpm). The number of twists determines, in S-twist Z-twist
part, yarn and product performance and yarn cost. Figure S- and Z-twist yarns.
11.2

Direction of Twist  The direction of twist is described as S-twist or Z-twist. A yarn has
S-twist if, when held in a vertical position, the spirals conform to the direction of slope of the
Low twist
central portion of the letter S. In Z-twist, the direction of spirals conforms to the slope of the
(a)
central portion of the letter Z. Z-twist is more common for weaving yarns (Figure 11.2). Hand
spinners of yarn typically spin singles clockwise with a Z-twist and ply counterclockwise with
an S-twist.

Amount of Twist  The amount of twist varies with fiber length, yarn size, and its intended
use. Increasing the amount of twist to the point of perfect fiber-to-fiber cohesion increases
yarn strength. However, excessive twist places the fibers at right angles to the yarn axis, caus-
(b)
ing a shearing action among fibers and a weaker yarn (Figure 11.3). Increasing the amount
of twist also impacts yarn hairiness, comfort, cost, and linting. Yarns with lower twist tend to
be hairier, pill and lint more, have better comfort when in contact with the skin, and cost less. High twist
Combed yarns with long fibers do not require as much twist as carded yarns with short (c)

fibers. Long, parallel fibers have more points of contact per unit length, producing a stronger
yarn for the same amount of twist. Fine yarns require more twist than coarse yarns. Knitting
yarns have less twist than filling yarns used in weaving. In better-quality yarns, twist is evenly
distributed throughout the yarn and the tpi is toward the high end of the range for that yarn
type. Table 11.2 and the following discussion describe yarns with different amounts of twist.

Learning Activity 2 (d)

Figure Twist in yarns: low (a and b) and high
Use a cotton ball or other bundle of fibers. Remove a pinch of fibers from the ball or 11.3 (c and d).
bundle. With your left hand holding the long fibers, use your right hand to twist the
fibers into an S-twist. With a different set of fibers, use your right hand to hold the fibers.
Use your left hand to twist the fibers into a Z-twist. Now, try reversing the two so you
are inserting S-twist with your right hand on top and Z-twist with your left hand on top.
Which way was easier? Why do you think this was the case?

yarn classification 251

Table 11.2 Summary Table: Twist Amount and Characteristics
Amount*
Low twist (2–3 tpi)
Napping twist (8–15 tpi)
Average twist (15–30 tpi)
Voile twist (30–40 tpi)
Crepe twist (40–80 tpi)
*Turns per inch (tpi)
Twist, the spiral arrangement of the
fibers around the yarn’s axis, binds fibers
together and contributes strength to the
spun yarn. Twist is specified by the number
of turns per unit length: turns per inch (tpi)
or turns per meter (tpm) and grouped by
low, napping, average, hard, or crepe twist.
252 chapter eleven
Example Characteristics
Filament yarns: 2–3 tpi Smooth or bulky; twist may be hard to see.
Blanket warp: 12 tpi. Filling: 6–8 tpi Bulky, soft, fuzzy, may be weak.
Percale warp: 25 tpi Most common, smooth, regular, durable,
comfortable. Produces smooth, regular
Filling: 20 tpi
fabrics.
Nylon hosiery: 25–30 tpi
Hard-twist singles: 35–40 tpi; plied with Strong, fine yarns. Fabrics have harsher hand
16–18 tpi due to yarn twist.
Singles: 40–80 or more tpi; plied with 2–5 tpi Lively yarns that kink and twist in fabrics with
good drape and texture.
Monofilament yarns have no twist. With only a single fiber forming the yarn, there is no
need to twist the yarn. Low twist is used to maintain integrity within smooth multifilament
yarns. Two to three turns per inch keeps filament yarns from separating into individual fibers
(Figures 11.4a and 11.4b). Napping twist (8 to 15 tpi) produces lofty spun yarns. They are
used in filling yarns of fabrics that are to be napped. Napping teases out the ends of the staple
fibers and creates the soft, fuzzy surface (Figure 11.4c). (See the section on napped texture
in Chapter 17).
Average twist (15 to 30 tpi) is used most commonly for yarns made of staple fibers,
but seldom for filament yarns. Yarns with average twist are the most durable spun yarns.
Combed, worsted, and line (flax) yarns are made of long-staple fibers with a parallel arrange-
ment. Carded, woolen, and tow (flax) yarns are made of short-staple fibers with a less parallel
arrangement (Figure 11.4d).
Hard twist or voile twist yarns (30 to 40 tpi) have a harsher hand and more turns per
inch (Figure 11.4e). Yarn hardness results when twist brings the fibers closer together and
compacts the yarn. This effect is more pronounced when a twist-on-twist ply yarn is used.
Twist-on-twist means that the direction of twist in the single is the same as that of the plying
twist, thus increasing the total amount of yarn twist (Figure 11.5). (See the discussion of voile
in the section on lightweight sheer fabrics in Chapter 12).
Crepe twist or crepe yarns have the highest number of turns per inch (40 to 80 tpi)
inserted in the yarn (Figure 11.4f). These spun or filament yarns are also known as unbalanced
yarns, since they twist and kink when removed from the fabric. These yarns are so lively that
they must be twist-set, a yarn-finishing process, before they can be woven or knitted. To
identify crepe yarns, test a yarn removed from the fabric by first pulling on the yarn and then
letting one end go. A crepe twist yarn should resemble the shape illustrated in Figure 11.6.
Oftentimes, the crepe twist yarn, will knot, twist, or curl when removed from a fabric. Most
crepe fabrics have crepe yarns in the crosswise direction, although some are in the length-
wise direction and some have crepe yarns in both directions. Crepe fabrics, which may or
may not include crepe yarns,are discussed in Chapters 12 and 13.
Increasing the amount of crepe yarn twist and alternating the direction of twist increases
the amount of crinkle in a crepe fabric. For example, a fabric made of crepe twist yarns in a
band of six S-filling yarns followed by a band of six Z-filling yarns produces a more prominent
crinkle than bands of two S-filling yarns followed by bands of two Z-filling yarns.
 (a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure Examples of yarn twist and fabrics of these yarns: (a) monofilament, (b) low twist, (c) napping twist, (d) average twist, (e) voile twist, and
11.4 (f) crepe twist.

Yarn Size
Yarn Number  Yarn size or fineness is referred to as yarn number. For filament yarns, it
is expressed in terms of weight per unit length. For spun yarns, it is expressed in terms of
length per unit weight. For spun yarns, the defined weights and lengths differ with fiber type. Figure Twist-on-twist two-ply yarn.
11.5

Learning Activity 3
Examine the textile products you have with you today. Describe the yarn twist present in
each of these items. Use Table 11.2 and describe the characteristics that are influenced
by yarn twist.

Learning Activity 4
Use Fabrics #8, 9, 16, 18, 20, and 118 from your swatch kit. Unravel one yarn from each
direction of each fabric. Examine the yarns closely. Identify fiber length and amount of
twist (low, napping, average, hard, or crepe). Do all yarns in a fabric have the same type
of twist in both yarns? Why might twist differ between two yarns in the same fabric? Figure Crepe yarns knot, twist, or curl when
11.6 removed from a fabric.

yarn classification 253

 The cotton system is discussed here, since many yarns are numbered by the cotton system. It
is an indirect or fixed-weight system: the finer the yarn, the larger the number. Thus, a fine yarn
would be a 70 and a coarser yarn would be a 20. The yarn number or cotton count is based
on the number of hanks (1 hank equals 840 yards) in 1 pound of yarn (Table 11.3). Finer yarns
are an indication of better quality, but they may not be as durable as slightly coarser yarns.
Examples that show the relationship between yarn size and fabric weight also are included in
Table 11.3.
The woolen/worsted and tow/line systems are similar, except that the length of yarn in a
hank differs with each system.

Denier System  Denier describes yarn size using filament fibers. The term is used for both
smooth- and bulky-textured yarns.
The size of filament yarns is based on both the size of the individual fibers in the yarn and
the number of fibers grouped into the yarn. The size of manufactured filament fibers and fila-
ment yarns is expressed in terms of weight per unit of length. For both fibers and yarns, denier
is the weight in grams of 9,000 meters. In this system, the unit of length remains constant.
The numbering system is direct, also referred to as a fixed-length system, because the finer
the yarn, the smaller the number. See Table 11.4 for examples of filament yarns made in a
specific denier for particular end uses.
Yarn denier is often used to describe filament yarn fabrics because it provides addi-
tional information to fabric specialists. Higher numbers describe larger yarns. For example, a
160-denier fabric has finer yarns than a 330-denier fabric. The 160-denier fabric will be softer
and more comfortable in contact with the skin and less durable than the 330-denier fabric.
However, the 330-denier fabric would produce a more durable product, such as luggage.
Yarn denier helps determine end-use performance. When denier is listed as a fraction,
the first number describes the size of the yarn and the second describes the number of fila-
ment fibers in the yarn. When individual fiber size is important, it can be determined by dividing

Table 11.3  Cotton System

Fabric Examples Number of Hanks Length of Yarn in
(weight in oz/yd2) Yarn Size Per Pound One Pound (yards)

Warp Filling Warp Filling Warp Filling

Sheer lawn (2.0) 70s* 100s 70 100 58,800 84,000
Print cloth (4.5) 30s 40s 30 40 25,200 33,600
Sailcloth (7.5) 13s 20s 13 20 10,920 16,800

*The s after the number means that the yarn is single.

Table 11.4  Filament Yarn Size

Yarn Denier Use Yarn Tex

20 Sheer hosiery 2.2

40–70 Tricot lingerie, blouses, shirts, support hosiery, 4.4–7.8
sheer curtains
140–520 Outerwear, draperies 15.6–57.8
520–840 Upholstery 57.8–93.3
1,040 Carpets, some knitting yarns 115.6

254 chapter eleven

the first number by the second number. For example, a technical nylon fabric is described as
1,000/280. The yarn is a 1,000-denier yarn and there are 280 filament fibers present in it. Yarn size or fineness is referred to as yarn
Each fiber is approximately 3.6 denier in size. This would be a relatively tough, durable, and number or denier. The cotton system is
stiff fabric for such end uses as upholstery, soft luggage, or tool pouches. This method of used for many spun yarns; finer yarns have
describing yarn denier and number of filaments is used for all types of fabrics made of filament bigger numbers. Denier or tex describes
yarns, including microfiber yarns used in apparel and interior textiles. filament yarn size; finer yarns have smaller
numbers.

Tex System   The International Organization for Standardization has adopted the tex
­system, which determines yarn count or number in the same way for all yarns. Tex is the
weight in grams of 1,000 meters of yarn. One tex is equal to 0.11 denier (tex = denier/9) (see
Table 11.4). Because the size can be small, the term decitex (dtex) may be used. One dtex
is 10 times larger than one tex.

Yarn Regularity
Yarn regularity describes the uniformity of the yarn throughout its length in terms of its appear-
ance and structure. Regular yarns have a similar appearance and structure throughout. There
may be some slight variation due to uniformity of fiber distribution and fiber length, degree of
parallelism of fibers within the yarn, and regularity of fiber size or diameter. For example, yarns
with a wide variety of fiber length, unparalleled fibers, or bast fibers like flax or ramie may be
slightly less regular than other yarns. Yarn quality is related to the degree of uniformity within
the yarn.
Novelty or fancy yarns have deliberately introduced appearance and structural variations.
These irregularities appear at intervals due to the manner in which the yarn is processed.
Composite yarns include components that differ from each other. All three general yarn types
will be discussed in the next section.

Yarn Types
Simple Yarns
A simple yarn is alike in all its parts. It can be described as a spun or filament yarn, based on
its fiber length. A simple yarn also can be described by the direction and amount of yarn twist
and by yarn size. Figure 11.7 outlines the relationship of yarns in this category to each other. A simple yarn is alike in all its parts. It can
The number of strands used to produce the yarn is another means of classifying yarns. have one strand or several. A single yarn
Simple yarns are classified as single, ply, or cord yarns. A single yarn has one strand and is is the simplest type with only one strand.
the simplest type. It is the product of the first twisting operation that is performed in yarn spin- A ply yarn combines two or more single
ning (Figure 11.8a). Simple single yarns require no additional processing once the individual yarns.
yarns have been formed.

Learning Activity 5
Use Fabrics #19, 20, 26, 31, and 39 from your swatch kit. Unravel one yarn from each
direction and arrange them in order from the finest to the coarsest yarn. Are both yarns
from the same fabric the same size? If no, why might they be a different size? Identify an
end use for each fabric. Explain how yarn size can influence fabric serviceability.

yarn classification 255

 Simple single yarns

Spun yarns Filament yarns

Smooth-filament yarn Textured-bulk yarn

Napping Average Voile Crepe Low Crepe Low

twist twist twist twist twist twist twist

Figure Classification of simple single yarns.

11.7

Spun, filament, and textured-bulk yarns are types of simple single yarns that are most
commonly found in apparel and interior fabrics. These simple single yarns are alike in all parts,
consisting of one strand of fibers.
A ply yarn is made by a second twisting operation that combines two or more singles
(Figure 11.8b). Each part of the yarn is called a ply. A machine called a twister twists the
plies together. Most ply yarns are twisted in the direction opposite to that of the twist of the
S Z
singles from which they are made. The first few revolutions tend to untwist the singles and
straighten the fibers somewhat from their spiral position and soften the yarn slightly.
Plying increases yarn diameter, strength, uniformity, and quality. Ply yarns are more
Z consistent than simple, single yarns and are stronger than the single yarns they are made
S
from, both in tensile strength and resistance to abrasion. In woven fabrics, ply yarns are
sometimes used in the warp direction to increase strength. Two-ply yarns are found in the
best-quality men’s broadcloth shirts. Ply yarns are frequently seen in knits and interior tex-
tiles. They are found in sewing thread and the string used to tie packages. When simple
Z Z ply yarns are used only in the filling direction, they produce some fabric effect other than
strength.
(a) (b) (c) A cord is made by a third twisting operation, which twists ply yarns together
Figure Parts of a yarn: (a) single yarn, (Figure 11.8c). Some types of sewing thread and some ropes belong to this group. Cord
11.8 (b) two-ply yarn, (c) cord yarn. yarns are seldom used in apparel and interior fabrics, but are used in technical fabrics such as
duck and canvas.
A rope is a heavy thick cord at least 2.5 cm or 1 inch or more in diameter consisting of
strands of fiber, leather, or wire that are twisted or braided together (Figure 11.9). The process
of creating the rope by twisting or braiding is called laying. Some ropes have a core covered

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure Ropes of different fibers and structures: braided olefin (a), twisted hemp (b), twisted wire (c), and braided nylon (d).
11.9

256 chapter eleven

with a sheath. Ropes may be covered with a plastic film to protect interior components and
increase their durability during use. Ropes are technical items where high performance is A cord twists ply yarns together. A rope is

expected. Some ropes are made with special-use fibers like aramid. Ropes are used in a a heavy thick cord at least 2.5 cm or 1 inch

wide variety of uses including commercial and recreational fishing, farming and agricultural or more in diameter consisting of strands

operations, logging, utility work, sailing vessels, tug and towing operations, shipping, and of fiber, leather or wire that are twisted or

transportation. braided together.

Sewing and Embroidery Thread

Sewing thread is a yarn intended for
Sewing thread is a yarn intended for stitching materials together using machine or hand pro- stitching materials together using machine
cesses (Figure 11.10). Sewing threads are available in a broad range of sizes and structures. or hand processes. Embroidery thread is
Examples include ply, corded, cable, braided, textured-filament, smooth-filament, monofil- a yarn intended for stitching designs or
ament, and core-spun. Sewing thread is often finished with lubricant or wax so that it with- patterns on the surface of a textile.
stands the abrasion, stress, and manipulation required in high-speed machine sewing. Most
sewing thread is S-twist. Many different fibers and fiber blends are used in sewing thread. The
thread selected is based on the material or materials to be stitched together, the end use,
cost, and the desired product performance. Thread size may be expressed as denier, tex,
count, yarn number, or ticket number.
Embroidery thread is a yarn intended for stitching designs or patterns on the surface
of a textile (Figure 11.11). It adds embellishment and value to textile products and is most
often a two-ply Z-twist. Embroidery thread is available in a wide variety of luster, color, texture,
fiber type, hand, and size. Thread is sized by titer or weight per unit length. Lower numbers
describe coarser threads. For example, 12-weight thread is used for interiors while 60-weight
is used for lighter weight apparel. Performance factors that affect embroidery thread include
Figure Sewing thread: spun polyester, cotton
shrinkage during cleaning, bleeding, elongation during use, strength, and colorfastness to
11.10 covered polyester, mercerized cotton
cleaning, light, and crocking. Metallic embroidery threads provide the highest luster, but are covered polyester, mercised cotton,
more expensive and less durable to washing. Hand-embroidery thread or floss used by hob- and silk.
byists and fiber artists is usually given a softer twist and includes four or more plies. Of course,
many hobbyists and fiber artists use machine-embroidery and commercial-embroidery thread
to embellish their work.

Learning Activity 6
Think about and discuss with one other person the characteristics that would make
single, ply, or cord yarns appropriate for apparel, interior, or industrial end uses.

Learning Activity 7
Examine the textile products you have with you today. Describe the items that use sew-
ing thread. If possible, examine the thread to determine its type and structure. Are all the
sewing threads the same? Why might they differ in structure, size, and fiber content?
Do any of your items have embroidery on them? If yes, describe the embroidery thread
to determine its type. Are all the embroidery threads the same? How do they differ
from the sewing threads? Do you embroider? If yes, do you do it by hand or machine? Figure Embroidery thread example.
How do the embroidery threads differ between the two methods and between sewing 11.11
thread?

yarn classification 257

 Novelty Yarns
Novelty yarns are yarns that deliberately have unlike parts and that are irregular at intervals.
The irregularities may be subtle or very obvious and the intervals may be regular or random.
Novelty yarns may be single, plied, or cord yarns. They may be spun, filament, or tex-
tured yarns—or any combination of yarn types. They are called novelty yarns or fancy yarns
because they produce an interesting or novel effect in fabrics made from them. Their structure
may be complex and consist of several yarn plies combined into one yarn.
Novelty yarns are classified according to their number of parts and named for the effect
that dominates the fabric. Usually more common in interior fabrics than in apparel fabrics,
novelty yarns also are used by artists and craftspeople to create interest in otherwise plain
fabrics of many fiber types. Many hand spinners delight in creating novelty yarns of interesting
textures and materials. Some of these yarns are used by the hand spinner; others are sold to
fiber artists and hobbyists to be incorporated in their work.
Novelty yarns are made on twisters with special attachments for producing different
tensions and rates of delivery in the different plies. This produces loose, curled, twisted, or
looped areas in the yarn. Slubs and flakes of short-staple fibers of different color are intro-
duced into the yarn by special attachments. Knots or slubs are made at regular or random
intervals as the machine operates.
Novelty or fancy yarns are used for a variety of purposes. Characteristics and perfor-
mance vary widely by type and fiber content.

• Novelty yarns are usually plied yarns, but they seldom add strength to the fabric.
Novelty yarns are often weak and sensitive to abrasion damage.
• When novelty yarns are used in one direction only, it is usually in the filling direction
because it is more economical, with less waste. Filling yarns are subject to less strain
and are easier to vary for design purposes.
• Novelty yarns add permanent interest to plain fabrics at a lower cost. Fabrics that
include one or more novelty yarns are sometimes classified as novelty or fancy fab-
rics, which are fabrics that differ in appearance, pattern, or structure from plain fabrics.
• Novelty bulky yarns add crease resistance to a fabric, but they may make the fabric
hard to handle in spreading, cutting, and sewing.
• The durability of novelty yarn fabrics depends on the size of the ply effect, how well it
is held in the yarn, the fiber content of the various parts, and the firmness of the fabric
structure. Generally speaking, the smaller the novelty effect, the more durable the fab-
ric, since the yarns are less affected by abrasion and do not snag as readily.
• The quality and cost of novelty yarns are related to the quality of the fibers and plies
from which the yarn is made, the manner in which the unique visual component is pro-
duced in the finished yarn, and the regularity of the yarn structure.

Figure 11.12 classifies the most common novelty yarns according to their usual single or
ply structure.
Tweed yarn is an example of a single, spun novelty yarn. Flecks of short colored fibers
are twisted into the yarn to add interest. Some tweed yarns are two-ply yarns with each ply a

Fancy yarns

Single yarns Ply yarns

Tweed Slub Metallic Other Ratiné Spiral Knot Snarl Bouclé Slub Metallic Other

Figure Classification of novelty yarns.

11.12
258 chapter eleven
different color. Tweeds are often made of wool because of its cohesiveness. Tweed yarns are
found in apparel, upholstery, and draperies.
A slub yarn is a spun novelty yarn. This thick-and-thin yarn can be made in two ways:
(1) the amount of twist in the yarn is varied at regular intervals for a true slub yarn, but amount
of fiber remains constant; (2) the amount of fibers varies with the thicker part of the yarn
receiving less twist and the thinner part of the yarn receiving more twist. True slub yarns are
found in shantung, drapery, and upholstery fabrics and in hand-knitting yarns and sweaters
(Figure 11.13a). Intermittently spun flake or slub effects are made by incorporating soft, thick,
elongated tufts of fiber into the yarn at regular intervals with a core or binder yarn. A slub yarn
can be found as single or ply novelty yarns. (a) Slub (b) Spiral or (c) Ratiné
corkscrew
Spiral or corkscrew novelty yarns have two or more plies. The plies may differ in
twist, size, type, and/or color. A two-ply novelty yarn may have one-spun ply combined with a
filament ply (Figure 11.13b). The two parts may be delivered to the twister at different rates of
speed. A two-ply tweed yarn differs only in color while a spiral yarn differs in color and some
other aspect, such as size or type. Spiral yarns are used in interiors and apparel.
Frequently, novelty yarns have three basic parts: (1) the ground, foundation, or core ply;
(2) the effect or novelty ply; and (3) the binder ply. When a novelty yarn is examined, the first
ply that can be unwound from the yarn is the binder. It holds the effect ply in place. The
effect ply is primarily responsible for the appearance and the name of the yarn. The ground (d) Knot or spot (e) Spike or snarl (f) Loop
ply forms the foundation of the yarn. Figure 11.14 shows a three-ply novelty yarn. For clarity Figure Effect ply for several novelty yarns.
in the illustration, each ply appears to be a simple, single, monofilament (single-fiber) yarn. In 11.13
actuality, each ply could be spun, filament, BCF, split film, or complex. Metallic components
also may be used. For example, the ground may be a simple, single, filament yarn; the effect
could be two-ply, with one ply a monofilament metallic yarn and the other ply a spun yarn; and
the binder could be a simple, single, spun yarn. Each ply in two, or more, ply novelty yarns
may have a different fiber content. Endless variations are possible.
The following are typical novelty ply yarns:

1. In ratiné yarns, the effect ply is twisted in a spiral arrangement around the ground ply.
At intervals, a longer loop is thrown out, kinks back on itself, and is held in place by
the binder (Figure 11.13c). These yarns are used primarily in interior textiles.
2. The knot, spot, nub, or knop yarn is made by twisting the effect ply many times
in the same place (Figure 11.13d). Two effect plies of different colors may be used
and the knots arranged so the colored spots alternate along the length of the yarn.
A binder is added during the twisting operation. These yarns are used in apparel and
interior textiles.
3. In spike or snarl yarn, the effect ply forms alternating open loops along both sides of
the yarn (Figure 11.13e). These yarns are used in apparel and interior textiles.
4. Loop, curl, or bouclé yarn has closed loops at regular intervals along the yarn Knots or slubs
(Figure 11.13f). These yarns are used in fabrics to create a looped pile resembling
caracul lambskin called astrakhan cloth. They are also used to give texture to other
fabrics. Mohair, rayon, and acetate may be used for the effect ply in apparel and inte-
rior textiles.
5. Metallic yarns have been used for thousands of years. See Chapter 9 for process-
ing and use information. Metallic yarns may be monofilament fibers or combined in
ply yarns. Metallic novelty yarns are used primarily in apparel. However, some metal-
lic-looking yarns are made from ultrafine plastic fibers of nylon or polyester split film Effect
made of many layers. These film yarns produce luminous and iridescent effects with- Binder
out the comfort problems of metallic monofilaments.
Ground
6. Chenille yarn is made by cutting a specially woven ladderlike fabric into warpwise
strips (Figure 11.15). The cut ends of the softly twisted yarns loosen and form a fringe. Figure Novelty yarn, showing the three basic
Chenille or caterpillar yarn may be woven to produce pile on one side or on both 11.14 parts.
yarn classification 259

Cut Cut
Figure Fabric from which chenille yarn is cut.
11.15
Novelty or fancy yarns are yarns that
deliberately have unlike parts and that are
irregular at intervals. They add interest and
texture to fabric. They often have many
parts and combine spun and filament
components. Some of the many types
include tweed, slub, spiral, bouclé, ratiné,
chenille, knot, spike, metallic, braided, knit,
and stitched yarns.
260 chapter eleven
sides of a fabric. If the pile is to be on one side only, the yarn must be folded before it
is woven. Chenille-type yarns can also be made by flocking or gluing short fibers on
the surface of the yarn. Other chenille-type yarns are made by twisting the effect yarn
around the core yarn, securing it in place with the binder, and cutting the effect so it
forms a fringe or pile. Chenille yarns are used in interiors and apparel.
7. Braided yarn is made by braiding three or more fine yarns together to create one
larger yarn (see Chapter 15). Braided yarns may be round or flat and uniform or irreg-
ular in structure. Eyelash yarn is usually a three-ply braided yarn made with short ends
of one yarn protruding along the length of the yarn.
8. Knit yarns are narrow fabric yarns made by knitting (see Chapter 14). They may be a
single narrow tube, a narrow tube wrapped with another yarn, a thick-and-thin tube,
or a flat ribbonlike strand of yarn. Some knit yarns have an outer tube of fine yarn and
an inner tube of heavier, opaque yarn.
9. Stitched yarns are narrow ribbonlike fabrics with one or more rows of stitched thread
forming the basic structure of the yarn. Suede and ribbon-stitched yarns have a row
of stitching on each side of the ribbonlike yarn and a center of textured- or smooth-fil-
ament yarn. Other stitched yarns look like a simple spiral yarn. Many stitched yarns
have stitched bands along each edge and periodically a bridge of filament yarn con-
necting the two bands. Sometimes these yarns are called train-track or windowpane
yarns. These yarns may be folded to create a bouclé-like loop or cut into two separate
yarns with a fringe along one side. Some yarns have multiple parallel lines of stitching
with crossbars arranged so that a checkerboard pattern is created.
While each novelty yarn type is described separately in this discussion, it is important to
realize that any two or more simple or novelty yarns can be combined to create a novelty yarn.
For example, a stitched yarn may be combined with a thick and thin yarn and wrapped with
a metallic monofilament yarn to form a complex novelty yarn. Novelty yarn may also incorpo-
rate other details like sequins and beads. Figure 11.16 shows several novelty yarns ranging in
structure from simple to complex.
Composite Yarns
Composite yarns, regular in appearance along their length, have both staple-fiber and
filament-fiber components. Composite yarns include covered yarns, core-spun yarns,
8 Learning Activity
Using Figure 11.13, identify four fabrics in your swatch kit that utilize novelty yarns.
What are possible apparel or interior end uses for these fabrics?
(a) (b)
Figure Novelty yarns. From top to bottom (a): braided yarn, nonwoven and stitched yarn,
11.16 three-ply yarn (one ply is a flake yarn), braided yarn, warp-knit yarn, and bouclé yarn.
From top to bottom (b): ratiné yarn, filling-knit and wrapped yarn, warp-knit yarn,
stitched yarn, three-ply yarn (braided yarn ply, filling-knit yarn ply, and fine binder ply),
and complex three-ply yarn (filling-knit yarn ply, novelty flake ply, and stitched yarn ply).
 Composite yarns

Covered yarns Wrapped yarns Polymer-staple yarns

Stretch- Stretch Core-spun Filament-wrapped Filament wrapped Filament wrapped

covered core-spun thread spun yarn with staple with filament
yarn yarn fibers yarn
Figure Classification of composite yarns.
11.17

filament-wrapped yarns, and molten-polymer yarns. The classification of composite yarns is

shown in Figure 11.17. The quality of composite yarns is related to fiber and component ply
quality, finished yarn structure, and yarn uniformity.
Covered yarns have a central yarn that is completely covered by fiber or another yarn.
These yarns were developed to produce more comfortable rubber foundation garments and
surgical hose. Stretch-covered yarns have a central core of one of the elastomeric fibers cov-
ered with at least one other yarn. Single-covered yarns have a single yarn wrapped around
them. They are lighter, more resilient, and more economical than double-covered yarns and
can be used in many woven and knit fabrics. Most ordinary elastic yarns are double-covered
with two yarns to give them balance and better coverage. Fabrics made with these yarns are
heavier and thicker (Figure 11.18). Covered yarns are subject to grin-through (see Figure 9.4).
Although these yarns usually include spandex, they should not be referred to as spandex
yarns.
An alternate way of making a stretch yarn is to make a stretch core-spun yarn by spin-
ning a sheath of staple fibers (roving) around a core. When working with elastomeric cores,
the core is stretched while the sheath is spun around it so that the core is completely hidden.
The sheath adds aesthetic properties to the yarn, and the core provides comfort stretch.
Core-spun yarns in woven fabrics produce an elasticity more like that of the knits.
Polyester/cotton core-spun sewing thread has a sheath of high-quality cotton and a
high-strength filament polyester core. The cotton sheath gives the thread excellent sewability,
and the polyester core provides high strength and resistance to abrasion. Polyester/cotton Figure Covered stretch yarn.
thread provides the slight stretch that is necessary in knits. 11.18

Learning Activity 9
Use Fabrics #5, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 29, 42, 53, 59, 63, and 86 from your swatch kit.
Unravel a yarn from each direction of each fabric where such yarns exist and determine
their structure: simple or complex, single or ply; carded or combed; and staple or fila-
ment. Are the yarns for one fabric the same in both direction? Explain why they might
be different. Identify an end use for each fabric. Describe how yarn structure and type
influence fabric appearance and serviceability.

Learning Activity 10
Use Fabrics #42 and 44 from your swatch kit. Unravel a yarn from each direction and
determine the structure of each yarn. Identify an end use for each fabric and describe
how the serviceability might differ if simple, single yarns were used in both directions.

yarn classification 261


Composite yarns, regular in appearance
along their length, have both staple-
fiber and filament-fiber components.
These yarns include covered yarns,
core-spun yarns, wrap-spun yarns, and
fasciated yarns.
Wrap-spun yarns have a core of staple fibers (often a twistless yarn) wrapped or bound
by filament fibers. These yarns are economical and have good evenness, strength, appear-
ance, and finishing properties.
In fasciated yarns, a grouping of filament fibers is wrapped with staple fibers. The yarns
are combinations of coarse filaments for strength and fine stretch-broken filaments for soft-
ness. These yarns are quick to produce and give better texture and hand to fabrics. Another
variation is a filament-wrapped filament yarn.
Yarns can be produced by pressing staple fibers of any length or generic class into
a molten polymer stream. As the polymer solidifies, the fibers that are partially embedded
become firmly attached and form a sheath of staple fiber. The resultant yarn is about two-
thirds ­staple fiber and one-third coagulated polymer. The polymer, which is an extruded man-
ufactured fiber, is a less expensive product than other melt-spun filaments.

Yarn quality is an important factor related

Yarn Performance and Yarn Quality
to the quality of the resultant fabric Yarn performance is a critical factor in product performance. Table 11.5 summarizes informa-

and product and includes such factors tion about yarn appearance and performance. Use it to review the major yarns and compare

as structure, strength, parallel fibers, their performance.

uniformity of fiber length, amount of twist, Yarn characteristics and performance are identified and measured so that an appropriate

and free of flaws or defects. yarn is used in the fabric and product. Standard test methods determine yarn size, twist, bulk,
evenness, appearance, and performance. Yarn strength is determined by measuring the load

Table 11.5 Summary Table: Performance of Yarns in Fabrics

Yarn Type Aesthetics Durability Comfort Care

Spun Fabrics look like cotton or Weaker than filament yarns of Warmer Yarns do not snag readily
wool same fiber
More absorbent because Soil readily
Fabrics lint and pill Ply yarns stronger than simple of larger surface area
yarns

Yarns are cohesive, so fabrics

Smooth-filament
Bulk or textured-filament
Novelty or novelty
Fabrics are smooth and
lustrous
Fabrics do not lint or pill
readily
Fabric luster is similar to
spun-yarn fabrics
Fabrics do not lint but may
pill
Interesting texture
resist raveling and running
Stronger than spun yarns of Cooler Yarns may snag
same fiber
Least absorbent but more Resist soiling
Fabrics ravel and run readily likely to wick moisture
Yarns may slip at seams and
other areas of stress
Stronger than spun yarns of Bulkier and warmer than Yarns likely to snag
same fiber smooth-filament yarns
Soil more readily than
Yarns are moderately cohesive, Moderately absorbent smooth filament yarns
so fabrics ravel and run like
Stretch more than other
spun-yarn fabrics
yarns
Weaker than filament yarns Warmer Yarns likely to snag

Larger novelty effects are Most resist raveling More absorbent if one ply is Soil readily
less durable than smaller a spun yarn
Less abrasion-resistant
novelty effects

Fabrics lint and pill

Composite Varies; larger yarns with spun Related to process May have stretch; larger Large yarns may snag
or filament appearance than many other yarns

262 chapter eleven

that breaks a yarn and the percent of elongation at that load. Tolerances or variations allowed
in a yarn of a given type are measured so that consistency in performance and appearance
can be evaluated.
Yarn quality is an important factor related to the quality of the resultant fabric and prod-
uct. Yarn quality refers to various factors such as yarn strength and thin spots in yarns that
are weaker and likely to break when the yarn is under stress. These thin spots, or nips, create
thin, weak areas in fabrics or unacceptable variations in fabric appearance. Yarns must be
strong enough to withstand the stresses of looms and knitting machines. Strength demands
on yarns depend on the structure of the fabric and its end use. Stress can be substantial
during fabric production; yarn breaks are costly to repair and decrease fabric quality. Fabric
producers demand high yarn quality and consistency of yarn characteristics at low prices.
Yarn producers have responded to these demands by incorporating online systems to detect
yarn defects and fix them as soon as they begin to develop in the spinning process.
Many factors determine the quality of a yarn. Better-quality yarns have more parallel fibers,
tighter twist, and are more regular than lower-quality yarns. High-quality yarns are strong
enough to withstand additional processing (warping, weaving, knitting, etc.). High-quality yarns (a)

are regular in structure with few thin spots. They are relatively free of unacceptable neps and
hairiness. A nep is a small knot of entangled fibers, which may be immature or dead and sub-
sequently create problems by not accepting dye. Neps may create thick spots on yarns or
uncolored flecks in finished fabrics. Hairiness describes excessive fiber ends on the yarn sur-
face. Figure 11.19 shows differences in yarn hairiness due to spinning method. Combed yarns
are less hairy than carded yarns, because the combing process removes more short fibers than
carded yarns. Hairy yarns may create problems in fabrication or in consumer use because they
tend to be more sensitive to abrasion and pilling. Good-quality yarns facilitate subsequent dye-
ing and finishing steps. Their appearance and performance make the finished material suitable
for the end use and target market. Yarn quality affects fabric quality, performance, and cost.

Learning Activity 11
Make a list of the attributes of a high-quality yarn and a list of the attributes of a poorer
quality yarn. Describe how serviceability might differ between identical products made
with a high-quality yarn or a poor-quality yarn. Use your fabric swatch set to identify a
fabric made with high-quality yarns and lower-quality yarns. (b)
Figure Yarn hairiness demonstrated in woven
11.19 fabric (viewed along a fold): smooth
Learning Activity 12 yarn (a) versus hairy yarn (b).

Add the characteristics of a high-quality yarn to the list of fabric quality you started in
Chapter 2 for Review Question 10.

terms
key terms
Average twist
Binder
Braided yarn
Composite yarn
Cord
Core-spun yarn
Crepe twist or crepe yarn
Decitex (dtex)
Denier
Chenille yarn Covered yarn Effect ply

yarn classification 263

 Embroidery thread Nep Tex system
Fancy fabric Novelty yarn Textured-bulk yarn
Fancy yarn Ply yarn Textured-bulk-filament yarn
Fasciated yarn Ratiné yarn Turns per inch (tpi)
Filament yarn Rope Turns per meter (tpm)
Ground ply Sewing thread Tweed yarn
Hairiness Simple yarn Twist
Hard twist Single yarn Twist-on-twist
Knit yarn Slub yarn Voile twist
Knot, spot, nub, or knop yarn Spike or snarl yarn Wrap-spun yarn
Loop, curl, or bouclé yarn Spiral or corkscrew novelty yarn Yarn quality
Low-twist yarn Spun yarn Yarn number
Metallic yarn Stitched yarn Z-twist
Napping twist S-twist

questions
review questions
1. Describe the type of yarn (in terms of fiber length, yarn
twist, yarn complexity, regularity, and size) that would likely
be found in each of the following products. Explain the
100%-cotton shirt made with combed yarns? What are
the major differences between these two yarns in terms of
processing and structure?
characteristics and performance of each yarn selected. 4. Why is twist direction important for yarns?
a. Sateen sheeting in luxury hotel suite
5. What factor makes crepe yarns so lively?
b. Muslin sheeting in budget motel room
c. Tweed for a blazer 6. Why are novelty or novelty yarns used? In what kinds of
d. Carpet for a family room fabrics and for what uses are they most common?
e. Upholstery for an antique formal settee 7. How do novelty yarns change product serviceability? How
f. Casual T-shirt do they enhance serviceability and how do they decrease
g. High-stretch denim jeans serviceability?
h. Elastic wrap for sprained ankle 8. What are the differences and similarities between the denier
i. Sheer draperies in dentist’s waiting room and tex systems?
j. Inexpensive rain poncho
9. Why is yarn size important? How does the serviceability of
k. Decorative hand-crafted wall hanging
a fabric change if it were made using cotton system size
l. Blanket for a newborn baby
20s yarns versus cotton system 60s yarns?
m. Swimming suit
10. What would be the differences in performance between
2. What differences in fiber length and turns per inch would be
a backpack made of a 400-denier yarn of 80 individual
expected between a low-twist yarn and an average-twist
filament fibers and a backpack made of a 400-denier yarn
yarn?
made of 40 individual filament fibers?
3. What difference in performance would you expect between
11. What are the characteristics that differentiate between
a 100%-cotton shirt made with carded yarns and a
yarns of average quality and high quality?

questions
section review questions

1. Describe the differences and similarities among these
terms:
a. Woolen, carded, combed, and worsted



a.
b.
c.
Fine-combed yarn and smooth-filament yarn
Woolen spun yarn and BCF yarn
Carded yarn and novelty flake yarn
b. Sewing thread and two-ply yarn d. Simple, single yarn and novelty, three-ply bouclé yarn
c. Covered yarn and core-spun yarn 3. Explain the influences that yarn type, structure, and quality
2. Describe the visual clues that would help to differentiate have on fabric serviceability.
these yarn pairs:

264 chapter eleven

 4. From the following information about fibers and yarns,
explain if the description is possible and how it would be
achieved. If the description is not possible, explain why.
Describe the serviceability of each product.
a. Core-spun 95% cotton/5% spandex for casual slacks
b. Filament cotton for a dressy shirt or blouse
c. Carded spun rayon for a print skirt
d. Bulk filament polyester for a casual top
e. Carded acrylic for a sweater
f. Filament nylon for a windproof jacket
g. Combed silk for a jacket
h. Combed 65% cotton/35% polyester for a work shirt
i. Microdenier smooth filament polyester for a silky blouse
j. Filament wool for a blanket
k. Bouclé yarn consisting of 45% mohair, 39% wool,
15% nylon-smooth filament, and 5% Lurex metallic
monofilament for a knit hat
5. You are part of a product development team. Part of your
job is writing specifications for fabrics. What criteria would
be important to specify in terms of yarn for the fabric? Why?
How does yarn relate to fabric and product performance?

Case Study
Antimicrobial Sewing Thread*
An industrial thread and textile craft business
created a new range of antimicrobial sewing
threads that inhibit the growth of microbes
and bacteria around seams. The treated
sewing threads have antibacterial and
antifungal properties that help prevent the
growth of odor and stain from bacteria and
pathogens. These threads could be used
in a wide range of sewing applications
with benefits for keeping products sterile,
preventing product deterioration, fighting
mold and mildew, and providing stain
resistance.
Discussion Questions
1. What specific industries and products
would microbial threads be useful?
2. For the products that you identified in
Question 1, state what type of sewing
thread is likely used: ply, corded, cable,
braided, textured-filament, smooth-
filament, monofilament, or core-spun?
Explain your responses.
3. Explain the steps a company would need
to go through to create a new product
such as antimicrobial threads.

*Anti-microbial sewing thread developed. (2013). Textile Month International, 36.

readings
suggested readings
Alagirusamy, R., Fangueiro, R., Ogale, V., & Padaki, N. (2006).
Hybrid yarns and textile preforming for thermoplastic
composites. Textile Progress, 38(4), 1–71.
Narkhedkar, R. N., & Bagwan, A. A. (2013). How carding and
combing affect yarn cross-sectional area. Textile Month
International, 18–19.
ASTM International. (2014). Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. Slit film extrusion of polypropylene yarns. (1990, May). Textile
7.01. West Conshohocken, PA: Author. Month, 53–54.
Kadolph, S. J. (2007). Quality Assurance for Textiles and Apparel, Square, V. (2008). Tweed yarns. Interweave Knits, 13(4), 12–14.
2nd ed. New York: Fairchild Publications. Teal, P. (2013). The transformation of the spinning industry. Spin-
Lawrence, C. A. (2003). Fundamentals of Spun Yarn Technology. Off, 37(2), 38–42.
New York: CRC Press. Thiry, M. C. (2008). In stitches. AATCC Review, 8(11), 24–30.
MacKenzie, J. (2011). The art of plying. Interweave Knit & Spin,
42–46.

yarn classification 265

 Wildarun/Fotolia

Moreno Soppelsa/Fotolia

Inarik/Fotolia Karelnoppe/Fotolia

Mur162/Fotolia
Section IV

FABRICATION
12 Weaving, Basic Weaves,
and Fabrics 14 Knitting and Knit Fabrics

13 Fancy Weaves and

Fabrics 15 Other Fabrication Methods
Bykofoto/Fotolia Tmax/Fotolia

Mirenphoto/Fotolia Lihana/Fotolia
Weaving, Basic
Weaves, and
Fabrics

C ha p t e r O b j ect i ves
• To discuss characteristics that contribute to fabric quality.
• To describe the loom and the process of weaving in terms of the three basic weaves.
• To explain the characteristics of fabrics made using the three basic weaves.
• To name basic woven fabrics made using the three basic weaves.
• To integrate fabrication method, yarn type, and fiber with end use and performance.

12
 A fabric is a pliable, planelike structure that can be made into 2D or 3D products that
require some shaping and flexibility. Fabrics are used in apparel, interiors, and many techni-
cal products. The chapters in this section focus on methods used to produce fabrics, iden-
tification of fabric types based on their structure, and naming fabrics using current standard
names. Not all fabrics will be discussed for each process. Many fabrics have applications
too specialized for a basic book; others are no longer popular due to changes in fashion or
lifestyles. Some fabrics are no longer commercially available due to changes in consumer
expectations, lifestyle, sustainability issues, or production cost. Some remain important, but
their names have changed.
The fabric-forming process or fabrication method contributes to fabric appearance, tex-
ture, suitability for end use, performance, and cost. The process may determine the name
of the fabric, such as doublecloth, lace, double-knit, tricot, and felt. The cost in relation to
fabrication process depends on the number of steps involved and the speed of production. If
all other factors like fiber type, yarn structure, and fabric density are equal, the fewer the steps
and the faster the process, the cheaper the fabric. Changes in fabrication have increased
automation, enhanced quality, improved response to consumer demand, and advanced pro-
duction flexibility so that a firm can produce a variety of fabrics with the equipment available.
Textile producers describe the shortest length of fabric they will produce to sell to another
firm as the minimum yardage. Firms specialize in high-quality fabrics, special fabric types, or
high-volume basic fabrics. Minimum yardage depends on the firm and its area of specializa-
tion. For example, 5,000 yards may be the minimum order for a basic fabric in a basic color,
but 200 yards may be the minimum for a specialty-fabric producer.
Fabrics can be made from a wide variety of starting materials: solutions (films and foams),
fibers (felts and fiberwebs or nonwovens), yarns (braids, knits, laces, and wovens), and fabrics
(composite fabrics combining solutions, fibers, yarns, or fabrics to produce a fabric). The first
three chapters of this section focus on fabrics made from yarns: woven and knitted fabrics.
The final chapter focuses on all the other processes. Fabric names discussed in these chap-
ters were selected because they are basic and commonly used fabrics. Many more named
fabrics exist and can be found in the market. However, these other fabrics will not be dis-
cussed in this book. Several excellent resources are listed at the end of this chapter for addi-
tional information on fabrics not described here.
Determining the starting material used to make a fabric is the first step in identifying the
fabric. Figure 12.1 is a flowchart to be used in determining fabric structure and name. This
chart references some charts in this and other chapters that will help in identifying and naming
a fabric.

Fabric Quality
A fabric is a pliable, planelike structure
Fabric quality is important to textile producers, designers, retailers, and consumers because
that can be made into 2D or 3D products
it describes many characteristics: freedom from defects, uniform structure and appearance,
that require some shaping and flexibility.
and performance during production and in consumers’ hands. Fabric quality influences prod-
Fabric quality influences product cost,
uct cost, suitability for a target market, aesthetic characteristics, and consumer appeal and
suitability for a target market, aesthetic
satisfaction. Assessment of quality can be made by inspecting or examining fabric with the
characteristics, and consumer appeal and
eyes or an instrument to identify visible irregularities, defects, or flaws (Figure 12.2). Fabric
satisfaction. Fabric defects are assessed
quality assessment includes measuring fabric weight, fabric density (yarns per unit length
based on a grading system.
and width), grain, width, fiber content, and yarn type and uniformity. Better-quality fabrics

270 chapter twelve

 What is the component used to form the fabric?

Film Fiber only Combinations of film,

(not yarns) Yarn fiber, yarn, or fabric

See Figure 15.1 See Figure 15.1

Are the yarns...

See Figure 15.1

(a)

Interlaced? Interlooped?

See Figure 12.14 for See Figure 14.2 for knits

basic weaves or Figure
13.1 for fancy weaves

Figure Fabric structure flow chart.

12.1

meet performance criteria, incorporate better-quality fibers and yarns, and are free of defects,
more uniform in structure and width, on-grain, and heavier and with a high count for their (b)

type. Computer-aided fabric evaluation (CAFE) systems speed this process and increase the Figure The defect in the center of Fabric A
12.2 decreases its quality and performance.
accuracy of fabric inspection. Defects are assigned a point value based on their length or
With this woven fabric, the density
size. Fabric quality is graded by totaling the defect points of a piece of fabric. Producers of yarns in warp and filling should be
have developed lists and examples of defects or flaws and guidelines for fabric grading uniform throughout and similar to that
(assigning a numerical point value based on the number, size, and severity of fabric defects). at the bottom of the photo. The area in
the center includes a portion with too
Manufacturers of cut and sewn products determine the quality level suitable for their product
many filling yarns and another portion
line and target market and purchase fabric accordingly. with too few filling yarns. This defect
Another perspective of identifying fabric quality assesses fabric performance. Standard developed during weaving. The defect
test methods have been developed by several professional organizations to aid in perfor- in Fabric B is due to a slub in the
yarn that created a flaw in the fabric
mance assessment so that fabric evaluation is consistent. Standard fabric performance tests
several inches long. Unfortunately,
assess abrasion resistance, strength, wrinkle resistance, shrinkage during laundering or dry the defect was not detected until after
cleaning, colorfastness to light or perspiration, snag resistance, flammability, water repellency, finishing and printing and purchase by
consistency of color throughout a length of fabric, soil resistance, and many other charac- a consumer.
teristics. Fewer manufacturers assess fabric quality from a performance perspective than by
visual examination. Unfortunately, many consumer problems with textile products stem from
minimal performance evaluation by manufacturers.

Learning Activity 1
Describe the serviceability characteristics you desire in a pair of denim jeans or other
pant fabric (woven, not knit, i.e., not sweat pants or exercise shorts). Which of these
aspects of serviceability relate to fiber content and yarn structure and which relate to
fabric structure? How would the manufacturer or retailer test the fabric to ensure that it
meets your serviceability needs?

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 271


Filling fabric firmness and rigidity than yarn arrangements in knits, braids, or laces. Because of this
Warp
Figure Components of a woven fabric:
12.3 warp and filling.
Woven fabrics have two basic
components: warp yarns in the lengthwise
direction and filling yarns in the
crosswise direction.
Woven fabrics have two or more sets of
yarns interlaced at right angles, have inter-
lacing patterns, can be raveled from adja-
cent sides, have grain, and
are relatively stable.
Woven Fabrics
With the exception of triaxial fabrics, all woven fabrics are made with two or more sets of
yarns interlaced at right angles. Sometimes these fabrics are referred to as biaxial. They have
two basic components: warp yarns and filling yarns (see Figure 12.3). The yarns in the length-
wise direction are warp yarns or ends, and the yarns in the crosswise direction are filling
yarns, weft, or picks. The right-angle position of the warp to filling yarns produces greater
structure, yarns can be raveled from adjacent sides. Woven fabrics vary in the ways the yarns
interlace, the pattern formed by this interlacing, the number of yarns per inch, and the ratio of
warp to filling yarns.
Woven fabrics are widely used, and weaving is one of the oldest and most widely used
methods of making fabric. Some fabric names are based on an earlier end use (hopsacking
used in bags for collecting hops; tobacco cloth as shade for tobacco plants; cheesecloth to
wrap cheeses; and ticking in mattress covers, once called ticks); the town in which the fabric
was woven originally (bedford cord from New Bedford, Massachusetts; calico from Calicut,
India; chambray from Cambrai, France; and shantung from Shandong, China); or the person
who originated or was associated with that fabric (batiste for Jean Baptiste, a linen weaver,
and jacquard for Joseph Jacquard, who developed a loom for quickly weaving more intricate
fabrics).
Woven fabrics used in apparel, interiors, and technical products have these
characteristics:
• Two or more sets of yarns are interlaced at right angles to each other.
• Many different interlacing patterns give interest and texture to the fabric.
• Yarns can be raveled from adjacent sides.
• Fabrics have grain (refers to the geometry or position of warp yarns relative to filling
yarns in the fabric).
• Fabrics are relatively stable, with little stretch in warp or filling.

The Loom
Weaving is done on a machine called a loom. All the weaves that are known today have been
made for thousands of years. The loom has undergone significant modifications, but the basic
principles and operations remain the same. Warp yarns are held taut within the loom, and
filling yarns are inserted and pushed into place to make the fabric.
In primitive and handlooms, the warp yarns are vertical or horizontal (Figure 12.4). Looms
for hand weaving keep the warp yarns taut by attaching one beam to a tree or post and

Figure Handloom. the other beam to a strap that fits around the weaver’s hips, to another beam, or by using
12.4 weights. Filling yarns are inserted by a shuttle batted between warp yarns—some raised and

2 Learning Activity
Examine swatch #2 in your kit. Identify and unravel several warp yarns. Now identify
and unravel several filling yarns. Next examine swatch #24 in your kit. Identify and
unravel several warp yarns. Now identify and unravel several filling yarns. Comparing
these fabrics, how does yarn type and yarn size impact fabric density? What are some
possible end uses for swatch #1? Swatch #4?

272 chapter twelve

 Harness
Warp Heddles
Reed or batten

Warp beam Shuttle Filling yarn Cloth or fabric beam

Figure Simplified drawing of a two-harness shuttle loom.
12.5

some lowered to create a space. To separate the warp yarns and weave faster, alternate
warp yarns were attached to bars that raised these warp yarns. A toothed device similar to a
fine comb pushed the filling yarns into place. Eventually, the bar developed into heddles and
harnesses attached to foot pedals so the weaver could separate the warp yarns by stepping
on the pedals, leaving the hands free for inserting the filling yarns.
During the Industrial Revolution, mass-production high-speed looms were developed.
The modern loom consists of two beams, a warp beam and a cloth or fabric beam, holding
the warp yarns between them (Figure 12.5). Warp yarns that are sufficient for the length,
width, and density of the fabric to be woven are wound carefully onto a warp beam. The
warp is raised and lowered by a harness-heddle arrangement. A harness is a frame to hold
the heddles. The harness position, the number of harnesses, and the warp yarns that are
controlled by each harness determine the weave or interlacing pattern. A heddle (headle)
is a wire with a hole or eyelet in its center through which a warp yarn is threaded. There are
as many heddles as there are warp yarns in the fabric, and the heddles are held in two or
more harnesses. Each warp yarn passes through the eye of only one heddle. The selection
of the specific heddle and harness is a major factor in determining the structure of the fabric.
Figure 12.5 illustrates how a simple two-harness loom is used to raise one harness while the
other harness remains in its original position. With this arrangement, the warp forms a shed,
or space, through which the filling is inserted.
Devices of several types carry filling yarns through the shed. The name of the loom often
refers to the device used to insert the filling yarn. Originally, these devices were fairly large, some-
what oval wooden shuttles with a bobbin of yarn in the center. In the automatic shuttle loom,
a shuttle is thrown through the shed by picker sticks at both sides of the loom. These sticks
bat the shuttle first to one side and then, after the shed has changed, back to the other side so
quickly that the shuttle is a blur. Shuttle looms are limited to about 200 picks, or filling insertions,
per minute. The noise of the picker sticks striking the shuttle is deafening. Looms with quieter
and more efficient devices, called shuttleless looms, will be discussed later in this chapter.
A reed, or batten, beats or pushes the filling yarn into place to make the fabric firm. A
reed is a set of wires in a frame; the spaces between the wires are called dents. Warp yarns
are threaded through the dents in the reed. The spacing in the reed is related to the desired
number of warp yarns per inch in the woven fabric. Reeds are available with a wide variety of
spacings related to the density of the yarns in the finished fabric and the size of the yarns. For
example, 20-dent reeds are used for low-density fabrics with coarse yarns; 80-dent reeds are

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 273


The most frequent type of commercial
loom is a four-harness loom. This loom is
extremely versatile and can be used to pro-
duce most basic woven fabrics.
The weave structure or pattern in the fabric
is determined by: (1) the order in which
the warp yarns are threaded through the
harness, (2) the combination of harnesses
raised or lowered at a time, and (3) the
sequence in which the harnesses are
raised or lowered.
274 chapter twelve
used for higher-density fabrics with finer yarns. The way the reed beats the filling yarn in place
helps determine the density of filling yarns and the grain characteristics of the finished fabric.
Woven fabric is rolled onto the cloth, fabric, or take-up beam as it is produced.
Weaving consists of the following steps:
1. Shedding: raising one or more harnesses to separate the warp yarns and form a
shed.
2. Picking: passing the shuttle through the shed to insert the filling.
3. Beating up: pushing the filling yarn into place in the fabric with the reed.
4. Take-up: winding finished fabric onto the fabric beam.
The most frequent type of commercial loom is a four-harness loom. This loom is extremely
versatile and can be used to produce most basic woven fabrics. These fabrics comprise the
greatest percentage of woven fabrics currently on the market and explain the popularity of the
four-harness loom. Additional harnesses or other devices that control the position of the warp
yarns are used to produce more intricate designs. However, generally six harnesses is the
limit in terms of efficiency. Patterns that require more than six harnesses are made on looms
that use other devices to control the warp yarns; these will be discussed later in this chapter.
Preparing for Weaving  Yarns are repackaged so that they can be used to weave a fabric
on a specific loom. This repackaging step is called winding. In this process, some spun yarns
may be given more twist or combined with other singles to make ply yarns.
Yarn packages are placed on a large frame called a creel. The creel holds the yarn as it
is wound onto a warp beam. To protect warp yarns from damage during weaving, they are
treated with a sizing agent (since slashing is a preparation step for weaving, it is discussed
with finishes in Chapter 16).
After the warp yarns are wound on the warp beam, each individual yarn is threaded
through a heddle in a specific harness and through a dent in the reed before being attached to
the cloth beam. Yarns must remain completely parallel from warp beam to cloth beam and
not cross each other. If they do cross each other, excess abrasion or tension will occur that
may cause warp yarns to break. In addition, depending on where yarns cross each other, a
flaw in the fabric structure may occur.
The weave structure or pattern in the fabric is determined by three factors: (1) the order
in which the warp yarns are threaded through the harness, (2) the combination of harnesses
raised or lowered at a time, and (3) the sequence in which the harnesses are raised or low-
ered. In the simplest combination possible, warp yarn 1 is threaded through heddle 1 in har-
ness 1. Warp yarn 2 is threaded through heddle 1 in harness 2. Warp yarn 3 is threaded
through heddle 2 in harness 1. Warp yarn 4 is threaded through heddle 2 in harness 2. This
pattern is followed until all warp yarns are threaded through the harnesses. Then warp yarn 1
is threaded through dent 1 in the reed. Warp yarn 2 is threaded through dent 2 in the reed.
This pattern is followed until all warp yarns are threaded through the reed. After the yarns
have been attached to the cloth beam, weaving can begin. To create the simplest weave,
harness 1 is raised lifting all odd-numbered warp yarns. After the filling yarn is inserted, the
harness ­lowers and the reed beats that yarn in place. Then harness 2 is raised lifting all
even-numbered warp yarns. The second filling yarn is inserted and the reed beats that filling
yarn in place. This sequence is repeated until the length of warp has been woven.
After weaving, the fabric is removed from the cloth or take-up beam, washed to remove
the sizing, finished to specification, and wound on bolts or tubes for sale to manufacturers or
consumers. (See Chapters 16 to 19.)
Loom Advancements  Loom advancements have centered on (1) devices to weave
­intricate designs; (2) computers and electronic monitoring systems to increase speed, pat-
terning capabilities, and quality by repairing problems and keeping looms operating at top
efficiency; (3) quicker and more efficient means of inserting filling yarns; (4) automatic devices
to speed the take-up of woven cloth and let off or release more warp; and (5) devices that
facilitate and speed up changing the warp.
Devices that control the position (raised or lowered) of the warp yarns have included
dobby, doup, lappet, and leno attachments and the jacquard loom. These have become so
sophisticated that pictures can be woven in cloth (see Chapter 13). Warp yarns are individu-
ally controlled by microcomputers in some looms, referred to as electronic jacquards.
Computers and electronic devices are important in developing design tables for setting
up maximum weavability properties, such as tightness and compactness in wind-repellent
fabrics or tickings. Computer-aided design (CAD) systems are used extensively to design fab-
ric. Microcomputers control the operation of individual warp yarns to create the design. Quick
style change (QSC) and electronic jacquards allow changes from one fabric style to another in
a few minutes, as compared with the several hours or more required with traditional jacquard
looms. With QSC, shorter minimum yardage orders are possible.
Automation of weaving uses computers and robotics to reduce fabric defects and
improve weaving quality and efficiency. Automatic looms with multifunctional microcomputers
permit high-speed filling insertion with minor adjustments of tension for both warp and filling
yarns and taking up woven fabric. Computers detect incorrect filling insertions, remove the
incorrect yarn, correct the problem, and restart the loom. All steps are done without the assis-
tance of a human operator—weaverless weaving.
Because of the noise and slower speeds, shuttle looms continue to be replaced with
faster, quieter, more versatile shuttleless looms. However, shuttle looms remain important,
especially in developing countries. Many specialty and technical fabrics, such as fire hoses,
circular industrial belts, and artificial blood vessels, cannot be produced on shuttleless looms.
As old shuttle looms wear out, they are replaced with shuttleless looms. However, new shut- Because of the noise and slower speeds,
tleless looms require a more developed infrastructure including a steadier and more uniform shuttle looms are replaced with faster,
power source and operators with more training—requirements that are difficult to meet in quieter, more versatile shuttleless looms.
some areas of the world.
Four types of shuttleless looms—air-jet, rapier, water-jet, and projectile—weave faster
with less noise. In these looms, the filling yarns are measured, inserted, and cut, leaving a
fringe along the side. These ends may make a fused selvage if the yarns are thermoplastic,
or the ends may be tucked into the edge. Shuttleless looms are more common in developed
countries and more versatile than shuttle looms. Many shuttleless looms can produce almost
any basic weave or pattern in various yarn types and sizes with multiple colors at widths up to
160 inches. Most shuttleless looms are air-jet or rapier types. Water-jet and projectile looms
are less common.
In the air-jet loom, the filling yarn is premeasured and guided through a nozzle, where
a narrow jet of air sends it through the shed. The loom can insert several thousand meters of
yarn per minute and is suitable for any filling yarn that is not too bulky or heavy. Good warp
preparation is required. Air-jet looms weave fabrics up to 400 centimeters (157 inches) in
width and are the predominant looms used in weaving sheeting and denim. Energy consump-
tion is high for air-jet looms, but engineering modifications are reducing energy use.
The rapier loom weaves primarily spun yarns at up to 1,000 picks per minute. The
double-rapier loom has one metal arm about the size of a thin fingernail clipper, called a

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 275


Figure Split polypropylene bags woven on
12.7 a circular loom decrease costs by
eliminating cutting flat fabric and
sewing side seams to create bags,
such as this one for bird feed.
Filling
Warp 2 Warp 1
Figure Triaxial weave pattern: diagram (a)
12.8 and vegetable bag example (b).
276 chapter twelve
Carrier
Carrier
Yarn
Figure Carrier of a rapier shuttleless loom.
12.6
carrier or dummy shuttle, on each side of the loom. A mechanism on one side of the loom
measures and cuts the correct length of filling yarn to be drawn into the shed by the carriers.
The two carriers enter the warp shed at the same time and meet in the center. The second
carrier takes the yarn from the first carrier and pulls it across to the opposite side of the loom
(Figure 12.6). This loom is widely used to produce basic cotton and worsted fabrics. Changes
in engineering are reducing the length of the fringe along the selvages and reducing selvage
waste by 50%.
The water-jet loom uses a high-pressure jet of water to carry the filling yarn across
the warp. Water-resistant sizing must be used for the warp. Water-jet looms are used only
for hydrophobic nylon and polyester filament yarn fabrics. Excess water is removed from the
loom by suction. The fabric is wet when it comes from the loom, so drying is an added cost.
This loom produces fabrics without yarn streaks and is more compact, less noisy, and takes
up less space than the conventional loom. It is a very fast loom, but limitations on fabric width
are difficult to overcome, as well as the initial high price of the water-jet loom.
In the projectile loom, one projectile with grippers carries the yarn across the full width
of the shed. The yarn may be inserted from one or both sides. This loom is also called the
missile or gripper loom and is used to produce basic, specialty, and technical fabrics.
In multiwidth looms, additional warp beams allow two or more widths of fabric to be
woven side by side. Because changing sheds is a time-consuming step in weaving, this loom
makes optimal use of that time. Many basic fabrics are made on multiwidth looms.
In each of the looms discussed so far, one shed forms at a time. In multiple-shed
looms, also called multiphase looms, more than one shed is formed at a time. In warp-wave
looms, just before a yarn carrier enters one portion of the warp, a shed is formed; just after the
carrier leaves that area, the shed changes. This action may occur simultaneously across the
width of the warp several times. In weft-wave looms, several sheds form along the length of
the warp yarns and open at the same time, one filling yarn is inserted into each shed, and then
the sheds change. As many as 16 to 20 filling carriers insert the precut filling in a continuous
process instead of the intermittent process of single-shed weaving. Beating up and shedding
arrangements are different. In this continuous-weaving process, the number of picks per min-
ute (ppm) is much faster.
Most looms weave flat widths of fabric. Circular looms weave tubular fabric, such as
pillowcases or sacks of split-film polypropylene for items such as rice, bird seed, and animal
feed (Figure 12.7).
The triaxial loom weaves three sets of yarns, usually identical in size and twist, at
60-degree angles to each other (Figure 12.8). Two yarn sets are warp and the other set is fill-
ing. These fabrics can be produced more quickly than other weaves because there are fewer
picks per inch, and the speed of weaving is based on the number of picks per minute. Triaxial
fabrics are stable in horizontal, vertical, and bias directions. Biaxial fabrics (two sets of yarns at
 Learning Activity 3
In groups of two or three, discuss the different loom types and their advantages and dis-
advantages. How does loom type impact fabric quality and sustainability? What are the
factors that drive loom developments? How does fabric quality relate to sustainability?

right angles to each other) are not stable on the bias. Triaxial fabrics are used for balloons, air
structures, sailcloth, diaphragms, truck covers, and other technical products.

Sustainability of Weaving
Environmental concerns associated with weaving are related to the type of loom used to
produce a fabric. For example, shuttle looms are incredibly noisy. Loom operators in shuttle
weaving rooms wear hearing protectors to minimize hearing loss. Water-jet looms require
clean water to carry the filling yarn across the fabric. This water is reclaimed and recycled.
Fabrics produced with this loom must be dried before storage to reduce problems with mil-
dew, and the amount of energy used in drying fabrics is great. Energy use varies significantly
with the type of loom. For example, rapier looms use almost twice the energy of projectile
looms, and air-jet looms use almost three times the energy of projectile looms. For this rea-
son, shuttle and projectile looms are frequently used in parts of the world where electricity is
irregular in strength or availability. Hand-operated looms, including backstrap looms, are often
used to produce ethnic textiles and garments like patterned belts and shawls that are sold by
the weavers to supplement family income and preserve cultural traditions.
Because of the demand for basic woven fabrics in the market, social abuses can occur in
weaving mills. Employees may be expected to work excessive hours in uncomfortable conditions
for low pay. Child workers may be paid less than adults for the same hours of work. During times
of economic downturn, mills may close leaving workers with no source of income. However,
during times of economic growth, mills do provide income for workers in the community.
Warp yarns are treated with sizing or lubricating compounds to minimize problems with
abrasion in weaving. These compounds are removed after the fabric has been produced and
are often reclaimed, but reclamation is not 100% efficient and residue disposal is required.
Lint is a problem resulting from yarn abrasion during weaving and creates fabric quality and
respiratory problems. Vacuum heads attached to flexible tubing move through weaving rooms
to remove lint and minimize health, quality, and equipment problems. Finally, static electricity
can build up in weaving when synthetic fibers are used. Humidity is controlled to minimize
static charges that can create problems with loom operations and fabric quality.
The trend of producing better-quality fabric improves efficiency and lessens the environ-
mental impact. Fewer fabric flaws mean less recutting of product pieces, fewer seconds from
cut-and-sew production facilities, less waste for landfills, and lower energy use.
Interest and participation in the local fiber movement has grown. Within communities,
small and large, individuals own handlooms and make products for personal use and to sell
to retailers, at fiber fairs and festivals, and art fairs. Often, these weavers utilize natural fibers
grown or produced in environmentally friendly conditions and processed locally (cleaned and
carded) at specialty fiber mills. The Handweavers’ Guild of America, Inc., is an international,
membership organization of weavers, spinners, dyers, basketmakers, bead weavers, felters,
and fiber artists in the related crafts. There are also local weaving associations throughout the

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 277


Sustainability concerns related to weaving
include the energy and water use associ-
ated with looms, possible labor abuses,
and chemicals applied during the
finishing process.
Point of
interlacing
United States and internationally that promote, educate, and offer a community for weaving
enthusiasts.
Characteristics of Woven Fabrics
All yarns in interior and apparel woven fabrics interlace at right angles to one another
(Figure 12.9). An interlacing is the point at which a yarn changes its position from one
side of the fabric to the other. Interlacing is usually described by the name of the weave
or a numerical representation that resembles a fraction. When a yarn crosses over more
than one yarn at a time, floats are formed and the fabric has fewer interlacings. A float
describes a yarn that crosses over two or more yarns in the opposite direction before an
interlacing occurs. For example, in some fabrics, the filling yarn floats over two warp yarns
to create the weave.

Filling
Warp
Figure Warp and filling yarns in woven fabrics.
12.9 Note that the yarns in this diagram
interlace at 90-degree angles.
An interlacing is the point at which a yarn
changes its position from one side of the
fabric to the other. Because of the different
demands placed on them, warp and filling
yarns often differ in structure, size,
twist, and fiber content.
Warp and Filling
Warp and filling yarns have different demands placed on them and may differ in their structure
or fiber type. Thus, a fabric may not have the same performance characteristics for warp and
filling. The warp must withstand the high tensions of the loom and the abrasion of weaving, so
the warp yarns are stronger and more uniform, with higher twist. Filling yarns are more often
novelty or special-function yarns such as high-twist crepe yarns, low-twist napping yarns, or
bouclé yarns.
Differentiating between warp and filling is possible by carefully examining the fabric and
the lengthwise and crosswise yarns. In addition to the identifiers listed in Table 12.1, fabric
characteristics may differentiate between the warp and filling directions. For example, poplin
has a filling rib and satin has warp floats.
Grain
Grain refers to the geometry or position of warp yarns relative to filling yarns in the fabric.
A fabric that is on-grain has warp yarns parallel to each other and perpendicular to the fill-
ing yarns that move straight across the fabric. Lengthwise grain is parallel to warp yarns.

Table 12.1 Summary Table: Differentiating Warp from Filling

Identifier Warp Filling
Selvage Parallel Perpendicular
Elongation Lower Higher
Yarn Path Straighter and more parallel Not as straight nor as parallel
Yarn type Rarely fancy/novelty or special More likely to be fancy/novelty or
function special function
Yarn twist Higher Lower
Yarn size Smaller Larger
Yarn uniformity Greater Lesser
Fabric crimp Lower Greater
Count Higher Lower
Yarn-dyed Stripes More likely Less likely

278 chapter twelve

Crosswise grain is parallel to filling yarns. Fabrics are almost always woven on-grain. Handling,
finishing, or stress due to yarn twist, weave, or other fabric aspects may cause fabrics to dis-
tort and become off-grain. Fabric quality has increased significantly, so it is rare to find fabrics
as badly off-grain as those illustrated in Figures 12.10 and 12.11.
Off-grain fabrics create problems in production and use. During finishing, off-grain
causes reruns or repeating finishing steps and lowers fabric quality. Products do not drape
properly or hang evenly and printed designs are not straight. Figure 12.10 shows a design
that has been printed off-grain—the print does not follow the yarns or a torn edge.
There are two kinds of off-grain. Skew occurs when the filling yarn is at an angle other
Figure Skewed fabric.
than 90 degrees to the warp. It usually develops in finishing when one side of the fabric travels 12.10
ahead of the other (see Figure 12.10). Bow occurs when the filling yarns dip in the center of
the fabric; it usually develops when the fabric center lags behind the two sides during finishing
(Figure 12.11).
Fabrics should always be examined for grain. On-grain fabrics usually indicate high-­quality
standards and minimize problems in matching designs or patterns in cutting and sewing.

Fabric Count
Fabric count, count, or fabric density is the number of warp and filling yarns per square Figure Bowed fabric. Note the torn straight
12.11 edge of the fabric and the slight curve
inch (or per square centimeter in many parts of the world) of gray goods (fabric as it comes
of the printed red line.
from the loom). Count may increase due to shrinkage during dyeing and finishing. Count is
written with the warp number first, for example, 80.76 (read as 80 by 76); or it may be written
as the total of the two, or 156. Count is not synonymous with yarn number.
Grain refers to the geometry or position
Count is an indication of the quality of the fabric—the higher the count, the better the
of warp yarns relative to filling yarns in the
quality for any fabric. Higher count also may mean less shrinkage and less raveling of seam
fabric. Off-grain problems include
edges. Catalogs and e-commerce sites may include count because the buyer must judge
bow and skew.
product quality from printed information rather than by examining the product.
Count can be determined with a fabric counter (Figure 12.12) or by hand. The num-
ber of yarns per inch or centimeter in each direction is counted. Count may vary depend-
ing on the end use or quality of fabric. Often it is listed as a total and may be described
on labels as thread count, even though yarns, not threads, are counted. For example,
two plain-weave fabrics often used in bedsheets are percale and muslin. Percale is a
higher-quality fabric made of combed yarns in counts of 160, 180, 200, or more per inch.
Muslin is a harder-wearing fabric designed for lower price points. It is usually made of
carded yarns in counts of 112, 128, or 140 per inch. It is frequently used in bed linens
for budget motels and hospitals. Higher numbers indicate better-quality, more expensive
fabrics.

Balance Figure Fabric yarn counter.

12.12
Balance is the ratio of warp yarns to filling yarns in a fabric. A balanced fabric has approxi-
mately one warp yarn for every filling yarn, or a ratio of 1:1 (read as one to one). An example
of a balanced fabric is 78 * 78 print cloth. An unbalanced fabric has significantly more of one Balance is the ratio of warp yarns to filling
set of yarns than the other. A typical unbalanced fabric is broadcloth, with a count of 144 * 76 yarns in a fabric. A balanced fabric has
and a ratio of about 2:1. Although the numbers will vary depending on whether the count is ­approximately one warp yarn for every filling
based on inches or centimeters, the balance will remain the same regardless of the measure- yarn, or a ratio of 1:1 (read as one to one).
ment system used.

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 279

 Balance is helpful in recognizing and naming fabrics and in distinguishing the warp direc-
tion of a fabric. Balance plus count is helpful in predicting slippage. When the count is low,
slippage is more likely in unbalanced fabrics than in balanced fabrics (Figure 12.13).
Balance can be determined by examining a fabric carefully. If the fabric can be raveled,
unravel several yarns on adjacent edges and compare the density and size of yarn ends pro-
truding from the fabric. In a balanced fabric, warp and filling yarns are nearly identical in size
and frequency. In balanced fabrics, it may be difficult to differentiate between warp and filling
yarns when the selvage is not present. In unbalanced fabrics, warp and filling yarn size or the
density between warp and filling may be significantly different (Figure 12.14).

Figure Slippage of yarns in a ribbed fabric. Selvages

12.13
A selvage is the lengthwise self-edge of a fabric. On conventional shuttle looms, it is formed
when the filling yarn turns to go back across the fabric. The conventional loom makes the
same kind of selvage on both sides of the fabric, but shuttleless looms have different selvages
because the filling yarn is cut and the selvage looks like a fringe. In some fabrics, different
yarns or interlacing patterns are used in the selvage.
Plain selvages are similar to the structure of the rest of the fabric. They do not shrink and
can be used for seam edges. Tape selvages used in sheeting are made with larger or plied
yarns for improved strength and abrasion resistance. They are wider than the plain selvage
and may be of a different weave to maintain a flat edge. Split selvages are used when items
such as towels are woven side by side, cut apart after weaving, and hemmed. Fused selvages
are found in narrow fabrics of thermoplastic fibers cut from wide fabric, such as some ribbon.

Fabric Width
The loom determines the fabric width. Handwoven fabrics are narrow, often 27 to 36 inches
wide because that is a comfortable reach for most weavers. Commercial fabric widths are
wider because wide fabrics are more economical to weave and allow for more efficient use
of fabric in products. Many basic fabrics, regardless of fiber type, exceed 60 inches in width.
However, a few fabrics for the consumer market are available in traditional fabric widths

(a) (b)
Figure Compare the count of the balanced fabric (a) with that of the unbalanced fabric (b).
12.14

280 chapter twelve

related to fiber type: 45 or 60 inches for cotton fabrics, 54 to 60 inches for wool fabrics, and
40 to 45 inches for silk-type fabrics. Measures of fabric quality include freedom
from defects, count, and weight.

Fabric Weight
Fabric weight or fabric mass describes how much a fabric weighs for a given area or
length of fabric. Fabric weight is important because it is used to identify fabric appropriate-
ness for end use and in naming fabrics. Both length and area weight values are used in the
global textile complex. For example, yards per pound or meters per kilogram may be used in
the trade to identify current prices for basic fabrics, but fabric width is crucial in this system.
Another system uses weight in ounces per square yard (oz/yd2) or g/m2 (grams per square
meter or gsm).
Lightweight or top-weight fabrics are those that weigh less than 4.0 oz/yd2 (less than
135.0 gsm). They are softer and more comfortable next to the skin and have better drape.
Top-weight fabrics are used for shirts, blouses, dresses, apparel linings, bedsheets, curtains,
sheer draperies, substrates for technical products, and backing fabrics for wall coverings and
bonded and quilted fabrics.
Medium-weight fabrics weigh from 4.0 to 6.0 oz/yd2 (135.0 to 200.0 gsm). They are
widely used for heavier and stiffer shirts, blouses, dresses, apparel linings, winter-weight bed-
sheets, draperies, upholstery, wall coverings, and table linens. Many medium-weight fabrics
are used in quilted and bonded fabrics and as substrates for technical products.
Heavyweight fabrics also are described as bottom-weight or suiting-weight goods
because they are used for apparel bottoms such as pants, skirts and for suiting. They weigh
more than 6.0 oz/yd2 (more than 200 gsm). They are durable, stiff fabrics used for outerwear,
work apparel, upholstery, draperies, bedspreads, and technical products.

Learning Activity 4
Use Fabric #108 from your swatch kit. Identify the warp and filling yarns. Is your sample
on grain? Using a pick glass or a magnifying glass and ruler, determine the count for
the warp and filling directions of this fabric. Is it balanced? Is it unbalanced? Is this sample
lightweight, medium weight, or heavyweight? How you can approximate fabric weight
or weight category without using a scale? Why is it important to know the difference
­between the warp and filling directions of a fabric? How does that relate to serviceability?

Learning Activity 5
Work in groups of two or three. Describe why characteristics such as grain, balance,
count, and weight are important for textile products. Why would this information matter
to consumers?

Learning Activity 6
Assume you are buying fabric for a private label line to be produced by your ­company.
Potential suppliers have sent you four-yard samples of five fabrics that meet your b
­ asic
requirements of fiber content, color, and fabric structure. Describe how you would
­determine which of these fabrics to buy for the private label merchandise.

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 281

 Properties of Woven Fabrics
Fabric properties resulting from weaving variables are summarized in Table 12.2. The weave
or interlacing pattern influences fabric properties as well as fabric appearance. Table 12.3
summarizes the various weaves. This chapter and Chapter 13 deal only with woven fabrics.

Naming and Diagramming Woven Fabrics

Fabric names are based on many factors: fabric structure, fabric weight, yarn type, yarn balance,
and finishes. The details provided in the discussion about these basic fabrics are key in naming
fabrics. Figure 12.15 is a flowchart that will help in determining fabric names for basic weaves.
Basic weaves are those that are made on a loom without any modification. The remainder of this
chapter focuses on basic woven structures and the standard fabrics made using these weaves.
These fabrics are made of simple weaves that incorporate the same interlacing pattern through-
out the fabric. Using the flowchart in Figure 12.15 should help in determining what to look for
when trying to differentiate among fabrics and when naming a fabric. While the focus in this
chapter is on the structure of the fabric, fancy or novelty yarns can be used with basic weaves to
create fancy fabrics. However, most fabrics are made with single, simple spun, or filament yarns.
Fabric structure can be represented in several ways. Understanding these representations
may help in recognizing how a term such as plain weave describes a fabric’s structure. It may
also help you learn how to identify each of the basic weaves. A basic plain weave will be used to
explain these ways of representing fabric structure because it is the simplest woven fabric struc-
ture. Figure 12.16 shows several ways of diagramming a woven fabric. The top-left drawing is
a cross-sectional view of a fabric cut parallel to a filling yarn. The cut ends of the warp yarns
appear as dark circles. The filling yarn goes over the first warp yarn and under the second warp
yarn and so on all the way across the fabric. The second filling yarn in a plain weave goes under
the first warp yarn and over the second warp yarn and repeats that pattern across the fabric.
After the first two filling yarns, this means of representing fabric structure is not effective because

7 Learning Activity
Using Tables 12.1 and 12.2, examine swatches #6 and 22 in your textile kit. Determine
warp and filling. Comparing these fabrics, identify which is the high count versus low
count? Using Tables 12.1 and 12.2 again, examine swatches #25 and 27 in your textile
kit. Determine warp and filling. Comparing these fabrics, identify which is the balanced
versus unbalanced? Explain your process in correctly identifying these swatches.

Table 12.2 Summary Table of Woven Fabric Properties

Fabric Characteristic Properties
High count Firm, strong, good cover and body, compact, stable, more
rigid drape, wind- and water-repellent, less edge raveling.
Low count Flexible, permeable, pliable, softer drape, higher shrinkage
potential, more edge raveling.
Balanced Less seam slippage, warp and filling wear more evenly.
Unbalanced (usually more Seam slippage with low count; surface yarns wear out first,
warp) leaving slits (common in upholstery fabrics). Add visual and
tactile interest.
Floats Lustrous, smooth, flexible, resilient, may ravel and snag, seam
slippage with low count.

282 chapter twelve

Table 12.3 Basic Weaves
Name Interlacing Patterns General Characteristics Typical Fabrics Chapter Reference
Plain Each warp interlaces with each filling. Most interlacings. Balanced or Batiste 12
1
1 unbalanced. Wrinkles. Gingham
Broadcloth
Ravels. Less absorbent.
Crash
Cretonne
Print cloth
Glazed chintz
Basket Two or more yarns in warp, filling, or both Looks balanced. Fewer interlacings Oxford 12
2
1 directions woven as one in a plain weave. than plain weave. Looks flat. Monk’s cloth
2 Duck
2 Wrinkles. Ravels more.
4 Sailcloth
4
Twill Warp yarns float over two or more filling yarns in a Diagonal lines or wales. Serge 12
2
2 regular progression of one to the right or left. Surah
Fewer interlacings than plain weave.
3 Denim
1 Wrinkles. Ravels more. More
Gabardine
pliable than plain weave. High
Herringbone
counts possible.
Flannel
Satin Warp yarns float over four or more filling yarns in a Flat and lustrous surface. Satin 12
4
1 progression of two to the right or left. Sateen
High counts possible. Fewer
1 Antique satin
4 interlacings. Long floats may slip
Peau de soie
and snag. Ravels.
Dobby Many different interlacings. Simple patterns. Shirting madras 13
Huck toweling
Used to create geometric patterns. Cord-type fabrics.
Waffle cloth
Extra yarn Additional warp or filling yarn sets add texture, Simple patterns with or without Dotted swiss 13
pattern, and interest. fringe. Eyelash
Clipped dot
Piqué Raised pattern area with dobby or jacquard Floats on back with or without Piqué 13
technique. stuffer yarns. Bedford cord
Jacquard Each warp yarn controlled individually. An infinite Intricate patterns. Damask 13
number of interlacings is possible. Brocade
Tapestry
Momie or An irregular interlacing of yarns. Floats of unequal Rough-looking surface. Granite cloth 13
crepe lengths in no discernible pattern. Moss crepe
Crepelike.
Sand crepe
Bark cloth
Leno A doup attachment on the loom crosses one warp Meshlike fabric. Lower-count fabrics Marquisette 13
yarn over a second warp yarn. resist slippage. Sheer curtain fabrics
Double- Several possible patterns use three, four, or five Thick, stiff, durable, warm fabrics. Doublecloth 13
cloth sets of yarns. Suitings
Coatings
Pile Extra warp or filling yarns are woven in to give a Plush or looped surface. Warm. Velvet 13
cut or an uncut 3D fabric. Wrinkles less. Pile may flatten. Velveteen
Corduroy
Furlike fabrics
Wilton rugs
Terrycloth
Slack- A variation of pile weave. Some warp yarns are Crinkle stripes or pile surface. Seersucker 13
tension under little tension in the loom to create texture Absorbent. Nonwrinkling. Terrycloth
or pile. Friezé
Tapestry Discontinuous filling yarns create pattern. Pattern created by difference in yarn Tapestry 13
color or texture.

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 283

 Is the same simple interlacing pattern repeated throughout the fabric?

Yes No

What basic weave is used? See Figure 13-1

Plain Weave Twill Weave Satin Weave

Is the interlacing pattern made by Is the fabric... Are the yarns...

individual yarns or by groups of yarn?

Groups of yarns Individual yarns Warp-faced? Filling- Even-sided? Filament? Spun?

interlaced as a unit interlaced faced?
Not common
Satin
Basket Weave Plain Weave Crepe-back satin
Foulard or Surah
Twill flannel* Twill flannel*
Lining twill Herringbone**
Denim** Houndstooth Warp-faced? Filling-faced?
Drill**
Chino** Warp sateen Sateen
Gabardine**

Where are the grouped yarns found?

Is the structure...

Both warp Either warp Only some warp

and filling or filling and/or filling Balanced? Unbalanced?

Full basket weave Half basket weave Partial basket weave

Lightweight Medium-weight Heavyweight
Monk’s cloth** Oxford cloth** Dimity**
Sailcloth Oxford chambray Crepe de Poplin
Broadcloth
Canvas** chine Faille
Taffeta**
Duck** Bengaline
Shantung
Rep
Ottoman
Grosgrain
Bedford cord**

Lightweight and sheer Lightweight and opaque Low count and sheer Medium-weight Heavyweight

Ninon Lawn Cheesecloth Muslin Weaver’s cloth

Georgette Batiste Crinoline Flannelette Crash
Voile Challis** Outing flannel** Burlap
Organza China silk Gingham Osnaburg*
Organdy Habutai Chambray Flannel**
Cretonne Tweed**
Taffeta** Suiting**
Percale Madras
Polished cotton Pongee
Glazed chinz Honan
Plissé True crepe**
Embossed Printcloth

* Most common structure

** More than one structure possible

Figure Basic woven fabric flowchart.

12.15

the paths of filling yarns are not easy to see. However, in basic woven fabrics the interlacing pat-
tern relates to the number of warp yarns the filling yarn passes over or passes under, and that
pattern can be identified easily with this cross-sectional method of diagramming.
The checkerboard pattern in Figure 12.16 is a simple representation of the photograph of
the plain-weave example. In the checkerboard pattern, each square represents one yarn on
the surface of the fabric; dark squares represent warp yarns and light squares represent filling
yarns on the surface of the fabric. Starting at the upper-left-hand corner of the checkerboard
and moving across the row, a warp yarn is on the surface, then a filling yarn is on the surface,
and so on. The second row is just the opposite and represents the interlacing pattern of the
second filling yarn. All woven fabrics can be diagrammed using this technique, but the pattern
will differ with the specific structure being diagrammed. Of course, actual fabrics will not be

284 chapter twelve

 Filling
Warp Filling
Warp

(a)

Warp
Warp

Filling
Filling
(b) (c)
Figure Three ways to show the yarn-interlacing pattern of a plain weave: cross section (a),
12.16 checkerboard (b), photograph (c).

Learning Activity 8
Diagram the structure of Fabric #108 from your swatch kit. Name the kind of weave
used to make this swatch.

as easy to identify because yarns may differ in size or count, yarns may all be the same color,
and prints or finishes may make the structure harder to see. These diagramming methods are
an easy way to represent interlacing patterns and to help you identify the weave in a fabric.
The photograph of the fabric in Figure 12.16 shows the same plain-weave interlacing pattern
as in the cross section. Since the yarns are opaque in the photograph, only yarns on the surface
are visible. Hence, a pattern of dark warp yarns and light filling yarns develops. When the fabrics
were photographed for this book, they all were positioned so that the warp is parallel to the up and
down direction of the page and the filling yarn is parallel to the crosswise direction of the page.

The Three Basic Weaves

Three basic weaves produce the vast majority of the woven fabric on the market. This section
will focus on these basic weaves: plain, twill, and satin. Basic fabrics and common variations
of each weave are included in the discussion.

Plain Weave
The plain weave, the simplest of the three
The plain weave is the simplest of the three basic weaves. The plain weave is formed by basic weaves, is formed by yarns at right
yarns at right angles passing alternately over and under each other. Each warp yarn interlaces angles passing alternately over and under
with each filling yarn to form the maximum number of interlacings (Figure 12.16). Plain weave each other. Each warp yarn interlaces
requires only a two-harness loom and is the least expensive weave to produce. It is described with each filling yarn to form the maximum
as a 11 weave, read as one harness up and one harness down or as one up, one down, which number of interlacings. Plain weave fabrics
describes the position of the harness when forming the shed. differ by balance, weight, count, and fin-
Thus, when the filling yarn is inserted and pushed into place, it goes over the first warp ish. Basket weaves are a variation of plain
yarn and under the second warp yarn. In a plain-weave fabric, this pattern is repeated until weaves.
the filling yarn has interlaced with all the warp yarns across the width of the loom. The second

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 285


Plain-weave fabrics have no technical face
or technical back due to the weave.
filling yarn goes under the first warp yarn and over the second. This pattern also is repeated
across the width of the loom. Note how these two filling yarns interlace with the warp yarns to
produce the maximum number of interlacings. In a plain weave, all odd-numbered filling yarns
have the same interlacing pattern as the first filling yarn, and all even-numbered filling yarns
have the same interlacing pattern as the second filling yarn.
Plain-weave fabrics have no technical face or technical back due to the weave. The
technical face is the front or right side of the fabric. Technical back is the back or wrong
side of the fabric. Printing and some surface finishes may create a technical face or right
side. Plain weave’s uninteresting surface serves as a good ground for printed designs and
many finishes. Because there are many interlacings per square inch, plain-weave fabrics
tend to wrinkle easily and are less absorbent than other weaves, but raveling may be less
of a problem. However, yarn type and finishes greatly influence wrinkling and raveling.
Interesting effects can be achieved by varying fiber types or by using novelty, fancy, or
textured yarns, yarns of different colors or sizes, high- or low-twist yarns, filament or staple
yarns, and finishes.

Balanced Plain Weave  The simplest plain weave is one in which warp and filling yarns
are the same size and the same distance apart so that they show equally on the surface—­
balanced plain weave (see Figure 12.16). Balanced-plain-weave fabrics have a wider range
of end uses than fabrics of any other weave and are the most widely used type of woven fab-
ric. They can be made in any weight, from very light to very heavy (Table 12.4).
Because there are so many different woven fabrics, one way to organize them is by
structure, weight, and fabric characteristic. Balanced-plain-weave fabrics will be discussed
in five groups: lightweight sheer, lightweight opaque, low-count sheer, medium weight, and
heavyweight. All of these categories could incorporate narrow fabrics, those that are no
wider than 12 inches.

Lightweight Sheer Fabrics  Lightweight sheer fabrics are very thin, weigh very little, and
are transparent or semitransparent (Figure 12.17). High-count sheers are transparent as a
Figure A lightweight sheer fabric: georgette. result of the fineness of yarns. Fabric weight is less than 4.0 oz/yd2 (less than 135 gsm). Most
12.17 fabrics are used for lightweight apparel and curtains.

Table 12.4 Balanced-Plain-Weave Fabrics

YARN SIZE
Fabric Typical Count Warp Filling Category
Lawn 88 * 80 70s* 100s* Lightweight opaque
Organdy Similar to lawn Similar to lawn Lightweight sheer
Batiste Similar to lawn Similar to lawn Lightweight opaque
Print cloth (muslin, 80 * 80 to 64 * 60 28s 42s Medium weight
percale, calico,
chintz)
Gingham Same as print Medium weight
cloth
Carded 64 * 60 to 64 * 76
Combed 84 * 76 to 88 * 84
Suiting 48 * 48 to 66 * 76 13s to 20s Heavyweight

*The s after the number means that the yarn is a single yarn.

286 chapter twelve

 Filament-yarn sheers may be described in part by fiber content; for example, polyester
sheer or nylon sheer. Ninon is a filament-yarn fabric that is widely used for sheer curtains. It is
usually 100% polyester because of that fiber’s resistance to sunlight, excellent resiliency, and
easy washability. Although ninon is a plain weave, warp-yarn spacing is not uniform across
the fabric. Pairs of warp yarns are spaced close to each other. The space between adja-
cent warp-yarn pairs is greater than the space between the two yarns in the pair. Ninon has
medium body and hangs well.
Georgette and chiffon are made with filament yarns, the latter being smoother and
more lustrous. In georgette, the direction of the crepe twist (S or Z) for warp and filling yarns
alternates (Figure 12.17). For example, even-numbered warp and filling yarns may be S-twist
and odd-numbered yarns may be Z-twist. Chiffon has smaller yarns with a hard, rather than
a crepe, twist. Both fabrics can be a solid color or printed. Both are very lightweight, drape
well, and are used in apparel. Both fabrics were originally made of silk but are now often made
from manufactured or synthetic filament yarns.
Voile is a sheer fabric made with high-twist or voile-twist spun yarns that are combed or
worsted. It can be solid color or printed. Voile was originally a cotton or wool fabric, but it is
now available in many fiber types.
Organdy is the sheerest cotton fabric made with combed yarns. Its sheerness and crisp-
ness are the result of an acid finish on lawn gray goods (see Chapter 17). Because of its stiff-
ness and fiber content, it is very prone to wrinkling. Organza is the filament-yarn counterpart
to organdy. It has good body and a crisp hand. These sheer fabrics are used for curtains and
for summer-weight apparel. Both fabrics are available in solid colors or prints.

Lightweight Opaque Fabrics  Lightweight opaque fabrics are very thin and light but are not as
transparent as sheer fabrics. The distinction between the two groups of fabrics is not always
pronounced. Fabric weight is less than 4.0 oz/yd2 (less than 135 gsm). End uses include
­apparel and interior textiles.
Organdy (a sheer fabric), lawn, and batiste begin as the same gray goods. They differ
from one another in the way they are finished. Lawn and batiste do not receive the acid finish
and, thus, remain opaque. Better-quality fabrics are made of combed yarns. Lawn is often
printed and is usually all cotton or cotton/polyester (Figure 12.18).
Batiste is the softest of the lightweight opaque fabrics. It is made of cotton, wool, poly-
ester, or a blend. Tissue ginghams and chambray are similar in weight but are yarn-dyed.
China silk is similar to batiste, except that it is made from slightly irregular fine-filament
yarns. It is a soft fabric that was originally made of silk and used for women’s suit linings and
matching blouses. Habutai is slightly heavier than China silk. The most common weight is
10 momme (see Chapter 5). Both fabrics can be dyed or printed.
Challis (shal’ee) tends to be heavier than the fabrics discussed so far and, depending on
fiber content and fashion, it may be a medium-weight fabric. Challis is usually made with spun
carded yarns and may be slightly napped so that a few fiber ends are raised to the surface.
A classic challis fabric is wool in a paisley print. It is soft and drapes well. Challis is usually
printed and slightly napped and is frequently made from rayon.

Low-Count Sheer Fabrics  Low-count sheer fabrics include cheesecloth, crinoline

(­Figure 12.19), buckram, gauze, and bunting. They are transparent because of open spaces
between the yarns. They are made of carded yarns of size 28s and 30s in the warp and 39s
and 42s in the filling. Count ranges from 10×12 to 48×44. These fabrics are neither strong Figure A lightweight opaque fabric: lawn.
nor durable, are seldom printed, and differ in the way they are finished. They are functional 12.18

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 287

 fabrics that may be used for decorative and technical purposes, or as shaping or support fab-
rics in apparel, accessories, and interiors. Gauze is available in several weights and may have
a wrinkled 3D texture. (See the Glossary at the end of the book for more information about
these fabrics.)

Medium-Weight Fabrics  Medium-weight fabrics comprise the most widely used group of
woven fabrics. These fabrics have medium-sized yarns and a medium count, with carded
or combed yarns. They may be finished in different ways or woven from dyed yarns. They
may be called top-weight fabrics because they are frequently used for blouses and shirts.
Medium-weight fabrics are also used to produce many interior items, such as wall and win-
dow-treatment fabrics, bed and table linens, and some upholstery fabrics. Fabric weight
ranges from 4.0 to 6.0 oz/yd2 (135 to 200 gsm).
Figure A low-count sheer fabric: crinoline.
12.19 The fabrics in this group are converted from a gray goods fabric called print cloth. Yarns
can be carded or combed, depending on the desired count, quality, performance, and cost
of the finished fabric. Yarn size ranges from 28s to 42s. Count ranges from 64×60 to 80×80.
Figure 17.1 shows the variety of ways these fabrics can be finished. Chapter 17 will explain
some of the differences in fabrics due to finishing. For example, two fabrics converted from
print cloth are percale and embossed.
Percale is a smooth, slightly crisp, printed or plain-colored fabric made of combed yarns
(Figure 12.20). In percale bedsheets, counts of 160, 180, 200, 250, and 270 are available.
Percale is called calico if it has a small, quaint, printed design; chintz if it has a printed
design; and cretonne if it has a large-scale floral design. Some cretonne is coarser with
slightly larger carded yarns. When a percale is given a highly glazed calender finish, it is called
polished cotton. When chintz is glazed, it is called glazed chintz. Glazed chintz is made in
solid colors as well as prints. These fabrics are often made with blends of cotton and polyes-
ter or rayon. They are used for shirts, dresses, blouses, pajamas, children’s wear, matching
curtains and bedspreads, upholstery, slipcovers, draperies, and wall coverings.
Any plain-woven, balanced fabric of carded yarns ranging in weight from lawn to heavy
bedsheeting may be called muslin. It is usually available in counts of 112, 128, or 140. Muslin
Figure A medium-weight fabric: percale.
is also a name for a medium-weight fabric that is unbleached or white.
12.20
Napped fabrics may be of either medium weight or heavyweight. Flannelette can be
found as both balanced- and unbalanced-plain-weave fabrics that are lightly napped on one
side. It is available in several weights, ranging from 4.0 to 6.0 oz/yd2 (135 to 200 gsm). It
is described as flannel and is used for sheets, blankets, and sleepwear. Outing flannel is
heavier and stiffer than flannelette; it may be napped on one or both sides. It is used for shirts,
dresses, lightweight jackets, and jacket linings. Some outing flannels are made with a twill
weave. Both flannelette and outing flannel may be solid color, yarn-dyed, or printed.
Gingham is a yarn-dyed fabric in checks, plaids, or solids (Figure 12.21). Chambray
may look like a solid color but is yarn-dyed with white filling and dyed-warp yarns; dyed warp
of one color and dyed filling of another color, called iridescent chambray; or warp stripes of
different colors.
Ginghams and chambrays are usually made of cotton or cotton blends. Better-quality
fabrics are made with combed yarns. When they are made of another fiber, the fiber content
is included in the name, for example, silk gingham. When filament yarns are used, these fab-
rics are given a crisp finish and called taffeta. In wool or wool-like fabrics, they are called wool
checks, plaids, and shepherd’s checks. Madras, or Indian madras, is usually all cotton and
has a lower count than gingham.

288 chapter twelve

 (a) (b) (c)
Figure Gingham: lower quality (a), medium quality (b), and higher quality (c). Each fabric is the same size and was photographed at the
12.21 same magnification level.

Stripes, plaids, and checks present problems that do not occur in solid-colored fabrics.
The design of ginghams may be up and down, right and left, or both. In order to match the
seams of plaid materials, more time is needed to cut an item out, more attention must be
given to the choice of design, and more care must be taken during production.
Imitations of yarn-dyed fabrics are made by printing. While true yarn-dyed fabrics are the
same on both sides, printed fabrics show a definite technical face and back because they are
printed on just one side. Lengthwise printed stripes are usually on-grain, but crosswise stripes
may be off-grain.
Pongee is a filament-yarn, medium-weight fabric. It has a fine warp of uniform yarns with
slub filling yarns that are irregular in size. It was originally silk with dupioni (slub) filling yarns,
but is now made of a variety of fibers. Honan is similar to pongee, but it has slub yarns in both
the warp and the filling.
Ripstop nylon or ripstop taffeta is a filament-yarn fabric with slightly larger warp and
filling yarns appearing at regular intervals that create a grid within the fabric. The name of the
fabric explains the purpose of these larger yarns—to stop rips in the fabric.
Plain-weave fabrics with crepe yarns in either warp or filling or in both warp and filling
are known as true crepe. They can be of any weight but are most often medium weight or
heavyweight. Because of their interesting texture and lively drape, these fabrics are frequently
used by designers for apparel and interior textiles. In apparel, true crepes are found in several
weights and are used in suits, coats, and dresses. In interiors, true crepes are common in
upholstery, draperies, and wall coverings. True crepes are sometimes used in table linens.

Heavyweight Fabrics  Heavyweight fabrics are also known as suiting-weight or

­bottom-weight fabrics. These fabrics weigh more than 6.0 oz/yd2 (more than 200 gsm) and
are heavy enough to tailor and drape well. Their filling yarns are usually larger than the warp
yarns and have a slightly lower twist. Because of their weight, these fabrics are more durable
and more resistant to wrinkling than are sheer or medium-weight fabrics, but they tend to
ravel more because of the lower count.
Weaver’s cloth is a general name for cotton suiting that is converted from gray goods
called coarse sheeting. Cotton suiting is solid color or printed.
Homespun describes interior fabrics with slightly irregular yarns, a lower count, and a
handwoven look.
Crash is made with yarns that have thick-and-thin areas, giving it an uneven nubby look
(Figure 12.22). It is often linen or a manufactured fiber or fiber blend that looks like linen.

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 289


Figure A heavyweight plain weave
12.22 fabric: Crash.
Figure Unbalanced plain weave fabric often
12.23 has ridges such as with the poplin.
290 chapter twelve
The irregular surface shows wrinkles less than a plain surface does. Butcher rayon or butcher
cloth is a similar fabric of 100% rayon or rayon/polyester. Heavier weights look like linen
crash.
Burlap or hessian has a much lower count than crash. It is used in wall coverings. It has
characteristic coarse, thick-and-thin yarns and is made of jute.
Osnaburg is a variable-weight fabric most often found in suiting weight. Like muslin,
it may be unbleached or bleached. In general, it is a lower-quality fabric than muslin, with a
lower count of larger and less regular carded yarns. Bits of leaf and bark from the cotton plant
produce a characteristic spotted appearance. It is a utility fabric used as a drapery lining,
upholstery support fabric, or substrate for tufted upholstery fabric. When printed or dyed, it is
used in upholstery, drapery, and apparel.
Flannel is a suiting fabric of woolen yarns that is napped. It is used for women’s suits,
slacks, skirts, and jackets. It may have a plain or twill weave.
Tweed is made from any fiber or blend of fibers and is always characterized by novelty
yarns with nubs of different colors. Harris tweed is handwoven in the Outer Hebrides Islands
and carries a certified registered trademark. Donegal tweed is handwoven in Donegal County,
Ireland.
Tropical worsted suiting is made from long-fiber worsted yarns and typically weighs from
6 to 10 oz/yd2 (200 to 340 gsm) It is a wool-like fabric made for men’s suits, intended for use
in warmer weather. Blends are common.
Heavyweight balanced-plain-weave fabrics are often used in interiors such as wall cover-
ings, upholstery, and draperies. Company-specific names are common.
Unbalanced Plain Weave  In an unbalanced plain weave, there are significantly more
yarns in one direction than the other (Figure 12.23). Increasing the number of warp yarns in
a plain-woven fabric until the count is about twice that of the filling yarns creates a crosswise
ridge called a filling rib. In such a fabric, the warp yarns completely cover the filling yarns.
9 Learning Activity
Identify two or more differences among each fabric in a grouping, such as lightweight
sheer fabrics. How will this information help you in identifying these fabrics? Why is it
important to be able to identify fabrics by name or to envision a fabric structure, drape,
or appearance when hearing a fabric name? Select one fabric in each group and iden-
tify an end use for it. Determine an appropriate fiber content and yarn structure for the
fabric and describe its serviceability based on fiber content, yarn structure, fabric struc-
ture, and weight.
10 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 108, 110, 112, and 118 from your
swatch kit. Name the weave used to produce each fabric. Unravel a warp and filling
yarn from each sample. What are the similarities and differences among these fabrics in
terms of weave, weight, and yarn type? Place the fabrics in order from lightest weight
to heaviest weight. Can you detect a difference in weight among these samples? Count
the number of yarns per inch for any two of these fabrics. Is the count balanced or
unbalanced? Develop a list of the characteristics of this weave and its impact on fabric
serviceability. Select one fabric from this group and describe its quality.
Table 12.5  Unbalanced-Plain-Weave Fabrics
YARN SIZE
Fabric Count* and Ratio Warp Filling Category
Spun Yarns
Combed broadcloth 144 * 76 100/2 100/2 Medium weight
1.89:1
Carded broadcloth 100 * 60 40s 40s Medium weight
1.67:1
Filament Yarns
Taffeta 140 * 64 75 denier 150 denier Medium weight
2.19:1
Faille 200 * 64 75 denier 200 denier Medium weight
3.13:1
Rep 88 * 31 30/2 5s Heavyweight
2.84:1
Bengaline 92 * 40 150 denier 15s spun Heavyweight
2.3:1
Shantung 140 * 44 150 denier 30/2 Heavyweight
3.18:1

*Counts may be high for polyester/cotton and durable-press fabrics.

This type of fabric may be called warp faced because the warp yarns form the surface of the
fabric. Warp-faced fabrics are more durable than filling-faced fabrics because warp yarns are
smaller, have tighter twist, and are more uniform in size and structure.
Ribs in fabric can be produced by increasing the reed pressure (pushing more yarns into
the same area) or by changing yarn size. Small ridges are formed when the warp and filling
yarns are the same size; larger ridges are formed when the filling yarns are larger than the warp.
Typical yarn sizes are listed in Table 12.5. In determining if a fabric is unbalanced, examine the
fabric and look for approximately twice as many yarns in one direction as yarns in the other
direction. These ratios are usually expressed as 2:1 (read two to one), 3:1, or 1:2 with the warp
listed before the colon and the filling after the colon. However, as can be seen in Table 12.5,
some ratios between warp and filling yarns are not quite 2:1 while others are much higher.
While most unbalanced plain weave fabrics are warp faced because of their greater durability, a
few filling faced unbalanced plain weave fabrics are sometimes available on the market.
When yarns differ in color, the color showing on the surface will be that of the yarn with
the greater count. Figure 12.24 shows an unbalanced-plain-weave fabric and the checker-
board diagram.
Identification of an unbalanced fabric may not be easy. To assist in identification, ravel
adjacent sides until a yarn fringe can be seen. Observe the difference in density of warp and
filling yarns. Broadcloth has a very thick fringe of warp yarns (144×76). Percale (78×78) has a
fringe of equal density for both warp and filling (Figure 12.25).
Slippage is a problem in ribbed fabrics made with filament yarns, especially when the
quality and count are lower (Figure 12.13). Slippage occurs when one set of yarns gets
pushed to one side and exposes the yarns that are normally covered. This usually happens at
points of wear and tension, such as seams, but with low-count fabrics, dragging a thumbnail
across the fabric can produce slippage. Wear occurs on the surface of the ribs. The warp

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 291


Figure A lightweight ribbed fabric:
12.26 Crepe de chine.
292 chapter twelve
Warp
Filling
(a) (b)
Figure Unbalanced (1:2)-plain-weave diagram (a) and fabric (b). Compare this to the
12.24 balanced-plain-weave fabric in Figure 12.16, woven with the same size yarns.
(a) (b)
Figure Compare the count and balance of percale (a) and broadcloth (b).
12.25
yarns wear out first, and splits occur in the fabric. Filling yarns are protected from wear until
the warp wears away.
Ribbed fabrics with fine ribs are softer and more drapeable than comparable balanced
fabrics—broadcloth is softer than percale. Fabrics with large ribs have more body and are
stiffer. A few sheer rib fabrics are used in curtains.
Lightweight Ribbed Fabrics  Crepe de chine, traditionally a filling yarn with crepe twist of
silk, drapes beautifully (Figure 12.26). It has a dry, pleasant hand and medium luster. The fab-
ric is more commonly found now as a filament polyester for blouses and linings with filament
warp and fine crepe-twist filament filling. There are many more warp yarns per inch than filling
yarns, but it does not have a noticeable rib because the filling yarns are so small. Crepe de
chine can be dyed or printed.
Medium-Weight Ribbed Fabrics  Medium weight (4.0 to 6.0 oz/yd2 or 135 to 200 gsm) is the larg-
est group of ribbed fabrics. Broadcloth has the finest rib of any of the spun-yarn fabrics b
­ ecause
the warp and filling yarns are the same size. However, the fine rib is due to the much higher
number of warp yarns (2:1 or more), as shown in Figure 12.25b. Better-quality fabrics are made
of long-staple combed cotton and plied yarns and may be mercerized for luster. Slub broadcloth
is made with a yarn that contains slubs at regular intervals. Silk broadcloth has filament warp and
staple filling. Some yarn-dyed chambrays are similar to ­broadcloth in weight and structure.
Taffeta is a fine-ribbed, filament-yarn fabric with a crisp hand. Note that taffeta is used
to describe both balanced- and unbalanced-plain-weave fabrics. Iridescent taffeta has warp
and filling yarns of different colors. Moiré taffeta has a water-marked, embossed design
(Figure 12.27).
Shantung has an irregular ribbed surface produced by long, irregular areas in filling
yarns. It may be medium or suiting weight and of various fiber types.

Heavyweight Ribbed Fabrics  These fabrics usually weigh more than 6.0 oz/yd2 (more than
200 gsm) Poplin is similar to broadcloth, but the ribs are heavier and more pronounced be-
cause of larger filling yarns (Figure 12.28). Polyester/cotton blends are widely used. Some
yarn-dyed chambrays are similar to poplin in weight and structure.
Faille (pronounced file) has a fine, subtle rib with filament warp yarns and spun filling
yarns. Rep (or repp) is a heavy, coarse fabric with a pronounced rib. Bengaline is simi-
lar to faille, but it has a slightly more pronounced rib. It may be woven as a basket weave
(see the next section) with two adjacent warp yarns forming the same shed to emphasize
the rib. Ottoman has alternating large and small ribs, created by using filling yarns of differ- Figure A medium-weight ribbed or
ent sizes or by using different numbers of filling yarns inserted to form the ribs that vary in 12.27 unbalanced plain weave fabric:
size. Ottoman is often made with a basket weave structure that will be discussed in the next moiré taffeta.
section. Grosgrain (pronounced grow’-grane), usually produced in ribbon width, also has a
rounded rib (Figure 12.13).
Bedford cord is found most often in interior fabrics such as bedspreads. It has spun
warp yarns that are larger than the filling yarns. Other ways of producing bedford cord will be
discussed in Chapter 13.

Learning Activity 11
Use Fabrics #6, 27, 28, 29, 30, and 120 from your swatch kit. Name the weave used
to produce each fabric. Unravel a warp and filling yarn from each sample. What are the
similarities and differences among these fabrics in terms of weave, weight, and yarn
type? Place the fabrics in order from lightest weight to heaviest weight. Can you detect
a difference in weight among these samples? Count the number of yarns per inch for
any two of these fabrics. Is the count balanced or unbalanced? Develop a list of the
characteristics of this weave and its impact on fabric serviceability. Select one fabric
from this group and describe its quality.

(a) (b)
Figure Comparison of poplin (a) and broadcloth (b).
12.28

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 293

 Learning Activity 12
Explain the differences and similarities between balanced and unbalanced plain weave
fabrics. Select two fabrics that are similar in weight and fiber content, one from each
group, and identify a single end use that would be appropriate for each one. Explain
how the serviceability of these two products would differ based on fabric structure and
count.

Warp

Filling
(a) (b)

Warp

Filling
(c) (d)
Figure Basket weave: 4 * 4 full basket [line drawing (a) and photo (b)]
12.29 and 2 * half basket [line drawing (c) and photo (d)].

Basket Weave  Basket weave is made with two or more adjacent warps controlled by the
same harness, and with two or more fillings placed in the same shed. The interlacing pattern
is similar to a plain weave, but two or more yarns follow the same parallel path. A full basket
would have the basket feature used in both warp and filling; both warp and filling are grouped.
A half basket would have only one yarn set, either the warp or the filling yarns, grouped
(­Figure 12.29). Bengaline, discussed with the unbalanced plain weaves, could be made using
a half basket weave. In a third option, only some of the yarns are grouped in either or both
the warp and the filling. Ottoman, also discussed with the unbalanced plain weaves, could be
made using an occasional basket feature.
The most common basket weaves are 2 ×2 or 4×4, but variations include 2 ×1 and
2 × 3. Basket-weave fabrics are more flexible and wrinkle-resistant because there are
fewer interlacings per square inch allowing the yarns to flex more and reduce wrinkles.
The fabrics look flatter than comparable regular plain-weave fabrics. However, long floats
snag easily.

294 chapter twelve

 Dimity is a sheer unbalanced fabric used for apparel and window treatments. It has
heavy warp cords at intervals across the fabric. The cords may be formed by yarns larger than
those used elsewhere in the fabric or by grouping yarns together in that area. Either technique
produces the unique narrow band or stripe indicative of dimity. Dimity is white or printed
(Figure 12.30).
Oxford cloth is most commonly found as a 2×1 half basket weave, but it is also found
as 3×2 basket weave. When it has a yarn-dyed warp and white filling, it is called oxford
chambray. Oxford looks like a balanced fabric because the warp yarns are finer and have
higher twist than the filling. Because of soft yarns and loose weave, yarn slippage may occur.
Oxford fabrics are medium weight, soft, porous, and lustrous (Figure 12.31).
Most basket weaves are heavyweight fabrics. Common ones include sailcloth, duck,
or canvas. Sailcloth is the lightest in weight and made of single yarns. Duck and canvas Figure A light weight basket weave fabric:
12.30 dimity.
are made with single or ply yarns. Different types of duck and canvas relate to which yarns
(warp or filling) are plied and how many components are used in the ply yarn. Duck is coarser
(Figure  12.32). Canvas is smoother, more compact, and the heaviest of the three. Sailcloth is
used in slacks, skirts, summer-weight suits, and interiors. Usually 2×1 or 3×2 basket weaves,
canvas and duck are used for slipcovers, boat covers, shoe fabrics, house and store awnings,
tarpaulins, and covers for military and technical uses.
Hopsacking is a coarse, open basket-weave fabric of spun yarns. It is primarily used for
coats, suits, upholstery, and wall coverings.
Monk’s cloth, friar’s cloth, druid’s cloth, and mission cloth are some of the oldest full-
basket-weave fabrics. They are usually off-white in color. These fabrics are usually found in
square counts: 2×2, 3×3, 4×4, or 6×6. They are used primarily in interior textiles.

Twill Weave
In a twill weave, each warp or filling yarn floats across two or more filling or warp yarns with a
progression of interlacings by one to the right or left, forming a distinct diagonal line, or wale. A Figure A medium-weight basket weave
12.31 fabric: oxford cloth.
float is the portion of a yarn that crosses over two or more yarns from the opposite direction.

Learning Activity 13
Use Fabrics #32, 33, 34, and 35 from your swatch kit. Name the weave used to pro-
duce each fabric. Unravel a warp and filling yarn from each sample. What are the simi-
larities and differences among these fabrics in terms of weave, weight, and yarn type?
Place the fabrics in order from lightest weight to heaviest weight. Can you detect a
difference in weight among these samples? Count the number of yarns per inch for any
two of these fabrics. Develop a list of the characteristics of this weave and its impact on
fabric serviceability. Select one fabric from this group and describe its quality.

Learning Activity 14
Compare the similarities and differences in structure, weight, and serviceability between
plain and basket weaves. Name a fabric made using plain weave and basket weave
and identify an end use that would be appropriate for each of those fabrics. Explain
why the end use is a good match for the fabric. Predict the serviceability of each fabric
based on fabrication method, yarn structure, fiber content, and fabric quality. Figure A heavyweight basket weave fabric:
12.32 duck.

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 295


In a twill weave, each warp or filling yarn
floats across two or more filling or warp
yarns with a progression of interlacings by
one to the right or left, forming a distinct
diagonal line, or wale. A float is the portion
of a yarn that crosses over two or more
yarns from the opposite direction. Twill
weave fabrics vary by interlacing pattern,
weight, count, yarn type, and finish.
296 chapter twelve
A twill weave requires three or more harnesses, depending on its complexity. A twill weave
is the second basic weave that can be made on the simple loom. Although it is possible to
create fairly elaborate patterns using a twill weave, this chapter will focus only on basic fabrics
and patterns.
Twill weave is often designated as a fraction—such as 21 —in which the numerator (in this
example 2) indicates the number of harnesses that are raised and the denominator (in this
example 1) indicates the number of harnesses that are lowered when a filling yarn is inserted.
The fraction 2
would be read as two up, one down. The minimum number of h
­ arnesses
1
needed to produce a twill can be determined by totaling the numbers in the fraction. For the
example described, the number of harnesses is 3.
2
In order to weave any twill, the loom must be properly warped. To weave a 1 twill, the
threading and shedding processes described here must be followed. Any change in this pro-
2
cess will produce something other than a 1 twill. The first warp yarn is threaded through the
first heddle in the first harness, the second warp yarn through the first heddle in the second
harness, and the third warp yarn through the first heddle in the third harness. This process
repeats with each yarn being threaded through the second heddle in each harness and con-
tinues in this pattern until the entire set of warp yarns are threaded through the three har-
nesses. In weaving the first filling yarn, the first two harnesses are raised and the third harness
is lowered. For the second filling yarn, the shed changes so that harnesses 2 and 3 are raised,
harness 1 is lowered, and the yarn is inserted. The third filling yarn is inserted into a shed cre-
ated by raising harnesses 1 and 3 and lowering harness 2. This produces the length of float
and progression of interlacing described in the definition. This interlacing pattern is repeated
until the entire fabric has been woven. Thus, by following the steps of threading and shedding,
the 21 twill has been made. A 21 twill is shown in Figure 12.33. The distance between the arrows
demonstrates the length of the float. The floats on the surface of the technical face are warp
yarns, making it a warp surface; it is classified as a warp-faced twill.
Characteristics of Twill Weave  Twill fabrics have a technical face and a technical back.
The technical face is the side of the fabric with the most pronounced wale. It is usually more
durable, more attractive, and most often used as the fashion side of the fabric. The face
usually is the side visible on the loom during weaving. If there are warp floats on the technical
face, there will be filling floats on the technical back. If the twill wale goes up to the right on
Filling float (back)
Warp float
(face)
Figure A twill weave. Fancy tweed yarns are used in the filling and add interest to the fabric.
12.33
one side, it will go up to the left on the other side. Twill fabrics have no up and down as they
are woven. Check this fact by turning a fabric end to end and then examining the direction of
the twill wale.
Sheer fabrics are seldom made with a twill weave. Because a twill surface has inter-
esting texture and design, printed twills are much less common than printed plain weaves.
When twills are printed, they are more likely to be lightweight fabrics. Soil shows less on the
uneven surface of twills than it does on smooth surfaces, such as plain weaves. Thus, twills
are often used for sturdy work apparel or durable upholstery because soils and stains are less
noticeable.
Fewer interlacings allow the yarns to move more freely. Fabrics are softer and more pli-
able and recover better from wrinkles as compared with plain-weave fabrics. When there
are fewer interlacings, yarns can be packed closer together to produce high-count fabrics
(Figure 12.34). If a plain-weave fabric and a twill-weave fabric have the same kind and number
of yarns, the plain-weave fabric would be stronger because it has more interlacings. In twills
with higher counts, the fabric is more durable and air- and water-resistant.
The prominence of a twill wale is increased by using long floats, combed or worsted
yarns, plied or hard-twist yarns, yarns with twist opposite to the direction of the wale, and
high counts. Fabrics with prominent wales, such as gabardine, may become shiny with wear
because of wale flattening.
The direction of the twill wale traditionally goes from lower left to upper right in wool and
wool-like fabrics—right-hand twills—and from lower right to upper left in cotton or cottonlike
fabrics—left-hand twills. Wale or twill direction is important only in determining the face or back
of a fabric. In fabrics with a very prominent wale or with white and colored yarns, design impli-
cations relative to the wale should be considered. The distinction between direction of the wale
by fiber type is less significant now with many basic fabrics woven in various parts of the world.
The angle of the wale depends on the yarn balance or the ratio of warp to filling. The twill line
may be steep, regular, or reclining. The greater the difference between the number of warp and
filling yarns, the steeper the twill line. Steep-twill fabrics have a high warp count and are stronger
in the warp direction. The wale angle serves as a guide in determining the strength and name of
a fabric. Figure 12.34 shows how the wale changes in steepness when the warp yarn density
increases and the filling yarn density remains the same. All three diagrams illustrate a 21 left-handed
twill. The only change is in the number of warp yarns, yet the wale angle changes drastically.
Filling-faced twills are seldom used. They are usually reclining twills and are less
durable than other twill-weave fabrics.

Reclining twill Regular twill Steep twill

35-degree angle 45-degree angle 63-degree angle
Warp yarns per inch = 6 Warp yarns per inch = 7 Warp yarns per inch = 12
Filling yarns per inch = 8 Filling yarns per inch = 8 Filling yarns per inch = 8

Figure Wale angle depends on ratio of warp to filling. Left-handed twills are illustrated.
12.34 These images represent the relationship of yarn density to twill angle.

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 297


Figure An even-sided twill: serge.
12.35
Figure Herringbone made with novelty slub
12.36 yarns.
Figure A warp-faced twill: denim.
12.37
298 chapter twelve
Even-Sided Twills  Even-sided twills expose an equal amount of warp and filling yarn on
each side of a fabric. They are also known as reversible twills because they look alike on both
sides, although the direction of the twill line differs. Better-quality filling yarns are used in these
fabrics as compared with warp-faced twills because both sets of yarn are exposed to wear.
They are most often 22 twills and have the best balance of all the twill weaves (Table 12.6).
Foulard or surah is a printed or solid-color filament fabric of 22 construction. Used in silk-
like dresses, linings, ties, and scarves, it is soft, smooth, and lightweight.
Serge is a 22 twill with a subdued wale with combed or worsted yarns and a clear or hard finish
(not napped or brushed) (Figure 12.35). Serge with fine yarns, a high count, and a water-­repellent
finish is used for jackets, raincoats, and other outerwear. Heavier serge, with coarse yarns, is used
for slacks, outwear, and suits. Serge often weighs 10 or more oz/yd 2 (340 gsm or more).
Twill flannel is a 22 twill. The filling yarns are larger low-twist woolen or worsted yarns, made
especially for napping. Worsted flannels have less nap, take and hold a sharp crease better, show
less wear, and sag less than woolen flannels. Even-sided flannel is used in apparel and upholstery.
2
Sharkskin is a 2 twill with a sleek appearance. It has a small-step pattern because both
warp and filling yarns alternate one white yarn with one colored yarn. Sharkskin is used pri-
marily for slacks and suits.
Herringbone fabrics have the twill line reversed at regular intervals across the warp to pro-
duce a design that resembles the backbone of a fish, hence the name herringbone (Figure 12.36).
Two different color yarns may be used to accentuate the pattern. Herringbone patterns can be
very subtle or very pronounced. Herringbone is used in both apparel and interior textiles.
2
Houndstooth is a 2 twill fabric with a unique small eight-point pattern. Two yarns in
contrasting colors in the warp and filling are used in groups of four to create the distinctive
pattern. Houndstooth fabrics also are used in apparel and interior textiles.
Warp-Faced Twills  Warp-faced twills have a predominance of warp yarns on the face of
the fabric. Since warp yarns are made with higher twist, these fabrics are stronger and more
resistant to abrasion and pilling. Table 12.7 summarizes warp-faced twills. Twill flannel and
herringbone also can be warp-faced twills, usually with a 21 interlacing pattern.
2
Lining twill is a medium-weight 1 fabric made from filament yarns and usually piece-
dyed or printed in a small pattern. It resembles foulard in appearance and use.
Denim is a yarn-dyed cotton twill available in several weights, ranging from 6 oz/yd2
(200 gsm) to 14 (475 gsm) or more oz/yd2 in a 21 or 31 interlacing pattern. Its long-term popular-
ity has made it a fashion fabric in casual wear. In classic denim, the warp is dyed indigo blue
and the filling is white (Figure 12.37). Denim may be napped, printed, made with spandex or
other stretch yarns, or otherwise modified to meet fashion demands.
Table 12.6  Even-Sided Twills
Filling
Warp
Fabric Count Warp/Filling Yarn Size
Serge 48 * 34 to 62 * 58 Varies with fiber content
Flannel 56 * 30 to 86 * 52 Varies with fiber content
Table 12.7  Warp-Faced Twills
Filling

Warp

RANGE IN YARN SIZE*

Fabric Count Warp Filling
Jean 84356 to 100364 21s to 24s 24s to 30s
Denim 60336 to 72344 7s to 16s 8s to 23s
Gabardine 110376 to 130380 15s to 39/2 15s to 26s

*s indicates single yarns.

Learning Activity 15
Use Fabrics #36, 37, 38, 39, 40, and 41 from your swatch kit. Name the weave used
to produce each fabric. Unravel a warp and filling yarn from each sample. What are the
similarities and differences among these fabrics in terms of weave, weight, and yarn
type? Place the fabrics in order from lightest weight to heaviest weight. Can you detect
a difference in weight among these samples? Describe the angle and direction of the
wale for each sample. Is the wale pronounced or subtle? Are the fabrics even-sided or
warp- or filling-faced? Develop a list of the characteristics of this weave and its impact
on fabric serviceability. Select one fabric from this group and describe its quality.

Learning Activity 16
Identify the weave structure usually found in denim. Why is this structure good for jeans and
related end uses? How different would jeans or other denim apparel be if they were made
using a gabardine, houndstooth, or poplin? What would change with these structures?
Consider yarn color, fabric density or count, interlacing pattern, and appearance. How
would the serviceability change with each of these alternate fabrics? Would consumers
notice the difference? Theorize the fabrics that might have been used for work and casual
apparel before the 1960s when denim became such a popular fabric for these end uses.

Jean is a piece-dyed or printed medium-weight twill used for sportswear, draperies, slip-
covers, and work shirts. Jean is not heavy enough for work pants.
Drill is a strong, medium- to heavyweight twill fabric. It is a 21 or 31 twill that is piece-dyed.
It is usually seen in work apparel and technical fabrics.
Covert is a twill fabric with a mottled appearance resulting from two colors of fibers
combined in the yarns or from two colors of plies twisted together in one yarn. It is usually a 21
heavyweight twill made of hard-twist worsted yarns.
Chino is a hard-wearing steep-twill fabric with a slight sheen. Usually, combed two-ply
yarns are used in both the warp and the filling directions. Chino is typically a summer-weight
apparel fabric.
Gabardine is a warp-faced steep or regular twill with a very prominent, distinct wale
that is closely set together and raised. It always has many more warp than filling yarns. It can
be made of carded or combed single or ply yarns. The long-wearing fabric may be heather,
striped, plaid, or solid color.

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 299


Figure A fancy twill fabric.
12.38
In a satin weave, each warp yarn floats
4
over four filling yarns and interlaces with
1
the fifth filling yarn, with a progression of
interlacings by two to the right or the left.
Satin weaves vary by interlacing pattern,
weight, count, and finish.
300 chapter twelve
Cavalry twill also has a pronounced steep double twill line in which two diagonal wales
are spaced very close together and separated by a little space from the next pair of diagonal
wales.
Fancy twill interlacings are used to create more interesting textures and patterns in
upholstery, window treatments, wall coverings, and apparel. These twills may be altered so
that the wale is not continuous, such as broken twills, or so that fairly elaborate pronounced
wales are created within the fabric (Figure 12.38).
Satin Weave
4
In a satin weave, each warp yarn floats over four filling yarns 1 and interlaces with the
fifth filling yarn, with a progression of interlacings by two to the right or the left (Figure
1
12.39); or each filling yarn floats over four warps and interlaces with the fifth warp 4 with
a progression of interlacings by two to the right or left (Figure 12.40). In certain fabrics,
each yarn floats across seven yarns and interlaces with the eighth yarn. Satin weave is
the third basic weave that can be made on the simple loom; however, this weave requires
at least five harnesses to achieve the interlacing pattern. Thus, basic four-harness looms
cannot be used to produce a satin weave. Basic fabrics made with this weave are satin
and sateen.
Satin-weave fabrics are lustrous because of the long floats on the surface. The checker-
board designs in Figure 12.39 show few interlacings; the yarns can be packed close together
to produce a very-high-count fabric. Note that no two interlacings are adjacent to each other.
However, unless examined carefully, satin weaves resemble twill weaves on the back, espe-
cially when the count is high.
When warp yarns cover the surface, the fabric is a warp-faced fabric and the warp count is
high. When filling floats cover the surface, the fabric is a filling-faced fabric and the filling count
is high. These fabrics are unbalanced, but the high count compensates for the lack of balance.
All satin fabrics have a face and a back that look significantly different. A high count gives
them strength, durability, body, firmness, and wind repellency. Fewer interlacings gives pliabil-
ity and resistance to wrinkling, but yarns may slip and ravel easily.
Filling float
(on back of fabric) Warp float
(on face of fabric)
Figure Warp-faced satin weave: yarn arrangement.
12.39
 Filling float (face)

Warp float (back)

Figure Filling-faced satin weave: yarn arrangement.

12.40

Table 12.8 Typical Satin Fabrics

YARN SIZE AND TYPE
Fabric Count Warp Filling
Satin 200365 100 denier 100-denier smooth filament
Slipper satin 300374 75 denier 300-denier smooth filament
Crepe-back satin 128368 100 denier 100-denier crepe filament

Satin Fabrics  Satin fabrics are usually made of bright filament yarns with very low twist.
Satin is almost always warp-faced; warp floats cover the surface (Figure 12.41). Because of
the bright (not delustered) fibers, low twist, and long floats, satin is very lustrous. It is made in
many weights (Table 12.8) for use in dresses, linings, lingerie, sheets, bedspreads, draperies, Figure A warp-faced satin weave fabric: satin.
drapery linings, and upholstery. It is good for linings because the high count makes it very 12.41
durable and smooth. Satin makes a more pliable lining than taffeta because of the interlacing
pattern. Satin does not split as readily at hems. Quality is particularly important in linings.
Low-count satins pull at the seams and rough up in use. Floats may shift in position and
bubble or wrinkle.
In crepe-back satin, the crepe yarns in the filling give softness and drapeability, and the
low-twist warp yarns give the smooth, satiny surface to the fabric (Figure 12.42). In crepe-
back satin, designers may use both sides of the fabric in different areas to create a subtle
change in luster and highlight design features in dresses and blouses. In antique satin, nov-
elty filling yarns add visual interest to the fabric. Since antique satin is used with the technical
back as the fashion side in upholstery and window treatments, it can be considered a fill-
ing-faced satin.
Peau de soie is a heavyweight warp-faced satin fabric of silk or manufactured fiber,
usually made on an eight harness loom. It usually has a fine filling rib because of the very
high warp count and interlacing pattern. It often has a dull finish and is used for formal
apparel and wedding dresses. Because of its heavyweight, it has a drape that is appealing Figure A warp-faced satin weave fabric:
to designers. 12.42 crepe-back satin.

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 301


Figure A filling-faced satin weave fabric:
12.43 sateen.
302 chapter twelve
Sateen  Sateen is a lustrous fabric made of spun yarns. In order to achieve luster with staple
fibers, medium-twist yarns form the float surface. Finishes are used to enhance the luster and
durability. (See Chapter 17.)
Filling sateen is a smooth, lustrous cotton fabric used for draperies, drapery linings, and
apparel. It is often made with carded yarns with a high filling count (Figure 12.43). Warp yarns
are similar in size to those used in print cloth, but the filling yarns are slightly larger. Combed
sateens are usually finished for added luster. (See Chapter 17.) Combed yarn sateens with
counts exceeding 400 are used for sheets and bedspreads.
4
Warp sateens are cotton fabrics made with warp floats in a 1 interlacing pattern.
They may have a rounded wale effect that resembles a twill fabric. They are stronger
and heavier than filling sateens because of the high warp count. They are less lustrous
than filling sateens and used where durability is more important than luster. Warp sateens
are used in slacks, skirts, bedsheets of 250 to 400 count, pillow and bed tickings, drap-
eries, and upholstery fabrics. If any satin fabric is printed, it is most likely a warp sateen.
Table 12.9 compares filling and warp sateen.
Table 12.9 Typical Sateen Fabrics
YARN SIZE AND TYPE*
Fabric Count Warp Filling
Filling sateen 603104 (carded) 32s 38s
843136 (carded) 40s 50s
963108 (combed) 40s 60s
Warp sateen 84364 (carded) 12s 11s
160396 (carded) 52s 44s
*s indicates single yarns.
17 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #44, 45, 47, 48, and 49 from your swatch kit. Name the weave used to
produce each fabric. Unravel a warp and filling yarn from each sample. What are the
similarities and differences among these fabrics in terms of weave, weight, and yarn
type? Place the fabrics in order from lightest weight to heaviest weight. Can you d ­ etect
a difference in weight among these samples? Count the number of yarns per inch for
any two of these fabrics. Are the fabrics warp- or filling-faced? Develop a list of the char-
acteristics of this weave and its impact on fabric serviceability. Select one fabric from
this group and describe its serviceability based on fabrication method, yarn type(s), fiber
content, and fabric quality.
 Learning Activity 18
Use a clipboard or cardboard sheet and ribbons, yarns, or strips of paper. Select 10 or
more ribbons, yarns, or paper strips all the same color as the warp yarn. On one end
only, clip them on the clipboard or tape them on the cardboard so that they are all ap-
proximately the same length, parallel to each other, and spaced an equal distance apart.
Select an equal number of ribbons, yarns, or paper strips of another color. Weave a sam-
ple of a balanced plain weave. Repeat the process to create a basket weave, twill weave,
and satin weave sample. Describe the specific structure of each sample created, that is,
full- or half-basket weave; angle and direction of wale; warp- or filling-faced satin weave.

Learning Activity 19
Examine the textile products you are wearing and have with you today. Which items are
woven? What weaves are used for these fabrics? Use a magnifying or pick glass and
name the weave used in each woven fabric. Describe your satisfaction with and the
serviceability of one or more of the items based on fiber content, yarn type, and weave.
Name these fabrics using Figure 12.15. If any of these fabrics are not one of the basic
weaves, look closely to determine how the warp and filling are interlacing. Keep these
details in mind when you are reading Chapter 13.

Learning Activity 20
Create a table listing the three basic weaves: plain, twill, and satin. Identify the simi-
larities and differences among the three. Describe how you would differentiate among
them. List an example of a fabric made using each of these basic weaves. For each
basic weave, list at least two alternate structures, that is, for satin, you could list warp-
faced and filling-faced. Explain the differences between or among the alternate struc-
tures and how they would influence product serviceability.

Learning Activity 21
Work in groups of two. Identify the sustainability issues associated with weaving. Is it a
sustainable practice? Explain your response.

Learning Activity 22
Work in groups of two or three. Add five or more characteristics related to basic woven fab-
rics to the list of fabric quality indicators you started in Chapter 2 with Review Question #10.

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 303

 terms
key terms
Air-jet loom
Antique satin
Balance
Filling sateen
Filling-faced twill
Flannel
Polished cotton
Pongee
Poplin
Balanced plain weave Flannelette Print cloth
Basket weave Float Projectile loom
Batiste Foulard Rapier loom
Beating up Gabardine Reclining twill
Bedford cord Georgette Reed
Bengaline Gingham Regular twill
Bottom-weight fabric Glazed chintz Rep
Bow Grain Rib
Broadcloth Grosgrain Ripstop nylon
Bunting Habutai ripstop taffeta
Burlap Harness Sailcloth
Butcher cloth Heavyweight fabric Sateen
Calico Heddle Satin
Canvas Herringbone Satin weave
Cavalry twill Hessian Selvage
Challis Homespun Serge
Chambray Honan Shantung
Cheesecloth Hopsacking Sharkskin
Chiffon Houndstooth Shed
China silk Interlacing Shedding
Chino Jean Shuttle
Chintz Lawn Skew
Circular loom Lightweight fabric Slippage
Count Lining twill Steep-twill fabrics
Covert Loom Suiting-weight fabric
Crash Madras Surah
Crepe de chine Medium-weight fabric Taffeta
Crepe-back satin Minimum yardage Take-up
Cretonne Monk’s cloth Technical back
Defects Multiple-shed looms Technical face
Denim Multiwidth loom Triaxial loom
Dimity Muslin True crepe
Drill Narrow fabric Tweed
Duck Ninon Twill flannel
Even-sided twill Off-grain Twill weave
Fabric Organdy Unbalanced plain weave
Fabric count Organza Voile
Fabric density Osnaburg Wale
Fabric grading Ottoman Warp
Fabric mass Outing flannel Warp beam
Fabric quality Oxford cloth Warp sateen
Fabric weight Peau de soie Warp-faced twill
Faille Percale Water-jet loom
Fancy twill Picking Weaver’s cloth
Filling Plain weave Winding

304 chapter twelve

questions
review questions
1. Describe how a loom produces a woven fabric.
2. Define these terms and explain how they relate to woven
e. 100% rayon challis skirt and blouse
f. 70% wool/30% polyester suiting fabric made of novelty yarns
g. 98% cotton and 2% spandex denim jeans
fabrics:
a. Balance 9. List the identifying features, advantages, and disadvantages
b. Bow for each of these weaves: balanced plain weave, unbalanced
c. Count plain weave, basket weave, twill weave, and satin weave.
d. Filling 10. Is it important to be able to determine fabric structure? How
e. Float is that information of use to consumers? To professionals?
f. Grain Under what circumstances will consumers or professionals
g. Interlacing make use of that information?
h. Off-grain
11. What kind of information is conveyed by the following fabric
i. Selvage
names? Identify an appropriate end use for each of these
j. Skew
fabrics. Explain why that fabric and end use are a good
k. Technical face
combination.
i. Technical back
a. Organdy
m. Wale
b. Organza
n. Warp
c. Batiste
3. Identify four ways to differentiate between warp and filling d. Percale
yarns. e. Gingham
4. Diagram the interlacing patterns for the three basic weaves. f. Pongee
Use both the cross-section diagram and the checkerboard. g. Crash
5. What criteria are used to determine the name of a fabric? h. Flannel
i. Broadcloth
6. Identify the similarities and differences between these
j. Poplin
fabrics:
k. Taffeta
a. Gingham and oxford chambray
l. Faile
b. Flannelette and challis
m. Oxford cloth
c. Organdy and georgette
n. Houndstooth
d. Percale and broadcloth
o. Denim
e. Herringbone and gabardine
p. Chino
f. Denim and chambray
q. Satin
g. Satin and sateen
r. Sateen
7. Compare and contrast the characteristics of fabrics made
12. Describe four factors that influence fabric quality.
from the three basic weaves.
13. Why is it necessary to assess fabric quality? How does
8. Predict the performance of the following textile products:
fabric quality influence consumer perception?
a. 100% olefin tweed upholstery with large-flake filling
yarns and fine-filament warp yarns 14. You are a designer for a fashion-forward firm. Identify
b. 50% cotton/50% polyester broadcloth shirt/blouse with essential aspects of fabric structure that would be important
combed yarns of similar size in both warp and filling in considering fabrics to include in your next collection.
c. 100% acetate antique satin drapery How would that information be of use to you, production
d. 100% nylon taffeta backpack with BCF yarns in the engineers, marketing specialists, and consumers?
warp and filling

weaving, basic weaves, and fabrics 305

 Case Study
Threats and Opportunities for the Woven Industry*
The increasing demand for knitwear has
emerged as a challenge to the growth of the
woven industry. Woven fabric is increasingly
being replaced with knits in many apparel
categories. For example, denim jackets,
traditionally made from woven fabrics, are
increasingly available in stretch knits. Fur-
thermore, locations that once dictated formal
wear, such as places of worship and work-
places, now accept casual attire, making
knits increasingly acceptable. The woven
industry has tried to maintain their power and
position by shifting production away from the
developed countries of North America and
Europe to lower-labor cost Asian countries,
such as China, Pakistan, India, Indonesia,
and Thailand. By consolidating fabric man-
ufacturing units near apparel manufacturing
ones, Asian countries have a substantial
presence in woven fabric manufacturing and
exports. The future of the woven industry
­depends upon consumer preferences, as
well as corporate-level production decisions.
Discussion Questions
1. For what reasons might knits be increas-
ingly used in apparel products that tradi-
tionally utilized woven fabrics?
2. Think about and examine the clothing that
you have on right now. Are they knits or
wovens? What serviceability concepts
characterize the garments? How might
this change if the knits were wovens, and
the wovens were knits?
3. What other strategies do you think the
woven industry could use to strengthen
their industry?
4. How would moving production from
­developed to developing countries alter
the economies of the effected countries?
5. Is the same kind of trend happening in
interiors? If yes, theorize the impact this
trend will have on consumer satisfaction
and the interiors industry. If no, theorize
as to why this is not happening in the
­interiors industry or why it is not happen-
ing yet.

*Gugnani, A., & Brahma, K. P. (2013). Where next for weaving? Textile Month International, 3, 17–19.

readings
suggested readings
Adanur, S. (2000, May). Weaving speeds up. America’s Textiles
International, 62–68.
Baugh, G. (2011). The Fashion Designer’s Textile Directory.
Humphries, M. (1996). Fabric Glossary. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Knisely, T. (2004/2005). Balanced plain weaves. Shuttle, Spindle,
Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s. and Dyepot, 36(1), 53–55.
Dubrovski, P. D., & Golob. D. (2009). Effects of woven fabric Petrini, M. (2008/2009). Right from the start: Explore plain weave
construction and color on ultraviolet protection. Textiles and its derivatives. Shuttle, Spindle, and Dyepot, 40(1), 15–20.
Research Journal, 79(4), 351–359. Petrini, M. (2005). Right from the start: Weave weft-faced, warp-
Emery, I. (1980). The Primary Structures of Fabrics. Washington, faced, and uneven fabrics. Shuttle, Spindle, and Dyepot, 36(3),
DC: The Textile Museum. 14–17.
Fletcher, K. (2008). Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design Petrini, M. (2006). Twills. Shuttle, Spindle, and Dyepot, 36(3), 38–41.
Journey. London: Earthscan. Spady, R. (2013). Fabric analysis 101. Handwoven, 34(2), 22–24.
Gandi, K. L., & Pearson, J. S. (2000). Weaving to the year 2025. Thiry, M. C. (2007). The jeans we love. AATCC Review, 7(10),
Textiles Magazine, 6–14. 16–21.
Gugnani, A., & Brahma, K. P. (2013). Where next for weaving? Van Der Hoogt, M. (2013). A taxonomy of twills. Handwoven, 34(5),
Textile Month International, 3, 17–19. 20–22.
Hethorn, J., & Ulasewicz, C. (2008). Sustainable Fashion: Why
Now? New York: Fairchild Books.

306 chapter twelve

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 Dmitriy Syechin/Fotolia

Imagesbykenny/Fotolia Walenga Stanislav/Fotolia

Fancy Weaves
and Fabrics

CHAP TE R O B J ECT I V ES
• To describe the technique and the process used to produce fancy woven fabrics.
• To name fancy woven fabrics.
• To integrate fabrication method, yarn type, and fiber with end use and performance.

13
 Fancy fabrics differ from basic fabrics in that the design, texture, or pattern is an inherent and
permanent part of the fabric’s structure that cannot be removed without dismantling the fabric.
While the focus of this chapter is on fancy weaves, remember that fancy fabrics also include
those made with fancy or novelty yarns (see Chapter 11) and fancy knits (see Chapter 14).
The production process for fancy weaves is more involved than that for the basic weaves.
As such, fabric costs are higher and the end use is often more specific with more special-
ized applications. The techniques used to obtain fancy fabrics varies in complexity and influ-
ences fabric cost and serviceability. Fancy fabrics include those that are patterned, those with
open-work, and pile fabrics. These fabrics can be found in regular as well as narrow fabric
widths used in trim. Identifying the production technique for the fabric assists in naming it and
in selecting a serviceable fabric for a particular end use. Figure 13.1 will help determine the
­specific structure and name of a fancy fabric.

Fancy weaves

Is there a pile yarn?

Yes: Pile weave No

Is the pile yarn warp or filling? Is there an overall or repeating pattern?

Warp Filling Yes No

Velvet Corduroy Is the repeating pattern small Does the fabric have an
Friezé Velveteen (fewer than 25 warp yarns)? irregular structure?
Terrycloth
Yes No Yes: Momie weave No

Is the pattern Are extra warp or Sand crepe Is the fabric made
created with warp filling yarns present? Granite cloth with more than
or filling floats or Moss crepe two full yarn
a combination? sets?
Yes: Extra-yarn weave
Yes: Dobby weave No
Clipped spot No Yes: Double weave No
Return to the Swivel dot
Warp Filling Both warp & top of the
floats Melton/Kersey
floats filling floats flowchart
Matelassé/cloqué
Velvet
Shirting Is the pattern raised above the fabric True double cloth
Waffle cloth surface due to structure or stuffer yarns?
madras

Bird’s-eye diaper Is the filling yarn continuous?

Huck
No
Yes: Piqué weave
Yes No: Tapestry weave
Is the pattern complex and
Piqué (bird’s-eye piqué, woven-in using more than 25 Return to the top True tapestry
bull’s-eye piqué, pinwale warp yarn arrangements? of the flowchart
piqué, and bedford cord)

Yes: Jacquard weave No

Damask Do the warp yarns form a figure

Brocade eight or cross over each other?
Brocatelle
Tapestry
Yes: Leno weave No

Marquisette Is the pattern in stripes of flat

and crinkled areas?

Yes: Slack tension weave No

Seersucker (puckered stripes parallel to the warp) Return to the top of the flowchart

Figure Fancy woven fabrics flowchart.

13.1

310 chapter thirteen

 Learning Activity 1
Examine Figure 13.1. Do you recognize any of the fancy woven fabric names? If so,
explain to a partner what the fabrics look like. Examine your bedding, bathroom towels,
and closets for any evidence of fancy woven fabrics. What types of products included
fancy weaves? Relate possible reasons these products were made using fancy weaves.
Be sure to apply serviceability concepts in your discussion.

Fancy Weaves: Types and Processes

Fancy weaves and woven figures are made by changing the interlacing pattern between the Fancy weaves and woven figures are
design area and the background. The interlacing pattern is controlled by the warp yarns’ posi- made by changing the interlacing
tion during weaving. In a three-harness loom, there are three possible arrangements of the pattern between the design area and the
warp yarns; in a four-harness loom, there are as many as 12 different arrangements. As the background. These fabrics are also known
number of harnesses increases, the possibilities for different interlacings also increase. But as structural design fabrics.
there is a limit to the number of harnesses that can be used efficiently. Consider the number
of interlacings needed to weave a figure: If the figure is 1/4 inch in length, in an 80 * 80 fabric,
it may require 20 different interlacings; if the figure is 1/2 inch long on a nylon-satin background
(320 * 140), it may require 70 different interlacings. Special looms, attachments, or control
devices are necessary to make these fabrics competitive in price with imitations achieved by
prints or finishes. Fancy fabrics are also known as structural design fabrics since the design
is incorporated as the fabric is made and is an integral part of the design. In some fancy
woven fabrics, such as extra-yarn weaves, it is possible to remove the yarns creating the pat-
tern. However, if you do so, you destroy the pattern, and the fabric. Table 13.1 summarizes
the characteristics of the fancy weaves discussed in this chapter. Reviewing Table 12.2, the
summary table of basic woven fabrics, might also be helpful.

Table 13.1  Summary Table of Fancy Weaves

Weave Fabrication Details Appearance Uses and Fabrics

Dobby Warp controlled in groups Small geometric patterns Apparel, interiors, bird’s-eye diaper, waffle cloth
Extra-yarn Additional yarn sets in warp or Small geometric patterns, yarn Apparel, interiors, dotted swiss, eyelash
filling, excess removed or on fringe
back, yarn ends add interest
Piqué Dobby or jacquard technique, Floats on back or stuffer yarns Apparel, interiors, bedford cord, pinwale piqué, bull’s-
raised pattern areas create raised areas eye piqué
Jacquard Warp controlled individually Elaborate, intricate patterns Apparel, interiors, brocade, damask, tapestry
created
Momie Irregular interlacing Pebbly, uneven surface Apparel, interiors, crepe, bark cloth, moss crepe
Leno Warp yarns cross over each other Stable, open fabric Apparel, interiors, leno, casement cloth, marquisette
Double Three, four, or five sets of yarns Double-faced, pockets in fabric, or Apparel, interiors, matelassé, melton, blankets,
used thick, heavy fabrics upholstery
Pile Extra yarns in warp or filling create Thick, bulky, warm, durable fabrics Apparel, interiors, corduroy, velveteen, velvet, friezé,
surface pile terrycloth, Wilton carpets
Slack tension Warp bands at different tensions Puckered stripes in warp direction Apparel, interiors, seersucker
during weaving
Tapestry Discontinuous filling Pattern created by yarn color One-of-a-kind rugs, wall hangings, fiber art

Plain weave interlacing, filling faced

fancy weaves and fabrics 311


Figure Pattern roll that controls warp
13.2 shedding on a dobby loom.
Figure Dobby fabrics for use in apparel and
13.3 interior textiles.
Dobby weaves are small-figured designs
that require fewer than 25 different warp
arrangements to complete one repeat
of the design.
Figure Huck-a-back.
13.4
312 chapter thirteen
2 Learning Activity
Compare Fabrics #24 and 53 from your swatch set. How do these fabrics compare in
structure? Which one is a fancy weave and which one is a plain weave? How did you
know this?
Almost all of the fabrics and techniques discussed in this chapter are also made by fiber
artists and hobbyists as part of the local fiber movement. They work with basic looms and
manipulate warp, filling, and extra yarns to create fancy fabrics or they use electronic looms
that create the pattern. Yardage and products are used by the weavers and their families or
sold at galleries, art and fiber fairs and festivals, and online venues. In some cases, custom
woven fabrics are made based on an agreement between the weaver and the buyer. Many of
these fabrics are used in interiors, but some are also used for apparel and accessories.
Dobby Weaves
Dobby weaves are small-figured designs that require fewer than 25 different warp arrange-
ments to complete one repeat of the design. They are made on a loom with a dobby
­attachment—a dobby loom.
Two methods are used to create the pattern. In the older method, the weave pattern is
controlled by a plastic tape with punched holes (Figure 13.2). These tapes resemble the rolls
for a player piano. The holes control the position of each warp yarn in forming a shed. The
newer method of creating a simple geometric pattern in the fabric uses a computer to control
the position of the warp yarns. This system is faster, is compatible with several ­computer-aided
design (CAD) systems, and allows for easy and quick pattern changes in the fabric.
Many designs made on either type of dobby loom are small geometric figures. There
are many dobby fabrics; a few readily available and identifiable ones are discussed here.
Figure 13.3 illustrates several patterned fabrics applicable for apparel and interior textiles.
Bird’s-eye has a small diamond-shaped filling-float design with a dot in the center that
resembles the eye of a bird. This design was originally used in white silk fabric for ecclesiasti-
cal vestments. At one time, a cotton version was widely used for kitchen and hand towels and
diapers. Huck or huck-a-back has a pebbly surface made by filling floats. It is used primarily
in roller, face, and medical-office towels (Figure 13.4).
Madras or madras gingham has small, satin-float designs on a ribbed or plain ground.
Waffle cloth is made with a dobby attachment and has a 3D honeycomb appearance. Waffle
cloth is used for blankets, dish and bar cloths, upholstery, and apparel.
Extra-Yarn Weaves
Additional warp or filling yarns of different colors or types are woven into the fabric to cre-
ate a pattern in an extra-yarn weave. When not used in the figure, the extra warp or filling
yarns float across the back of the fabric and are usually cut away during finishing. In hand-
woven fabrics, the warp yarns are manipulated by hand and the extra yarns can be laid in
where wanted by using small shuttles. For machine-made fabrics, an automatic attachment
on power looms must be used.
Extra-warp yarns are wound on a separate beam and threaded into separate heddles.
The extra yarns interlace with the regular filling yarns to form a design and float behind the
 (a) (b)
Figure Fabric made with extra-warp yarns: face of fabric before clipping (a) and after clipping (b).
13.5

fabric until needed for the repeat. The floats are then clipped close to the design or clipped
long enough to give an eyelash or fringed effect. Figure 13.5 shows a fabric before and after Additional warp or filling yarns of different
clipping. colors or types are woven into the fabric to
Many of the fabrics that have small-dot designs are called dotted swiss. The dots may be create a pattern in an extra-yarn weave.
extra-filling-yarn structural designs: clipped-dot designs or swivel-dot designs. Either side of
these fabrics may be the fashion side. Clipped-spot or clipped-dot designs are made with
low-twist filling yarns inserted by separate shuttles. By manipulating the shedding, the extra
yarns interlace with some warp yarns and float across the back of others. A box loom uses a
wire along the edge to prevent the extra yarns from being woven into the selvage. Clipped-dot
fabrics have many yarn ends per dot.
Swivel-dot fabrics are made on a loom that has an attachment holding tiny shuttles.
The fabric is woven so the shuttles and extra yarns are above the ground fabric. Each
shuttle carrying the extra yarn wraps around the warp yarns in the ground fabric several
times and then the yarn is carried along the surface to the next spot. The yarn is cut away
between the spots (Figure 13.6). Swivel-dot fabrics have only two yarn ends per dot.
Because of the slow production speed, swivel-dot fabrics in the United States are imported
designer fabrics.
Figure Dotted swiss made with extra filling
Dotted swiss may also be an applied design. (See Chapter 17 for more details). Compare 13.6 yarns.
several different types of dotted swiss to determine their serviceability, quality, and cost.

Piqué Weaves
The word piqué (pee kayʹ) comes from the French word meaning quilted, because
the raised effect in these fabrics is similar to that in quilts. The piqué weave produces
a fabric with ridges, called wales or cords that are held up by floats on the back. The
wales vary in width. Wide-wale piqué (0.25 inch) is woven with 20 or more warp yarns

Learning Activity 3
Examine Fabrics #50 through 54 in your swatch kit. Identify several characteristics and
name the weave used to produce each fabric. What are the two possible end uses for
these fabrics? Select one of these fabrics. Consult the key for the swatch kit for that
fabric. Based on fabrication method, yarn type, and fiber content, predict the perfor-
mance of the fabric.

fancy weaves and fabrics 313


(a)
(b)
Figure Piqué: face of fabric (a), back of
13.8 fabric (b). Note stuffer yarns visible
on the back and how the fabric
flattens out at the bottom, where the
stuffer yarns have been removed.
The piqué weave produces a fabric with
ridges, called wales or cords, that are held
up by floats on the back.
314 chapter thirteen
Filling 1, 2
Face side Warp Stuffer yarn
Back side Filling 3, 4 Float
Figure Six-warp pinwale piqué.
13.7
in the face of the wale with two warp yarns forming a valley in between. Pinwale piqué
(0.05 inch) is a six-warp wale with two consecutive filling yarns floating across the back of
the odd-numbered wales and then woven in the face of the even-numbered wales. The
next two consecutive filling yarns alternate with the first two by floating across the back of
the even-numbered wales. These long floats force the raised shape of the wale shown in
Figure 13.7 in cross section.
Stuffer yarns are laid under the ridges in better-quality piqué fabrics to emphasize the
roundness, and their presence or absence is one way of determining quality. The stuffer
yarns are not interlaced with the surface yarns of the fabric and may be easily removed when
analyzing a swatch of fabric (Figure 13.8). Piqué fabrics are woven on either a dobby or a
­jacquard loom, depending on the complexity of the design.
Cords or wales usually run in the lengthwise direction. Cord fabrics have a definite tech-
nical face and technical back. With abrasion, the floats on the wrong side usually wear out
first. Figure 13.8 shows the face and back of a piqué fabric. Piqué fabrics are more resistant
to wrinkling and have more body than flat fabrics. Better-quality piqué fabrics are made with
long-staple combed yarns and coarser carded stuffer yarns. Carded-yarn piqués are made
without the stuffer yarn and are sometimes printed.
Many of the fabrics produced with the piqué weave are so-named. Bird’s-eye piqué has
a tiny design formed by the wavy arrangements of the cords and by the use of stuffer yarns.
Bull’s-eye piqué is similar to bird’s-eye piqué but on a larger scale. Both fabrics have cross-
wise rather than lengthwise cords and are used for apparel and interior textiles. Bedford
cord is the rare exception to the naming rule, as it does not include the weave type in its
name. Bedford cord is a heavy fabric with wide warp cords used for bedspreads, upholstery,
window treatments, slacks, and uniforms. Its spun warp yarns are larger than the filling yarns.
Lengthwise cords at intervals across the fabric are formed by extra filling yarns floating across
the back, giving a raised effect. Stuffer yarns make a more pronounced cord, which may be
the same size or alternately larger and smaller.
4 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #55 and 56 from your swatch kit. Which weave was used to produce the
fabrics? Unravel a warp and filling yarn from each sample. What are the similarities and
differences among these fabrics in terms of weave, weight, and yarn type? Develop a
list of the characteristics of the weave type represented in these fabrics. What factors
help you determine the quality of these fabrics? Select one of these fabrics. Identify an
end use. Consult the key for the swatch kit. Based on fabrication method, yarn type,
and fiber content, predict the performance of the fabric.
 Learning Activity 5 Large-figured designs that require more

Compare the ground weave or basic fabric structure(s) used for dobby, extra yarn, than 25 different arrangements of the warp
and piqué weaves. Describe how these weaves compare to basic plain, twill, and satin yarns to complete one repeat design are
weaves. What are the differences between the basic weaves and the fancy weaves? jacquard weaves. Jacquard fabrics include
Why would these differences in fabric structure be of interest to professionals in the brocade, brocatelle, and damask.
global textile complex or to consumers?

Jacquard Weaves
Large-figured designs that require more than 25 different arrangements of the warp yarns to
complete one repeat design are jacquard weaves; they are woven on the jacquard loom.
Two types of looms are used to produce jacquard weaves. In older looms, each warp is con-
trolled independently by punched cards that form a continuous strip. The position of the warp
yarns is controlled by rods. When the rods hit the cards, some go through the holes and raise
the warp yarns; others remain down. In this manner, the shed is formed for the passage of the
filling yarn. Figure 13.9 shows a calendar woven with fine yarns on a jacquard loom. Note that
this pattern does not repeat from top to bottom or from side to side.
The newer method for weaving these large patterns in fabric combines a computer with
an air-jet loom and is called an electronic jacquard loom. The computer controls the position Figure Jacquard-woven calendar.
of the warp yarns and the insertion of different-colored filling yarns. The loom is fast, with 13.9
weaving speeds of 600 picks per minute, compatible with several CAD systems, and allows
for easy and quick pattern changes. Fabrics produced on these looms include fancy mattress
ticking, upholstery, and apparel.
Fabrics made on a jacquard loom include damask, brocade, brocatelle, tapestry, and
others. Damask has satin floats on a satin background; the floats in the design are opposite
those in the ground. If the pattern is warp-faced, the ground is filling-faced. Damask pat-
terns are subtle but visible because of slight differences in light reflected from the two areas.
Damask can be made from any fiber and in many different weights for apparel and interiors.
Damask is the flattest jacquard fabric and is often finished to maintain that flat look. Quality
and durability are dependent on count. Low-count damask is not durable because the long
floats rough up, snag, and shift during use.
Brocade has satin or twill floats on a plain, ribbed, twill, or satin background
(Figure 13.10). Brocade differs from damask in that the floats in the design are more varied in Figure Brocade: face and back.
length and are often of several colors. 13.10
Brocatelle fabrics are similar to brocade fabrics, except that they have a raised pattern.
This fabric frequently is made with filament yarns, using a warp-faced pattern and filling-faced

Learning Activity 6
Use Fabrics #57 through 60 from your swatch kit. Name the weave used to produce each
fabric. Unravel a warp and filling yarn from each sample. What are the similarities and dif-
ferences among these fabrics in terms of weave, weight, and yarn type? Place the fabrics
in order from lightest weight to heaviest weight. Develop a list of the characteristics of the
weaves represented by this group of fabrics and the impact of fabric structure on service-
ability. Determine several end uses for these particular fabrics. Select one fabric from this
group and describe its quality. Consult the key for the swatch kit for that fabric. Based on
fabrication method, yarn type, and fiber content, predict the performance of the fabric.

fancy weaves and fabrics 315


Figure Jacquard brocatelle for upholstery.
13.11
Momie (mó-mee) is a weave that presents
no wale or other distinct weave effect
but gives the fabric the appearance of
being sprinkled with small spots or seeds.
Many of these fabrics include crepe in
the name even though they may not
include crepe twist yarns.
Figure Momie weave.
13.12
316 chapter thirteen
7 Learning Activity
Describe the differences and similarities among the different types of jacquard fabrics.
Select one jacquard fabric, identify an end use, and explain how the serviceability would
be similar or different for another jacquard fabric.
ground (Figure 13.11). Coarse cotton stuffer filling yarns help maintain the 3D appearance of
the fabric when used for upholstery.
Originally, tapestry was handwoven with discontinuous filling yarns to create intricate pic-
tures used in wall hangings. It took great skill to create and was time consuming to weave.
Today’s jacquard tapestry is mass-produced for upholstery, handbags, heavyweight
apparel such as blazers, and the like. Jacquard tapestry is a complicated structure consisting
of two or more sets of warp and two or more sets of filling interlaced so that the face warp is
never woven into the back and the back filling does not show on the face. Upholstery tapestry
is durable if warp and filling yarns are comparable. With lower-quality fabrics, fine yarns are
combined with coarse yarns, and the resulting fabric is not durable.
Wilton rugs are figured-pile fabrics made on a jacquard loom. These rugs, once consid-
ered imitations of Oriental rugs, are so expensive to weave that the tufting industry has found
a way to create similar figures through printing techniques.
Momie Weaves
Momie (mó-mee) is a weave that presents no wale or other distinct weave effect but gives the
fabric the appearance of being sprinkled with small spots or seeds. The appearance resem-
bles crepe made from yarns of high twist. Fabrics are made on a loom with a dobby attach-
ment or electronic control. Some are variations of satin weave, with filling yarns forming the
irregular floats. Some are even-sided and some have a decided warp effect. Momie weave is
also called granite or crepe weave. Any fiber can be used to make crepe-weave fabrics. An
irregular interlacing pattern of crepe weave is shown in Figure 13.12. Momie fabrics are used
for apparel and interior textiles.
Sand crepe is a medium-weight to heavyweight fabric of either spun or filament yarns. It
has a repeat pattern of 16 warp and 16 filling yarns and originally required 16 harnesses. No
float is greater than two yarns in length. Sand crepe is now made using electronic dobby or
jacquard looms.
Granite cloth is made with a momie weave, based on the satin weave. It is an even-
sided fabric with no long floats and no twill effect.
Moss crepe combines high-twist crepe yarns and momie weave. The yarns are plied yarns
with one ply made of a crepe-twist single yarn. Regular yarns may alternate with the plied yarns,
or they may be used in one direction while the plied yarns are used in the other direction. This
fabric should be treated as a high-twist crepe fabric. Moss crepe is used in dresses and blouses.
8 Learning Activity
Compare the descriptions of jacquard and momie weaves. How do these weaves dif-
fer? What creates the different appearance between fabrics made using jacquard and
momie? What end uses would be appropriate for jacquards and not momie weaves?
What end uses would be appropriate for momie weaves and not jacquards?
 Warp

Filling

(a) (b)
Figure Leno weave: diagram (a) and fabric (b).
13.13

Bark cloth is a heavyweight momie-weave fabric used primarily in interiors. The interlac-
ing pattern uses spun yarns and creates a fabric with a rough texture resembling tree bark,
hence the fabric’s name. The fabric may be printed or solid. The rough texture adds visual
interest and minimizes the appearance of soiling.

Leno Weaves
Leno is a weave in which the warp yarns do not lie parallel to each other. Warp yarns work in
groups, usually pairs of two; one yarn of each pair is crossed over the other before the filling Leno is a weave in which one or more warp
yarn is inserted, as shown in Figure 13.13. yarns crosses over other warp yarns before
Leno is made with a doup attachment, which may be used with a plain or a dobby loom. the filling yarn is inserted. The leno weave
The attachment consists of a thin needle supported by two heddles. One yarn of each pair is is used to produce stable open fabrics.
threaded through an eye at the upper end of the needle, and the other yarn is drawn between Marquisette is an example.
the two heddles. Both yarns are threaded through the same dent in the reed. During weaving,
when one of the two heddles is raised, the yarn that is threaded through the needle is drawn
across to the left. When the other heddle is raised, the same yarn is drawn across to the right.
When looking at a leno fabric, one might think that the yarns were twisted fully around
each other, but this is not true. Careful examination shows that they are crossed and that one
yarn of the pair is always above the other.
Fabrics made by leno weave include marquisette (Figure 13.14), mosquito netting, agri-
textiles to shade delicate plants, and some bags for laundry, fruit, and vegetables. Polyester
marquisettes are widely used for sheer curtains. Casement draperies are frequently made with

Learning Activity 9
Use Fabrics #61 through 65 from your swatch kit. Name the weave used to produce
each fabric. Unravel a warp and filling yarn from each sample. What are the similari-
ties and differences among these fabrics in terms of weave, weight, and yarn type?
Place the fabrics in order from lightest weight to heaviest weight. Develop a list of the Figure Marquisette.
13.14
characteristics of the weaves represented by this group of fabrics and the impact of
fabric structure on serviceability. Determine several end uses for these particular fab-
rics. Select one fabric from this group and describe its quality. Consult the key for the
swatch kit for that fabric. Based on fabrication method, yarn type, and fiber content,
predict the performance of the fabric.

fancy weaves and fabrics 317

 leno weave and novelty yarns. Thermal blankets are sometimes made of leno weave. All these
fabrics are characterized by open spaces between the yarns. The crossed-yarn arrangement
gives greater firmness and strength than plain-weave fabrics of a similar low count and mini-
mizes yarn slippage. Snagging may be a problem in use and care, however.
Chenille yarns (Chapter 11) are made using a leno weave. The fabric is produced with
fine warp and low-twist filling. It is cut apart parallel to the warp, and the filling untwists to pro-
duce the fuzzy chenille yarn (see Figure 11.15).

Figure Double cloth made with five sets
13.15 of yarns. The red and black fabric
layer is connected to the white and
black fabric with fine black yarns
that are visible along the diagonal
line showing both layers of this true
double cloth.
Double Cloth
A single basic woven cloth, such as percale or denim, is made from two sets of yarns: one
set of warp yarns and one set of filling yarns. The fancy weaves, known under the heading
­double cloth, are made from three or more sets of yarns. The two sides of double-cloth fab-
rics usually look different because of the fabrication method. Double cloths tend to be heavier
and have more body than single cloths. As such they are often used when heavy-weight
fabrics are desired, in certain apparel end uses such as coats or in interiors, such as drapery.
Table 13.2 summarizes types of double-cloth fabrics.

Double cloth is made from three or more
sets of yarns. Matelassé and pocket cloth
are two examples.
Double Cloth  Double cloth, the particular fabric type, is made with five sets of yarns: two
fabrics woven one above the other on the same loom, with the fifth yarn (warp) interlacing with
both layers (Figure 13.15). Although it can be confusing, the term double cloth refers both to
fabrics made with three or more yarn sets and to specific fabrics made with five-yarn sets. The
double-cloth technique is used to produce velvet (see the section Pile Weaves in this chapter).
True double cloth can be separated by pulling out the yarns holding the two layers together. It
can be used in reversible garments such as capes and skirts.
Double cloth is expensive to make because it requires special looms and the production rate
is slower than for single woven fabrics. Double cloth is more pliable than single fabrics of the same
weight because finer yarns can be used. The two specific fabrics that may be either true double
cloth or single cloth are melton and kersey. Both of these heavyweight-wool coating fabrics are
twill-weave fabrics that have been heavily finished so that it is difficult to identify the weave.
Melton has a smoother surface than kersey. Kersey is heavier than melton and has a
shorter, more lustrous nap. Both fabrics are used in winter coats, overcoats, riding habits,
and uniforms.
Spacer fabric is a 3D technical fabric made by several methods. One type is a true
­double cloth used in technical products including interiors of buses, vehicle body compo-
nents, and shaped airbags. The arrangement and length of the yarns connecting the two
fabric layers determines the strength, thickness, and stiffness of the 3D fabric.

Table 13.2  Summary Table of Woven Double-Cloth Fabrics

Number of
Type Yarn Sets Characteristics Uses and Fabric Names

Double cloth Five Heavy-weight, usually high quality, good durability Apparel such as coats, capes, skirts: melton and kersey
Double weave Four Often high-quality, heavy-weight, good durability Apparel such as jackets and formal wear. Interiors,
usually upholstery: matelassé and pocket weave
Double-faced Three Often heavy-weight Blankets, double-satin ribbons, lining fabrics: Silence
cloth.

318 chapter thirteen

 Figure Interlacing of yarns between fabric
13.17 surfaces of matelassé.

(a) (b)
Figure Double weave: face of fabric (a), back of fabric (b).
13.16
Figure Matelassé: apparel weight.
Double Weaves  Double weave is made with four sets of yarns, creating two separate 13.18
layers of fabric that periodically reverse position from top to bottom, thus interlocking the
two layers of fabric. Between the interlocking points the two layers are completely sepa-
rate, creating pockets in the fabric (Figure 13.16). Double-weave fabrics are also known as
pocket weave, pocket fabric, or pocket cloth. Most commonly seen in high-quality uphol-
stery fabrics, they offer unique design possibilities, heavy weight, and good durability.
Matelassé is a double-cloth construction with either three or four sets of yarns woven
on a jacquard or dobby loom. Two of the sets are the regular warp and filling yarns; the others
are crepe or coarse cotton yarns. They are woven together so that the two sets crisscross, as
shown in Figure 13.17. When the fabrics are finished, the crepe or cotton yarns shrink, giving
the fabric a puckered appearance. Heavy cotton yarns sometimes are used as stuffer yarns
beneath the fabric face to emphasize the 3D appearance of the fabric. Matelassé is used in
apparel, upholstery, and bedspreads (Figure 13.18).

Double-Faced Fabrics  Double-faced fabrics are made with three sets of yarns: two
warp and one filling or two sets of filling and one set of warp. Blankets, satin ribbons, interlin-
ings, and silence cloth are made this way (Figure 13.19).

(a) (b)
Figure Double-faced blanket: face (a) and back (b).
13.19

fancy weaves and fabrics 319

 Blankets, with each side a different color, are usually double-faced fabrics. One set of
warp yarns is used, with two sets of different-colored filling yarns. Sometimes designs are
made by interchanging the colors from one side with the other. Double-faced blankets are
usually wool and expensive.
Satin ribbons have a lustrous satin face on both sides of the ribbon and are used in lin-
gerie and eveningwear. These ribbons have two sets of warp yarns that form the surface on
each face of the ribbon. They are interlaced with one set of filling yarns.
A double-faced interlining fabric adds warmth to winter jackets and coats. The face of
the fabric is a filament-yarn satin weave that slides easily over other apparel. The back of the
fabric uses a third set of low-twist yarns that are heavily napped for warmth. Thus, the fabric
functions as a combination of lining and interlining fabric.
Silence cloth is a heavy cotton fabric that has been napped on both sides. Available
only in white, it is used under fine tablecloths to reduce the clatter of china and silverware
while dining.

Pile Weaves
Woven-pile fabrics are 3D structures made Woven-pile fabrics are 3D structures made by weaving an extra set of warp or filling yarns
by weaving an extra set of warp or filling into the ground yarns to make loops or cut ends on the surface (Figure 13.20). Pile comes
yarns into the ground yarns to make loops from the Latin word pilus, meaning hair. The pile is usually short—1/2 inch or less. Woven-pile
or cut ends on the surface. Filling pile fabric is less pliable than other pile fabrics. Sometimes when the fabric is folded, the rows of
fabrics include corduroy and velveteen. pile tufts permit the ground to show, or grin-through. As tuft density increases, grin-through
Warp pile fabrics include velvet, friezé, decreases.
and terrycloth. Pile fabrics can be both functional and beautiful. A high, thick pile adds warmth as either
the shell or the lining of coats, jackets, gloves, and boots. High-count fabrics produce beau-
tiful and durable carpets, upholstery, and bedspreads. Low-twist yarns produce absorbent
towels and washcloths. Other uses for pile fabrics are stuffed toys, wigs, paint rollers, buffing
Pile yarns
and polishing cloths, and bed pads for bedridden patients. Interesting effects can be achieved
by combinations of cut and uncut pile (Figure 13.20), pile of various heights, high- and low-
ground filling
twist yarns, areas of pile on a flat surface, flattening pile, or only partially flattening the pile.
Uncut loop pile ground warp
In pile fabrics, the pile receives the surface abrasion and the base weave or ground
Pile yarns
receives the stress. A durable ground structure contributes significantly to a satisfactory pile
fabric. A compact ground weave increases the resistance of a looped or uncut pile to snag-
ging and of a cut pile to shedding and pulling out. A dense pile stands erect, resists crushing,
ground filling and gives better cover. Care must be taken in cleaning and pressing to keep the pile erect.

ground warp
Cut pile may look better if dry cleaned, but some pile fabrics—such as pinwale corduroy—can
Cut pile

Figure Uncut loop pile and cut pile: Woven-

13.20 pile fabrics. 10 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #66 through 69 from your swatch kit. Name the weave used to produce
each fabric. Unravel one or more warp and filling yarns from each sample. What are the
similarities and differences among these fabrics in terms of weave, weight, and yarn
type(s)? Place the fabrics in order from lightest weight to heaviest weight. Develop a list
of the characteristics of the weaves represented by this group of fabrics and the impact
of fabric structure on serviceability. Determine several end uses for these particular fab-
rics. Select one fabric from this group and describe its quality. Consult the key for the
swatch kit for that fabric. Based on fabrication method, yarn type, and fiber content,
predict the performance of the fabric.

320 chapter thirteen

be washed, depending on the fiber content. Incorrect pressing may flatten the pile and result
in a fabric that appears lighter in color. Special pressing aids—like needleboards—and steam-
ing are used with pile fabrics.
Many pile fabrics are pressed during finishing so that the pile slants in one direction, giv-
ing an up-and-down look. When the pile is directed in the same way in all pieces of a product,
the colors match. Otherwise, light will be reflected differently and the product will appear to be
made of two or more colors of the fabric. (See Figure 17.14.)

Filling-Pile Fabrics  The pile in filling-pile fabrics is made by long filling floats on the sur- Filling
Warp
face that are cut after weaving (Figures 13.21). Filling-pile fabrics are always cut pile. Two sets
of filling yarns and one set of warp are used. The ground fabric is made with one set of filling
Uncut Cut
yarns and the warp yarn set. During weaving, the extra filling yarns float across the ground
Figure Filling pile: cross section of weave in
yarns, interlacing occasionally. In corduroy, the floats are arranged in lengthwise rows; in 13.21 corduroy.
velveteen, they are scattered over the base fabric.
Cutting is done by a special machine with guides that lift the individual floating yarns from
the ground fabric and revolving knives that cut the floats (Figure 13.22). Gray-goods corduroy
with uncut and cut floats is shown in Figure 13.23. For wide-wale corduroy, the guides and
knives are set to cut all the floats in one operation. For narrow corduroy and velveteen, the rows
are so close together that alternate rows are cut with each pass and two passes must be made.
After cutting, the surface is brushed crosswise and lengthwise to bloom open the yarn
tuft, raise the pile, merge the separate pile tufts, and reduce pile pull-out due to abrasion.
Finishing gives the fabric its final appearance.

Cam driven
harness Knives

Cutting guide
raises floats

Drive roll

Figure Process for cutting floats to make corduroy.

13.22

(a) (b)
Figure Corduroy: gray goods (a) and cut and brushed open (b).
13.23

fancy weaves and fabrics 321

 Both velveteen and corduroy are made with long-staple combed cotton for the pile.
In good-quality fabrics, long-staple cotton is used for the ground as well. Polyester/cotton
blends are available with polyester in the ground yarns for strength. The ground weave may
be either plain- or twill-weave. Twill ground weaves produce a higher count and a denser pile.
Corduroy can be recognized by lengthwise wales. Velveteen has more body and less drapea-
bility than velvet. The pile is not higher than 1/8 inch. Both corduroy and velveteen are available
in solid-color and printed fabrics. Table 13.3 summarizes characteristics of different types of
corduroy.

Warp-Pile Fabrics  Warp-pile fabrics are made with two sets of warp yarns and one set
of filling. One set of warp yarns and the one filling yarn form the ground fabric. The extra set of
warp yarns forms the pile that can be cut or uncut. Several methods are used.
In the double-cloth method, two fabrics are woven, one above the other, with
the extra set of warp yarns interlacing with both fabrics. There are two sheds, one
above the other, and one filling yarn is inserted into each shed. The fabrics are cut
apart while still on the loom by a traveling knife that passes back and forth across
(a) the loom. With the double-cloth method of weaving, the depth of the pile is deter-
mined by the space between the two fabrics. The interlacing pattern of the pile
yarns determines their resistance to shedding, density, and durability (Figure 13.24).
Warp Pile with a W shape interlaces with more filling yarns, is more resistant to shedding,
Filling is less dense, and is more durable. Pile with a V shape interlaces with fewer filling
Warp yarns, is less resistant to shedding, is denser, and is less durable. When a fabric is
(b) unraveled, pile shape can be determined easily by placing it on a surface of a con-
Figure Warp pile: double-cloth method. trasting color.
13.24 W-interlacing (a), V-interlacing (b). Velvet is made of filament yarns with a pile height of inch or less. Velvet must be
handled carefully so that no folds or creases flatten the pile.
Velvet and velveteen can be distinguished by fiber length: Velvet is usually made with
filaments and velveteen with staple. To identify warp directions in these fabrics, ravel adja-
cent sides. In filling-pile fabrics, the pile is pushed out as individual tufts when a filling yarn is
removed. But when a warp yarn is removed, the pile tufts cling to it and it looks a little like a
woolly caterpillar (Figure 13.25). In warp-pile fabrics, the opposite occurs. Pile tufts cling to fill-
ing yarns. Another way to tell warp direction is to bend the fabric. In velveteen, the pile breaks
into lengthwise rows because the filling tufts are interlaced with the warp yarns. In velvet, the
pile breaks in crosswise rows because the warp tufts are interlaced with the ground-filling
yarns. This technique works best with medium- to poor-quality fabrics.

Table 13.3  Summary Table of Corduroy

Wales per Inch Ounces per Square Yard Characteristics and Uses

Featherwale 18–19 5± Shallow pile, flexible, tops and bottoms

Pinwale 14–16 7± Shallow pile, flexible, tops and bottoms
Midwale 11 10± Outerwear and bottoms, upholstery
Wide wale 3–9 12± Heavier and less flexible
Most durable corduroy, coats, upholstery
Variable wale Varies Varies, but usually mid-range 7–10 Outerwear and bottoms, upholstery

322 chapter thirteen

 Wire
Pile warp
Ground warp Filling

(a)

Warp Filling Warp Filling

(a) (b)

Figure Comparison of filling pile and warp pile. Velvet: Warp-pile yarn is interlaced with
13.25 ground filling (a). Velveteen: Filling-pile yarn is interlaced with ground warp (b). (b)

Finishing is used to create other looks for velvet. Crushed velvet is made by mechan-
ically twisting the wet cloth and randomly flattening the surface yarns in different directions.
Panné velvet is an elegant fabric with the pile pressed flat by heavy pressure in one direction
to give it high luster. If the pile is disturbed or brushed in the other direction, the smooth,
lustrous look is destroyed. Velour is a warp-pile cotton fabric used primarily for upholstery
and draperies. It has a deeper pile than velveteen and is heavier. Plush has the deepest pile—­
usually longer than inch.
Furlike fabrics may be finished by curling, shearing, sculpturing, or printing to resemble differ-
ent kinds of real fur. (Most furlike fabrics are made by other processes; see Chapters 14 and 15).
In the over-wire method, a single fabric is woven with wires placed across the width of (c)
the loom so that they are positioned above the ground warp and under the pile warp. For cut- Figure Friezé is woven over wires: diagram
pile fabrics, each wire has a hook at one end with a knife edge that cuts all the yarns looped 13.26 (a) and fabric face (b) and back (c).
over it as it is withdrawn. Uncut pile is produced using wires without hooks or waste picks of
filling yarns. The wires are removed before the fabric is removed from the loom, and the waste
picks are removed after the fabric is off the loom. Friezé, mohair-pile plush, and most woven-
pile carpets and rugs are made in this way.
Friezé, an uncut or combination cut/uncut pile fabric, is an upholstery fabric that has
fewer tufts per square inch than most other pile fabrics. The durability of friezé depends on the
closeness of the weave (Figure 13.26).
Velvet can also be made by the over-wire method. Complex patterns using different-col-
ored yarns and loops combined with cut pile result in a wide variety of fabrics for upholstery
and apparel uses.
The pile in terrycloth is formed by a special weaving arrangement in which three picks
or fillings are inserted and beaten up with one motion of the reed. In this slack tension pile
method after the second pick in a set is inserted, there is a let-off motion that causes the
yarns on the warp-pile beam to slacken, while the yarns on the ground-pile beam are held
at tension. The third pick is inserted, the reed moves forward all the way, and all three picks
are beaten up firmly into place (Figure 13.27). These picks move along the ground warp and
push the pile-warp yarns into loops. The loops can be on one side only or on both sides. Loop Figure Warp pile: slack-tension method for
height is determined by the let-off motion of the warp-pile beam. 13.27 terrycloth.

fancy weaves and fabrics 323


In a slack-tension weave, some of the
warp yarns are held at regular tension and
others are held at slack tension. As the
reed pushes ahead, the slack tension
warp slides forward creating either a
textured band or loops. Seersucker
and some terrycloth are made by
the slack tension weave.
Figure Seersucker. Note that the yarns
13.28 removed from the flat portion of the
fabric are smaller and straighter. The
yarns removed from the puckered
area are larger and more crimped.
324 chapter thirteen
Quality is determined by the yarn type (carded or combed), the fiber (Pima, Egyptian, or
regular cotton), and the number of filling yarns or picks used to create the weave. Common
varieties include two- and three-pick terries. For example, a three-pick terrycloth, the highest
quality, has two picks under the pile loop and one pick between loops. Figure 13.27 shows
a three-pick terrycloth with closed loops on both sides of the fabric. Terrycloth is used for
kitchen and bath towels, beach robes, and sportswear. Each loop acts as a tiny sponge.
Sheared loops are brushed to loosen and intermesh the fibers of adjacent yarns. The surface
becomes more compact, less porous, and absorbs more slowly as compared with loop-pile
terry. Institutional cotton/polyester terry towels have blended ground yarns and cotton pile;
the pile yarns are for absorbency and the polyester/cotton blend ground yarns are for strength
and durability, especially in selvages. Terrycloth towels for kitchen use are more likely to leave
lint on glassware and dishes than glass toweling made in plain, twill, or dobby weaves. Glass
toweling refers to the function—drying glasses—rather than the fiber content.
There is no up and down in terrycloth unless it is printed. Some friezés are made by
this method. Another slack-tension fabric, shagbark, has widely spaced rows of occasional
yarn loops.
Slack-Tension Weaves
Two warp beams are used in a slack-tension weave. The yarns on one beam are held at regu-
lar tension and those on the other beam are held at slack tension. As the reed beats the filling yarn
into place, the slack yarns crinkle or buckle to form a puckered stripe, and the regular-tensioned
yarns form the flat stripe. Loop-pile fabrics, such as terrycloth, are made by a similar weave (see
the previous section). Seersucker is a fabric made by slack-tension weave (Figure 13.28).
The yarns are wound onto the two warp beams in groups of 10 to 16 for a narrow stripe.
The crinkle stripe may have slightly larger yarns to enhance the crinkle. The stripes are always
in the warp direction and on-grain. Seersucker is produced by a limited number of manufac-
turers. It is a low-profit, high-cost item because of its slow weaving speed. Seersuckers are
11 Learning Activity
Explain the differences and similarities between warp and filling pile weaves. Name
one fabric of each type, identify an appropriate end use for each, and explain the
­serviceability based on fabric structure, pile yarn type (warp or filling), interlacing pattern
(V or W), and fabric density.
12 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #70 through 74 from your swatch kit. Name the weave used to produce
each fabric. Unravel a warp and filling yarn from each sample. What are the similarities
and differences among these fabrics in terms of weave, weight, and yarn type? Describe
how the pile is created for each fabric. Place the fabrics in order from lightest weight to
heaviest weight. Develop a list of the characteristics of the weaves represented by this
group of fabrics and the impact of fabric structure on serviceability. Determine several
end uses for these particular fabrics. Select one fabric from this group and describe its
quality. Consult the key for the swatch kit for that fabric. Based on fabrication method,
yarn type, and fiber content, predict the performance of the fabric.
made in plain colors, stripes, plaids, checks, and prints. Seersucker is used in curtains, chil-
dren’s wear, and summer suiting, dresses, and sportswear.

Tapestry Weave
A tapestry weave is a hand-produced, filling-faced, plain-weave fabric. The discontinuous
filling yarns are arranged so that as the color in the weave changes, a pattern is created.
Discontinuous filling means that one filling yarn rarely travels across the fabric from one side to
the other. Each color of filling yarn moves back and forth in a plain-weave interlacing pattern
Figure Close-up of a Navajo tapestry. Note
as long as the design calls for that color; then another color is used. In tapestries, filling yarns
13.29 how the yarns dovetail where the
are not always straight within the fabric and may interlace with the warp at an angle other pattern changes color. This is one
than 90 degrees. If the color changes along a vertical line, slits can develop in the structure. method used to avoid producing slits
Different methods of structuring the fabric can enhance or eliminate the slit, depending on the in a tapestry.
effect desired by the artist.
Two types of looms are used to create tapestries: horizontal and vertical. The differences A tapestry weave is a hand-produced,
between the looms relate to the size and end use of the tapestry. One-of-a-kind rugs, wall filling-faced, plain-weave fabric with
hangings, and fiber art pieces are made using this weave. Sometimes it is referred to as true discontinuous filling yarns arranged so
tapestry to differentiate it from the jacquard-patterned tapestry. True tapestries usually have that as the color in the weave changes,
larger filling yarns than warp yarns. Warp yarns are covered completely by the filling. Although a pattern is created.
pictorial tapestries are common, there are many categories of tapestries based on the pattern
and end use. Figure 13.29 shows a close-up of a tapestry.

Narrow Fabrics
Narrow fabrics encompass a diverse range of products that are up to 12 inches wide and
made by a variety of techniques. Woven narrow fabrics will be discussed here. Narrow fabrics
include ribbons of all sorts, elastics, zipper tapes, window-blind tapes, couturier and man-
ufacturer labels, hook and loop tapes such as Velcro™, pipings, carpet-edge tapes, trims,
safety belts, and harnesses (Figure 13.30). Webbings are an important group of narrow fab-
rics used in packaging, cargo handling, furniture, and for animal control, like leashes or lead Figure Narrow fabrics: twill tape, grosgrain
ropes for companion and show animals. 13.30 ribbon, bias tape, satin ribbon, rick-
rack, and woven fancy ribbon.
Narrow-fabric looms weave many fabrics side by side. Each fabric has its own shuttle
but shares all other loom mechanisms. Plain, twill, satin, jacquard, and pile weaves are used.
Many fabrics used in narrow form are woven wider and cut into strips. Cutting mechanisms
include laser, ultrasonic or ultra-high frequency sound, or hot knives for converting thermo- Narrow fabrics include a diverse range of
plastic wide fabrics into narrow strips and fusing the raw edges to reduce raveling. fabrics up to 12 inches wide made by a
Woven elastics are made using a variety of weaves. They are used in apparel for which variety of techniques. Narrow fabrics are
tight fit and holding power are needed, such as in undergarments. They have better stability used for ribbon, trim, labels, tapes, belts,
and rigidity than knit elastics and are less prone to riding up, but are more expensive. and webbing.

Learning Activity 13
Examine the textile products you are wearing and have with you today. (Be sure to look
at labels too.) Which items are woven? What weaves are used for these fabrics? Use
a magnifying or pick glass to determine if any of these fabrics are fancy or structural
design. Name these fabrics and/or weave. Describe your satisfaction with and the ser-
viceability of one item based on fiber content, yarn type, and weave.

fancy weaves and fabrics 325

 14 Learning Activity
Return to the list you originally started in response to Review Question 10 for Chapter 2
and to which you have been adding details. Identify characteristics to use in determining
the quality of fancy weaves. How might this information be of use to you as a profes-
sional? As a consumer?

15 Learning Activity
Visit several online retailers and examine product descriptions for woven items. Keep
track of the product type and number of items that are made with at least one compo-
nent that is a fancy weave. Compare your results with that of others. How important are
fancy weaves in today’s market for that product type?

terms
key terms
Bark cloth
Bedford cord
Bird’s-eye
Filling-pile fabric
Friezé
Granite cloth
Pocket weave
Sand crepe
Seersucker
Brocade Huck or huck-a-back Silence cloth
Brocatelle Jacquard loom Slack-tension weave
Clipped-dot designs Jacquard tapestry Slack tension pile method
Clipped-spot Jacquard weave Spacer fabric
Corduroy Kersey Structural design
Crushed velvet Leno Swivel-dot fabric
Damask Madras Tapestry weave
Dobby loom Marquisette Terrycloth
Dobby weave Matelassé True tapestry
Double cloth Melton Velvet
Double weave Momie weave Velveteen
Double-faced fabric Moss crepe Waffle cloth
Doup attachment Narrow fabric Warp-pile fabric
Extra-yarn weave Over-wire method Wilton rugs
Fancy weave Piqué Woven-pile fabrics

questions
review questions
1. Explain why the fabrics in this chapter are referred to as
fancy or structural design.
4. Identify three features for each of the weaves in Question 2
that explain their use in weaving fabrics, that differentiate
them from other weaves, or that contribute one or more
2. Summarize the structure of these weaves: dobby, extra
yarn, piqué, jacquard, momie, leno, double cloth, pile, and serviceability functions to end products.
slack-tension. 5. Name a fabric and end use for each of the weaves in
3. What performance differences would be expected among Question 2. Explain why that fabric is appropriate for that
the weaves in Question 2? end use.

326 chapter thirteen

 6. Identify which of the fancy weaves discussed in this these fabrics. Give three reasons why that fabric and end
chapter make use of one or more of the basic weaves use are a good match.
while creating the fancy or structural design. a. Bird’s eye diaper
7. In which fancy weave can the pattern be b. Clipped spot
removed without destroying the fabric? How is that c. Pinwale piqué
possible? d. Damask
e. Brocatelle
8. Explain why narrow fabrics are sometimes made as
f. Sand crepe
fancy weaves. Name three end uses for fancy narrow
g. Leno
fabrics.
h. Matelassé
9. Explain the differences between tapestry jacquard and i. Corduroy
tapestry weave. j. Velvet
10. What kind of information is conveyed by the following k. Friezé
fabric names? Identify an appropriate end use for each of l. Seersucker

Case Study
Passion for Jacquard Design and Weaving*
During the Italian Renaissance, luxurious fab-
rics made of silk and metal threads counted
among the most valuable items owned by
both individuals and the Catholic Church.
These fancy woven fabrics often incorpo-
rated family coat-of-arms and other motifs
associated with individual families. The fab-
rics: sumptuous velvets, brocades, and dam-
asks, were expressions of the power, wealth,
and taste of the owners. In Italy today, one
organization, the Lisio Foundation, creates
fabrics that require great manual weaving
skills inspired by 15th- through 18th-century
Florence. The company also produces col-
lections on power looms for larger markets.
Discussion Questions
1. Identify the fancy weave category most
likely to create intricate patterns such as
family crests.
2. Describe the characteristics of velvets,
brocades, and damasks that would lead
them to be considered luxurious.
3. For what end uses would a professional in
the global textile complex or a consumer
desire a textile that was handwoven?
4. How would the fiber and yarn differ for
jacquard weaves produced for apparel
versus interior products?

*Watt, M. (2011). Renaissance velvet textiles. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

readings
suggested readings
Baugh, G. (2011). The Fashion Designer’s Textile Directory.
Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s.
Pamuk, G., & Çeken, F. (2008). Recyclable spacer fabrics for
automotives. AATCC Review, 8(8), 32–36.
Emery, I. (1980). The Primary Structures of Fabrics. Washington, Tortora, P. G., & Keiser, S. J. (2014). The Fairchild Books Dictionary
DC: The Textile Museum. of Fashion, 4th ed. New York: Bloomsbury.
Humphries, M. (1996). Fabric Glossary. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Watt, M. (2011). Renaissance velvet textiles. Heilbrunn Timeline of
Prentice Hall. Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Jerde, J. (1992). Encyclopedia of Textiles. New York: Facts on File.

fancy weaves and fabrics 327

Pavelsm27/Fotolia Jackf/Fotolia

Hwahl3/Fotolia Massimhokuto/Fotolia
Knitting and Knit
Fabrics

CHAP TE R O B J ECT I V ES
• To describe the differences between weaving and knitting and woven and knit fabrics.
• To explain the characteristics of warp- and filling-knit fabrics.
• To differentiate between basic and fancy warp- and filling-knit fabrics.
• To integrate fabrication method, yarn type, and fiber with end use and performance.

14
 The previous two chapters examined various weaves and woven fabrics. These fabrics are
made by interlacing two or more sets of yarns. This chapter examines knitting, a completely
different method of making fabric by interloping one or more sets of yarns.

Knit versus Woven Fabrics

Knitting is a fabrication process in which needles are used to form a series of interlocking
loops from one or more yarns or from one or more sets of yarns. Many knits are made with
only one yarn set. Do not expect to find yarns in both lengthwise and crosswise directions as
is found with woven fabrics. In knitted fabrics, yarns do not move in both directions as they
do in weaving; there are not separate sets of warp and filling yarns in a knitted fabric. Study
Figure 14.1 to identify the difference in structure between knit and woven fabrics. When a
woven fabric is unraveled, both warp and filling yarns can be removed. When a knit fabric is
unraveled, only a row of loops is removed. Understanding this critical difference in structure is
essential to understanding knit fabrics.
While most knits are made with more than one yarn or yarn sets, some knit scarves are
made with only one yarn that moves back and forth and creates row after row until the scarf is
complete. Some stocking hats are made with only one yarn that spirals around until the hat is
complete. Knits are made with yarns that interloop rather than yarns that interlock as in woven
fabrics. Knitting is a traditional method of producing items such as sweaters, underwear,
hosiery, and baby items. The trend toward a more casual lifestyle is reflected in increased knit
interior textiles and apparel.
Knitting is probably not as old a technique as weaving. Remnants of knit fabrics dating
from 250 c.e. were found near the borders of ancient Palestine. Knitting was a hand process

1 Learning Activity
Examine the textile products you are wearing and have with you today. Which items
are woven and which are knit? Describe your satisfaction with and the serviceability of
one of each of the woven and knit items based on fiber content, yarn type, and fabric
structure. Compare your comments between the two products. What are the most sig-
nificant features of the woven and knit fabrics in terms of serviceability? How do those
features relate to fabric structure? Would those same features apply to other woven or
knit products?

(a) (b)
Figure Woven fabrics can be unraveled by removing warp and filling yarns (a). Knit fabric can be
14.1 unraveled by removing a course (b).

330 chapter fourteen

until 1589, when the Reverend William Lee of England invented a flatbed machine for knitting
fabric for hosiery that was 10 times faster than hand knitting. Circular-knitting and warp-­knitting Knitting is a fabrication process in which

machines, the ribbing device, and the latch needle were developed about 200 years later. needles are used to form a series of inter-

A unique advantage of knitting is that complete products such as hats, gloves, sweat- locking loops from one or more yarns or

ers, and hosiery can be produced or fashioned directly on the knitting machine. Completely from one or more sets of yarns. Knits are

knit-in-one garments became possible in 1863, when William Cotton invented a machine that made with yarns that interloop rather than

shaped garment parts by adding or combining stitches. yarns that interlock as with woven fabrics.

The production rate for knitting machines is about four times greater than looms because Many knits have only one yarn set that

operating speed is not limited by machine width. The high productivity rate should be an eco- moves back and forth or in a spiral around

nomic factor in favor of knitting, but the increased cost of the yarn offsets much of the savings the fabric. Knitting is a very efficient and

in production costs. The looped yarn shape imparts bulk and requires more yarn to produce versatile fabrication method.

a knit fabric than to produce a comparable woven fabric. Also, the looped structure is porous
with holes or spaces and provides less cover than a woven fabric with side-by-side yarns. So,
in order to achieve an equal amount of cover, smaller stitches (finer gauge) and finer and more
uniform yarns are used. Uniform yarns prevent the formation of thick-and-thin places in the
fabric and are more expensive to produce.
Knitting is a very efficient and versatile method of making fabric. Computer-aided
design systems with electronic-patterning mechanisms and quick style change (QSC)
machine modifications permit rapid adjustment for fashion changes. Computerized elec- Normal Elongated Widened Distorted
tronic controls identify the stitch type for each needle, the yarn to be used in the stitch, loop loop loop loop

and the yarn tension. Electronic knitting machines make knitting faster, more practical, Figure The loop can change its shape with
14.2 force and stretch.
more versatile, and more efficient, with fewer fabric flaws. These machines make chang-
ing patterns much simpler and quicker. There is a knit counterpart for almost every woven
basic and fancy weave fabric—knit seersucker, piqué, denim, crepe, satin, terrycloth,
velour, and so on.
Other knitting machines expand the range of end uses by producing fabrics with stabil-
ity more like that of wovens. The weft-insertion knitting machine inserts filling yarn for more
crosswise stability, and the warp-insertion knitting machine inserts warp yarns for greater
lengthwise stability.
Other major advantages of knits are comfort and appearance retention. Knits are able
to adapt to body movement. The loop structure contributes outstanding elasticity (stretch/
recovery) and wrinkle recovery that are separate from any fiber or yarn properties. Loop shape
can be lengthened or widened—producing stretch in any fabric direction (Figure 14.2). Unfor-
tunately, knits are more prone to sagging and snagging compared to wovens. Figure 14.3
shows a snag in a knit fabric. If the yarn breaks, a run is likely to occur.
Knits can be made so that each side is made up of different yarns, thus creating a dif-
ferent composition, texture, or function from one side to the other. Seamless garments are
possible with enhanced wicking fibers placed next to the skin while a mesh structure that
allows for greater ventilation occurs in other areas. High-performance knits provide freedom
of movement in some areas of a garment such as the shoulder and elbows and support in Figure A snag in a knit fabric.
other areas such as for the breasts. Table 14.1 compares knitting and weaving. 14.3

Types of Knitting
There are two major types of knit fabrics. These types are based on how the yarn moves
in the fabric. Filling, or weft, knitting is a process in which one yarn or yarn set is carried

knitting and knit fabrics 331

 Filling, or weft, knitting is a process in
which one yarn or yarn set is carried back
and forth (or around) and under needles
to form a fabric. Yarns move horizontally
in ­filling-knit fabrics. Warp knitting is a pro-
cess in which a warp beam is set into a
machine and yarn sets are interlooped to
form a fabric. In a warp knit, yarns move
upward in a zig-zag fashion.
3 Learning Activity
2 Learning Activity
Examine the face and back of a knit apparel or interiors item. Are both sides of the
item identical in yarn type and fabric structure? If yes, re-examine the item to be sure it
is a knit. If no, explain how the difference(s) in appearance, texture, or structure might
impact its serviceability. Is more than one type of yarn used to create this fabric? How
might yarn type provide information on identifying fabric structure? Keep these details in
mind while reading the rest of this chapter.
Use Fabrics #1 and 86 from your swatch kit. Unravel each fabric. Place the yarns
removed from the fabric by the edge(s) unraveled. Identify the knit fabric and the
woven fabric. Explain how one is made with interlocked yarns while the other is made
with interlaced yarns. Compare the serviceability of these two fabrics based on their
structure.

Table 14.1  Comparison of Knit and Woven Fabrics

Knitting Weaving

Comfort and Appearance Retention

Mobile, elastic fabric. Adapts easily to body movement. Loops stretch
and distort easily. Air permeable. Open spaces between yarns let
winds and moisture penetrate. Bulky. Good recovery from wrinkles.
Cover
Porous, less opaque.
Fabric Stability
Less stable in use and care. Higher shrinkage unless heat-set.
Versatility
Sheer to heavyweight fabrics. Plain and fancy knits with or without
fancy yarns. Resembles many woven fabrics. Shaping of garments or
garment parts possible.
Face and back can be made of different yarns to create differences in
composition, texture, or function.
Economics
Quick machine changes to meet fashion needs. Less expensive process
requiring more expensive yarn. Faster process regardless of fabric
width.
Fabric Structure and Characteristics
Series of interconnected loops made with one or more sets of yarns.
Filling knits can be raveled from top or bottom depending on type;
warp knits cannot be raveled. May snag and run. May be bowed or
skewed. Usually heavier because more yarn is used.
Uses
Apparel, interiors, and technical products.
Stable to stress (unless made with stretch yarns). Yarns held more rigidly
in place. Less air and water permeable, especially if count is high. Bulk
and wrinkle recovery vary with the weave and yarn type.
Provides maximum hiding power and cover.
More stable in use and care. Lower shrinkage.
Sheer to heavyweight fabrics. Plain and fancy weaves with or without
fancy yarns. Shaping of garment parts much more difficult.
Face and back variations possible, but only with fancy weaves like pile or
double weaves.
Less adaptable machines to meet rapid changes in fashion. Most
economical method of producing a unit of cover. Wider looms weave
more slowly.
Two or more sets of yarns interlaced to form the fabric structure. Yarns
are essentially straight in the fabric. Can be raveled from any cut edge.
May snag and ravel. May be bowed or skewed. Usually lighter because
less yarn is used.
Apparel, interiors, and technical products.

back and forth (or around) and under needles to form a fabric. Yarns move horizontally in
filling-knit fabrics. Warp knitting is a process in which a warp beam is set into a machine
and yarn sets are interlooped to form a fabric. Yarns move vertically in warp-knit fabrics.

332 chapter fourteen

 Does the yarn in the knit move...

horizontally in one course? vertically between courses and from wale to wale?

Filling or weft knit Warp knit

Is the fabric a single or double knit? Is the fabric simple or complex in structure?

Single knit Double knit Simple structure Complex structure

Are the yarns all alike or do they Interlock Tricot (brushed, Lace
differ in size, type, color or twist? Rib knit satin, ciré, two bar, Power net
Jacquard knit three bar, etc.) Weft-insertion knit
Purl knit Tulle Raschel knit
Yarns alike Yarns differ

Jersey Does the variation in the yarn create a pattern?

Stockinette
Lisle
Yes No

Jacquard Is it a pile fabric?

Jersey
Intarsia

Yes No

Knit terrycloth Fleece

Velour French terry
Fake fur

Figure Flowchart of knit fabrics.

14.4

These names were borrowed from weaving and refer to the direction in which the yarns
move in the fabric. Figure 14.4 shows a flowchart of knits that should facilitate identifying Flexible Hook
and naming fabrics. spring-tension
hook Latch is closed
Presser closes by movement
of the previous
Classifying Knits the hook as the
needle is pulled loop
down through
Knits can be classified by several factors: the machine on which the knit is made, the num- the stitch
(a) (b)
ber of yarn sets in the knit, the type of stitch or stitches used, or the type of fabric produced.
Categorizing knits by the number of yarn sets is a carryover from hand knitting. Some fabrics,
such as rib knits, are made with one set of yarns on a double-knit machine with two needle (c)
beds. Thus, rib knits could be categorized as a single-knit (one yarn set) or as a double-knit
Hook element
(machine type). In the textile complex and in this book, knits are most often categorized by the Tongue element
machine used to produce them.

Needles  Knitting is done by needles: spring-beard, latch, double-latch, or compound (­Figure

14.5). These needles differ from hand knitting needles (Figure 14.6). Commercial knitting uses
(d)
knitting machines with needles engineered to fit in the needle bar and be operated by the
Figure Knitting needles: (a) spring-beard
machine’s control mechanisms. Most filling knits are formed with the latch needle. The spring- 14.5 needle, (b) latch needle, (c) double-
beard needle may be used to produce fully fashioned garments, fleece, and fine yarn fabrics. latch needle, (d) compound needle.

knitting and knit fabrics 333


Figure Machine knitting needles (left) are
14.6 much smaller and are designed to
fit into a knitting machine compared
to rosewood hand knitting needles
(right).
(a) (b)
Figure An open knit loop (a) and
14.7 a closed knit loop (b).
Fabric density is defined by counting the
number of stitches, not yarns, in a specific
direction. Wales are vertical columns of
stitches in the knit fabric. Courses are the
horizontal rows. In machine knitting, each
wale is formed by a single needle. Gauge or
cut indicates the fineness of the stitch; it is
the number of needles in a specific distance
on the needle bar and is often expressed
as needles per inch (npi). If the stitches
are difficult to see, it is a fine gauge fabric.
Stitches that are easy to see are ­medium
to coarse gauge. Technical face refers to
the outer side of the fabric as knitted. The
technical back is the inner side of the fabric
as it is knit and is used as the fashion side
of such fabrics as fleece and knit terry.
334 chapter fourteen
A double-latch needle is used to make purl fabrics. The compound needle is used primarily in
warp knitting.
Stitches  Needles manipulate the yarns to form a single stitch or loop or a series of stitches
or loops. Stitch names are based on the way they are made. Stitches may be open or closed,
depending on how the stitch is formed (Figure 14.7). Open stitches are most common in filling
knitting. In warp knitting, open and closed stitches are found, depending on the design; they
help in identifying the fabric, but have little effect on fabric performance.
Fabric Characteristics  Characteristics of knits differ significantly from those of woven
fabrics. While both fabric types are made from yarns, knit characteristics are dependent on
several factors: the type of knit, the stitches, and yarn(s) that form the fabric. Fabric density
is defined by counting the number of stitches, not yarns, in a specific direction. Wales are
vertical columns of stitches in the knit fabric. Courses are the horizontal rows. When counting
to determine fabric density, both sides of the loop make one wale. The higher is the number
of wales or courses per inch or centimeter, the denser is the fabric. Of course, fabric weight
will be determined by wale and course density, yarn number, and fiber content. In machine
knitting, each wale is formed by a single needle. Wales and courses show clearly on filling-knit
jersey (Figures 14.8 and 14.9). Follow the yarn path of Figures 14.8 and 14.9. Notice that a
single yarn forms a stitch (a single wale) and a course (a row of stitches). Fabric density is
often expressed as wales by courses. For example, a T-shirt jersey might have 32 wales per
inch and 44 courses per inch. This fabric would have a density of 32344.
Gauge or cut indicates the fineness of the stitch; it is the number of needles in a specific
distance on the needle bar and is often expressed as needles per inch (npi). Cut may be used
in the textile complex to describe knit fabrics.
The higher the gauge, the finer the fabric. Finished fabrics seldom have the same gauge
as the knitting machine because of relaxation shrinkage when machine tension is removed
or stretching during finishing. A fine-gauge filling-knitting machine may have 28 npi or more.
A coarse one may have 13 npi or fewer.
It may be difficult to identify the technical face of the fabric. Technical face refers to the
outer side of the fabric as knitted. This may not be the side used as the fashion side in a prod-
uct. The technical back is the inner side of the fabric as it is knit and is used as the fashion
side of such fabrics as fleece and knit terry. Identification of the technical face can be done in
several ways. The technical face usually has a better finish. Finer and more expensive yarns
are used on the face side. Floats on the face are shorter, finer, and less likely to snag. Fabric
design is more obvious on the face side.
4 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #3 and 75 from your swatch kit. Identify which one is a woven fabric and
which one is a knit fabric. Identify warp and filling in the woven sample and wale and
course in the knit sample. Unravel 2 to 3 warp and filling yarns from the woven sample
and the same number of wales and courses from the knit sample. What do you see
happening to each fabric? Does the knit sample have separate wale and course yarns?
How does one yarn form both wales and courses in a knit?
 A knit’s bulky structure provides many spaces to trap air for good insulation in still air, but Wale (blue)
a wind-repellent outer layer is needed to prevent chill winds from penetrating the open struc-
ture of the knit. On a warm, humid day, knits may be too warm because they conform to the
body and insulate too well.
Knits are less likely to wrinkle during use, care, packing, or storage. Wrinkle recovery is
related to the loop structure, but it is also strongly influenced by fiber and yarn type. Snagging
is a serious problem with knit fabrics. When a yarn is snagged, it pulls out and stands away
Course
from the surface of the fabric. Shiners, or tight yarns, may form on either side of the snag (green)
(Figure 14.10). Finer yarns, smaller stitches, and higher yarn twist all reduce snagging. If snags
are cut off (rather than being worked back into their original position), a run is likely in some Figure Wale and course as seen from the
knits, particularly in filling knits. 14.8 technical face of filling-knit jersey
A run occurs when the stitches in a wale collapse or pull out. A run occurs in a stepwise
fabric. The lighter colors indicate the
portion of the loop not visible on the
fashion when one stitch after another in a wale collapses due to stress on the loop when a fabric’s face.
yarn is cut. Figure 14.11 shows a run in a filling knit and a run (or zip) in a warp knit.
Wale (blue)
Quality in knit fabrics is assessed in much the same way as for woven fabrics. (See
­Chapter 12). Quality assurance procedures focus on inspecting for flaws in yarns or fab-
ric structure and assessing how the fabric performs in specific areas of interest, including
strength, dimensional stability, resistance to wrinkling, abrasion, stains, snagging, and pilling.
Characteristics that are used to define a high-quality knit fabric include a heavyweight for the
fabric type, fiber content, and end use. Yarns are regular in appearance for their type. Higher
quality knits are made of combed or worsted yarns, depending on the fiber. Pattern is incor-
porated into the fabric as part of its structure; fancy knit jacquard or raschel fabrics are of
higher quality than printed or embossed fabrics. Skew is minimal. Garment parts are shaped
on the knitting machine rather than being cut and sewn.
Course (green)
Because of the unique interlooped structure of knits, they are more prone to such prob-
Figure Wale and course as seen from the
lems as snagging and sagging. Special procedures have been developed to assess these
14.9 technical back of filling-knit jersey
performance characteristics of knits. The next few paragraphs describe some procedures fabric. The lighter colors indicate the
used to assess knit fabric performance. portion of the loop not visible on the
Skew (an off-grain characteristic first discussed in Chapter 12) is also common with knits, fabric’s back.
especially circular knits, because of the way they are made (see the later discussion and
Figure 14.12). In assessing skew, a fabric is placed flat on a surface and one course is fol-
lowed across the fabric. A right angle is used to measure the difference between a straight
course and a skewed course in the fabric. Skew is most common in circular knits and is often
due to the number of yarns fed into the machine as the fabric is formed. Circular knits with the
least amount of skew have fewer yarn feeds, but take longer to make and are more expen-
sive. Circular knits with greater skew have more yarn feeds, are made more quickly, and are
less expensive.

Learning Activity 5
Compare the serviceability between a knit top and a woven top of a similar weight and
fiber content. Which is superior? How do woven and knit tops usually differ in terms of
garment parts, shape, fit, support materials, production time, closures, and so on? Why
are there such differences between the two types? Do consumers expect the same
performance between woven tops and knit tops? Why or why not? Figure A snag showing shiners on both sides
14.10 of the pulled-up yarn.

knitting and knit fabrics 335

 (a) (b)
Figure A run in a filling knit (a) and run (or zip) in a warp knit (b).
14.11

6 Learning Activity
Fabric edge (1 layer)
Consider the knit textile products you have owned. Have you experienced any of these
Fabric problems: skew, snag, or run? Explain each of these problems as they relate to fabric
edge structure and serviceability. How did the problem affect your satisfaction with the prod-
(tube)
uct? How could these problems be prevented during fabrication? Identify the problems
that are inherent to knits. Explain how they relate to the knit structure. If woven fabrics
Figure Yarn motion in flatbed knits and experience the same problems, explain how that is most likely to occur.
14.12 circular knits.

To assess snagging, a piece of fabric is exposed to a rough surface and the number of
snags is counted or compared to photographic standards. Because finishing chemicals may
reduce snagging in new fabric, snagging tests are often conducted after the fabric has been
washed one or more times.
Knitted fabrics have higher potential shrinkage than woven fabrics. The accepted stan-
dard is 5% for knits, whereas 2% is standard for wovens. However, ASTM performance
specifications recommend maximum shrinkage for woven and knit products of 3% in both
vertical and horizontal directions. The looser structure of knits allows for more yarn move-
ment, especially during the tumbling action of machine washing and machine drying contrib-
uting to a higher degree of shrinkage compared to woven fabrics of the same fiber content
and yarn type.

Sustainability of Knitting
The process of knitting is more sustainable compared with weaving because the envi-
ronmental impact is less. Chemicals to minimize abrasion on yarns or generation of static
charges are less likely to be used with knits. Knitting machines operate with less vibration,
lint, noise, and energy than shuttle looms. However, because of the demand for knits in
the market, social abuses do occur in knit facilities. Employees may be expected to work

336 chapter fourteen

 Learning Activity 7
Using the list of quality characteristics of textiles that you started in Chapter 2, Review
Question 10 and added to in Chapters 9, 11, and 12, identify characteristics that deter-
mine the quality of knits.

Learning Activity 8
You are a buyer for department store chain and are looking for knit items for your unit.
What are the sustainability issues you would consider when sourcing these items?

excessive hours in uncomfortable conditions for low pay. Some employees may be chil-
dren who are paid less than adults for the same hours of work. Because of the relatively
low cost of knitting machines, knitting mills are often concentrated in developing countries.
During times of economic downturns, mills close down, thereby leaving workers with no
source of income. However, during times of economic growth, mills provide income for
workers in the community.
In the past few years, interest in the local fiber movement has grown. Hand knitting and
hand knit products are a significant area of local fiber interest because so many hobbyists,
farmers, and ranchers use environmentally friendly practices to raise fiber-bearing animals
like sheep, llama, alpaca, and angora goats and rabbits. The fibers are processed locally
(cleaned and carded) at specialty fiber mills. Many individuals spin yarn from the fiber and knit
their fiber or blends with their fiber into products. Other producers focus on producing yarn
of their fibers or blends of their fibers. Both knit products and yarns for hand work are sold
through websites, local retailers and specialty shops, or at local fiber festivals or fairs. The
local fiber movement has significant community impact. Families derive income from their
work. Traditional crafts and related activities are preserved. Heritage breeds of sheep and
other fiber-bearing animals and plants are preserved. Last, but not least, the carbon footprint
is reduced because shipping is reduced.

Filling and Warp Knitting and Fabrics

This is section is divided into two parts: filling (or weft) knits and warp knits. Each part will
discuss the machines and stitches used to make the knit fabrics and define the fabrics that fit
within that classification.

Filling (or Weft) Knits

Filling knitting can be done by hand or machine. In hand knitting, a yarn is cast (looped) onto
one needle, another needle is inserted into the first stitch, the yarn is positioned around the
needle, and by manipulating the needle a new stitch is formed while being transferred onto
a second needle. The process is repeated over and over again until the product has been
completed.
In machine knitting, many needles (one for each wale) are set into the needle bed of
a knitting machine. Each stitch is made in a series of steps. By the end of the final step,

knitting and knit fabrics 337

 Clearing
Running Feeding Knockover Pulling
New yarn
New yarn

Figure Latch-needle knitting action. Arrows show the direction in which the needle is moving.
14.13

one needle has gone through a complete up-and-down motion, and a new stitch has been
formed. Figure 14.13 illustrates the process for a basic stitch for a machine with a latch nee-
dle. The process differs slightly for different needle types and different stitches. In the running
position, the needle moves up and the old stitch slides down the needle. In clearing, the nee-
dle reaches its highest position and the old stitch has dropped down to the needle’s base.
In feeding, a new yarn is caught by the needle’s hook and the needle begins its downward
stroke. In knockover, the old stitch is removed from the needle. The final step is pulling, when
the new stitch is formed at the needle’s hook and the needle is in its lowest position. These
five steps are repeated in a continuous up-and-down motion to form a knit. Each needle in
the knitting machine is at a slightly different stage in this process so that a wave or undulating
motion appears to move across or around the machine. Each stitch is at a slightly different
step in the process at any given time, but all the stitches in a course are formed by the same
yarn, except for some fancy knits.
Knitting can be done on a flatbed machine in which the yarn is carried back and forth
(Figure 14.14) or on a circular machine in which the yarn is carried in a spiral like the threads

9 Learning Activity
Figure Flatbed knitting machine for fabric for
14.14 individual use.
Knit a sample by using two knitting needles, chopsticks, mechanical pencils, or
pens with the lead or tip withdrawn and yarn or string. If you know how to knit,
teach a fellow classmate. There are many online tutorials for learning how to knit.
Or, try an alternate method similar to filling machine knitting. Select a piece of yarn
or string several yards or meters long and use a clipboard or piece of cardboard.
From one end of the yarn, create a series of parallel loops. Catch the tops of the
loops under the edge of the clipboard or tape the tops of the loops to the piece of
cardboard. Starting on the side of the loops with the long tail, insert a loop of yarn
through the bottom of each loop one at a time. Try to keep the length of the new
row of loops the same as the first row. Knit another row by repeating this process
when you reach the end of the first row, except start the new row on the side knit
last and works across in the opposite direction. Assume that the width of the clip-
board or cardboard is one inch. What is the gauge of your knit? How many rows did
you knit? Identify a wale and a course of the sample you created. How many yarns
did you use?

338 chapter fourteen

of a screw (Figure 14.15). Figure 14.12 shows yarn movement in fabrics knit using these two
types of machines. In hand knitting, many kinds of stitches can be made by varying the way
the yarn is placed around the needle (in front or behind) and by knitting stitches together,
moving stitches in front or behind other stitches, or transferring stitches. Special devices and
attachments are used to obtain these variations in machine knitting.
Machine knitting of filling knits is done on single- and double-knit flatbed and circular
machines. Flatbed machines knit a variety of fabric widths, usually at least 100 inches wide.
New yarns are introduced at the edge of the machine so skew is minimal in flat knits. These
machines are slower than circular machines, but they produce less skew in the fabric and can
fashion or shape higher quality garment or product parts. Production is faster with circular
machines; they are described by the diameter of the fabric tube produced. Greater flexibility
demands by the textile complex have resulted in machines that make a variety of tube diam-
eters. Diameters can be changed with minimal down-time. New yarns can be fed into the
knit at any point along its diameter. Yarn feeds normally range from three to four feeds per
diameter inch. With a tube diameter of only 13 inches and three feeds per diameter inch, there
Figure Circular knitting machine.
could be up to 39 courses between the point where a yarn began its circular pattern and the
14.15 Source: rook76/Fotolia
point where that same yarn began its second course around the fabric. High yarn feeds per
diameter inch allow knitting machines to be very productive, but the resulting fabrics have
significant skew, presenting potential problems in cutting, sewing, and consumer satisfaction. Knitting can be done on a flatbed machine
Circular machines are used to make yardage, sweater and T-shirt bodies, hosiery, and socks. in which the yarn is carried back and forth
Knitting machines may also be described by the type of fabric they produce, such as simple or on a circular machine in which the yarn
jersey, a more complex knit such as terrycloth, or fancy patterned knits using jacquard machines. is carried in a spiral.
Filling-knit fabrics are classified by stitch type. There are four possibilities. Each stitch
is controlled by the selection of cams, or guides, that control needlemotion. The first stitch
is the knit stitch. This is the basic stitch used to produce the majority of filling-knit fabrics
(Figure 14.16). These fabrics have greater crosswise and less lengthwise elongation. The
sides of the stitches appear on the face of jersey; the back is comprised of the tops and bot-
toms of the stitches. Figure 14.16 illustrates the appearance of both sides of the fabric. When
jerseys are printed, they are printed on the face, since that is the smoothest and most regular
surface. However, many jerseys, especially the pile types, are used with the technical back as
the fashion side because of the loop formation.
The tuck stitch is the first stitch used to create a fancy knit, one with a pattern in the fab-
ric. In the tuck stitch, the old stitch is not cleared from the needle. Thus, there are two stitches
on the needle. Figure 14.17 shows how the tuck stitch looks in a fabric. In a knit fabric with
tuck stitches, the fabric is thicker and slightly less likely to stretch crosswise than a fabric with
all knit stitches and the same number of stitches. Tuck stitches create bubbles or puckers for

Learning Activity 10
Examine the knit products you are wearing today, including socks, tights, or ­hosiery.
Which items are made on a flatbed machine and which are made on a circular ­machine?
How can you tell what type of machine was used? (What are the details you used to
make your assessment?) What is the approximate diameter or circumference of the
circular machine(s) used? How would each product be different if the other type of
­machine had been used in its production? How would that impact your satisfaction with
the product? Compare the advantages and disadvantages of both types.

knitting and knit fabrics 339

 (a) Technical face (b) Technical back

(c) (d)
Figure Jersey fabric diagram: face (a) and back (b) with photograph of face (c) and back (d).
14.16 The blue part in the diagram indicates the yarn portions that can be seen from that
view of the fabric.

visual interest. They may be in a pattern or added randomly to create texture. These fancy
knits are usually referred to as jacquard jerseys.
The float or miss stitch is the second stitch used to create a fancy knit with a pattern
in the fabric. In the float stitch, no new stitch is formed at a needle even though adjacent
needles form new stitches. The float stitch is used when yarns of different colors knit in to
create the design. Figure 14.18 shows how the float stitch looks in a fabric from the technical
face and the technical back. A fancy knit fabric with float stitches is much less likely to stretch
crosswise than a basic-knit fabric with the same number of stitches. In jacquard jerseys, float
stitches are very common when several colors of yarn are used in the fabric. For example, if a
fabric incorporates two or more colors in a pattern, float stitches are necessary, as one color
comes to the face and the other floats in this area. A jacquard jersey made with different yarn
colors combines tuck and float stitches in a course.

(a) (b)
Figure Tuck-stitch diagram (a) and fabric (b).
14.17

340 chapter fourteen

 Float stitch
(a) (b)
Figure Float, or miss, stitch diagram (a). Jacquard jersey fabric (b). On the
14.18 photograph, note the pattern on the face (center) and the floats on the back
(right). The diagram shows the technical back of the fabric.

The purl, or reverse, stitch forms a fabric that looks on both sides like the technical back of
a basic-knit fabric. The fabric is reversible (Figure 14.19). Purl-knit fabrics are slow and expensive
to knit because they require special machines. Since the face and back of a purl fabric look like the
back of a jersey, manufacturers often use the technical back of a jersey as the fashion side when
a purl appearance is desired. These imitation purl fabrics pass casual inspection by consumers
and are competitive in price with other knit structures, so the consumer does not pay more for
this special look. An imitation purl fabric is also known as a reverse jersey. Authentic purl fabrics
are rare in the market because of their significantly higher price. Since a reverse jersey is much
cheaper and more readily available, they are most often used to achieve the purl fashion look. Figure Purl stitch looks the same on both
14.19 sides.
Filling-Knit Fabrics  Filling knit fabrics are discussed from simplest to most complex. Sin-
gle filling knits are discussed first, followed by double-knits. Single-filling knits are made
Knits are made with four basic stitches.
using a circular or flatbed machine with one set of needles. Single-knits can be plain or fancy
The knit stitch is the basic stitch used to
and any pattern or weight. They are less stable than double-knits, tend to curl at the edges,
produce the majority of filling-knit fabrics.
and run readily, especially if made of filament yarns.
The tuck stitch is used to create a fancy
Single-jersey fabric is the simplest of the filling-knit structures. Wales—columns of stitches
knit, one with a pattern in the fabric. The
running lengthwise—may be easier to see on the face. Courses—rows of stitches running
float or miss stitch is also used to create a
­crosswise—may be easier to see on the back. Stretch a swatch of jersey crosswise and it curls
fancy knit with a pattern in the fabric. The
to the back at the lengthwise edges. The ends curl toward the face. Because of this curling ten-
purl, or reverse, stitch forms a fabric that
dency, cutting items from jersey can be frustrating so an antiroll finish is best, especially for com-
looks on both sides like the technical back
mercial facilities. Yarns ravel crosswise because they run horizontally in the fabric. Cut edges or
of a basic-knit fabric.
broken yarns may create problems with runs. Single jerseys made of spun yarns resist running
because of fiber cohesiveness. The single-jersey structure, or plain knit, is widely used because it
is the fastest filling knit to make and is made on the least complicated knitting machine.
Jersey is a plain, basic fabric of lightweight to heavyweight (Figure 14.16). It is usually
knit on a circular jersey machine and sold in tubular form or flattened and cut along a fold to
be sold as flat goods. When tubular fabrics are pressed in finishing, the creases are off-grain
and not parallel to wales so the fabric is skewed. Tubular fabric does not need to be cut and
opened out when cutting out product parts, unless there is a specific reason for doing so.
T-shirts with no side seams are made from circular knit jersey. Socks are another common
circular knit product. End uses for jersey include hosiery, underwear, shirts, T-shirts, dresses,
sweaters, and sheets. Tightly fitted apparel is not the best end use for jersey unless an elasto-
mer is used since the fabric stretches easily. On a similar note, jersey apparel does not require

knitting and knit fabrics 341


Side
Seam
Side Seam
Figure T-shirt showing skew of the circular knit
14.20 jersey fabric. Note how the side seam
twists toward the front of the shirt.
There are two types of filling knits.
Single-filling knits, one of two types of
filling knits, are made using a circular or
flatbed machine with one set of needles.
Single-knits can be plain or fancy and any
pattern or weight. Examples include jersey,
stockinette, and lisle.
Fancy or figured jerseys combine knit, tuck,
and float stitches; combine yarns that differ
in color, structure, texture, or size; or incor-
porate specific yarns in certain areas of the
fabric to create a pattern. These fancy jer-
seys include jacquard jersey and intarsia.
342 chapter fourteen
11 Learning Activity
Examine the knit products you are wearing today. What kinds of knit stitches were
used to create those fabrics? Do the stitches create a pattern in the fabric? How many
­repeats occur across or along the fabric? Is more than one color or type of yarn used?
How does the structure of the fabric affect your satisfaction with the product?
an exact fit because of its easy stretch. Witness the few sizes used in knitwear compared to
the greater number of sizes in woven apparel. Matte jersey is made with crepe-twist yarns, is
usually polyester, and has lively texture and good hand.
Figure 14.20 shows a T-shirt that was cut from tubular cotton jersey with yarn-dyed
stripes. When purchased, the stripes and the side seams were parallel. After several wash/
dry cycles, the fabric assumed its normal position, causing the side seams to twist toward the
front on one side and the back on the other side.
Heavier-weight jerseys are often used for simple solid-color or striped sweaters, tops,
and skirts. Fancy and plied yarns add body, durability, warmth, cover, interest, or texture.
Stockinette (or stockinet) is a heavier-knit jersey made with coarser spun yarns as com-
pared to a regular jersey.
Lisle (pronounced lyle) is a high-quality jersey made of fine two-ply combed cotton yarns.
It can be found in several weights, depending on its end use. Lisle is used for socks, under-
garments, tops, skirts, and sweaters.
Variations of plain knits are used to create fancy knits and are made by programming the
machines to knit stitches together, to transfer stitches, and to use colored yarns to form patterns
or vertical stripes. Extra yarns or slivers make pile fabrics like terrycloth, velour, and fake-fur fabrics.
Jacquard jersey is a fancy or figured single jersey made using a jacquard mechanism
with electronic controls on circular jersey machines. Fancy jersey patterns develop because the
fabric combines knit, tuck, or float stitches or yarns that vary by color, structure, or texture. The
maximum colors per row in a jacquard jersey is 42, allowing for a wide range of intricate pat-
terns. Jacquard jerseys are the simplest of these fancy patterned fabrics. Figure 14.18 shows
the face and back of a jacquard jersey in which change of yarn color created the pattern.
Intarsia is a more complicated patterned single-knit fabric in which the yarn used to create
a pattern in the fabric is knit into the fabric in that area only. Intarsia, the knit counterpart to a true
tapestry weave, is made by knitting in colored yarns. True intarsia designs have a clear pattern on
both the face and back with no pattern shadows, a characteristic of jacquard jersey designs. These
fancy fabrics have no extra weight, and the stretch is not impaired. Mock intarsia designs are made
by knitting and float-knitting (float or miss stitch), which results in a heavier-weight fabric with float-
ing yarns on the reverse side or shadow pattern. Floats reduce the elasticity of the fabric and may
snag readily. Compare both fabrics in Figure 14.21. Current research uses intarsia techniques in
designing a smart garment with transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) function.
Pile jerseys are made on a modified circular jersey machine. These fancy fabrics look
like woven pile but are more pliable and stretchy. The pile surface may consist of (1) cut or
uncut loops of yarn or (2) fibers (see the discussion of sliver knits later in this chapter). In velour
and knit terrycloth, the fabric is made with two sets of yarns. One yarn set is spun yarns that
will eventually form the pile surface of the finished fabric. The other set is a heat-sensitive
bulk-continuous-filament (BCF) yarn that shrinks when heated. Both yarn sets are knit together
to form a very loose jersey-type fabric. The fabric is heat-set and the BCF yarn shrinks creating
a dense compact fabric with a spun yarn pile. Finishing produces the appropriate look.
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure Compare these two fabrics: true intarsia, face (a) and back (b); mock intarsia, face (c)
14.21 and back (d).

Knit terrycloth is a loop pile fancy fabric used for beachwear, robes, and infant towels
and washcloths. It is softer and more absorbent than woven terrycloth but does not hold its
shape as well (Figure 14.22). Velour is a cut-pile fancy fashion fabric used in men’s and wom-
en’s wear and in robes. Velour is knit with loops that are cut open and sheared to an even

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure Pile-filling knit fabrics: knit terry, face (a) and back (b); velour, face (c) and back (d).
14.22 Note the yarns (or short pieces of yarn in the case of the velour) raveled from each
fabric and the side that forms the fashion side of the fabrics.

knitting and knit fabrics 343


(a)
(b)
Figure Sliver-knit furlike fabric: face (a) and
14.23 back (b).
In pile jersey fabrics, the pile surface may
consist of (1) cut or uncut loops of yarn or
(2) fibers. Fabrics in this category include
pile jersey, knit terrycloth, velour, sliver-pile
knits, fake fur, and spacer fabric.
Weft-insertion jersey has another yarn laid
in a course as it is being knit to increase
crosswise stability or strength, add visual
interest, or add comfort. Fabrics include
french terry and fleece.
Figure Weft-insertion or filling knit: napped side (a) and technical face (b) with knit and
14.24 laid-in yarn.
344 chapter fourteen
pile height. When the yarn untwists in finishing, better cover is achieved (see Figure 14.22).
Panné velour has been finished so that the pile leans in one direction. Crinkle velour or panné
crinkle velour has been finished so that it looks like the pile has been crushed. Burn-out velour
is another possibility where part of the pile has been removed by acid to create a pattern.
Heavy weight velour is used for upholstery.
Sliver-pile knits are made on a special circular sliver-knitting machine. Figure 14.23
shows yarns used for the ground; the sliver furnishes the fibers for the deep pile. Sliver
(pronounced sli¯¯ʹver) is an untwisted rope of fiber made by carding, drawing, or combing
(­Chapter 10). Fibers from the sliver and the ground yarns are knit into place as the stitch is
formed. A denser pile can be obtained with sliver than with yarn because the amount of sliver
is not limited by yarn size. Fake fur is made when the surface pile is heat-sensitive manufac-
tured fibers that, after finishing, resembles guard hairs for a more realistic look. Fake fur can
be printed to resemble the furs of exotic protected species such as jaguar or leopard. Fibers
are solution-dyed or fiber-dyed because piece-dyeing distorts the pile. Fake-fur fabrics are
used for coat and jacket shells (the outer layer) and linings, throw pillows, upholstery fabrics,
and bath rugs. These fancy furlike sliver knits are lighter weight, more pliable, more comfort-
able, less expensive, and easier to store than real fur.
Three-dimensional jersey spacer fabric for technical end uses is made by using a
plush course with a ground yarn that forms the jersey structure. The fabric can be napped
or sheared depending on the end use. Spacer fabrics are used in automobile upholstery and
other applications where cushioning and protection are needed. Spacer fabrics that are circu-
lar filling knits are significantly less expensive compared to flat-bed warp knit spacer fabrics.
Fabric thickness is limited to less than an inch for filling knit spacer fabrics.
In weft-insertion jersey, another yarn is laid in a course as it is being knit. This addi-
tional yarn is not knit into stitches but is laid or inserted in the loops of the stitches as they
are being formed. The laid-in yarn increases the fancy fabric’s crosswise stability, add visual
interest if it is novelty or large, increase crosswise strength, or add comfort. Weft-insertion
fleece may be made with three sets of yarns (Figure 14.24). When the laid-in yarn is too low-
twist and weak for normal knitting, it may be brushed during finishing to produce a nap. In
french terry, no additional finishing is needed. The technical back is used as the fashion
side. In fleece, the technical back is napped. Cotton, cotton/polyester, or cotton/acrylic
blend fleece weighs from 7 to 11 oz/yd2. French terry and fleece are used in sportswear,
casual and exercise wear, cardigans, dresses, and tops. Another fleece, often referred to as
polar fleece is all polyester or all microfiber polyester. It is used in jackets, pullovers, slippers,
jacket linings, blankets, pet beds, pet blankets, throws, and stadium blankets. Some fleece
is made from recycled beverage bottles, but very little polyester apparel and interior textiles
are recycled.
(a) (b)
 Learning Activity 12
Use Fabrics #75 through 81 from your swatch kit. Are all these fabrics single filling
knits? If no, which ones are not? Determine which of these fabrics uses knit, tuck, or
float stitches or extra yarns or fiber. Name each fabric and describe the characteristics
that assisted you in naming them. (Figure 14.4 will be of assistance here.)

Learning Activity 13
Examine the knit products you are wearing or have with you today. Name the fabric
used in each product. Describe the serviceability of one product based on fiber content,
yarn type, and fabric structure. Are you satisfied with the performance of this product?
Why or why not? Compare your product type and fabric name with others in your class.
What trends in terms of fabric type, yarn type, fiber content, and end use do you find?

Shaping on the Knitting  Machine Garment parts—sweater bodies, fronts, backs, sleeves,
skirts, socks, hosiery, and collars—can be knit to shape on flatbed machines. The stitch used
for shaping is called loop transfer. A knit stitch is transferred from one needle to another,
usually near the end of a course, so that the width of the fabric is decreased by one or more
stitches. The process, called fashioning, is used to shape parts like armholes, neckline
curves, and collar points and finish edges.
To identify fashioned garments, look for fashion marks accompanied by a change in the
number of wales. In Figure 14.25, the number of wales decreases from the bottom to the top.
Mock fashion marks are sometimes used, but they are not accompanied by any change in the
number of wales, so no shaping is done by the mock fashion marks. Full-fashioned sweaters
are often made with a jersey stitch or with combinations of stitches to create patterns. Circular
jersey sweaters are cut and sewn.
Full-fashioned garments do not necessarily fit better than cut-and-sewn garments
because fit depends on the size and shape of the pieces. But full-fashioned garments are

(a) (b)
Figure In full-fashioned garments, shaping is done by combining stitches. Compare the fashioned marks (a) to the mock
14.25 fashion marks (b).

knitting and knit fabrics 345


Garment parts—sweater bodies, fronts,
backs, sleeves, skirts, socks, hosiery, and
collars—can be fashioned or knitted to
shape on flatbed machines.
346 chapter fourteen
always on-grain, look better to the discerning eye, rarely distort during washing due to twisted
seams, and are often better-quality garments.
A looping machine is used to join the shoulders and sleeves of the shaped parts with a
chain stitch that produces the effect of continuous knitting rather than an obvious seam line.
This machine is also used to join collars to cut-and-sewn knit garments.
Most knit garments, even those that are full-fashioned, are made from pieces that are knit
and then sewn or looped together. Seamless or whole knit garments are now available. These
garments are knit based on digital data so variation among garments is minimal. Advantages
of seamless garment knitting include savings in time and costs since no cutting is needed
other than to separate one garment from another. Comfort is better since seam problems
related to bulk and rigidity are absent. Options are greater because of the possibilities of
new stitches and lighter weight, less bulky knits. Disadvantages are higher costs because
the machines are slower and fewer garments are produced in a given time period. While the
garments are significantly more comfortable when worn, the added comfort is not apparent at
point of purchase.
Hosiery  Fashion and manufactured fibers have been responsible for many of the develop-
ments in hosiery. Spun yarns of any fiber are used for socks. Spandex or other elastomeric
fibers are used in the tops of socks. Nylon or fluoropolymer reinforces the heels and toes of
socks. Filament nylon yarns are used in women’s hosiery and lighter-weight socks. Tights
are made of spun yarns of regular fibers, modified cross-section fibers, and microfibers in a
variety of blends. Spandex or other elastomer is almost always present to assure a good and
comfortable fit.
All hosiery is filling knit: plain (or jersey), rib, mesh, micromesh, and jacquard. The plain knit
has stretch in both directions, but runs when a loop is broken. Very sheer is made of fine-­denier
fibers or microfibers. Mesh hose are lacelike knits that do not run, but they snag, and holes
will develop. Micromesh has loops knitted so that a run goes only up. Mesh and micromesh
hosiery is not as elastic or as smooth as plain jersey. Rib stitches, jersey, and fancy knits such
as cable, decorative figures and patterns, and argyle are often used. Various widths are possi-
ble with circular knitting machines so that the only seams in hosiery are in the toe area.
Shaping of socks and hosiery may be done by decreasing the size of the loop gradually
from top to toe. If shaping is done at toe and heel, a circular fashioning mechanism that com-
bines stitches is used. Heavier yarn can be knit into toes and heels to give greater comfort
and durability. Seamless hosiery is knit in one piece as a continuous operation. After knitting,
the toe is closed and the product is turned right side out.
Panty hose and some tights are made from textured stretch nylon and elastomer in a
tube shape with a guide for slitting. The panty portion may be heavier than the stocking por-
tion. After the panty section is slit, two tubes are stitched together with a U-shaped crotch
seam. A separate crotch section may be inserted for better fit.
14 Learning Activity
Examine the knit products you are wearing today. Were any of these products shaped
while they were being knit? How can you tell if shaping was done? Are you satisfied
with the performance of this product? Why or why not?
 Double-filling knits are made on a machine with two beds of needles; the second bed Needles
or set of needles located at a right angle to the first bed of needles. Most double-knitting
machines have the two needle beds arranged in an inverted V and are called V-bed machines.
Double-knit fabrics may be made with one or more sets of yarns. They are categorized based Interlock gaiting
(a)
on the arrangement of the needles in the double-knitting machine, or the gait of the machine.
In rib gaiting, the two beds are positioned so that both needles can knit at the same time. Needles
The needles of one bed are located opposite the spaces between the needles of the other
bed. In interlock gaiting, the needles are positioned so that only one needle bed can knit at
a time. The needles of one bed are located directly across from the needles of the other bed. Rib gaiting
Figure 14.26 shows how rib and interlock gaiting are drawn when diagramming a double-knit. (b)
In purl gaiting, both needle beds are on the same plane so that the double-latch needle can Figure Gaiting arrangement as used
travel between the two beds. Purl gaiting is used only for a true purl knit. 14.26 in diagramming double-knits:
interlock (a) and rib (b).
Double-knit fabrics can be made with any combination of the four stitches: knit, tuck,
float, or purl. In the flatbed machine, the needles from one bed pull the loops to the back and
those in the other bed pull the loops to the front (Figure 14.27). In a circular machine, loops
are pulled to the face and back by placing one set of needles vertically in a cylinder and the
other set of needles horizontally in a dial or cam.
Double-knit fabrics have two-way stretch and relatively high dimensional stability. They
do not curl at the edges and are less apt to stretch out than single knits. They do not run.
­Double-knits can resemble any woven structure and are often given the woven fabric name
such as denim, seersucker, and piqué. Double-knits can be simple basic knits or fancy knits.
An advantage of double-knits is that they are a double-faced fabric with one set of yarns on one
side and a different set of yarns on the other. This means that smart fabrics can be engineered
to improve skin-contact comfort, thermal comfort, and moisture management properties.
Spacer fabrics are also available as 3D double-knits used in technical products including
interiors and body components of vehicles, bra cups, bandages, shoulder pads, protective
apparel, and shaped airbags. Spacer fabrics can be engineered for softness, b
­ reathability,
cushioning, and aesthetics. Two individual layers of knit fabric are held together by tuck
stitches. The arrangement and length of the tuck stitches connecting the layers determine the
strength, thickness, and stiffness of the 3D fabric. Spacer fabric is more sustainable and more
easily recycled because no polyurethane foam is used.
V-bed flatbed machine, rib gait
The diagram for a double-knit shows two needle beds and one of the two types of
Figure Needle action in flatbed machine.
gaiting. A center horizontal line represents the space between the beds. A short vertical line
14.27
represents a needle. In interlock gaiting, the needle lines are directly opposite each other
(Figure 14.26). In rib gaiting, needle lines stop at the horizontal line and needle lines on one
side of the line are staggered with those on the opposite side (Figure 14.26). In diagramming
a double-knit, a loop represents a knit stitch, an inverted V represents a tuck stitch, and a
dash (—) represents a float or miss stitch. A 131 rib diagram using rib gaiting is shown in
Figure 14.28. Each course required to produce the pattern is diagrammed separately and Figure 131 rib fabric diagram (rib
14.28 gaiting).
Learning Activity 15
Work in groups of two or three. Discuss how you would explain these terms (skin-con-
tact comfort, thermal comfort, and moisture management properties) to a professional
or amateur athlete. Would these same terms be of interest to other consumers? If yes,
who and why?

knitting and knit fabrics 347


Step 1
Step 2
Figure Interlock fabric diagram (interlock
14.29 gaiting).
Figure Edge view of rib gait double-knit
14.30 (grey fabric, bottom) and interlock
double-knit (pink fabric, top). Close
examination of the edge of both
fabrics will aid in identifying the type
of gait used to produce these fabrics.
2x2 rib 1x1 rib
Figure Rib stitches: 232 rib (left); 131
14.31 rib (right).
348 chapter fourteen
is referred to as a step. A simple interlock is diagrammed in two steps on interlock gaiting
because two steps are required to create the interlock fabric (Figure 14.29). An easy way
to identify a double-knit is to look at the edge of the fabric parallel to a course. If all loops
point in one direction, it is a single-knit. If some of the loops point toward the front and some
toward the back, it is a double-knit. To distinguish between an interlock and a rib-gaiting
fabric, look more closely using a magnifying glass or stereoscopic microscope (Figure 14.30).
Loops directly opposite each other indicate interlock gaiting. Loops not directly opposite each
other indicate rib gaiting.
See Table 14.2 for a summary of the differences and similarities between flatbed and
circular machines and fabrics for single- and double-knits.
A rib structure is made with ridges of wales clearly visible on both the face
and the back. The lengthwise ridges are formed on both sides of the fabric by pull-
ing stitches first to the face and next to the back of the fabric in adjacent stitches or
groups of stitches. These may be in various combinations, 131, 232, 233, and so on
(­F igure 14.31). The 131 rib is the simplest double-knit fabric produced using rib gaiting.
It usually consists of one set of yarns. Figure 14.32 shows a combination jersey and rib-
knit fabric. A fabric of this nature must be made on a double-knitting machine because
the rib structure requires that type of machine. Since no seam sews the rib and jersey
fabrics together, both the rib knit and the jersey sections were made sequentially on the
same machine.
A pointelle knit is a type of rib knit with open spaces created by transferring stitches.
Pointelle is often used for lingerie, infant’s wear, and fashion apparel because of its wide vari-
ety of pattern and texture.
Many items include a rib knit as a separate component sewn into the garment at the
neckline, cuff, or hem. T-shirts are an excellent example of this. The neckline is a rib knit to
ensure good stretch when the garment goes over the head, but tight fit around the neck when
the garment is on the body.
If the rib is balanced (such as 232 or 333), rib knits have the same appearance on the
face and back and are usually much thicker than a single jersey. They may have up to twice
the crosswise extensibility as that of single jersey. Rib knits do not curl at the edges, but they
run. They unravel from the end knit last. Unbalanced rib knits (such as 132 or 233) will be
similar on both sides, but the ribs will differ in width between face and back. Figure 14.33
shows both balanced and unbalanced rib knits.
Double-knit jersey looks the same on both sides. It is made on rib gaiting, and the two
beds of needles are positioned so that the needles from one bed work between the needles
from the other bed. Each knits a 131 rib. Since the yarns move from the front bed to the back
bed, they intermesh and create a fabric that looks the same on both sides and is very similar
to a simple interlock.
Interlock is the simplest double-knit fabric produced using interlock gaiting (see Figures
14.30 and 14.34). Interlock fabrics are composed of two 131 rib structures intermeshed.
Both sides of the fabric look alike—like the face of single jersey. Interlock stretches like plain
jersey, but the fabric is firmer. Interlocks do not curl, and fabrics run and unravel from one
end only. Interlock runs much more easily than a rib double-knit, but interlock is a softer,
more fluid fabric. Most interlock fabrics are plain or printed. Colored yarns give spot effects
or horizontal or vertical stripes. Since the double-knit jersey made on a rib-gait machine
Table 14.2  Summary Table: Filling-Knitting Machines and Fabrics
SINGLE-KNIT DOUBLE-KNIT

Jersey—Flat Jersey—Circular Flat (Rib/Interlock) Circular (Rib/Interlock)

Description Straight bar holds one set of latch One set of latch needles. Two flat needle beds Needle sets mounted on dial and
needles See Figure 14.12 form an inverted V. on cylinder. See Figure 14.26
See Figure 14.26
Yarns carried back and forth Multiple-feed yarns carried Yarns carried back and Multiple-feed yarns carried
around forth around
Used to shape items Range of designs possible Stitch-transfer carriage Same as for flat double-knit
with electronic control can switch between
beds to make a
variety of stitches
Kinds and Basic-knit stitch Workhorse of knitting Ribbed fabric or parts of Double-knits—plain and jacquard
Uses industry garments
Face and back of fabric look Face and back of fabric look Same appearance face Face and back may look the
different different and back same or different
Full-fashioned garments High-volume production Used to produce fabric Double-knit apparel and some
with finished edge interior textiles
Seamless hose Collars, trims
Advantages Economical yarn use Fastest method Less waste than circular High-speed production
rib
Fabric always on-grain Variety of pattern possibilities Excellent design flexibility
available
Design variations possible Versatile in yarn usage
Limitations Slow in production Skew problems Slow speed Complex machine
Higher-priced products Downtime can be a problem
Single-feed system
Fabrics Jersey, jacquard jersey, Intarsia Jersey, jacquard jersey, Rib knit, double-knits Interlock knit, double-knits with
intarsia, velour, terry, with rib gaiting interlock gaiting
sliver knit, weft-insertion
jersey (French terry, fleece,
spacer fabric)

looks very similar to an interlock made on an interlock-gait machine, it can be difficult to

­differentiate between the two. An easy way to tell the difference is to look at the raveled edge
of the fabric. If a stitch on one side of the fabric is exactly opposite a stitch on the other side
of the fabric, it is an interlock. If a stitch on one side is between stitches on the other side, it
is a double-knit jersey.
Jacquard double-knits is a patterned knit fabric made on a double-knitting
machine. The pattern in these double-knit fabrics is made by changing yarn type, yarn
color, or stitch type. The design possibilities are almost limitless. The intermeshing of
the two yarns is the same as for the double-knit jersey but with added needle-selecting
mechanisms. Although double-knits may be named for the woven fabrics they resemble,
the term double-knit is often the only name used to identify these fancy fabrics. Often
patterns are elaborate and are created by using yarns of different colors, textures, and Figure Jersey and rib-knit fabric, technical
types. (Figure 14.35). 14.32 face.

knitting and knit fabrics 349

 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure Balanced rib knit (2 3 2): face (a) and back (b); unbalanced rib knit (3 3 2): face (c) and back (d).
14.33

Learning Activity 16
Use Fabrics #75 and 83 from your swatch kit. Closely examine the face and back of
both fabrics. List the key characteristics that will help you differentiate between these
two fabrics. What type of gait was used to make Fabric #83?

Learning Activity 17
Compare the similarities and differences in structure, weight, and serviceability between
single knits and double-knits. How can you distinguish between the two knits? What
Figure Interlock (diagram offset for clarity). are the differences between rib and interlock gaiting? Would gaiting be of interest to
14.34 consumers? Why or why not? Why would it be of interest to a professional? If you were
buying fabric for a private label line of merchandise, which type of gaiting would you
prefer for sweaters with rib cuffs and hems? Why? For bed sheets? Why?

Learning Activity 18
Use Fabrics #82 through 86 from your swatch kit. Determine which of these fabrics is an
interlock or rib gait or a purl knit. Name each fabric and describe the characteristics that
assisted you in naming them. (Figure 14.4 will be of assistance here.) Are you wearing any
fabrics similar to these? If so, in what kind of products is the fabric used? Are any of these
fabr­ics used in the interior where you live? If yes, in what kind of products is the fabric used?

Purl Structure  Purl knits usually are made on machines with two needle beds and dou-
Figure Jacquard double-knit examples. ble-latch needles with purl gaiting. Purl is the slowest form of knitting, but it is also the most
14.35 versatile because it is the only filling-knitting machine that can produce all three types of

350 chapter fourteen

­filling-knit fabrics—plain, rib, and purl—as separate fabrics or combined into one fabric or
product. Fabrics produced by the purl stitch are thick, wide, and short as compared with
single jersey with the same number of plain stitches. Fabrics do not curl, but they do run and
may unravel from either end (Figure 14.36).
The two major end uses for purl structures are children’s and infants’ wear and sweaters.
Purl stitches used at the shoulder seams of sweaters stabilize the garment. They have less
crosswise stretch as compared with plain knit stitches.
Some narrow knitted fabric trims and elastics are made on filling-knitting machines. They
are usually made on a portion of the needles across the machine. Some are made of ther-
moplastic fiber on regular machines in wide widths and slit with hot knives to seal the edges.
These are cheaper to produce and are satisfactory if properly heat sealed. Rib knit trim on the
Figure Purl fabric (face). With a purl
neckline of T-shirts is an example of a narrow filling knit fabric.
14.36 knit, face and back look the
same.
Warp Knits
Warp knitting is unique in that it developed as a machine technique without ever having been
Double-filling knits are made using a
a hand technique. Warp knitting began about 1775 with the invention of the tricot (pro-
­machine with two beds of needles, with
nounced tree-ko) machine by Crane of England. The tricot machine is sometimes called a
the second bed or set of needles located
warp loom because it uses one or more sets of yarns wound on warp beams and mounted
at a right angle to the first bed of needles.
on the knitting machine.
Rib and interlock gaiting help differentiate
Warp knitting is the fastest way to make fabric from yarns. Some say that warp knits
fabrics. Double-knit fabrics include rib,
combine the best qualities of both double-knits and wovens. Warp-knit fabrics tend to be less
­interlock, jacquard double-knit, and purl.
resilient and lighter weight than filling knits. Depending on their structure, they can be stable in
both fabric directions or exhibit stretch.
Warp knitting produces a vertical-loop structure (Figure 14.37). It is a machine process
of making fabric in flat form using one or more sets of yarns that are fed from beams to a row
of knitting needles extending across the width of the machine. Each set of yarns is controlled
by yarn guides mounted on a guide bar that also extends across the width of the machine. All
stitches in a course are formed at the same time, but each stitch is formed by a separate yarn.

(a) (b)
Figure Warp-knitting stitch (lock stitch): diagram (a), photograph of a warp-
14.37 knit vegetable bag (b).

knitting and knit fabrics 351

 Warp-knitting machines are wider than most looms. If there is one set of yarns, the
machine will have one beam and one guide bar; if there are two sets of yarns, there will be
two beams and two or more guide bars, and so on; hence the terms one-bar tricot and two-
bar tricot. Each yarn guide on the bar directs one yarn to the hook of one knitting needle.
More guide bars provide greater design flexibility. All the loops of one course are made simul-
taneously as the guide bar rises and moves sideways, placing the yarns around the needles
to form the loops, which are then pulled down through the loops of the preceding course.
Simple warp knitting machines produce up to 200 or more courses per minute.
Warp knits usually are diagrammed using a point-paper notation. In this notation, each
point in a horizontal row represents a needle. Arrows represent the movement of the guide
bar that controls yarn movement. Thus, the diagram for each row of points represents the
movement of the guide bar that creates the yarn loops in that course. The next row of points
represents the next course, and so on until one complete repeat has been illustrated. The
diagram starts at the bottom row of points and moves up the paper from course to course.
Figure 14.37 is a diagram of a warp-knit stitch. Figure 14.38 shows the steps (a through
h) that are needed to create that fabric. In Figure 14.39(a), the eight steps are combined
in one diagram; in Figure 14.39(b), the resulting yarn loops are shown; in Figure 14.39(c),
the two repeats of the pattern are shown. Yarn from the front bar usually predominates on
the surface, whereas yarn from the back bars provides run resistance, elasticity, and weight.
The short sides of the loops form the face, and the long slanted yarns between needles form

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure Guide-bar movements, step by step, for warp-knit stitch.

14.38

(a) (b) (c)

Figure Guide-bar movements: (a) All steps of the guide-bar movement. (b) Yarn movement
14.39 following the guide-bar movement. (c) Series of yarn loops creating the warp-knit fabric.

352 chapter fourteen

 (a) (b)
Figure Two-bar tricot: technical face (a), technical back (b).
14.40

the back. This structure makes the face of a tricot looks like a fine jersey while the back looks
like a herringbone laid on its side (Figure 14.40).
Apparel end uses for warp knits include lingerie, underwear, sportswear, and outerwear.
Warp knits are used in contract-grade carpet, upholstery, drapery, and casement fabrics and
for face fabrics in wall partitions and miniblind slats. Technical end uses include fabrics for
sun and light protection, orange hazard fencing, controlling rock falls, grass collection, snow
barriers, and dam reinforcement (Figure 14.41). Warp-knit fabrics are used for biomedical tex-
tiles such as artificial veins, hernia repair, surgical mesh, reconstructive and cosmetic surgery There are two types of warp knits. Tricots
mesh, and tissue-support fabrics because of their dimensional flexibility, controlled elonga- uses one or more yarn sets and guide bars
tion, porosity, and resistance to unraveling. to create basic warp knits. Raschel knits
Although warp knitting is fast, warp knits are expensive because the process requires have rows of chainlike loops called pillars,
very regular yarns. Yarn costs offset the fast process speed. with laid-in yarns in various
Warp knits are classified by the machine used to produce the fabric. Tricot machines lapping configurations.
use a single set of spring-beard or compound needles. Tricot-knitting machines with

Learning Activity 19
Try warp knitting. Use a piece of cardboard and sewing or push pins. Create a grid that
is 4 pins wide by 4 pins deep. Select three yarns 6 to 12 inches long. Following the
arrows in Figures 14.38 and 14.39, create the first series of loops demonstrated. Use
the other two yarns and create parallel stitches to make a simple one-bar tricot. Identify
wales and courses for this sample. The sample will not hold together once the pins are
removed unless you insert the new loops on each pin through the loop that was origi-
nally on the pin.

Learning Activity 20
Compare the structure of filling and warp knits. Describe how the yarns move in both
types of knits. List the criteria of both knits that will help you identify them. Explain how
fabric structure influences the serviceability of knits. Figure Snow barrier fabric is often a heavy-
14.41 duty warp knit.

knitting and knit fabrics 353

Table 14.3  Summary Table: Warp-Knitting Machines and Fabrics
Tricot Raschel Simplex Milanese

Single needle bed One or two needle beds Two sets of needles Flat—spring-beard needles
Spring-beard or compound needles Latch needles Spring-beard needles Circular—latch needles
Fine gauge Coarse gauge
2–3–4 bars indicate number of warp- May have as many as 78 guide Yarn travels diagonally from one
yarn sets bars side of material to the other
Simple fabric Complex fancy fabric Reversible, double-faced fabric
with rib appearance
High-speed, high-volume Great design possibilities Seldom used Seldom used
Usually filament yarns Spun or spun and filament yarns
Wider fabric, 170 inches Narrower fabric, 100 inches
End Uses
Plain, patterned, striped, brushed Sheer laces and nets Gloves Underwear
fabric
Underwear Draperies Outerwear
Outerwear Power net Gloves
Upholstery Thermal cloth
Technical uses Outerwear
Upholstery
Technical uses
Fabrics: Tricot (all varieties), tulle, Fabrics: Raschel, lace, thermal Fabrics: Simplex (rare) Fabrics: Milanese (rare)
mesh coth, power net, insertion
warp knits (all varieties), spacer
fabrics

­computer-controlled guide bars, electronic beam control, and computerized take-up are able
to knit 2,000 or more courses per minute. Raschel machines use one or two sets of vertically
mounted latch needles. Jacquard raschel knitting machines with computer-controlled guide
bars produce complex fancy fabrics for apparel, interior, and technical products. Several
types of warp-knitting machines are listed in Table 14.3. Tricot and raschel machines account
for more than 98% of all warp-knit goods.

Warp-Knit Fabrics  The name tricot is a generic name for all warp-knit fabric. Tricot comes
from the French word tricoter, meaning to knit. It is the fabric produced on the tricot machine
using the lock stitch.
The lock stitch is shown in Figures 14.37 and 14.40. The lock stitch is used in most tri-
cots. The vertical portion of loops forms the face of the fabric; the horizontal portion of loops
forms the back. The face has a much finer appearance than the back. Tricot does not ravel.
Lock-knit tricots do not run. However, tricots may split or zip between wales (Figure 14.11).
The fabric will curl just as filling-knit jersey does. Tricot is more stable than filling knits. It has
little elasticity in the lengthwise direction and some elasticity in the crosswise direction. Tricot
is used for lingerie, sleepwear, shirts, blouses, uniforms, swimwear, athletic apparel, dresses,
sheets, linings, backing fabric for quilts and bonded fabrics (see Chapter 15), upholstery, and
automotive upholstery. Tricot is almost always made of filament yarns. Some tricot is solid
color; but printed tricot is also common. Tricot ranges in weight from very light weight and
translucent used in lingerie and as an overlay in apparel to very heavy with power stretch used

354 chapter fourteen

in shape-wear and athletic apparel. Another stitch, the plain stitch, can be used to make tricot,
but it runs and is seldom used except for inexpensive backings for quilts and bonded fabrics.
The tricot machine is the mainstay of the warp-knitting industry. It is a high-speed flat-
bed machine that can knit fabric up to 170 inches wide. The machine makes a plain-jersey
stitch or can be modified to make many designs. Attachments are used to lay in yarns into a
tricot structure.
Plain tricot is made on a machine that uses one set of needles and two guide bars. Plain
tricot is usually referred to simply as tricot. Filament yarns are used in either smooth or tex-
tured form. In the standard ranges of 15 to 40 denier, nylon tricot is lightweight (17.5 to 6.5
yards/pound—fewer yards per pound translates into heavier fabric), has exceptional strength
and durability, and can be heat-set for dimensional stability. One of the unique features of
nylon tricot is that the same piece of gray goods can be finished under different tensions to
different widths and different appearances; for example, 168-inch gray goods can be finished
at 98, 108, 120, 180, or 200 inches wide.
Fancy warp-knit tricots include brushed or napped tricots, satin tricots, tricot net fabrics,
and automotive tricot velvet. Brushed or napped tricots have fibers raised from the surface,
making it feel like velvet. The knit stitches have long underlaps. One set of yarn is carried over
three to five wales to form floats on the technical back; the second set of yarns, usually nylon
to provide strength and durability, interloops with adjacent yarns. The long floats are broken
Figure Warp-knit velour before napping:
when the fabric is brushed in finishing. The brushed side is used as the fashion side, even
14.42 green and light blue yarns on the
though it is the technical back (Figure 14.42). It is used in loungewear, women’s wear, shoes, technical back will be broken during
slacks, upholstery, and draperies. finishing.
Satin tricots are made in the same way as napped tricots except that the finishing pro-
duces high luster on the technical back (see Chapter 17). Satin tricots are usually 100% nylon
or polyester, with long floats and used for lingerie and loungewear.
Mesh is a fabric with open spaces framed by tightly knit areas. Mesh is usually made
with filament yarns. A wide variety of warp-knit mesh fabrics are possible and widely used in
athletic wear, casual apparel, lingerie, and underwear. When used as a lining fabric, the mesh
adds comfort to jackets and pants. The lining mesh protects the skin from a less comfortable
shell fabric and wicks surface moisture away from the skin.
Tricot-net fabric can be made by skipping every other needle so only half as much yarn
is used and open spaces are created in the fabric. Tulle (pronounced tool) is a hexagonal
net used for veiling, support fabrics, and overlays for apparel. Tulle can be a confusing fabric
since it can be made in several ways. Tricot-knit tulle is an inexpensive type of tulle. Other fine
warp knit nets have a fine yarn framing four-sided, six-sided, and other open spaces ranging
from tiny to fairly large size. Net fabrics tend to be relatively stiff and crisp considering their
light weight. They are often used in apparel, accessories like hats, and window treatments.
Point d’esprit, a type of netting, has small areas of structure separating the open spaces
and is used as netting for hats. Coarse and larger scale tricot net fabrics made of tape and
­network yarns are used in technical fabrics including hazard fencing, snow barrier fences, and
vegetable and fruit bags.
Production of automotive tricot upholstery of a double-knit velvet is similar to that of vel- Tricot fabrics include tricot (a simple,
vet. Two layers of fabric are warp knit face to face with a pile yarn connecting the two layers. regular warp knit), brushed tricot, satin
The layers are separated when the pile yarn is cut. Pile height is approximately half the dis- tricot, and tulle.
tance between the two layers.
The raschel-warp-knitting machine has one or two needle beds with latch needles set
in a vertical position with up to 78 guide bars. The fabric comes off the knitting frame almost

knitting and knit fabrics 355


Figure Raschel knit. The blue yarns create
14.43 the pillars for which raschel knits are
known.
Figure Lace window treatment fabric made
14.44 on a tricot machine.
Nylon
yarns
Spandex Spandex
Figure Raschel power-knit stitch.
14.45
Raschel fabrics include raschel, lace, power
net, thermal cloth, and spacer fabric.
356 chapter fourteen
21 Learning Activity
Examine the knit products you are wearing today. Are any of these products warp knits?
(Hint: You might have to use the restroom to check the structure of intimate apparel.)
How can you tell if the fabrics are warp knits? Are you satisfied with the performance of
these products? Why or why not?
vertically instead of horizontally as with the tricot machine. Raschel machines knit a wide vari-
ety of fancy fabrics, from gossamer-sheer nets and veilings to very heavy carpets. Raschel
knits are used for such technical products as laundry bags, fish nets, dye nets, safety nets,
and swimming pool covers. These knits are usually made with heavier yarns, have more elab-
orate design, or incorporate more open areas in the design.
Raschel fabrics have rows of chainlike loops called pillars, with laid-in yarns in various
lapping configurations (Figure 14.43). These fabrics can be identified by raveling the laid-in
yarn and noting that the fabric splits or comes apart lengthwise. Some window-treatment and
outerwear fabrics are knitted on this machine, sometimes referred to as a raschel-crochet or
crochet machine.
Carpets have been knitted since the early 1950s. Since production is faster, knitted car-
pets are cheaper to make than woven carpets. Another technique, tufting, is the most com-
mon method for producing carpet (see Chapter 15). Knitted carpets have two- or three-ply
warp yarns for lengthwise stability, laid-in crosswise yarns for body and crosswise stability,
and pile yarns. Knitted carpets can be identified by looking for chains of stitches on the under-
side. They seldom have a secondary backing. These carpets are usually commercial or con-
tract carpets.
Lace and curtain nets can be made at higher speed for low cost on raschel machines.
Lace is available in hundreds of patterns and is used in apparel and interiors. Window-­
treatment nets of polyester with square, diamond, or hexagonal meshes are made on tricot
machines (Figure 14.44). Light, delicate, and elaborate laces can be made quickly and inex-
pensively. When used in apparel and window treatments, designers need to be aware that
some lace is a one-way design so that it has an up-and-down direction.
Knit meshes may be made using either tricot or raschel machines, depending on their
complexity, yarn size, and end use. Mesh incorporating an elastomer is usually made on a
raschel machine. Raschel knitting is another way that tulle can be produced.
Thermal cloth has pockets knit in to trap heat from the body; it looks like woven waffle
cloth and is used mainly for casual tops, thermal underwear, and thermal blankets.
Power net is an elasticized fabric used for foundation garments and swimwear. Nylon
is used for the two-bar ground construction, and spandex or other elastomer is laid in by two
other guide bars (Figure 14.45). Although sometimes referred to as spandex, these fabrics are
blends of nylon and an elastomer.
Warp-knit spacer fabric has two fabric layers that are produced separately and joined
with another yarn set. A wide variety of possibilities exist for the structure of the two fabrics,
the joining yarn, and the thickness of the 3D fabric. These fabrics are used in vehicle seat
covers, interiors, seat heating systems, and mud flaps. Warp-knit spacer fabrics provide the
thickest option for this type of fabric.
Insertion Warp  Knits Insertion of yarns in the warp-knit structure is a relatively simple con-
cept. Yarns are laid in the stitches during the knitting process but are not used to form any
stitches. These laid-in yarns provide directional stability and can be in any direction or at an
angle. Fabric characteristics can be engineered for desired properties. Yarns that are not ap-
propriate for knitting can be used, such as extremely coarse, fine, or irregular yarns and yarns
of fibers such as carbon and glass that have low flexibility. Insertion fabrics are used in air-
craft and aerospace components, automotive parts, boat hulls, ballistic protective apparel,
structural building elements, outerwear, interlinings for apparel, window treatments, and wall
coverings.
Weft insertion is done by a warp-knitting machine with a weft-laying attachment. A single
filling yarn is carried to and fro across the machine as it is fed steadily into the needle zone of
the machine. A firm selvage is formed on each side.
More complex attachments supply a sheet of filling yarns to a conveyor that travels to Figure Warp-knit, weft-insertion casement
and fro across the machine. The yarns are then fed into the stitching area of the machine. 14.46 fabric for windows.
A cutting device trims filling yarn tails from the selvages and a vacuum removes the tails.
Weft-insertion warp knits fabrics combine properties of both woven and knitted cloth—
strength, comfort, cover without bulk, and weight. They are lighter weight than ­double-knits Insertion warp knits have yarns laid in

with more covering power. They have the increased crosswise stability of weaves but retain during the knitting process. They include

the comfort of knits. weft-insertion, warp-insertion, and both

In warp-insertion warp knits, the inserted yarn is caught in a vertical chain of stitching. warp-and-weft insertion.

The insertion of warp yarn into a knit structure gives the fabric the vertical stability of woven
fabric while retaining the horizontal stretch of knit fabric. These fabrics are used for curtains,
table linens, and other interior and technical uses.
Fabrics with both warp-and-weft insertions have characteristics very s­ imilar
to woven fabrics, but at much lower costs and wider widths. They are frequently used
as window-treatment fabrics (Figure 14.46). These fabrics can be confused with stitch-
bonded fabrics (see Chapter 15). Careful examination will show that the warp-knit fabrics
with inserted yarns have the fine-filament yarns knitting around the inserted yarns, not
through them.
Simplex is a minor category of warp knits. The simplex machine is similar to the tricot
machine and uses spring-beard needles, two needle bars, and two guide bars. It produces a two-
Back warp set Front warp set
faced ribbed fabric somewhat like circular double-knits. End uses are primarily fashion gloves.
Milanese is another minor category of warp knits. The Milanese machine produces diag-
Figure Milanese.
14.47
onal warp-knit fabrics. The machine can use both spring-beard and latch needles. The fabric,
similar to a two-bar tricot fabric, is made from two sets of warp yarns, with one needle bar
and one guide bar. The lapping movements take each warp yarn diagonally across the full
width of the fabric, one set knitting from right to left and the other from left to right. The diag-
onal formation (Figure 14.47) is visible on the back of the fabric. The face has a very fine rib.
The fabric is runproof and is used for gloves, lingerie, and outerwear.
Narrow knitted fabrics are made on a few needles on warp-knitting machines. One of the
more important types of narrow knitted fabrics is knit elastics. Knit elastics account for 35%
to 40% of the narrow elastic market and are used in underwear, actionwear, slacks, fleece
products, and hosiery. Hook and loop tape fasteners are warp-knit narrow fabrics. Knit trim
and knit elastics are shown in Figure 14.48.
Many narrow knitted fabrics of thermoplastic fiber are made on regular machines in wide
widths and slit with hot knives to seal the edges. These are cheaper to produce and are satis- Figure Narrow fabrics left to right: raschel
factory if properly heat sealed. 14.48 knit (2 samples), double-knit, and
circular knit.
Warp and filling knits differ because techniques and machines used in their manufacture
differ. These differences are summarized in Table 14.4.

knitting and knit fabrics 357

Table 14.4  Comparison of Filling and Warp Knits
Filling Knits Warp Knits

Yarns run horizontally Yarns run vertically

Loops joined one to another in the same course Loops joined one to another in adjoining course
Loops connect horizontally Loops connect diagonally
More design possibilities Higher productivity
More open fabric More compact fabric
Two-way stretch Crosswise stretch, little lengthwise stretch
Run, most ravel Most do not run or ravel
Hand or machine process Machine process only
Flat or circular Flat
Finished edges possible Seldom have finished edges
Produced as shaped garments, garment pieces, or yardage Produced as yardage only
Fabric examples: jersey, jacquard jersey, pile jersey, double-knit, rib knit, Fabric examples: tricot, mesh, tulle, raschel, insertion warp knits, spacer
interlock, narrow fabrics fabric, narrow fabrics

Narrow knitted fabrics are made on a few 22 Learning Activity

needles on either filling- or warp-knitting
machines. Narrow knit fabrics include knit
elastics, trims, and edgings.
Use Fabrics #12, 13, and 87 through 92 from your swatch kit. Determine which of these
fabrics is a tricot or raschel knit. List the key characteristics that will help you differenti-
ate between these two fabrics. Name each fabric and describe the characteristics that
assisted you in naming them. (Figure 14.4 will be of assistance here.) Are you wearing
any fabrics similar to these? If so, in what kind of products is this fabric used? Are any
of these fabrics used in the interior where you live? If yes, in what kind of products is the
fabric used?

23 Learning Activity
Examine the textile products you are wearing or have with you today. Do any of these
products include narrow knit fabrics? (Hint: You might have to use the restroom to
check straps and bands of intimate apparel). How you can you tell if the fabrics are
knit? Where are narrow knit fabrics used? Are you satisfied with the performance of this
product? Why or why not?

terms
key terms
Brushed or napped tricot
Circular machine
Course
Filling or weft knitting
Flatbed machine
Fleece
Interlock gaiting
Jacquard double-knit
Jacquard jersey
Cut Float or miss stitch Jersey
Double-filling knit French terry Knit stitch
Double-knit jersey Gait Knit terrycloth
Fabric density Gauge Knitting
Fake fur Intarsia Lace
Fashioning Interlock Lisle

358 chapter fourteen

Looping machine Run Tricot
Mesh Single-filling knit Tuck stitch
Pile jersey Single-jersey fabric Tulle
Power net Sliver-pile knit Velour
Purl gaiting Spacer fabric Wale
Purl knit Stitch Warp-insertion warp knit
Purl or reverse stitch Stockinette (stockinet) Warp-and-weft insertion warp knit
Raschel Technical back Warp knitting
Rib Technical face Weft-insertion jersey
Rib gaiting Thermal cloth Weft-insertion warp knit

questions
review questions
1. Compare the characteristics and performance of woven and
knit fabrics.
between a smooth surface knit and a brushed or napped
knit?
2. Compare the characteristics and performance of filling- and 10. Explain why some knits are made with additional inserted
warp-knit fabrics. yarns. How do the inserted yarns differ from the yarns used
3. Explain how these terms compare between woven and knit to create the base or ground structure? In what kinds of
fabrics: products are insertion knits used? How does the additional
a. Wale and warp yarn alter serviceability and performance of the product?
b. Course and filling 11. How would the structure of a knit differ with each of these
c. Count and gauge stitches? In what kinds of knit fabrics and products would
4. What are the factors that are used in assessing quality of these stitches be used?
knit fabrics? Why are these factors important? a. Knit stitch
b. Tuck stitch
5. Describe the differences in appearance and performance
c. Float stitch
between the following pairs of knit fabrics:
d. Purl stitch
a. Jersey and tricot
b. Jacquard jersey and raschel 12. Explain how garments can be knit without seams. What
c. Rib knit and interlock process is used to shape knit fabrics? What kind of process
d. Fleece and velour or equipment is needed to shape knit fabrics?
e. Lace and tulle 13. What kind of information is conveyed by the following fabric
6. Describe the performance that might be expected in the names? Identify an appropriate end use for each fabric.
following products: Determine the category for each fabric.
a. 100% combed cotton filling-knit jersey T-shirt a. Jersey
b. 100% modacrylic warp-insertion raschel casement b. Jacquard jersey
drapery (smooth filament yarns and inserted thick-and- c. Intarsia
thin novelty yarns) for a public library d. Velour
c. 100% olefin raschel warp-knit contract carpet of BCF e. Fake fur
yarns for hallway of office building f. French terry
d. 80% nylon/20% spandex raschel-knit swimsuit g. Fleece
e. 70% nylon/30% cotton lace pencil skirt h. Rib
i. Interlock
7. Compare the characteristics of a jersey and a tricot of similar
j. Double-knit
quality.
k. Tricot
8. List the pile knit fabrics and explain how they are made. l. Raschel
9. Describe how knits that are to be brushed or napped are m. Tulle
made. How do the yarns differ between the pile and the n. Lace
base or ground structure? How does performance differ o. Power net

knitting and knit fabrics 359

 14. Identify a knit fabric [with fiber content and yarn type(s)]
that would be appropriate for each product listed below.
Describe the serviceability you predict for each fabric.
a. Window treatment for law office in a converted 1980s
house
b. Carpet for a motel lobby
c. Mesh tank top for casual summer activities
d. Hazard fence surrounding the work area for a water-line
break
e. Grass-catcher bag for a home-use lawn mower
f. Swimwear for a spring break trip to the beach
g. Upholstery for a car
h. Ladies bra
i. Women’s jacket for a law office
j. Bath rug
15. You are a buyer for department store and are looking for
knit items for your division. Identify a product division and
list six factors that should be considered when buying
knit products and explain why they will be important in
promotion, sales, and consumer satisfaction.
16. You are a member of a product development team. What
kinds of information should be specified when buying
knit fabrics to use in making textile products. (It might be
useful to identify a product category and focus on the
performance expected for that product.)

Case Study
Made in the United States*
Zady is a company that aims to sell well-­
designed products while highlighting the
suppliers and the artisans who make those
products. Zady’s owners wanted to create,
market, and sell apparel entirely made in the
United States—in this case, a wool sweater.
Their customer is a socially conscious con-
sumer who is becoming more interested in
the local fiber movement (all aspects from
fiber to finished product are made in the
United States). Once a thriving industry, the
U.S. wool industry now consists of a handful
of small, usually family-owned, businesses.
Many of these businesses have repositioned
themselves and are experiencing growth
for the first time in many years. The Imperial
Stock Ranch is a family-owned ranch in Ore-
gon that raises Columbia sheep, one of many
breeds of sheep prized for their fine wool.
The ranchers use environmentally friendly,
no-till methods and use U.S. factories to turn
their raw wool into yarn. To meet Zady’s crite-
ria, the wool was shorn in the spring, shipped
to South Carolina to be washed and carded.
The wool top was shipped to Pennsylvania
for dyeing at one facility and then shipped
across the state to be spun into yarn before
being shipped to California for knitting into
sweaters. The ranchers have had 75 design-
ers contact them as a potential U.S. source
for yarn—up from zero in 2009. The ranchers
say it is “because people want to reconnect
to their source of food and fiber and apparel.”
Discussion Questions
1. Why would wool top be preferred for use
in this sweater? What does wool top imply
in terms of fiber length and quality?
2. What category of knit and type of
­machine would most likely have been
used to make the sweaters? Why?
3. What does the local fiber movement mean
to you? What have you done to learn
more about this movement or become a
member of the movement?
4. How would made in the United States be
of use in marketing and promoting textile
products? What advantages/disadvan-
tages would it pose?
5. Are you aware of businesses in your local
community that are involved in the local
supply chain for textiles? How could you
find out if any such businesses exist?

*Brinkley, C. (November 24, 2014). Made in America, from sheep to shelf: Zady’s feel-good sweater. The Wall Street Journal. (http://www.wsj.com).

360 chapter fourteen

readings
suggested readings
Anonymous. (2008). Wholegarment®—The future of knitting
available today. (www.knittingindustry.com/articles/Shima
_Seiki.php).
Baugh, G. (2011). The Fashion Designer’s Textile Dictionary.
London: Barron’s Educational Series, Inc.
Brinkley, C. (2014, November 24). Made in America, from sheep
to shelf: Zady’s feel-good sweater. The Wall Street Journal.
(http://www.wsj.com).
Humphries, M. (1996). Fabric Glossary. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Li, L., Au, W. M., Li, Y., Wan, K. M., Wan, S. H., & Wong, K. S.
(2010). Design of intelligent garment with transcutaneous
electrical nerve simulation function based on the intarsia
knitting technique. Textile Research Journal, 80(3), 279–286.
Myzelev, A. (2009). Whip your hobby into shape: Knitting, feminism,
and construction of gender. Textile: The Journal of Cloth and
Culture, 7(2), 148–163.
Ollenhauer-Ries, C. (2008, October 10). Bits on the side. Textile
Network, 23–24.
Ollenhauer-Ries, C. (2008, October 10). For bra cups, cars, or
armoured concrete. Textile Network, 20–22.
Pamuk, G., & Çeken, F. (2008). Recyclable spacer fabrics for
automotives. AATCC Review, 8(8), 32–36.
Renkens, W., & Kyosev, Y. (2010). Geometry modelling of warp
knitted fabrics with 3D form. Textile Research Journal, 81(4),
437–443.
Supuren, G., Oglakcioglu, N., Ozdil, N., & Marmarali, A. (2011).
Moisture management and thermal absorptivity properties of
double-face knitted fabrics. Textile Research Journal, 81(3),
1320–1330.
Tortora, P. G., & Merkel, R. S. (1996). Fairchild’s Dictionary of
Textiles, 7th ed. New York: Fairchild Publications.
Wilson, A. (2013). Tailored for the body. The International Textile
Magazine, (5), 32–33.
knitting and knit fabrics 361
Valeie/Fotolia Goce Risteski/Fotolia

Henryk Sadura/Fotolia Rony Zmiri/Fotolia

Other Fabrication
Methods

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To name textiles made from solutions, fibers, yarns, composites, and animal
­products.
• To integrate fabrication method, materials, and components with performance
and end use.

15
 The fabric is made from...

film only. foam. fiber only. yarn only. a combination of natural animal
film, fiber, yarn, skins.
or fabric(s).
Does the fabric
Plain film Tapa cloth have lengthwise Leather
Expanded film Nonwoven or fiberweb and crosswise Fur
Supported film (see Fiberfill, batting, or wadding stretch with the Yes No Suede
coated fabrics) Felt yarns interlacing
Netlike structure diagonally and
See the charts for basic weaves,
lengthwise?
fancy weaves, or knit fabrics

Yes No Coated fabric

Poromeric fabric
Suedelike fabric
Braid Tuffed fabric
Laminate
Stitchbonded fabric
Does the fabric have open Knit-through fabric
spaces with an elaborate design? Quilted fabric
Supported scrim structure

Yes No

Lace Is the fabric

three-dimensional?

Yes No

Embroidery See the charts for basic weaves,

fancy weaves, or knit fabrics

Figure Flowchart for other fabrication methods.

15.1

There are many ways of producing fabric beyond weaving and knitting. This chapter is organized
according to the material from which these additional fabrics are made: solutions, fibers, yarns,
fabrics, or animal products. Although many of these methods and fabrics do not fit the classic
definition of a textile, they are included because they are used in textile products or as substitutes
for textiles, they are made of the same chemicals as textiles, or they are made of textile com-
ponents like fibers, yarns, and fabrics. These fabrics are important to the apparel, interiors, and
technical markets. This discussion begins with the simplest process and material and moves to
the most complex. Assessing the performance of these fabrics is often similar to the procedures
used for woven or knit fabrics. Special procedures beyond the basic ones will be discussed in
the appropriate section. Use Figure 15.1 to determine a fabric’s structure and name.

Fabrics from Solutions

Films
A film is made directly from a polymer solution by melt-extrusion or by casting the solution
onto a hot drum. Film solutions are similar in nature to fiber-spinning solutions.
Most films used in apparel and interiors are made from vinyl or polyurethane solu-
tions (Table 15.1). Although similar in appearance, the two types vary in care requirements.

364 chapter fifteen

Table 15.1 Films
Solution Fiber Film End Uses for Film

Acetate Acetate Acetate Photographic film

Polyamide Nylon Nylon Cooking bags
Polyester Polyester Mylar* Packaging, metallic yarns, novelty balloons
Polypropylene Olefin Packaging
Polyethylene Polyethylene Packaging, garment and shopping bags
Polyurethane Spandex Polyurethane Leatherlike fabrics
Polyvinyl chloride Vinyon Vinyl Packaging, garment bags, leatherlike fabrics for apparel and
upholstery, seed tapes, water-soluble bags
Vinylidene chloride Saran Saran Wrap* Food packaging
Viscose (regenerated Rayon Cellophane Glitter weaving yarns—mostly in handwoven textiles
cellulose)

*Trade names.

Vinyl films are washable but become stiff and brittle when exposed to dry-cleaning solvents
or cold temperatures. Urethane films are both washable and dry-cleanable and remain soft in
cold weather.
There are several structures of films. Plain films or nonreinforced films are firm, dense,
and uniform. They are usually impermeable to air and water and have excellent soil and stain
resistance and good recovery from deformation. Plain films such as latex, chloroprene, vinyl,
and nitrile are used in disposable gloves for health care workers because they provide a bar-
rier for fluid-borne pathogens.
Expanded films are spongier, softer, and plumper because of tiny air cells incorpo-
rated into the compound. They are not as strong or as abrasion-resistant as plain films.
Expanded films are impermeable to air and water. Thousands of tiny pinholes, called micro-
Figure Film embossed and printed to
pores, punched in plain and expanded films permit air and water vapor, but not liquid water, 15.2 resemble snakeskin.
to pass through the fabric, increasing their comfort characteristics. Nonporous films, used
for inexpensive upholstery, are uncomfortable, especially in hot weather and in direct contact
with skin.
Because plain films and expanded films are seldom durable enough to withstand normal
use, they are usually adhered to a woven, knit, or fiberweb support fabric or substrate to form
a supported, coated, or reinforced film. Supported films are composite fabrics and will be
discussed later in this chapter. Supported films are more durable, more expensive, easier to
sew, and less likely to crack and split than nonreinforced films.
Plastic films and coated fabrics are more waterproof than any other material. With finish-
ing, they can be made to resemble almost any other textile (Figure 15.2). They vary in thick-
ness from the very thin transparent film used to make sandwich bags to the heavy leatherette
used to cover a dentist’s chair. As compared with leather, films are uniform in appearance
and quality, available in uniformly wide lengths, and much cheaper and easier to make into A film is made directly from a polymer
products. Films are summarized in Table 15.2. solution by melt-extrusion or by casting the
solution onto a hot drum. Types include

Foams plain, expanded, and reinforced. They are

used for apparel, interior, and technical
A foam is made by incorporating air into an elasticlike substance. Polyurethane is most com- products.
mon. Foams are known for their bulkiness and sponginess. They are used as carpet backing

other fabrication methods 365

 Table 15.2 Summary Table: Films
Processes Characteristics End Uses

1. Solution extruded through Nonfibrous Shoes and boots

narrow slits into warm air
Waterproof Umbrellas

2. Solution cast onto a Impermeable Shower curtains

revolving drum
Stiff with poor drape Upholstery

3. Molding powder pressed Inexpensive Bags

between hot rolls
Resistant to soil Packaging

Weak unless supported by Metallic yarns

fabric backing
Novelty balloons
Can be finished to resemble
Leather-like fabrics
many other fabrics,
including leather Accessories

and underlay, furniture and mattress padding, and pillow and mattress forms. Foams are lam-
inated to fabric for apparel and interior textiles (Figure 15.3). Shredded foam is used to stuff
accent pillows and stuffed animals and toys.
Polyurethane foams are made with a wide range of physical properties, from very stiff to
rubbery. Air cells can be opened (permeable to moisture vapor) or closed (impermeable to
moisture vapor). The size of the air cells can be controlled. Polyurethane foam yellows when
exposed to sunlight but does not lose its usefulness and durability. Foams are relatively weak
and are not used by themselves. Reacting diisocyanate with a compound containing two or
more hydroxyl groups and a catalyst produces polyurethane foam. Chemicals and foaming
agents are mixed thoroughly. After the foam is formed, it is cut into blocks 200 to 300 yards
Figure Textured foam exercise mat. long, and strips of the desired thickness are cut from these blocks.
15.3 While foams have traditionally been based on petroleum-based products, soy-based
foams are being used for some foam applications like intimate apparel. Soy-based foams are

A foam is made by incorporating air into an biorenewable materials and do not yellow. They are also stable to light. Polyurethane-based

elasticlike substance. Most foams are used foams used in the automotive industry are being replaced by woven, knit, and nonwoven

to pad or shape textile products. spacer fabrics. (See nonwovens in this chapter and Chapters 13 and 14.) Foams are summa-
rized in Table 15.3.

Table 15.3 Summary Table: Foam

Process Characteristics End Uses

Incorporate air into an
elasticlike substance of
polyurethane or rubber
Lofty and springy Shape and pad pillows, chair
cushions, mattresses,
Bulky
upholstered furniture
Weak without cover or
Pad and cushion carpet
backing
Shape shoulder pads and
Polyurethane foams age
intimate apparel
poorly, discolor and
lose elasticity when Add thickness and warmth to
exposed to heat and outerwear
ultraviolet light

366 chapter fifteen

 Learning Activity 1
Examine the items you are wearing and have with you today. Which of these items
contain films and which contain foams? Be sure to consider intimate apparel, your book
bag, and lunch container, if you have these with you. Describe your satisfaction with
each film and foam item in terms of its serviceability. Describe one method for making
film and one method for making foam. Why are these items often considered textiles?

Fabrics from Fibers

Some fabrics are made directly from fibers or fiber-forming solutions; thus, there is no pro-
cessing of fibers into a yarn. These operations include very old and very new processes. The
origins of felt and tapa cloth are lost in antiquity; netlike structures used to bag fruits and
vegetables use new technologies; and composite fabrics are made by combining fibers with
other materials to form fabrics.
Tapa cloth, an early fiberweb, is made from the fibrous inner bark of the fig or paper
mulberry tree. It was used for clothing by people in many areas of the Pacific Islands and
Central America. The inner bark is soaked to loosen the fibers, beaten with a mallet using
force to smooth them into a paperlike sheet, and decorated with block prints (Figure 15.4).

Nonwoven or Fiberweb Structures

Figure Painted tapa cloth.
Nonwovens are fabrics made directly from fibers. This is a growing area in the textile complex 15.4
based on research and development to satisfy end-use requirements while keeping costs
low. Although most often used in technical applications, some nonwovens or fiberweb struc-
tures are used in apparel and interior items.
These fabrics are known as nonwovens since they are not made from yarn. The term
nonwoven creates confusion because knits are nonwovens as are many other fabric struc-
tures. However, in the textile complex, nonwoven refers to a fiberweb structure.
Nonwovens are less expensive because some are produced during production of manu-
factured fibers and because unskilled workers are paid less to cut and sew these fabrics. New
technologies produce made-to-order products quickly and inexpensively.
Nonwoven or fiberweb structures include all textile-sheet structures made from fibrous
webs, bonded by mechanical fiber entanglement, by resin, by thermal fusion, or by forming
chemical complexes. Fibers are the fundamental units of structure, arranged into a web and
bonded. The distances between fibers are several times greater than the fiber diameter—a
characteristic that distinguishes nonwovens from paper. Nonwovens are more flexible than
paper structures of similar construction.
The properties of nonwovens are controlled by three factors: (1) arrangement of the fibers
in the web, (2) properties of the fibers used in the web, and (3) properties of any binders used.

Web Production  Fiberwebs are quick and inexpensive to produce. Nonwoven fabrics of
the same weight and fiber type as woven fabrics are often half the cost.
The basic steps include selecting the fibers, laying the fibers to make a web, and bond-
ing the web together to make a fabric. Any fiber can be used to make the web. The fibers’
inherent characteristics are reflected in the fabric: Filaments and strong staple fibers are used

other fabrication methods 367

 for strength and durability; cellulosics are used for absorbency; thermoplastics are used for
spun-bonded webs.
Five techniques are used to form the web: dry-laid, wet-laid, spun-bonded, spun-lace,
and melt-blown. Fiber orientation controls web characteristics of strength and drape and
describes both fibers that are parallel in the web and with machine direction, the direction in
which the supporting conveyor belt moves. Lengthwise oriented webs have grain because
the fibers are highly parallel to each other and to the machine direction. Random webs have
fibers that are not parallel to each other.
Dry-laid fiberwebs are made by carding or air-laying staple fibers in either a random or
an oriented arrangement. Air-laid webs can be made with very short fibers, especially import-
ant for recycling cotton waste from spinning mills. Carding, similar to the yarn process, pro-
duces a parallel arrangement of fibers. Cross-laid webs, where the carded web is stacked
so that one layer is oriented lengthwise and the next layer crosswise, adds strength and pli-
ability. Cross-laid webs do not have grain and can be cut into product components more
economically than woven or knitted fabrics. Air-laid, or random, webs are made by machines
that disperse the fibers by air producing a random fiber arrangement. Oriented webs have
good strength, low elongation, and low tear strength in the direction of orientation, but poor
cross-orientation strength. Elongation and tear strength are higher in the cross-orientation
direction. With random webs, strength is uniform in all directions. End uses for dry-laid fiber-
webs include wipes, wicks, battery separators, backing for quilted fabrics, interlining, insula-
tion, abrasive fabric bases, filters, and base fabric for laminating and coating.
Wet-laid fiberwebs are made from a slurry of short paper-process-length and
­textile-length fibers and water. After the water is extracted and reclaimed, a randomly oriented
fiberweb remains with exceptional uniformity. Typical end uses for wet-laid fiberwebs include
laminating and coating bases, filters, interlining, insulation, roofing substrates, adhesive carri-
ers, wipes, and battery separators.
Spun-bonded or spun-laid webs are made immediately after melt-spun fibers are
extruded from spinnerets. Fiber options include olefin, polyester, and nylon. The continuous
hot filaments drop in a random fashion on a fast-moving conveyor belt in a semimelted state
and fuse together at cross points. They may be further bonded by heat and pressure. Spun-
bonded fiberwebs have high tensile and tear strength and low bulk (Figure 15.5). They are
durable, lightweight, and air permeable. End uses for spun-bonded fiberwebs include hygiene
Figure Spun-bonded filament fabric. products (diapers, feminine care), medical protective apparel, carpet backings, geotextiles,
15.5 adhesive carriers, envelopes, tents and tarps, wall coverings, house-wrap vapor barriers, tags
and labels, bags, filters, insulation, and roofing substrates. Spunbonding is the fastest and
most economical nonwoven production method.
Hydroentangled or spun-lace webs are similar to spun-bonded webs except that jets
of water are shot through the web, thereby shattering the filaments into staple fibers and pro-
ducing a wovenlike structure (Figure 15.6). Designs are possible if the drum that applies the
water jets to the web is perforated in a design. Spun-lace webs or water-needled fabrics have
greater elasticity and flexibility than spun-bonded webs. This technique makes products that
are not possible with any other process. High-pressure jets of water from both sides entangle
the fibers. The water is reclaimed, purified, and recycled. The degree of entanglement is con-
trolled by the number and force of jets and the fiber type. Spun-lace webs are used in medical
Figure Hydroentangled or spun-lace fabric. gowns and drapes, battery separators, interlinings, roofing substrates, filters, mattress pads,
15.6 household wipes, wall coverings, window-treatment components, and protective apparel.

368 chapter fifteen

 Melt-blown fiberwebs are made by extruding the polymer through a single orifice into
a high-velocity heated-air stream that breaks the ultrafine fiber into short pieces. The fiber
pieces are collected as a web on a moving conveyor belt and held together by fiber interlac-
ing and thermal bonding. The fibers are not drawn so fiberweb strength is lower. Olefin and
polyester melt-blown fiberwebs are used to produce hospital/medical products, wipes, filters,
sanitary applications, and battery separators.
The spunmelt fiberwebs are made by a process that combines spun-bonded and melt- (a) (b) (c) (d)

blown technology for applications where bicomponent or biconstituent webs are needed for
barrier and filtration applications.

Fabric Production  Webs are weak in their unbounded form. They become fabrics through
mechanical needling or application of chemical compounds, adhesives, or heat.
In needle punching or needling, a dry-laid web passes through a needle loom as
many times as is necessary to achieve the desired strength and texture. A needle loom has
barbed needles protruding 2 to 3 inches from the base (Figure 15.7). As the needles stitch
up and down through the web, the barbs pull a few fibers through the web, interlocking
them mechanically with other fibers. Needlepunched fabrics can be identified by the obvious Figure Needle-punch process: (a) barbed
needle marks in the fabric. This process is a relatively inexpensive way to produce blankets, 15.7 needle, (b) needle pulling fibers
carpeting, and carpet backing. Fiber denier, fiber type, and product loft vary. Indoor/out- through web, (c) entangled fibers
in a web cross section, (d) needle-
door olefin needle-punched carpeting is used for patios, porches, pools, and putting greens
punched web; (bottom) photo of
because it is impervious to moisture. Needled carpet backings are used with some tufted fabric.
carpets.
Needled fabrics can be made using two-layer webs with each layer a different color.
Pulling fibers from the lower layer to the top surface creates geometric designs. Fibers pulled
above the surface produce a pile fabric. Needle-punched fabrics are finished by pressing,
steaming, calendering, dyeing, and embossing.
Thick-needled spacer fabrics are competitive with foams for such applications as pad-
ding and cushioning automotive seats. While the nonwoven spacer fabric is less uniform in
appearance, it has good air and water permeability and can be recycled easily. Other end
uses for needled fabrics include cleaning wipes, medical/hygiene uses, insulation, protective
apparel, shoulder pads, roofing substrates, paper machine felts, craft felts, floor and wall cov- Nonwoven or fiberweb structures include
erings, blankets, and carpet backing. all textile-sheet structures made from
Another technique uses a closed needle that penetrates the web, opens, grabs some fibrous webs, bonded by mechanical fiber
fibers, and draws them back as a yarnlike structure to chain-stitch through the web. (See entanglement, by adhesive, by thermal
the stitch-through fabrics discussed later in this chapter.) Needle-punched fabrics are used fusion, or by forming chemical complexes.
for tennis-ball felts, blood filters, papermaking felt, speaker-cover fabrics, synthetic leathers, Fibers are the fundamental units of
oil-absorbent pads, some ballistic vests, and insulator padding. structure, arranged into a web and bonded
Dry-laid or wet-laid webs use chemical adhesives to bond fibers together. Adhesives so that the distances between fibers
include vinyl acetate ethylene copolymers, styrene-butadiene copolymers, and acrylate poly- are several times greater than the fiber
mers and copolymers. Most are water-based binders. Each one has characteristics that make diameter. Fiberwebs are used for technical
it appropriate for certain applications. The adhesive is applied in a liquid, powder, or foam form. applications, to shape and support apparel
Heat and pressure bond thermoplastic-fiber webs via several techniques. In area-bond and interior products, and for some floor
calendering, the fibers are heated and pressed to form a permeable film-like structure that and wall coverings. Types include dry-laid,
is stiff, inextensible, and strong. In point-bond calendering, the heated fiber web passes wet-laid, spun-bonded, spun-lace, melt-
between an engraved calendar roll and a smooth calendar roll. The engraved roll presses the blown, spun-melt, and needle-punched.
web onto the smooth roll and the fibers adhere to each other. Characteristics relate to the size

other fabrication methods 369

 and density of the bond points. Fabrics are usually moderately bulky, elastic, and soft and are
used for medical, sanitary, and filtration applications.
Nonwovens are finished to meet customer needs. Options include coating, laminating,
printing, flocking, dyeing, or finishing for special purposes (e.g., flame retardant, water repel-
lent, antistatic, breathable, or absorbent). Table 15.4 summarizes nonwovens.

Table 15.4 Summary Table: Nonwovens

Type Process Characteristics End Uses

Dry-laid Fibers carded or air-laid in random Very short fibers
fiberweb or oriented arrangement; bonded
Oriented webs: strong, low
by needlepunching or chemical
elongation, low tear strength,
adhesive
and pliable
Random webs: do not have grain,
more economical in cutting,
higher elongation and tear
strength
Inexpensive compared to woven
and knit fabrics
Durable Disposable
Technical
Wicks Wipes
Battery separators Abrasive
Insulation  fabric bases
Base fabric for Filters
laminates and
coated fabrics
Interiors
Backing for quilted Fabrics
Base fabric for laminates and coated fabrics

Apparel
Insulation
Interlining
Wet-laid Slurry of fibers and water, remove Exceptionally uniform fiberweb Durable Disposable
fiberweb water to achieve random oriented Technical
Usually random orientation
fiberweb; bonded by chemical Roofing substrate Wipes
adhesive Inexpensive compared to woven Battery separators Adhesive
and knit fabrics Insulation  carriers
Base fabric for Filters
laminates and
coated fabrics

Interiors
Base fabric for laminates and coated fabrics

Apparel
Insulation
Interlining
Spun-bonded Melt-spun fibers extruded and Quickest and most economical Durable Disposable
fiberweb bonded by heat and pressure via method Technical
area-bond calendaring or point- Roofing substrate Envelopes
High tensile and tear strength
bond calendering Geotextiles Adhesive
Low bulk Insulation  carriers
Durable House wrap vapor Filters
barriers  Bags
Lightweight Tents Hygiene
Air permeable Tarps  products

Elastic Interiors
Wall coverings Tags/labels
Soft hand Carpet backing
Dust cloths for box
springs

Apparel
Insulation Tags/labels
Shoe parts Medical protective apparel

370 chapter fifteen

Table 15.4  Summary Table: Nonwovens (continued)
Type Process Characteristics End Uses

Spun-lace Water jets shatter filaments and Good elasticity and flexibility Durable Disposable
fiberweb produce wovenlike structure; Technical
Design options possible
bonded by fiber interlacing Roofing substrate Wipes
Unique process creates fabrics that Battery separators Filters
cannot be replicated by other
techniques Interiors
Wall coverings
Inexpensive compared to woven and Window treatment components
knit fabrics
Apparel
Interlinings Medical protective apparel
Medical gowns
Melt-blown Polymer broken into short fibers Weak, undrawn fibers Durable Disposable
fiberwebs when extruded into high-velocity Technical
Random orientation
hot air; web held together by fiber Battery separators Wipes
interlacing and thermal bonding Inexpensive compared to woven and Filters
knit fabrics Medical products
Sanitary products
Spunmelt Combines spun-bonded and melt- Bicomponent or biconstituent Durable Disposable
fiberwebs blown technology fiberwebs Technical
Inexpensive compared to woven and Barrier applications Filters
knit fabrics
Needlepunched Dry-laid web passed through Obvious needle marks Durable Disposable
fiberweb needle loom that interlocks fibers Technical
Thick and lofty
mechanically Insulation wipes Cleaning
Bulky Roofing substrate Medical
Inexpensive method Paper machine felt  products
Craft felt Filters
Options for design Tennis ball felt Oil absorbent pads
Permeable to air and moisture Speaker covers
Synthetic leather
Inexpensive compared to woven and
knit fabrics Interiors
Blankets
Carpet
Carpet backing
Padding
Floor and wall coverings

Apparel
Interlinings Medical protective apparel
Medical gowns
Protective apparel
Shoulder pads

Learning Activity 2
Review the processes used to produce nonwoven fabrics. Organize them into three
categories: uses staple fibers, uses filament fibers that are broken into staple fibers,
and uses filament fibers. Explain the similarities and differences among the processes
for each category. Which process(es) requires manufactured fibers? Which process(es)
require thermoplastic fibers?

other fabrication methods 371

 3 Learning Activity
Examine your apparel and the textiles where you live. Search for examples of nonwoven
textiles. Be sure to consider textiles used for shaping, cushioning, and support. Also,
consider textiles used for bathing and grooming. Make a list of those items that are
nonwovens and group them by end use: apparel, interiors, and technical application.
How have these nonwovens made your life easier, more comfortable, or safer? Select
one item and explain your satisfaction with its serviceability.

Fusible Nonwovens  Fusible nonwovens contribute body and shape to garments as

interfacing or interlinings in shirts, blouses, dresses, and outerwear.
A fusible is a fabric that has been coated with a heat-sealable, thermoplastic adhesive or
a thin spiderweb-like fabric of thermoplastic filaments (Figure 15.8). When placed on the back
of a face fabric, the layers are bonded by heat and pressure.
Possible adhesives are polyethylene, hydrolyzed ethylene vinyl acetate, plasticized poly-
vinyl chloride, and polyamides. The adhesive is printed on the substrate so as to produce the
desired hand in the end product.
Fusibles eliminate the need for stitching in some coat and suit lapels. Less-skilled labor
is required to produce garments and increase productivity. However, fusibles may generate
problems involving differential shrinkage and separation of layers during care, bleed-through
of adhesive to the face fabric, and unpredictable changes in hand and drape.

Figure Fusible interlining. The coin under the

15.8 web demonstrates its sheerness. End Uses of Nonwovens  Nonwovens are used for disposable goods, such as diapers
and wipes, incorporated as a component of other durable products, or used alone for durable
goods like draperies, furniture, mattresses, mattress pads, and some apparel (Table 15.4).

Fiberfill  Batting, wadding, and fiberfill are not fabrics, but they are important filler compo-
nents in apparel for snowsuits, ski jackets, quilted robes, and coats and in interior textiles for
quilts, comforters, furniture paddings, pillows, mattresses, and mattress pads.
Batting is a filler made from new fiber, wadding is a filler made from waste fiber, and
fiberfill is a manufactured fiber staple made especially for use as a filler. Carded fibers are laid
down to the desired thickness and may be covered with a sheet of nonwoven fabric.
Fiber density describes the weight or mass per unit volume. Fiber density helps
match components to end-use requirements for resiliency and weight. Resilient fabrics
maintain their loft and incorporate more air space. When fibers stay crushed, the fab-
ric becomes thinner and more compact, losing bulk, insulating power, and padding.
Shifting resistance is important in maintaining a uniform fabric thickness. For instance,
down comforters need to be shaken often because the filling shifts to the outer edges.

4 Learning Activity
Go to a local big-box retailer with your textbook. Use Table 15.4. Identify and check-
off in your textbook as many end-use products as you can that utilize nonwovens.
Compare your list with that of other students. How many different items did you find?
How did the search change your perspective of nonwovens and their contribution to
your quality of life?

372 chapter fifteen

Table 15.5 Summary Table: Fiberfill
Shifting
Fiber Cost Density Resiliency Resistance Care

Down High Lightweight Excellent Poor Dry-cleanable

Acetate Low 1.30 Fair Poor Washable, dries
more quickly
than cotton
Polyester Medium 1.30–1.38 Good Good—can be Washable,
bonded quick-drying
Cotton Low 1.52 Poor Poor Washable,
slow-drying

Thermoplastic-fiber batts can be run through a needle-punch machine where hot nee-
dles melt the fiber areas that they touch, fusing them into a more stable batt known as a
bonded web. The ability of a batt or fiberfill to insulate is based on the amount of still air
trapped in a volume of fabric and the number of fibers present. In apparel, there is a limit
to fabric thickness because too much bulk restricts movement and limits styling. For this
reason, microfibers are popular in low-profile fiberfills (Table 15.5). Several fiberfills are
made from recycled polyester fibers.
Polyester fiberfills for apparel include high-loft varieties and hollow-fiber varieties with
voids to increase loft and insulation while minimizing weight and microfiber varieties.
Although not fibers, down and feathers are used as filler. These fills are defined by the
Federal Trade Commission in the Code of Federal Regulations. Down is the undercoating of
waterfowl (ducks or geese)—the fine, bulky underfeathers. Items labeled 100% down must
meet specific requirements for the down. Down-filled items must be 80% down or down fiber
and may include up to 20% other feathers. Down is rated by its loft capacity or fill power—the Batting (a fill made from new fiber),
volume one cubic ounce of down will fill. For example, 650 down is warmer and more expen- wadding (a fill made from waste fiber), and
sive than 550 down. The range is generally 300 to 800. fiberfill (a manufactured fiber staple made
Down is lightweight and warm. However, it has a tendency to shift, and when wet, it mats especially for use as a filler) are used to
and loses its warmth. Challenges with down are maintaining its original loft and cleaning it. shape and pad or add warmth and bulk to
Some people are allergic to down and feathers. Down is used in apparel, bedding, and pad- textile products.
ding for pillows and soft furniture.

Felt
True felt is a mat or web of wool, or mostly wool, fibers held together by interlocking wool
scales (Figure 15.9). Felting is one of the oldest methods of making fabric. Early peoples made
felt by washing wool fleece, spreading out the wet wool, and beating it until it had matted and

Learning Activity 5
Examine your apparel and the textiles where you live. Search for examples containing
fiberfill. Be sure to consider textiles used for shaping, cushioning, and support. Also,
consider your bedding material. Make a list of those items and group them by end
use: apparel, interiors, and technical application. How has fiberfill made your life eas- Figure Felt.
ier, more comfortable, or safer? Select one item and explain your satisfaction with its 15.9
serviceability.

other fabrication methods 373


Figure Hand-made felt.
15.10
True felt is a mat or web of wool, or mostly
wool, fibers held together interlocking wool
scales. It is used for apparel, interior, craft,
and technical products.
Netlike structures include all textile
structures formed by extruding one or
more fiber-forming polymers as a film or
a network of ligaments or strands. Netlike
structures are used for technical products.
Figure Netlike structures.
15.11
374 chapter fifteen
Table 15.6 Summary Table: Felt
Process Characteristics End Uses
Wool fibers or blends of wool No grain Apparel accessories
with other fibers carded,
Does not fray or ravel Crafts and fiber art
laid in thick batt, sprayed
with water, and agitated Stiff and not pliable Technical matting
causing fibers to entangle
Poor strength Appliqués
Poor elasticity
shrunk into fabriclike form. In modern factories, layers of wool or wool blends are built up until
the desired thickness is attained and then heat, soap, and vibration mat the fibers together.
Finishing processes for felt resemble those for woven fabrics. Most craft felts are not true felt
because they do not include wool. They are usually wet- or dry-laid nonwoven fiberwebs.
Felts do not have grain and do not ravel. They are stiff, less pliable, and weaker than
other structures. The quality of felt depends on the quality of the fibers used.
Felt has many technical and some apparel uses. It is used for padding, soundproofing,
insulating, filtering, polishing, and wicking.
Felt is not used for fitted apparel because it lacks the flexibility and elasticity of fabrics
made from yarns. However, it is widely used in appliqués and accessories such as hats, slip-
pers, and pennants. Because felt does not fray, it needs no seam finish. Colored felt letters or
decorations on apparel may fade and shrink in washing and should be removed before wash-
ing or the garments should be dry-cleaned. Table 15.6 summarizes felt.
Hand-made felts are another component of the local fiber movement. These felts are
made by fiber artists and small entrepreneurs using wool that they produce or purchase
locally. Several techniques are used in addition to the traditional wet felt method. Items include
fiber art, hats, bags, slippers, scarves, and items for appliqué (Figure 15.10).
Netlike Structures
Netlike structures include all textile structures formed by extruding one or more
fiber-forming polymers as a film or a network of ligaments or strands. In the fibrillated-net
process, the extruded and noncoagulated film is embossed in a pattern as it passes
through a pair of heated and engraved rollers. When the film is stretched biaxially, slits
occur, creating a netlike structure. In the extruded-net process, the spinneret consists of
two rotating dies. When the polymer is extruded, the fibers form single strands that inter-
connect when holes in the two rotating dies coincide. These tubular nets are used for
packaging fruits and vegetables, agricultural nets, bird nets, and plastic fencing for snow
and hazards (Figure 15.11).
6 Learning Activity
Compare and contrast the production, characteristics, and end uses for nonwovens
and felt. Should felt be considered another type of nonwoven fabric? Why or why not?
If it should be considered a nonwoven, which type is it most like in terms of production,
characteristics, and end uses?
 Learning Activity 7
Use Fabrics #94 through 99 from your swatch kit. For each fabric, list the following
items: textile components and fabrication method used, five characteristics, and at least
one apparel, interiors, and technical end use (some may not be used in all three areas).
Examine the key for the swatch kit and describe the serviceability that you would pre-
dict for each swatch based on one of the end uses identified, fiber content, and fabri-
cation method.

Learning Activity 8
Film, foam, tapa cloth, fiberweb, fiberfill, felt, and netlike structures differ from woven
and knit fabrics in what fundamental way(s)? Identify the basic structural unit for these
fabrics and describe how the fabrication method of these simpler structures affects
serviceability.

Fabrics from Yarns

Braids
Braids are narrow fabrics in which yarns interlace lengthwise and diagonally (Figure 15.12).
They have good elongation characteristics and are very pliable, curving around edges nicely.
They are used for trims, shoelaces, and coverings on components in technical products such
as wiring and hoses for liquids like gasoline and water. Many ropes, cordage, and yarns are
made by braiding. Sennit is a hand-made braid using basketry, fibrous inner bark, or related
materials. Three-dimensional braids are made with two or more sets of yarns. Their shape is
controlled by an internal mandrel. Figure A variety of braids.
15.12

Lace Braids, narrow fabrics in which yarns

Lace is an openwork fabric with complex patterns or figures, handmade or machine-made interlace lengthwise and diagonally, are
using several fabrication methods. Most commercial lace is made using raschel knitting stretchy and pliable. They are used for
machines or special lace machines. Yarns may be twisted around each other to create open shoelaces, trim for apparel and interiors,
areas. Lace is classified according to the way it is made and its pattern or design. Lace is and technical products like hoses.
made as both fabric, narrow trim or edging, and appliqué. Some narrow-trim lace coordinates
with fabric-width lace and should be identified when writing production specifications for lace
products, like wedding or formal dresses. Appliqué, a relatively inexpensive decoration, is a
surface embellishment that adds visual interest and texture.
It is difficult to determine the machine used to make a fine lace fabric without the aid of
a microscope. Some imitation lacelike fabrics are made by printing or flocking (Figure 15.13).
The quality of lace is based on the fineness of yarns, number of yarns per unit area (square
inch or square centimeter) or closeness of the ground, and intricacy of the design.

Learning Activity 9
Explain the differences and similarities in structural component and fabrication method
between braids and tricot knits. How do the yarns move in braids and knits? How does
fabrication method affect serviceability for these two structures?

other fabrication methods 375

 (a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)
Figure Lace and lacelike fabrics: cordonnet or re-embroidered lace made on Leavers lace machine (a), raschel warp-knit lace (b), double-knit
15.13 lace (c), woven lace (d), and imitation lace (cotton printed with a lacelike design) (e).

Lace was important in fashion between the 16th and the 19th centuries, and all countries
in Europe developed lace industries. Lace remains important today as a trim or accessory in
apparel and interiors. Lace names often reflect the town in which the lace was originally made.
For example, the best-quality needlepoint lace was made in Venice in the 16th century—
hence the name Venetian lace. Alençon and Valenciennes laces are made in French towns.

Handmade Lace  Handmade lace remains a prestige textile. The contemporary interest in
crafts is generating interest in many of the old lace-making techniques. Fiber artists and small
entrepreneurs are creating lace as part of the local fiber movement. Handmade lace is used
for wall hangings, belts, bags, shawls, afghans, bedspreads, and tablecloths. Handmade
laces include needlepoint, bobbin, crochet, and Battenberg.
Needlepoint lace is made by drawing a pattern of birds, flowers, vases, or other motifs
on paper, laying down yarns over the pattern, and stitching over the yarns with needle and
thread. The thread network, reseau or brides, forms the ground. The solid part of the pattern
is toile.
Figure Bobbin lace: handmade, Bobbin lace is made on a pillow. The pattern is drawn on paper and pins are inserted at
15.14 machine-made. various points. Yarns on bobbins are plaited around the pins to form the lace (Figure 15.14).

10 Learning Activity
Search online for video tutorials on making lace by hand. Use the handmade lace tech-
niques as search terms: making needlepoint lace, making bobbin lace, making crochet
lace, and making Battenburg lace. View the videos. If so inclined, try making lace using
one of these techniques.

376 chapter fifteen

 Crocheted lace is made by hand with a crochet hook. Many patterns and weights are
possible. Examples are Irish lace and Syrian lace.
Knit lace is made by hand in many patterns and weights. End uses include apparel,
shawls, bedspreads, and interior and apparel accessories.
Battenberg lace is handmade with loops of woven tape attached by yarn brides in pat-
terns (Figure 15.15). Making Battenberg lace was a common hobby in the United States in the
early 20th century. Contemporary pieces are usually imported from Asia, especially China, for
apparel and interior accessories.

Figure Close-up view of a Battenberg lace

Machine-Made Lace  In 1802 in England, Robert Brown perfected a machine that made 15.15 tablecloth.
nets on which lace motifs could be worked by hand. In 1808, John Heathcoat made the first
true lace machine by developing brass bobbins to make bobbinet. In 1813,
John Leavers developed a machine that made patterns and background
simultaneously. An electronic system, similar to that used with jacquard
looms, produces intricate designs with the Leavers machine.
The warp yarns and oscillating brass bobbins of the Leavers machine
are set in frames called carriages. The carriages move back and forth while
the bobbins swing around the warp to form a pattern. These bobbins, hold-
ing 60 to 300 yards of yarn, are thin enough to swing between adjacent warp
yarns and twist themselves around one warp before moving to another yarn (a) (b)
(Figure 15.16). The Leavers machine may have as many as 20 bobbins per
inch. Tulle can also be made on a Leavers lace machine.
Leavers lace is fairly expensive, depending on the quality of yarns and
the intricacy of the design. Cordonnet, or re-embroidered, lace has a
yarn or cord outlining the design (see Figure 15.13a).
Raschel-knitting machines (see Chapter 14) make patterned laces
that resemble Leavers lace (Figure 15.17). Raschel lace is produced
at much higher speeds for lower cost. Filament yarns are used to make
(c) (d)
coarser laces for tablecloths, draperies, and casement fabrics. Table 15.7
Figure Brass bobbins (a) carry the design yarn and twist around
summarizes lace. 15.16 warp yarns (b and c) to form the lace fabric (d).

Care of Lace  Because lace has open spaces, it can easily snag and tear. Fragile laces
should be washed by hand-squeezing suds through the fabric rather than rubbing. Some
laces can be put into a protective bag and machine-washed or dry-cleaned.

Table 15.7 Summary Table: Lace

Process and Name Characteristics End Uses Quality Factors

Hand: needlepoint, Varies with process Wall hangings, shawls, Yarn fineness
bobbin, crochet, knit, afghans, bedspreads, Figure Raschel lace.
More expensive Yarns per unit
and Battenburg belts, tablecloths, 15.17
area
Fabric, edging and apparel and interior
appliqué accessories Closeness of
Machine: Leavers, Varies with process Window treatments, ground
Raschel tablecloths, apparel, Intricacy of Lace is an openwork fabric with complex
Less expensive
interior and apparel design patterns or figures made by machine or
Fabric, edging and accessories
hand.
appliqué

other fabrication methods 377

 11 Learning Activity
Examine the textile products you are wearing and have with you today. Which items
include braid and lace? Think about the products that you have at home. Which of
these items include braid and lace? Describe your satisfaction with and the service-
ability of one lace and one braid item based on fiber content, yarn type, and fabric
structure. Identify the fabrication method used. Explain why these fabrication methods
were used.

12 Learning Activity
Explain the differences in structure, appearance, and serviceability between spun-lace
and lace. What are the key factors you should use to distinguish between the two?

13 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #90 and 91 from your swatch kit. List the fabrication method used and an
appropriate application for each. Examine the key for the swatch kit and describe the
serviceability that you would predict for each swatch based on end use, fiber content,
and fabrication method. Name each fabric.

Embroidery
Embroidery is the only technique in which yarn can be arranged in almost any direction.
While embroidery is usually considered an aesthetic or surface design (see Chapter 17),
embroidery is used to create technical textiles. Some smart textile structures with high per-
formance and small mass using aramid, carbon, PBO, glass, and other special-use fibers
are embroidered. A ground material of acetate or polyvinyl alcohol is used and embroi-
dery cords, yarns, or fibers are arranged in a 3D-structure. Padding and shaping may help
achieve the end product. The item may include shape memory components that shrink

Embroidery is the only technique in which when heated or wetted to create the 3D shape. Often the shape is coated with resin after

yarn can be arranged in almost any construction and dissolution by water or solvent of the ground material. Embroidered

direction. textiles are used for mechanical engineering applications, medical implants, and wound
dressings.

Composite Fabrics
Composite fabrics are fabrics that combine several primary and/or secondary structures, at
least one of which is a recognized textile structure, into a single structure. This broad category

Composite fabrics are fabrics that provides diverse possibilities from flat 2D structures to shaped 3D structures. Composites

combine several primary and/or secondary include coated fabrics, poromeric fabrics, suedelike fabrics, flocked fabrics, tufted-pile fab-

structures, at least one of which is a rics, laminates, stitch-bonded fabrics, quilted fabrics, supported-scrim structures, and

recognized textile structure, into a single fiber-reinforced materials. End uses include boating, automotive, aerospace, communication

structure. Composite fabrics are used for satellites, sporting goods, toys, appliances, furniture, swimming pools, construction compo-

apparel, interior, and technical products. nents, structures such as stadiums and airports, and equipment used by industry, the military,
and the energy industry.

378 chapter fifteen

Coated Fabrics
A coated fabric combines a textile fabric with a polymer film (Figure 15.18). The woven, knit,
or nonwoven fabric substrate provides strength and elongation control. The coating or film
protects from environmental factors, such as water, chemicals, oil, and abrasion. Commonly
used films include rubber and synthetic elastomers such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), neoprene,
and polyurethane. PVC-coated fabrics are most common and are used in window shades,
book covers, upholstery, wall coverings, apparel, and shoe liners and uppers. Neoprene is
used for protective apparel such as chemical gloves and wetsuits. Most p
­ olyurethane-coated
fabrics are used in shoe uppers and apparel. Tarpaulins are heavy polyurethane-coated
fabrics.
Figure Coated fabrics.
The coating is added to the fabric or substrate by several methods. Most common is
15.18
lamination, in which a prepared film is adhered to fabric with adhesive or heated to slightly melt
the back of the film before pressing the layers together. In calendering, the viscous polymer is
mixed with filler, stabilizing agent, pigment, and plasticizer to control the coating layer’s opac-
ity, hand, color, and environmental resistance. The mixture is applied to preheated fabric by
passing the fabric and the mixture between two large metal cylinders, or calenders, spaced
close together. Coating uses a knife or roll to apply a more fluid compound. The degree that
the mixture penetrates into the fabric substrate is controlled by allowing the mixture to solid-
ify or gel slightly before contacting the substrate. Composite sails for racing yachts combine
polyester film with aramid or high-strength olefin to reinforce scrim and polyester woven fabric.
Several other methods of coating are also used. In the rotary screen technique, the
coating is applied to the fabric through a rotating open screen in contact with the fabric.
A smoothing blade smoothes out the coating compound producing a continuous surface. It
is used for lightweight upholstery fabrics where flame retardancy is required or air permeability
is desired. In the slot die technique, the solution is extruded over the substrate’s full width at
the desired thickness. The foam technique, for thermal drapery fabrics and blackout curtains,
applies the coating as a foam. In the spray technique, a thin solution is sprayed onto the sur-
face of the substrate. Under heat or pressure, the solution flows over the surface and forms
a continuous layer. In transfer coating, the coating compound is applied to release paper and
dried before being applied to the substrate. Transfer coating is used only when no other tech-
nique can be used.
Coated fabrics, also referred to as supported films, can be printed or embossed. They
may resemble real leather and may be sold as vegetarian leather. They are used for apparel,
shoe uppers and liners, upholstery, vinyl car tops, floor and wall coverings, window shades,
bandages, acoustical barriers, filters, soft-sided luggage, awnings, pond and ditch liners, and
air-supported structures and domes.
Coated fabrics are impermeable to water in liquid and vapor forms. Apparel items feel hot
and clammy, are stiff, and wrinkle easily. They are often made of materials that are heat sen-
sitive. Sewing creates permanent holes and perforates the fabric so it is weaker along seams.
Coated upholstery fabric may stick to exposed skin. Architectural coated fabrics provide light-
weight roofs for structures and open spaces without heavy support columns.
Coated fabrics can be modified to improve comfort by punching tiny holes in the fabric
or by incorporating a nonporous hydrophilic membrane or film. Sympatex® incorporates a
hydrophilic polyester film and is washable or dry-cleanable. (Another method uses a microp-
orous film that will be discussed in the next section.) Sympatex® for skiwear can be laminated
to an outer shell, a lining fabric, or a lightweight-insert tricot or fiberwebr. Stomatex® adds

other fabrication methods 379

 thermal comfort and breathability to protective and extreme sports apparel by using a closed-
cell foam layer of neoprene or polyethylene. A series of tiny convex domes are vented with a
microporous opening at the apex of each dome. Wearer movement creates a pumping action
that releases excess moisture in a controlled fashion.
A fabric calender coated with a very thin flexible polymer film filled with conductive pig-
ments is used to create smart heatable apparel, bedding, and in technical products to pro-
A coated fabric combines a textile fabric
duce heated seats in automobiles, safety and military apparel, and plant covers and blankets
with a polymer film.
for sick or injured animals in agricultural applications. Table 15.8 summarizes coated fabrics.

Figure Gore-Tex® fabric: backing,
15.19 polytetrafluoroethylene film, face, and
poromeric fabric (lower left to upper
right).
Poromeric Fabrics
Poromeric, or microporous, fabrics incorporate films, but they are categorized separately
because the film is very thin and microporous. These two major distinctions determine many
characteristics of the composite fabric. The poromeric, or membrane, layer is stretched in
both directions and annealed to impart micropores in the fabric that are small enough to allow
water vapor, but not liquid water, to pass through. A water-vapor droplet is 250,000 times
smaller than a liquid-water droplet. This makes poromeric fabrics water vapor–permeable and
much more comfortable in apparel.
Poromeric films are made from polytetrafluoroethylene (Gore-Tex®) (Figure 15.19), poly-
ester, or polyurethane. These smart textiles are waterproof, windproof, and breathable. They
keep out liquid moisture but allow perspiration to evaporate. The film can be applied to a
wide variety of fabrics and fibers. It adds weight to lightweight fabrics. It is used in protec-
tive and comfortable apparel for active sportswear and rugged outdoorwear such as hunt-
ing apparel. Other uses include tents, sleeping bags, medical products, filters, coatings for
wires and cables, and protective apparel. Other poromeric fabrics include warp knits with a
polyurethane membrane, and Entrant® and Breathe-Tex®, which have polyurethane mem-
branes. Poromeric fabrics are stiffer than similar fabrics without the poromeric layer. Seams
create permanent holes that are weaker and permeable. Most are heat sensitive. Cost is high

Table 15.8 Summary Table: Coated Fabrics

Process Characteristics End Uses

Polymer film coating applied
to woven, knit, or fiberweb
base by lamination,
calendaring, coating,
rotary screen, slit die,
foam, spray, or transfer
coating
Stronger and more stable than
unsupported films
Impermeable to air and liquids
Strength and elongation control
from base fabric
Protection from environment
Can be printed or embossed
Tend to be uncomfortable in
skin contact end uses unless
modified
Stiff
Wrinkles easily
Weaker and water permeable
along seams
Often heat sensitive
Air-supported roofing and
structures, self-lined
draperies, hospital bed
coverings, hoses, inflatable
floodgates, leatherlike
coats and jackets, shower
curtains, tablecloths,
placemats, book covers,
window shades, shoe liners
and uppers, boots, sails,
umbrellas, upholstery,
tarps, waterproof
apparel, wetsuits, chemical
protective apparel and
gloves, luggage and bags,
vinyl car tops, awnings,
pond and ditch liners,
wall coverings, bandages,
acoustical barriers, filters

380 chapter fifteen

compared to many other fabrics. Several microporous fabrics are used in the medical field
because they present a barrier to bodily fluids that might carry pathogens.
Smart poromeric fabrics with medical applications incorporate an outer protective layer,
a polymer matrix with drug microspheres, and a rate-limiting membrane that is worn next to
the skin to control drug release into the skin. Types of drugs included in these textiles include Poromeric, or microporous, fabrics
hormones, pain-control medications, nausea-control medication, and medication to ease the incorporate very thin, microporous films.
stress of quitting smoking. Smart poromeric fabrics are found in
The enhanced performance of poromeric fabrics is reflected in their price. Fabrics that apparel and technical products.
are both comfortable and waterproof incorporate expensive components and processes.

Suedelike Fabrics
Suedelike fabrics are designed to replicate the beautiful texture and hand of suede, reduce
the problems encountered in its care, and be competitive in cost. Suedelike fabric is a nee-
dle-punched fabric made from microdenier fibers combined with a resin coating and nonfi-
brous polyurethane. The arrangement of the microdenier fibers reproduces the microscopic
structure of natural suedes, but without the size limitations, variations in thickness and tex-
ture, cleaning restrictions, and higher costs of animal skins. The fabric is dyed and finished.
Ultrasuede® and Ultraleather® are used in apparel and interiors. Ultrasuede® is microfine poly-
ester needle punched, impregnated with a binder, and treated to create the soft and flexible
hand. It is backed with a woven fabric when used for upholstery. Ultraleather® is 100% poly-
urethane with a knit back of 70% rayon and 30% nylon. The embossed fabric is lightweight, Suedelike fabrics are needle-punched
soft, and water-repellent with comfort stretch. fabrics made from microdenier fibers
Suedelike and leatherlike fabrics are used in apparel, upholstery, wall coverings, and combined with a resin coating and
accessories (Table 15.9). Other composite suedelike or leatherlike fabrics are made by apply- nonfibrous polyurethane. They are used for
ing a surface coating of polyurethane, a thin film, or short flock fibers to base fabric (see the apparel and interiors.
next section or Chapter 17).

Table 15.9 Summary Table: Suedelike Fabrics

Construction Technique Characteristics Trade Name

Composite fabric—polyester fibers Washable, dry-cleanable Ultrasuede®

and polyurethane mixed, cast
Looks like leather or suede Ultraleather®
on drum, napped or embossed
Uniform in thickness, appearance,
and quality

Sold by the yard or meter

Surface coating of polyurethane
applied to base fabric with
suedelike finish
Inexpensive composite fabric None
Dry-cleanable, washable
Uniform in thickness, appearance,
and quality

Sold by the yard or meter

Flocked fiber to base fabric Least expensive and least effective None
imitation

Uniform in thickness, appearance,

and quality

Sold by the yard or meter

Flock may wear off at edges

other fabrication methods 381


Straight cut Diagonal cut
Adhesive
Figure Flock with square-cut ends is
15.20 attached more firmly than fibers cut
at an angle.
In flocking, a fine natural or synthetic
surface fiber is applied after a base fabric
has been produced. It can be localized
to imitate extra yarn weaves or all-over
to imitate pile fabrics for upholstery, wall
coverings, and technical products.
382 chapter fifteen
Flocked Fabrics
In flocking, a fine natural or synthetic surface fiber is applied to the surface of a base fabric
after production. Flocking can be localized to imitate extra yarn weaves (see Chapter 17) or all
over to imitate pile fabrics.
Flock fibers are very short, straight (not crimped) fibers attached to a fabric surface by an
adhesive to create an inexpensive pile. Flocking decorated walls as early as the 14th century,
when short silk fibers were applied to freshly painted walls. Flock can be applied to such base
materials as fabric, foam, wood, metal, and concrete, or it can be applied to an adhesive film
and laminated to a base fabric. Aqueous-based acrylic, nylon, or polyester adhesives have
good flexibility, durability, drape, hand, no color, and no odor.
The two methods of applying the flock fibers are mechanical and electrostatic. In both
processes, the flock is placed in an erect position and oven-dried. Table 15.10 compares the
two methods. Both overall and area flocking are done by either method. A rotating screen is
used to deposit the flock. As the fiber length increases, the denier also must increase so that
the fiber will remain erect in the fabric. Fibers that are cut square at the ends anchor more
firmly in the adhesive compared to fibers cut at an angle (Figure 15.20). Examine Table 15.11
to compare flocking with other methods used to produce fabrics with a pile or imitation pile
surface.
Rayon fibers are inexpensive and easy to cut and are used for wall coverings, toys, and
garments. Cotton flock is used in packaging and greeting cards. Nylon for upholstery and
blankets has excellent abrasion resistance and durability. Acrylics, polyesters, and olefins are
used for weather stripping, sealing applications, and automotive squeak and rattle controls
in window channels and dashboards. Polyester and olefin fibers are flocked to marine sur-
faces (boat hulls, docks, and ballast tanks) to protect against barnacles, mussels, and other
marine life. Flocking is a sustainable alternative to paints containing heavy metals that are now
banned in some countries.
Flocking has two safety and sustainability issues. Fiber dust poses a potential fire haz-
ard. In addition, a lung disease nicknamed flock worker’s lung may be related to tiny airborne
fiber particles found in many flocking facilities. To address these problems, producers vac-
uum up the dust and short fibers from the air and require that workers wear respirators and
masks.
Table 15.10 Summary Table: Flocking
Mechanical Flocking Electrostatic Flocking
1. Short fibers sift onto an adhesive-coated 1. Flock fibers are lined up when passed
base fabric. Beater bars force fibers to through an electrostatic field.
adhesive, keep them erect, and bond with
2. Slower
the adhesive.
3. 3D shapes or two-sided application
2. Faster
4. Higher cost, but better fiber orientation and
3. Single side and simple application
density possible
4. Lower cost
5. End uses: flat fabric for apparel and interiors
5. End uses: flat, single-sided fabric for (blankets, upholstery, carpet, and carpet
apparel and interiors, greeting cards, tile); 3D objects (technical products, marine
packaging surfaces, weather stripping, and toys)
Table 15.11  Comparison of Pile Fabrics
Method Type Fabric Identifying Characteristics End Uses Cost

Woven Filling floats Velveteen Cut filling pile: brushed open Mostly apparel Moderate
Corduroy Cut filling pile: brushed open; Mostly apparel, some Moderate
baby wale to wide wale or upholstery
variable wale
Double cloth Velvet Cut warp pile, shorter pile Apparel, upholstery Moderate
Velour Cut warp pile, longer pile Apparel Expensive
Overwire Velvet, Friezé Warp pile: cut and/or uncut Upholstery Expensive
(loops)
Wilton carpet Warp pile: cut and/or uncut Carpet Expensive
(loops)
Slack tension Terrycloth Warp pile: cut and/or uncut Mostly toweling, some Inexpensive to
(loops) apparel moderate
Friezé Warp pile: cut and/or uncut Mostly upholstery, Moderate
(loops)
Shagbark Warp pile: occasional loops Apparel Moderate
Knitted Filling knit Velour Additional yarn laid in course, Apparel Inexpensive
stretchy
Terry Additional yarn laid in course, Apparel, baby toweling Inexpensive
stretchy
Fake fur Sliver knit, stretchy Apparel, bath rugs or Moderate
mats
Fleece Additional yarn laid in course. Apparel Moderate
some stretch
Warp knit Velour Laid in yarn, stable Apparel, upholstery Moderate
Raschel pile knit Pile loops, stable Apparel, upholstery More expensive
Tufted Tufted Pile fabric Yarns punched into substrate, Carpets, rugs, Inexpensive compared
rows of machine stitching upholstery, to other methods
Fake fur
on technical back bedspreads, limited
apparel
Flocked Flocked All-over and applied Fibers adhered all over surface Blankets, upholstery, Inexpensive to other
design or in pattern apparel methods
Chenille yarn Fancy chenille yarn Chenille velvet Pile created by chenille yarn Upholstery Expensive
in fabric

Learning Activity 14
Examine the textile products in your closet and living area. Are any of these items a
composite fabric: coated, poromeric, suedelike, or flocked? If yes, which one(s)?
List the textile components used to produce each composite fabric and the fabrica-
tion method used. Describe your satisfaction with and the serviceability of each item.
Explain why these fabrication methods were used.

Learning Activity 15
Use Fabrics #100 through 102 from your swatch kit. List the textile components used
to produce these composite fabrics, the fabrication method used, and an appropriate
application for each. Examine the key for the swatch kit and predict its serviceability
based on end use, fiber content, and fabrication method.

other fabrication methods 383

 Tufted-Pile Fabrics
Tufting is a process of making pile fabrics by stitching extra yarns into a fabric ground, base,
or substrate. The woven, knitted, or nonwoven ground fabric ranges from thin sheeting or
nonwoven to heavy burlap or coarse warp knit. Tufting developed as a handcraft when early
settlers worked candlewicks into bedspreads to add texture and create designs. The mak-
ing of candlewick bedspreads and hooked rugs grew into a cottage industry. In the 1930s,
machinery was developed to convert the hand technique to mass production. Carpets, rugs,
bedspreads, and robes are produced in many patterns and colors at low cost.
Tufting uses a series of needles carrying a yarn (Figure 15.21). The substrate is in a hori-
zontal position, and the needles all come down at once and go through the fabric to a predeter-
Base fabric
mined depth, much as a sewing machine needle goes through fabric. For each needle, a hook
Tufted loops moves forward to hold the loop as the needle is retracted. In loop-pile fabrics, the loop remains
Figure Tufting. when the hook is removed. For cut-loop pile, a knife moves forward as the needles are retracted
15.21 to cut the loop. The fabric moves forward slightly, and the needles form another row of tufts.
With cut loops, the yarn ends or tufts are held in place by blooming or untwisting the
yarn, by shrinkage of the substrate in finishing, or by applying a coating on the back of the
substrate. Tuft density refers to the number of tufts per square inch (needles/inch 3 stitches/
inch = tuft density). Any pile fabric with low pile density is subject to grin-through, a problem of
the ground structure showing through the pile. This problem is obvious when the fabric is bent
or rolled and is common with carpet, especially on stairs.
Thousands of computerized patterns can be created quickly and easily by changing yarn
color or type, tuft depth, and tuft type (cut or uncut). Carpets are popular in homes, busi-
nesses, and technical facilities because of the low cost of tufted carpets compared to woven
carpets.
Tufting is an inexpensive method to make pile fabrics because it is extremely fast and
new designs are created quickly. Furlike tufted fabrics can be used for shells or linings of
Primary backing
coats and jackets, but there are few other tufted apparel fabrics. Tufted bed-sized blankets
Secondary backing
are made in less than 2 minutes. Cut and uncut tufted upholstery fabric is widely available.
(a)
The back is coated to hold the yarns in place.
Carpeting of room-width size was first made by tufting in 1950; today tufting is the most
widely used production method. A tufting machine can produce approximately 600 times
more carpeting per hour compared to an Axminster loom, that weaves about 14 square yards
per hour. Tufted carpets are shaped to fit a space and are easily removed and replaced.
Table 15.11 compares the different methods of producing pile fabrics.
Gauge is the distance in inches or centimeteres between the tufting needles. In general,
carpets for home or lower-traffic areas differ in gauge from carpets for commercial, technical,
5
and high-traffic areas. Typical gauges for commercial carpets range from 32 inch (0.16 inch
1
or 0.41 centimeters) to 16 inch (0.063 inch or 0.16 centimeters). Tufting specifications also
include stitches per inch and pile height.
(b) Variations in texture are possible by changing loop height and combining cut and uncut
Figure Tufted carpet: diagram (a) and tufts. Tweed textures use different-colored plies in the tufting yarns. Special dyeing and
15.22 carpet (b). Tufts are punched through printing techniques produce colored patterns or figures in which the color penetrates the
primary backing. Secondary backing tufts completely. A latex coating applied to the back of the carpet holds the tufts in place
is bonded to primary backing to lock
(Figure 15.22). Face weight refers to the mass or weight of the tuft yarns used in the carpet. In
pile in place. The primary backing can
be seen along the edge of the carpet general, the higher the face weight, the more expensive and durable the carpet. Face weights
sample. of 25 oz/yd2 or more are common for commercial carpets.

384 chapter fifteen

Table 15.12 Summary Table: Tufting
Process Characteristics End Uses

Yarns carried by needles are
forced through a fabric
substrate and formed into
cut or uncut loops
Look like pile fabric Carpets and rugs
Durability related to pile Upholstery
density, fiber content, yarn
Bedspreads
structure
Coat linings
Inexpensive compared to
woven or knit fabrics

Predicting carpet performance is based on five factors: color, design, density, pile tex-
ture, and fiber. Color is important in hiding soil. Design describes how colors are blended and Tufting creates pile fabrics by stitching

also relates to hiding soil. Density refers to the number of tufts per unit area. The denser the extra yarns into a fabric base, ground, or

carpet, the better it is at resisting soiling and compacting. Pile texture describes the tuft-loop substrate. Tufting is used to create carpet,

structure and yarn type used, also factors in resisting soiling and compacting. Fiber addresses upholstery, and technical products.

the performance of the fibers used in the carpet pile yarns. Carpet fibers are specifically engi-
neered for soil and static resistance. Table 15.12 summarizes composite tufted fabrics.

Laminates
Laminates or laminated fabrics are fabrics in which two layers of fabric are combined into
one with an adhesive or foam (Figure 15.23). Laminate usually refers to a fabric in which an
adhesive was used. Bonded usually refers to a fabric in which a foam was used. However, the
two terms are used interchangeably.
Introduced in 1958, bonding was used to deplete inventories of tender (weak) or light-
weight fabrics. Shoddy operators, not interested in quality, bought two hot rolls discarded by
finishers and started business. Consequently, problems associated with early laminated fab-
rics included layers separated (delaminated) or shrank unevenly, and blotchy colors caused (a)
by adhesive bleed-through to the technical face. These problems gave laminated fabrics a
poor reputation, but, current laminates have good performance and quality.

Laminating Process  Backing fabrics for knits are usually random nonwovens or acetate or
nylon tricot because they give when the face fabric is stretched and they are low cost. Using a

Learning Activity 16
Explain why tufted carpets are so common. Describe how knit and woven carpets com-
pare to tufted carpets for each reason listed. Do you have carpets or rugs where you
live? What type are they? Describe the serviceability of one carpet or rug and explain
your degree of satisfaction with that item. (b)
Figure Laminated fabric: face (a) and back (b).
15.23
Learning Activity 17
Use Fabric #103 from your swatch kit. Explain how the structure of this fabric is similar
to and different from that of tufted carpet or tufted upholstery. Describe an end use for
this fabric and explain its serviceability based on fabric structure, yarn type(s), and fiber
content. (Use the fabric key to determine fiber content.)

other fabrication methods 385

 different color for the backing adds a decorative element to bonded lace. Three methods of
bonding are used (Figure 15.24).
In the wet-adhesive method, an adhesive is applied to the underside of the face fab-
ric and joined to the liner fabric as it is passed through pressure rollers. Two heating areas
remove solvents and produce a permanent bond. Liner fabrics include monolithic membranes
and microporous films. Durable and washable fabrics are breathable, drapeable, and com-
fortable. They are used for apparel to protect from heat, chemicals, biological organisms,
radiation, abrasion, and particulates.

Face
fabric 1.
Wet-adhesive bonding

Adhesive Added

Laminated
Heat & Cure Area or Bonded
fabric

Backing
fabric

2.
Foam-flame bonding
Foam Backing
fabric
Cool Second flame
First flame
Down Laminated
area or bonded
Face
fabric fabric

3.
Hot-melt adhesive bonding

Face
fabric Calender
rolls apply
heat and
pressure Laminated
Adhesive or bonded
fabric

Backing
fabric

Figure Basic methods for producing bonded textiles.

15.24

386 chapter fifteen

 In the foam-flame process, thin polyurethane foam is the adhesive. Foam laminates con-
sist of a layer of foam covered by another fabric or between two fabrics. Heat from a gas
flame makes the foam tacky on both sides. This method adds body but reduces fabric drape-
ability. Another foam process generates the foam at the time of application, flows it onto the
fabric, and cures it. Many kinds and qualities of foam-laminate fabric with different thicknesses
of foam are possible. Some firms laminate or back upholstery fabrics for interior designers.
Flame laminate automotive upholstery is economical with a soft hand, good compression
strength, and good recovery power. Unfortunately from a sustainability perspective, the pro-
cess produces unacceptable volumes of pollutants from the melting and combustion of the
foam. Alternative procedures are more sustainable.
Hot-melt lamination (also known as hot-melt adhesion or dry heat method) is preferred
for bonding because it is versatile, sustainable, and environmentally safe. The adhesive
determines bond strength and resistance to washing, drying, and heat. The adhesive form
determines the fabric’s drape, hand, and breathability. Webs, powders, films, or nets of four
polymers (nylon, polyester, polyolefin, or polyurethane) are used. The face fabric, adhesive,
and liner fabric are adhered with heat and pressure. Hot-melt laminates are used for tailored
garments, shoes, medical drapes, sportswear, protective apparel, geotextiles, luggage,
Laminates are fabrics in which two layers
upholstery, wall coverings, filtration, automotive seating and door panels, and tents.
of fabric are combined into one with an
Hot-melt fabric-monolithic film laminates combine strength, elasticity, flexibility, and
adhesive or foam. Laminates are used for
chemical resistance with windproof and waterproof characteristics. Moisture is absorbed
apparel, interior, and technical products.
through the film on one side, diffused to the other side, and evaporates. These laminates are
used for ski, snowboard, and hunting apparel; operating room gowns and personal protec-
tive apparel; bedding covers for allergy control; and disposable medical apparel. Table 15.13
summarizes laminates.

Stitch-bonded fabrics combine textile

Stitch-Bonded Fabrics structures by adhering fabric layers with
Stitch-bonded fabrics combine textile structures by adhering fabric layers with fiber or yarn fiber or yarn loops, chemical adhesives, or
loops, chemical adhesive, or fusion of thermoplastic fibers. They include knit-through fabrics fusion of thermoplastic fibers. They include
and quilted fabrics. Stitch-bonded fabrics are made from nonwovens and any woven or knit knit-through fabrics and quilted fabrics.
fabric.

Table 15.13 Summary Table: Laminated Fabrics

Process Characteristics End Uses

Two layers of fabric Advantages: inexpensive upgrade for low-cost fabric; Protective apparel
combined with adhesive improved comfort, stabilization, reduces production time
Upholstery for interior and automotive applications
or foam for sewn products; provides warmth without weight;
inexpensive alternate to double cloth Wall coverings
1.  Wet adhesive method
Possible limitations: uneven or differential shrinkage*, Bedding
2.  Foam-flame process
delaminate*, not high quality, bagging or sagging, off-
grain lamination, stiff, boardy Tailored apparel
3. Hot-melt adhesive
process Shoes

Sportswear

Ski, snowboard, and hunting apparel

Technical products: medical drapes and apparel, tents,

geotextiles, luggage, automotive door panels, filters

*Major problems.

other fabrication methods 387


Figure Malimo drapery fabrics.
15.25
Knit-through or sew-knit fabrics are made
by a raschel warp-knitting machine knitting
yarns through a fiberweb or nonwoven
structure or by knitting fibers or yarns
around laid (not woven) warp and filling
yarns. They are used for apparel and
interior textiles.
388 chapter fifteen
Knit-Through Fabrics  Knit-through or sew-knit fabrics are made by knitting yarn or
fiber through a base structure to stabilize it. These high production speed fabrics are made in
several ways. In the first process, a raschel warp-knitting machine knits yarns through a fiber-
web or nonwoven structure. Knitting fibers or knitting yarns around laid (not woven) warp and
filling yarns is the second process. To make these knit-through fabrics, needles create inter-
connected loops from yarns or fibers and stabilize the structure. These fabrics look like wov-
ens, but careful examination shows that the lengthwise and crosswise yarns are not interlaced.
Araknit is a knit-through fiberweb fabric used as a coating substrate. Arachne and
Maliwatt are fabrics with warp-knit yarns through a fiberweb. These knit-through fabrics are
used for interior (upholstery, blankets, and window treatments) and technical uses (insulation
and interlining). Malimo uses warp or filling (or both) laid-in yarns with warp-knitting yarns
(Figure 15.25). These fabrics are used for tablecloths, window-treatment fabrics, vegetable
bags, dishcloths, and outerwear. Do not confuse these fabrics with warp-knit insertion fabrics
(see Chapter 14). Carefully examine the knit-through fabrics to see the fine filament yarns knit-
ted through the inserted yarns, not around them.
Some knit-through fabrics use split-polymer films from recycled bottles. These fabrics are
used in the carpet, geotextile, and bale-wrap industries.
Quilted Fabrics  Quilted fabrics are composite fabrics consisting of three layers: face fab-
ric (also known as the shell or cover), fiberfill or batting, and backing fabric. Three layers are
stitch-bonded in localized areas with thread, chemical adhesive, or fusion by ultra-high-fre-
quency sound, often in a pattern. The area physically bonded is a tiny percentage of the
fabric’s surface so that the quilt’s desired high loft and bulky appearance are not sacrificed.
Most quilted fabric is made by stitching with thread. The thread and quilting stitch type
are good indicators of the quality and durability of the finished fabric. A durable quilt com-
bines a lock stitch with a durable thread. Twistless nylon-monofilament thread may be used
because of its strength and abrasion resistance. Because it is transparent, it disappears in the
colors of the face fabric.
Almost any thread can be used, but those engineered for quilting have different perfor-
mance characteristics compared with regular sewing thread. Quilting threads must be dura-
ble. Thread stitches in quilting may break from abrasion or snagging creating loose ends that
are unsightly and fiberfill that may shift.
Any fabric can be used. A fashion fabric is used on one side. If the article is reversible
or needs to be durable or beautiful on both sides, two fashion fabrics are used. If the fabric
is to be lined or used as upholstery or a bedspread, inexpensive underlayer options include
cheesecloth, tricot, or nonwoven. Batting options are foam, cotton, down, or fiberfill. The
thickness of the quilted fabric is primarily due to the type of batting and range from minimum
loft to high loft. Of course, batting bulk and loftiness greatly influence end use.
Quilting stitching is done in a grid or pattern of straight or curved lines. In upholstery,
quilts, comforters, and bedspreads, the stitching may outline the print of the face fabric. Hand
guiding of the machine quilting makes this an expensive process. Fabric beauty and fash-
ion appeal are important for all end uses. For ski jackets and snowsuits, a closely woven
water- and wind-repellent fabric is desirable; for comforters, resistance to slipping off the bed
is important; for upholstery, durability and resistance to soil are important.
Chemical-adhesive quilts are rare. Chemical adhesives are applied in a pattern, but these
fabrics are not as appealing or as durable as those produced by other quilting methods.
 Figure Bedspread. Two layers of fabric and
(a) (b) 15.27 fiberfill batt joined by a Pinsonic
Figure Pinsonic Thermal Joining Machine (a) and close-up (b). Thermal Joining Machine.
15.26 Source: Courtesy of Branson Ultrasonics Corp. Source: Courtesy of Branson Ultrasonics Corp.

Ultrasonic quilting requires thermoplastic fibers. Heat generated by ultra-high-frequency

sound or ultrasonic vibrations melts thermoplastic fibers, fusing several layers. Figure 15.26 Quilted fabrics are composite fabrics

shows a Pinsonic Thermal Joining Machine that heat-seals thermoplastic materials by ultra- consisting of three layers: face fabric,

sonic vibrations much more quickly than conventional quilting. This process is used on some fiberfill or batting, and backing fabric. They

mattress pads and lower-priced bedspreads because it eliminates thread breakage. However, are used for apparel, interior, and technical

the outer layer may tear along the quilting lines. Figure 15.27 shows a Pinsonic fabric. Table products.

15.14 summarizes knit-through and quilted fabrics.

Table 15.14  Summary Table: Knit-Through and Quilted Fabrics

Process Characteristics End Uses

Knit-through fabric: yarn or fibers knit
through base structure to stabilize it
1.  Raschel warp knit yarns through
nonwoven
2.  Knit fibers or yarns around laid warp
and filling yarns
Quilted fabric: three layers (face fabric,
fiberfill or batting, and backing fabric)
stitch-bonded with thread, chemical
adhesive or fusion in localized areas,
often in a pattern
High production speeds Interiors: upholstery, blankets, window
treatment, wall coverings, wall panels, table
Look like woven or knit fabrics
cloths, dishcloths, carpet
Inexpensive
Apparel: outerwear
Stable
Technical products: coating substrate, vegetable
bags, geotextiles, bale-wrap
Thread type and quilting stitch indicators of quality Bed quilts, comforters, and throws
Inexpensive if machine process Mattresses and mattress pads
Can be made reversible Wall hangings
Can be durable Upholstery

Thread stitches may break causing shifting of batting and Apparel: coats and jackets, robes, slippers,
loss of appearance boots, snowsuits, fashion accessories like
vests, purses, and bags
Thick and lofty depending on batting

Decorative pattern from quilting stitches

Warm

Pinsonic method requires thermoplastic fiber content

Chemical adhesive method not as durable or common as

other two methods

other fabrication methods 389

 18 Learning Activity
Explain the differences and similarities among double cloth, double-knit, and quilted
fabrics. Be sure to address market availability, complexity of structure, components
used to create them, and number of layers.

19 Learning Activity
Examine the textile products you are wearing and have with you today. Are any items
laminated or stitch-bonded? Identify the item(s), list the textile components used to pro-
duce them, and name the fabrication method. Describe your satisfaction with and the
serviceability of one of these items based on fiber content, yarn structure, fabric struc-
ture of each layer, and fabrication method. Explain why these fabrication methods were
used. How does this fabric qualify as a composite fabric?

20 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #104 through 107 from your swatch kit. List the textile components used
to produce each fabric, the fabrication method used, and an appropriate end use for
each. Examine the key for the swatch kit and predict the serviceability for each swatch
based on end use, fiber content, yarn type, and fabrication method.

21 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #12, 13, and 105 from your swatch kit. List the textile components used to
produce each of the fabrics, the fabrication method used, and an appropriate end use.
Explain the differences in construction among the three fabrics.

Supported-Scrim Structures
Supported-scrim structures combine a lightweight nylon scrim or a loose warp-knit fabric
between two thin layers of polyurethane foam with short flock fiber applied to the surface.
Nylon is the most common flock fiber used in these supported-scrim structure blankets and
outerwear. Vellux™ is a trade name for attractive, durable, easy care, and inexpensive blan-
kets (Figure 15.28).
Other supported-scrim fabrics are needle-punched with a scrim between the fiber-
web layers. These technical fabrics are used for roadbed-supports and other high-stability
applications.

Figure A supported scrim structure fabric.

15.28 The area on the left show the scrim Fiber-Reinforced Materials
center layer and the bottom foam and
fiber layers. Fiber-reinforced materials are composites that combine a fibrous component with a poly-
mer resin, metal, or ceramic matrix (Figure 15.29). These materials are known for their high

Supported-scrim structures include strength and light weight. They are often resistant to heat and chemicals. The most common

foam-and-fiber blankets and outwear that fibers used are glass, carbon, and high-tenacity olefin. The reinforcing fiber adds strength and

combine a lightweight nylon scrim or a pliability, minimizes weight, and increases stability. Because orientation of the fiber contributes

loose warp-knit fabric between two thin important characteristics to the composite, fiber sheets with controlled fiber orientation are

layers of polyurethane foam. used. Nanofibers and nanotubes are also used in composites because of the huge difference
in properties between conventional and nanofibers.

390 chapter fifteen

 The matrix materials in which the fibers are embedded are usually polymer resins,
although metals and ceramics are also used. Most often the polymer resin is a thermoset or
thermoplastic polyester. After the resin and fibers are combined, the matrix is cured to give
shape to the composite. Curing is done by heat, catalysts, pressure, or vacuum. Thermoset
resins are most economical. But the cross-link during curing and cannot be reshaped.
Thermoplastic resins solidify upon cooling and can be reshaped by heating.
Smart fiber-reinforced textiles include gas separation membranes with hollow porous
fibers. The selective permeability of the membrane and the fibers allow separation of gas
mixtures. Other smart textiles include structural components in civil engineering applications
including bridges. Integrated fiber-optic sensors in concrete mixtures monitor conditions of
bridges and other structures.
Composite materials are often made by laying sheets of fiber in a mold, applying resin,
and curing. Very important in technical applications, composite materials have contributed
to major advances in transportation technology for lightweight automobiles and airplanes
and more durable road surfaces. Composites are used in applications ranging from toys and
sporting goods to communication satellites and aerospace applications.
A new stronger glass fiber is commonly used because it produces stronger composites
Figure Fiberglass reinforced hopper used in
that are lighter weight than steel and less expensive than specialty fibers. Carbon fiber is
15.29 agriculture to apply pesticide when
used in composites where high strength is needed. Aramid is used where impact, stress, and planting seed.
vibration resistance are needed. A common example of a composite is the fiberglass-polymer
resin used to make boat hulls and car bodies. Polyester fibers are mixed with other materials
to improve durability in concrete for poured road surfaces and building components. Although
specialty fibers are frequently used, interest in natural fibers such as flax, kenaf, jute, hemp,
and sisal is growing in order to produce recyclable composites. Fiber-reinforced materials are composites
Sustainability issues related to composites include controlling pollution and emissions used primarily for technical products that
and environmental regulations and their application to the composites industry. Resins that combine a fibrous component with a
can be recycled like thermoplastic polyester are growing in importance. Table 15.15 summa- polymer resin, metal, or ceramic matrix.
rizes fiber reinforced materials.

Learning Activity 22
List the kinds of materials you use or come in contact with on a regular or daily basis
that might use fiber-reinforced composites. What are the advantages of the fiber rein-
forcement products? How might the material perform if no fiber reinforcement had been
used? Discuss your list with another student in the class. How do your lists compare?

Table 15.15 Summary Table: Fiber-Reinforced Materials

Process Characteristics End Uses

Composite combines a fibrous Strong Technical products: gas

component with a polymer
Lightweight
resin, metal, or ceramic
matrix May be resistant to heat and
chemicals
Low cost depending on fiber
used
Can be impact, stress, and
vibration resistant
separation membranes,
structural components
for civil engineering, road
surfaces, boat hulls,
lightweight car bodies,
toys, sporting goods,
communication satellites,
aerospace applications,
building components

other fabrication methods 391


Figure Skin irregularities on a hide that will
15.30 need to be corrected before further
processing.
392 chapter fifteen
Animal Products
Animal products include leather, suede, and fur. These products are animal skins that are pro-
cessed to maintain flexibility and prevent rotting after being removed from the animal. In order
to use the skin, the animal must be killed. While animal-rights activists object to using animals
in this way, others find products made of skins or hides attractive and functional regardless of
their source.
Leather
Leather is processed from the skins and hides of mammals, reptiles, fish, and birds. This
organic substance is derived from living animals and varies greatly in uniformity. Most leather
in the United States is from cattle, pigs, or lambs. These animals are raised primarily for meat
or fiber (some sheep and goat breeds), not for their hides or skins. Leather is a relatively unim-
portant by-product. Hides come from large animals like cattle and is thick. Skins come from
smaller animals like lambs and is thinner compared to hides.
The hides from different animals vary in size, thickness, and grain. Grain is the marking
that results from the skin formation and varies not only from species to species and from
animal to animal but also within a hide. Other factors influence the surface of hides (Figure
15.30). Animals fight and bite or scratch each other, run into barbed-wire fences or nails, and
are bitten by ticks and insects, causing scars that cannot be erased. Brand marks and skin
disease also mar hides. Vein marks, wrinkles, or pronounced grain marks may be viewed as
undesirable irregularities. Fewer than 5% of hides convert into smooth top-grain leather in
aniline finish, 20% become smooth leathers with a pigment finish, and the remaining 75% are
embossed, buffed, snuffed, or corrected in some fashion.
Dried skins and hides are stiff, boardy, nonpliable, and subject to decay. Tanning is the
process in which skins and hides are treated with a chemical agent to make them pliable and
water- and rot-resistant. Vegetable tanning, the most expensive and sustainable process, is
done with a bark extract. Chrome tanning uses a solution of bichromate of soda, sulfuric
acid, and glucose and makes soft, pliable leather, but the solution contains compounds that
damage the environment. Oil tanning is used to make chamois. Alum tanning is used for white
leather. Because of sustainability concerns, vegetable tanning is becoming more common
since chromium-containing waste is highly toxic. New tanning processes use fluorochemi-
cals that cross-link the collagen in leather. Lezanova® leather is waterproof, shrink- and stain-­
resistant, breathable, washable, and soft.
Skins and hides go through many processes to become leather: salting to prevent
rot before tanning; cleaning to remove the hair and epidermis; tanning; bleaching to
whiten the hide or skin; stuffing to reduce surface irregularities; coloring or dyeing; stak-
ing to stabilize size; and finishing by glazing, boarding, buffing, snuffing, or embossing,
depending on the desired end use. The many processes explain why leather is an expen-
sive product.
The appearance of leather can be modified extensively in finishing. Stuffing, snuffing,
and buffing camouflage flaws, scars, wrinkles, or irregularities in the skins. Fillers cover these
irregularities with a chemical compound, much as cosmetics are used to hide complexion
flaws. Bleaching whitens the skin prior to dyeing. Staking, a tension drying process, minimizes
shrinkage. Finishing by dyeing, printing, glazing, and embossing add color, gloss, or texture
and add to leather’s appeal.
 Leather is a nonseparable-fiber product. The fibers are very dense on the skin side and
less dense on the flesh side (Figure 15.31). Thick hides are often split or shaved into layers to
make them more pliable and economical (Figure 15.32).
The outermost layer is called top grain and has the typical animal grain on its outer sur-
face. It takes the best finish and wears well. It is also the highest quality and most expensive.
Split leather has a looser, more porous structure. Because it is cut across the fibers, it is
not as smooth as top grain and tends to roughen up during use. Most split leathers have an
embossed or suede finish. Although splits are not identified as such on product labels, top
grain is usually mentioned. Splits are less expensive and lower in quality. The quality of splits
Figure Cross-section of leather showing
decreases with each layer; the lowest-quality leather is next to the animal’s flesh. Full-grain
15.31 variations in fiber density (skin
leather has not been split. surface at top, flesh side at bottom).
Leather is a durable product. It may have a noticeable odor. It varies greatly in quality—
not only from skin to skin but within one skin. Leather from the backs and sides of the animal Top grain
is better quality, whereas that from the belly and legs tends to be thin and stretchy or very First split
coarse. Leather has a pleasant hand and texture. Depending on the thickness, it is pliable. It is Second split
permeable to water vapor. Depending on the finish, leather will wet. Wet leather needs to be Slab
handled carefully since it is likely to stretch while wet and becomes stiff when dried. Creating Figure Split leather.
textile products from leather is expensive and time consuming because matching grain within 15.32
or among hides/skins takes time, more and smaller pieces are required because of the size
limitations of the leather, and special attachments are required for sewing machines. Color
may rub off during wear.
Leather picks up oils and grease readily. It requires special care in cleaning since it is
stiffened by solvents. Most dry cleaners send leather and suede items to a specialist for clean-
ing to remove soil, odor, and oil. Unfortunately, screen prints, dyes, other finishes, and fillers
may also be removed or altered during cleaning. Scars, skin irregularities, and other flaws
like wrinkles, vein marks, and texture differences may appear. The oil can be replaced fairly
easily. Although dry cleaners can redye to bring the item closer to its original appearance,
screen prints and wrinkles create texture problems that cannot be handled as easily. Thus, it
is always wise to have all items of the same color cleaned at the same time in case a problem
develops. Most leather cleaners are adept at finishing or reworking leather items so that the
consumer is never aware that the original appearance has been replaced. However, the high
cost of leather cleaning clearly reflects the additional efforts required of the dry cleaner. When
problems occur, many consumers assume the dry cleaner is at fault. Although this could be
the case, frequently the problem lies with the manufacturer, who selected the incorrect hide,
process, chemical, or component to use in the item. For example, fusible interlinings in jack-
ets may separate or shrink, causing the leather to bubble or pucker, or screen prints may not
be fast to dry cleaning.
Leather is used for apparel, upholstery, boots and shoes, wall coverings, athletic gear
(balls, gloves, and wraps on racket handles), saddles and bridles, luggage and bags, and
accessories like wallets, lamp shades, and coasters. Leather laminated to a poromeric film
and lining fabric is available for rain-repellent outerwear. Another leather laminate product
combines leather with a fabric backing containing spandex for shoes, gloves, and apparel
with better fit and comfort. Product design is limited by the size of the skins; therefore, leather Leather is processed from the skins and
products usually have more seams as compared with other materials. hides of mammals, reptiles, fish, and birds.
Reconstituted leathers have been made by grinding up leather, mixing it with urethane, Leather is used for apparel, interior, and
and forming it into sheets. These products are uniform in thickness and quality and are unlim- technical products.
ited in length and width.

other fabrication methods 393

 Suede
Suede is a popular leather for coats, jackets, dresses, boots and shoes, gloves, bags or
purses, trims, and interiors such as upholstery and wall coverings (Figure 15.33). The soft, dull
surface of suede is made by napping (running the skin under a coarse emery sander) on the
flesh side or on one side of a split to pull up the fibers. Suede is usually processed from the
skins of cattle, pigs, and lambs. Grain-sueded leather or nubuck leather has been napped
on the grain side and has a velvetlike hand. Suede is a very durable product, but it requires
special care. Chamois, a type of suede, was originally made from the skins of chamois goats
that are native to Europe, but today, it is often made from the hides of deer and domes-
Figure Suede. tic sheep and goats. Chamois is used to polish or buff wood and painted objects like cars
15.33 because it is soft, flexible, and does not scratch. Rain, wet snow, and other moisture damage
suede. Cleaning of suede should be done by specialists.

The soft, dull surface of suede is made by Suede is prized for its ability to flex with and mold to the body. It has a luxurious, sub-

napping (running the skin under a coarse stantial hand. Because of its thinner nature, suede has good resilience and does not wrinkle

emery sander) on the flesh side or on one as easily as leather. Suede can be damaged by abrasion and is expensive.

side of a split to pull up the fibers. Suede is

used for apparel and interior products. Fur
A fur is any animal skin or part of an animal skin to which the hair, fleece, or fur fibers are
attached (Figure 15.34). Fur comes from a variety of animals: seal, rabbit, muskrat, nutria,
raccoon, fox, chinchilla, mink, sheep (called shearling) and lamb, ermine, sable, wolf, coyote,
and others. Some endangered animals are protected from fur harvest. In spite of this protec-
tion, poachers destroy some animals to meet the demand of unscrupulous consumers for fur
from Siberian tigers, snow leopards, and others.
Fur is expensive, especially chinchilla, mink, sable, platina fox, and ermine. Fur items
are considered luxury items by the U.S. government. Fur is used in apparel, slippers, boots,
throws and rugs, accent pillows, wall hangings, and animal toys. Consumers usually purchase
furs because of their beautiful appearance rather than for their warmth, durability, or easy
care. Knowing about the kinds of fur, how fur garments are made, and how to care for them
(a) will help in making wise selections and in maintaining the beauty of the item.
Furs are natural products and vary in quality. Good-quality fur has a very dense pile and
is soft and fluffy. If the fur has guard hairs, they are long and very lustrous. Quality depends
on the age and health of the animal and the season of the year in which it was killed. Furs are
usually harvested in late fall because the coat is most dense and has minimal sun and abra-
sion damage. Fur has a natural, one-directional nap.
Fur trapping has long been an important industry in many parts of the world. Begun
in 1880, fur farming produces better pelts as a result of scientific breeding, careful feeding
and handling of the animals, and harvesting the fur when it is in prime condition. Silver fox,
chinchilla, mink, Persian lamb, and nutria are commonly raised this way. Persian lamb is also
known as karakul (also known as caracul or astrakhan). This fur is the pelt of newborn Karakul
(b)
sheep. It has a distinctive tight, curly pattern of usually black or dark gray hair.
Figure Fur (otter): pelt side (a), skin side (b).
Crossbreeding and inbreeding produce new and different-colored furs. However, efforts
15.34
by animal-rights activists to decrease the use of furs have had a negative impact on fur farm-
ing and demand for fur products.
The cost of fur depends on fashion, the supply and demand for fashionable furs, and the
labor required. Skins are gathered together from all over the world and sold at public auctions.

394 chapter fifteen

 Furs go through many processes before they are sold as products. The dressing of fur
is comparable to the tanning of leather. It keeps the skins from putrefying and makes them
soft and pliable. Dressing requires more care compared to leather so that the surface hairs
or fibers are not damaged. After dressing, pelts are combed, brushed, and beaten. The final
step, drumming in sawdust, cleans and polishes the hair and absorbs excess oil. Brushing or
vacuuming removes the sawdust.
Many furs are dyed. Dyeing makes less expensive furs look like expensive ones. For
example, muskrat may be dyed to resemble seal, and rabbit may be stenciled to look spot-
ted. Dyeing improves fur’s natural color or gives an unnatural color such as red. Tip-dyeing
brushes the tips of the fur and guard hairs with dye. In dip-dyeing, the entire skin is dipped in
dye. Some furs are bleached, and some are bleached and then dyed. Repurposed fur makes
new products from existing fur items.
Furs require special care to keep them beautiful. They should not be stored in damp
or hot, humid places and never in plastic bags. Between seasons, cold storage at a furriers
keeps furs in special temperature- and humidity-controlled vaults. To restore luster and clean
the garment, send it to a furrier once a year. Furs should only be cleaned using the furrier
method. In the furrier method, the fur is tumbled in an oil-saturated, coarsely grained pow-
der. The powder absorbs soil, adds oil to the fibers and skin, and cleans the fibers without
excessive abrasion and matting. Careful brushing and vacuuming remove the excess powder. A fur is any animal skin or part of an animal
Sometimes after cleaning, a small amount of the powder remains in pockets. skin to which the hair, fleece, or fur fibers
Protect fur from abrasion. Avoid sitting on fur garments. Hang them on a wide, well-con- are attached. Fur is used for apparel and
structed hanger and allow plenty of space between garments. Shake garments; do not brush interior products.
them. Table 15.16 summarizes the animal products: leather, suede, and fur.

Table 15.16 Summary Table: Leather, Suede, and Fur

Leather Suede Fur

Process Hides and skins of animals, reptiles, bird, Nap flesh side of leather or on one side Animal skin with hair, dressed to keep
and fish tanned to maintain flexibility of a split to pull up the fibers hair lustrous and skin pliable and
and prevent rot prevent rot
Characteristics Has grain Soft, buttery hand Beautiful appearance

Wide variations in size, thickness, Napped Luxurious hand and texture

quality, and texture
Flexible Dense pile
Blemishes reduced or hidden by
Molds to body Can be dyed
processing
Good resilience Expensive
Extensively modified
Damaged by abrasion Sensitive to abrasion
Expensive
Expensive Heavy
Pleasant hand and texture
Easily stained by oily soils Requires special cleaning and storage
Pliable, but may be stiff
Permeable to water vapor
Easily stained by oily soils
Requires special cleaning
Permeable to water vapor

Requires special cleaning

End Uses Apparel, upholstery, boots and shoes, Coats, dresses, jackets, boots, Apparel, slippers, boots, throws, rugs,
wall coverings, athletic gear, saddles, shoes, gloves, bags, purses, trims, accent pillows, wall hangings, and
bridles, luggage, bags, wallets, lamp upholstery, and wall coverings animal toys
shades, and coasters

other fabrication methods 395

 23 Learning Activity
Examine the textile products you are wearing and have with you today. Are any of your
items leather, suede, or fur? Describe your satisfaction with and the serviceability of one
of each of these items based on fabric structure. Explain why some people find these
materials unacceptable. If you have faux or vegan leather, suede, or fur, describe the
fabrication method used to produce the fabric. Discuss its serviceability in terms of fiber
content, yarn type, and fabrication method. How closely does the faux item resemble
the real thing?

24 Learning Activity
Return to the list you originally started in response to Review Question 10 for Chapter 2
and to which you have been adding details. Identify characteristics to use in determining
the quality of leather, suede, and fur. How might this information be of use to you as a
professional? As a consumer?

terms
key terms
Applique
Battenberg lace
Batting
Foam
Full-grain leather
Fur
Raschel lace
Shearling
Shifting resistance
Bobbin lace Fusible nonwovens Split leather
Braid Gauge Spun-bonded web
Chemical adhesives Grain Spun-lace web
Coated fabric Grain-sueded leather Spunmelt
Composite fabric Knit lace Stitch-bonded fabric
Cordonnet or re-embroidered lace Knit-through or sew-knit fabric Suede
Crocheted lace Lace Suedelike fabric
Down Laminates or laminated fabric Supported film
Dry-laid fiberweb Leather Supported-scrim structure
Embroidery Leavers lace Tanning
Expanded film Melt-blown fiberweb Tapa cloth
Felt Needle punching Top grain
Fiber density Needlepoint lace Tuft density
Fiberfill Netlike structure Tufting
Fiber-reinforced materials Nonwovens Wadding
Fiberweb structure Plain film Wet-laid fiberweb
Film Poromeric fabric
Flocking Quilted fabric

questions
review questions
1. Why are nonwoven or fiberweb structures so important to
the technical products market?
2. Identify each fabrication method discussed in this chapter
3. Give an example of a fabric for each fabrication method,
and explain its advantages and limitations.
4. What performance can be expected from the following
and its component(s): solution, fiber, yarn, or fabric. products?

396 chapter fifteen

 a. A vinyl film (jersey-supported) upholstered dental chair a. Nonwoven or fiberweb fabrics
b. A 100% polyester raschel knit lace drapery for a master b. Coated fabrics
bedroom c. Quilted fabrics
c. A quilted bedspread and matching draperies d. Lace
(50% polyester/50% cotton) for a motel room e. Imitation suede
d. A pair of leather slacks f. Laminated fabrics
e. Wall covering of a suedelike structure g. Suede
f. A poromeric raincoat of 65% polyester/35% cotton 7. List an advantage and a disadvantage for each of the
(outer fabric) fabrics listed in Question #6.
g. A laminated knit hoodie sweatshirt of 100% acrylic
8. Many of the fabrication methods discussed in this chapter
h. A 100% nylon tufted carpet for family room
are used for technical applications. Explain why that is so.
i. A 100% nylon microfiber dust cloth for home use
j. A pair of 100% BCF polyester shoelaces 9. Explain the textile structures from this chapter that are used
k. A cat toy made of rabbit fur to shape tailored garments such as coats and jackets.
l. Playground equipment made of fiber-reinforced material How has their use changed production and cost of these
products?
5. Explain the relationship of these fabrics and fabrication
methods (melt-extrusion; nonwoven or fiberweb; felt; 10. Based on your knowledge of textiles, identify a fiber that
fibrillated-net process; braid; lace; coating; tufting; would likely be used in fiber-reinforced materials to impart
lamination; knit-through; and quilting) to products likely to these characteristics:
be encountered by professionals in the apparel or interiors a. Strength
industry. b. Light weight
c. Heat resistance
6. Describe the methods used to produce the following
d. Chemical resistance
fabrics:
e. Impart and vibration resistance

questions
section review questions
1. Organize this list of fabrics by structural component (film,
fiber, yarn, fabric, or combination/composite): percale,
dry-laid, tricot, lace, oxford chambray, fake fur, gabardine,
4. Identify in which direction (lengthwise, crosswise, or
bias) stretch occurs for the following fabrics. Using fabric
structure, explain why each fabric stretches as it does:
tufted carpet, velvet, foam, piqué, laminate, corduroy, and a. Percale
jersey. b. Jersey
2. Identify the fabrics in Question #1 that are woven and knit c. Tricot
and describe the weave or knit structure used to create d. Random oriented fiberweb
them. e. Braid
f. Gabardine
3. Describe an appropriate fabric [fiber content, yarn type (if
g. Crepe-back satin
applicable), fabrication method, and fabric name] for these
h. Double-knit
end uses. Explain the advantages/disadvantages for each
i. Intarsia
of your answers.
a. Cover for a changing table in a baby’s room 5. Explain the difference(s) between technical face and
b. Sweater for a ski trip technical back for woven and knit fabrics. Identify three
c. Sleeping bag for a scout’s overnight camp ways or reasons why the face and back of a fabric may
d. Towel for a public restroom in a movie theatre differ in appearance.
e. Toddler’s shorts for summer outdoor play (warm 6. How can design or texture be incorporated in a fabric as it
climate) is made?
f. Toddler’s pants for winter outdoor play (cold climate) 7. Explain the difference in serviceability among these
g. Chair for an executive conference room products:
h. Carpet for a dormitory entry a. 100% cotton broadcloth top
i. Upholstery for a rental car b. 65% cotton/35% polyester jersey top
j. Suit for an internship interview c. 100% nylon tricot top
k. Swimwear for spring break d. 95% polyester/5% spandex lace top

other fabrication methods 397

 8. Describe the usual direction that stripes run in woven
versus knit fabrics. Explain why there is a difference in the
orientation of stripes between these two basic structures.
9. Explain the differences among these fabrication methods:
lace, embroidery, braid, and raschel knit.
10. Explain the differences and similarities of the serviceability
among tufted, knit, and woven pile carpets and rugs.
11. Identify four methods used to produce faux fur fabrics.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of each
method.
12. Explain why fabric structure, fabric performance, and
fabric name are important to professional activities such as
design, merchandising, marketing, product development,
and consumer satisfaction.

Case Study
Textile Protection from Dust Mites*
Many producers of pillowcases and pillow
covers claim that their products reduce
exposure to allergic triggers from dust
and dust mites. House dust mites are
microscopic animals that are about 300
µm (0.0117 inches) long—too small to
see without the use of a microscope or
a magnifying glass. Dust mites are found
in household dust and reside in bedding.
Debris from dust mites causes allergic
reactions in many people and may eventually
trigger asthma in some. Research into the
actual protection provided by pillowcases
and pillow covers identified several factors
of importance: ability to block movement of
allergens and live dust mites, air permeability,
dust leakage, and fabric density. Fifty-three
consumer products were evaluated for
their performance. Plastic films and tightly
woven products were most effective by
preventing more than 99% of the allergen
from penetrating through the product.
Other products blocked allergens, but
did allow some mite penetration through
them. These other products included
film/membrane coated woven fabrics,
coated woven fabrics, membrane-coated
nonwovens, combinations made of woven
and nonwoven fabrics, and nonwovens.
Discussion Questions
1. What advantages and disadvantages
might consumers encounter if they decide
to use plastic films as a pillowcase or
pillow cover to protect from dust mite-re-
lated allergic reactions?
2. What advantages and disadvantages
might consumers encounter if they decide
to use tightly woven fabric as a pillowcase
or pillow cover to protect from dust mite
related allergic reactions?
3. What are the basic components used to
produce the variety of pillowcases and
pillow covers used in this research?
4. What textile factors are included in the
measures used to assess the perfor-
mance of these products?
5. How could consumers use this informa-
tion when selecting pillowcases or pillow
covers to provide dust mite protection?

*Mahakittikun, V., Boitano, J. J., Komoltri, C., Ninsanit, P., & Wangpapai, T. (2009). Anti-mite covers: Potential criteria for materials used against dust mites. Textile
Research Journal, 79(5), 436–443.

readings
suggested readings
Anon. (2009). At your convenience. Textiles, 36(2), 22–24.
Atlas, S., & Pamul, G. (2007). Ultrasonic energy in the textile
industry. AATCC Review, 7(6), 29–31.
Baugh, G. (2011). The Fashion Designer’s Textile Dictionary.
London: Barron’s Educational Series, Inc.
Bertrand, D. (2005, January/February). High performance coated
fabrics. The Textile Journal, 122, 18–21.
Brown, S. G. (1994, July/August). The making and coloration of
leather. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists, 10,
213–214.
Earnshaw, P. (1999). A Dictionary of Lace. New York: Dover
Publications.
Humphries, M. (2009). Fabric Glossary, 4th ed. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Isaacs, M. (2005). Nonwoven fabrics wipe out the doldrums.
AATCC Review, 5(9), 14–17.
Mahakittikun, V., Boitano, J. J., Komoltri, C., Ninsanit, P., &
Wangpapai, T. (2009). Anti-mite covers: Potential criteria for
materials used against dust mites. Textile Research Journal,
79(5), 436–443.

398 chapter fifteen

Mansfield, R. G. (2003, January). Combining nonwovens by
lamination and other methods. Textile World, 153, 22–25.
Pamuk, G., & Çeken, F. (2008). Recyclable spacer fabrics for
automotives. AATCC Review, 8(8), 32–36.
Pourdeyhimi, B. (2004, February). Nonwovens. Textile World, 154,
40–44.
Pourdeyhimi, B. (2008, January/February). Nonwovens technology:
Implications for the nonwovens industry. Textile World, 154(1),
49–55.
Rupp, J. (2008, March/April). Drylaid nonwovens. Textile World,
158(2), 32–34.
Rupp, J. (2008, May/June). Spunbond & meltblown nonwovens.
Textile World, 158(3), 34–38.
Rupp, J. (2008, July/August). Spunlaced or hydroentangled
nonwovens. Textile World, 158(4), 36–39.
Rupp, J. (2008, September/October). Needlepunched nonwovens.
Textile World, 158(5), 37–41.
Tao, X. (Ed.), (2001). Smart Fibres, Fabrics, and Clothing.
Cambridge, England: Woodhead Publishing.
Thiry, M. C. (2006). Not just one thing or the other. AATCC Review,
6(8), 7–11.
Tortora, P. G., & Merkel, R. S. (1996). Fairchild’s Dictionary of
Textiles, 7th ed. New York: Fairchild Publications.
Tremblay, J. F. (2009, February 2). Leather from another era.
Chemical and Engineering News, 87(5), 18–21.
Tullo, A. H. (2004, August 30). Composite materials. Chemical and
Engineering News, 82, 34–39.
other fabrication methods 399
Kslight/Fotolia Tverdohlib/Fotolia

Alexei_Tm/Fotolia
Section V

FINISHING
16 Finishing: An Overview
18 Special-Purpose Finishes

17 Aesthetic Finishes 19 Dyeing and Printing

Darla Hallmark/Fotolia Odze/Fotolia

Bikeworldtravel/Fotolia Lorenzot81/Fotolia
Finishing:
An Overview

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To describe the technology of textile finishing.
• To identify the processes and steps involved in fabric finishing.
• To integrate the impact of finishing on fabric cost, quality, performance, appearance,
and sustainability.

16

A finish is any process that is done to a
fiber, yarn, or fabric either before or after
fabrication to change the appearance, the
hand, or the performance. Finishing adds
to the cost of the end product and to the
time it takes to produce the item.
404 chapter sixteen
Finishing enhances fabric performance, quality, cost, and appearance. The four chapters in
this section focus on converting a fabric from a raw or unfinished form to the finished product
consumers expect and anticipate.
A finish is any process that is done to a fiber, yarn, or fabric either before or after fabri-
cation to change the appearance (what is seen), the hand (what is felt), the performance (what
the fabric does), or a combination of these properties. All finishing processes add to the cost
of the end product and to the time it takes to produce the item. Additionally, finishing often
utilizes chemicals that are damaging to the environment and includes processes that can
damage the fiber or fabric.
This chapter will detail the routine steps in producing a fabric. Finishing is involved at
every stage from fiber to fabric creation. The sequence normally followed in textile processing
is complicated; several steps may be repeated. Fiber processing is usually completed first,
followed by yarn processing. In preparation, the yarn or fabric is made ready for additional
steps in processing. After the fabric is created, also called fabrication, bleaching is almost
always done before dyeing. Adding color or pigment to the fabric is usually completed before
finishing and reworking (repairing). Figure 16.1 shows a typical sequence used to produce
a fabric.
Finishing may be done in the mill where the fabric is produced, or it may be completed in
a separate facility by highly specialized companies called converters. Converters perform a
service for mills by finishing goods to order, in which case they are paid for their services and
never own the fabric; or they buy fabric from a mill, finish it according to their needs, and sell
it, sometimes under their trade name.
Fiber processing Yarn processing Preparation
Bleach
Cleaning
Agents
Fabrication Preparation Whitening
Coloration Finishing Inspection and reworking
Figure Typical production sequence for textile fabrics.
16.1
 Vertically integrated firms are an important part of the textile complex and direct and
control every step of processing for fabrics used in their products, from opening bales of raw
fiber to cutting and sewing finished products. Vertical firms convert or finish fabrics in facilities
they own and operate.
Finishes can be classified by how long they are effective. A permanent finish, such as
mercerization, lasts the life of the item. A durable finish, such as wrinkle resistance, may
last for the life of the product, but its effectiveness diminishes with use or age. These finishes
require some effort by the user as the fabric ages. With wrinkle-resistant finishes, older items
may require some ironing. A temporary finish, such as simple calendering, lasts until the
item is washed or dry-cleaned. A renewable finish, such as some water-repellent finishes,
can be applied by consumers or reapplied by dry cleaners. Dyeing, printing, embossing, and A permanent finish lasts the life of the item.
several other finishes are easy to recognize because they are visible. Other finishes—such A durable finish may last for the life of the
as wrinkle resistance—are not visible but impact fabric performance. Consumers may have product, but its effectiveness diminishes
difficulty understanding the higher costs for fabrics with such invisible finishes as wrinkle- and with use or age. A temporary finish lasts
soil-resistance. However, goods on which these finishes are applied, such as business wear until the item is washed or dry-cleaned.
and travel wear, are usually advertised as iron-free, wrinkle-free, and easy-care, adding to A renewable finish can be applied by
their real and perceived value. Improved performance is a benefit. The improved performance consumers or reapplied by dry cleaners.
resulting from finishing adds to the inherent value and the cost of the product.
Many similar finishing processes are used on a range of fabric types. However, because
of their importance and greater likelihood of being finished, the emphasis here will be on Gray goods are fabrics that have been
woven and knitted fabrics. The major differences that exist between finishing woven or k­ nitted produced but have received no wet- or
fabrics occur in the way the fabric is handled and moved. Most woven fabrics have little dry-finishing operations. Converted, or
stretch. Knits and fabrics with elastomers have a much greater potential for stretch; hence finished, goods have received wet- or dry-
precautions need to be taken to minimize stretching during finishing. Pile fabrics are handled finishing treatments such as bleaching,
so that finishing does not flatten the pile. dyeing, or embossing. Mill-finished fabrics
Gray (grey, greige, or loom state) goods are fabrics (regardless of color) that have are sold and used without further finishing.
been produced but have received no wet- or dry-finishing operations. Some gray-goods fab- Some may be sized before they are sold.
rics have names, such as print cloth and soft-filled sheeting that describe only the gray goods.
Other gray-goods names, such as lawn, broadcloth, and sateen, are also used as names for
the finished fabric.
Converted, or finished, goods have received wet- or dry-finishing treatments such
as bleaching, dyeing, or embossing. Some converted goods retain the gray-goods name.
Others, such as madras gingham, are named for the place of origin; still others, such as
silence cloth, are named for the end use. Figure 16.2 shows a print-cloth gray goods and the
various looks of the fabric with different finishing procedures. Mill-finished fabrics are sold
and used without further finishing. Some may be sized before they are sold.
Finishing of textiles are completed either by machine in mechanical finishing or by chem-
icals. Mechanical finishing typically uses mechanical force, temperature, and steam. The
types of finishes completed mechanically include tumbling, stone washing, hand sanding,
Figure Print-cloth: gray goods as produced,
16.2 bleached, piece-dyed, and printed.
Learning Activity 1
Examine the apparel that you are wearing and the textile products surrounding you. Are
any of these products gray goods? Of the products surrounding you that were finished,
write down if finishes were likely applied to change the appearance, the hand, the per-
formance, or a combination? If you purchased the item, what claims were made on
labels that might imply one or more specific finishes?

finishing: an overview 405

 sand blasting, brushing, sueding, and shearing. Denim is often mechanically finished. In the
process of abrading the fabric to achieve the desired finish, mechanical finishes can ­contribute
to fiber strength loss and reduce the life of the end product. Chemical finishes are used in
both aesthetic and performance finishes using chemicals to achieve the desired outcome.
Chemical finishes are often more time consuming and costly than mechanical finishes due to
the time required for the chemical reaction or change to occur, to changing chemical restric-
tions and record keeping, and to increasing costs. Chemical finishes include resin finishes,
water/oil repellent finishes, and antimicrobial finishes that are not possible to achieve through
mechanical means.
In order to finish textiles, a tremendous amount of water is necessary. This water must
be clean and neutral without inorganic or organic contaminants that may interfere with finish-
ing and lower the quality of the finished fabric. In some parts of the world, sufficient good-­
quality water for finishing is hard to acquire. While textile processing requires very clean water,
the water is quickly contaminated. Regulations defining the quality of water being discharged
into water systems are becoming more stringent. Before discharge, water often needs
mechanical filtration, chemical treatment, and reverse osmosis to remove finishing chemicals
and dyes. Heat exchangers recover energy from hot water. Finishing operations need to know
the amount of water used to reduce it and cut costs, meet environmental regulations, and

Conserving water, reducing energy use, satisfy buyers’ expectations for socially responsible finishing. Significant research is occurring

and reusing water are important concerns worldwide to reduce water and energy use and reuse water in textile processing. Recycling

in finishing. water is a challenge in geographic regions with a ready supply of water and of imminent
importance where water is not as readily available.

Finishing Technology
There are a number of processes that can be used to finish textiles. Selection of the pro-
cesses depends on many factors: fiber content, yarn type, fabrication method, facilities avail-
able, cost, government regulations, and company policies. For years, water-bath finishing
was standard because water is a good, readily available, and inexpensive solvent. In water-
bath finishing, the finishing chemical is placed in a water solution and padded onto the fabric
by immersing the fabric in the solution and squeezing out excess liquid. The fabric is heavy
with water, often as much as five times heavier. Moving and drying the fabric requires a lot of
energy and a great deal of water is used to scour or clean the fabric. Because of sustainability
and energy costs, foam finishing is an alternative means of adding a finish. Foam finishing
uses foam rather than liquid to apply the finishing chemical to the fabric. A foam is a mixture of
air and liquid that is lighter in weight than a solution of liquid. Foam finishing is used because
of the low wet pickup and decreased amounts of chemicals needed. Pickup is the amount
of liquid or chemical a fabric absorbs during finishing. Lower wet pickup means that the fabric
weighs less. Lighter weight fabrics conserve energy when being moved and dried. With higher
production speeds and lower water use in scouring and cleaning, the costs of foam finishing
are kept low. Foam is used to add routine and special-purpose finishes to the fabric. One
of its major limitations is that as the amount of water in the process decreases, the uniform
application of a finish throughout the fabric also decreases.
Another development in finishing is the use of solvents other than water, referred to as
solvent finishing. Solvent finishing decreases water pollution and energy costs. In solvent
finishing, a solvent is used to mix the solution. It is not as popular as foam finishing because

406 chapter sixteen

of solvent costs, expensive reclaiming processes, sustainability, regulatory issues, and health
problems.
Enzymes as alternates to other organic or inorganic chemicals are increasing. Enzymes
are organic catalysts used to speed chemical reactions. Enzymes are used in several finishes
on a range of natural fibers. Enzymes are more sustainable because they function at lower
temperatures compared to other finishing chemicals, use less water and energy, require less
treatment of wastewater, and produce fabric with a softer hand and less damage. Enzymes
are not effective for synthetic fibers like polyester or for bleaching of cotton. Because enzymes
can be selected to react with specific chemicals, they are considered smart or intelligent
finishes.
In recent years, nanotechnology as related to finishing has become a very active, high
growth research area. Nanotechnology is the understanding, manipulation, and control of
matter such that the physical, chemical, and biological properties (from individual atoms) can
be engineered, synthesized, or altered to develop improved materials. Nanomaterials are
being increasingly used to improve elements of chemical finishes. For example, while resins
are used to impart wrinkle resistant to fabrics, they can negatively impact water absorbency,
dyeability, and breathability. As such nano-titanium dioxide and nanosilica can be used to
improve wrinkle-resistant properties of cotton and silk without impacting the breathability of
the fabrics.
Plasma is a special type of neutral, highly ionized gas or vapor that is distinct from solid,
liquid, or normal gas. Plasma treatment changes the surface nature of textiles with thin,
inexpensive, functional coatings in ways not possible with any other finishing technology. Fiber
surfaces can be cleaned and modified in one process for improved and sustainable finishing
with significant reductions in time, energy, water, and chemical use. Since plasma finishing
is a dry process, little or no waste is generated. Plasma treatment enables fabric surfaces
to be engineered for specific end uses without damaging the fiber, yarn, or fabric structure.
Depending on the end use, fabrics can be treated on only one side, on both sides, or different
finishes can be applied to each side. Limitations for plasma treatment relate to it being most
effective for very fine fibers, expensive equipment, batch processing restrictions, and imper-
fect durability of coatings. Table 16.1 summarizes the major finishing application technologies.
Trends in finishing focus on improving production rates, decreasing water usage, and
reducing energy and chemical consumption. Controlling costs and improving sustainability

Table 16.1 Summary Table: Finishing Technology

Process Concept Disadvantages

Water-bath finishing The finishing chemical is placed in a water solution and
padded onto the fabric by immersing the fabric in the
solution and squeezing out excess liquid.
Foam finishing Foam rather than liquid is used to apply the finishing
chemical to the fabric.
Solvent finishing Solvent is used to mix the solution.
Enzyme finishing Organic catalysts help speed chemical reactions.
Nanotechnology Very small materials applied as finishes.
Plasma treatment Changes the surface nature of textiles with thin,
inexpensive, functional coatings.
Large amounts of water and energy needed.
Uniform application of a finish may decrease.
Relatively high solvent costs, expensive reclaiming processes,
sustainability and regulatory issues, and health problems.
Only works with specific fibers, does not bleach cotton.
Expensive equipment necessary, some nanotechnology is still
in the research stages.
Most effective for very fine fibers, expensive equipment, batch
processing restrictions, and imperfect durability of coatings.

finishing: an overview 407


Trends in finishing focus on improving
production rates, decreasing water usage,
and reducing energy and chemical
consumption. Goals are to control
costs, improve sustainability, and
reduce environmental impact.
408 chapter sixteen
2 Learning Activity
Select one of the finishing technologies discussed in the chapter and summarized in
Table 16.1. Using the Internet, search for additional information about it, including types
of specific finishes completed using that technology. Share your research with class-
mates. Which one seems most sustainable and why?
are driving these changes. Fabric handling systems are changing to be softer, less abrasive,
and more effective. Better filtration systems, lower wet pickup (the amount of finish added
to a fabric when wet), and rinsing systems are used because they reduce water usage and
water treatment needed to meet required quality standards for municipal and natural water
systems. Traditionally, fabrics might be rinsed two to three times after each wet finish step to
remove residue of the finish. Combining and simplifying processes saves time, energy, water,
and money.
Reducing energy costs can produce significant savings in finishing fabrics and make firms
more competitive in the global market. Lowering temperatures used in finishing, combining
finishes, and using alternate sources of energy are some of the ways energy costs can be
reduced. Since water is heavy, reducing the amount of wet pickup reduces fabric mass or
weight of fabric and reduces the energy needed to move fabric through finishing steps and
from place to place in the mill. Ultrasonic energy, high-intensity, and high-frequency sounds far
above human hearing, is one of the alternate sources of energy that mills are using to reduce
costs. Ultrasonic sound may be combined with some finishing steps to speed the process.
Combining finishing steps minimizes space, chemicals, energy, water, and cost. In single-stage
preparation, desizing, bleaching, and scouring occur in one step rather than as three separate
steps. These processes will be discussed separately, but they often occur simultaneously.
Computers, an essential part of finishing, automatically correct processes, fabric ten-
sion, solutions, and temperatures. They make planning easier and incorporate built-in menus
to facilitate changing of finish additives. They minimize environmental problems by efficiently
treating residue and recycling recoverable chemicals from finishing.
This chapter discusses routine finishing. Routine finishing includes the finishing steps
required for most fabrics to prepare them for dyeing and special-purpose aesthetic and func-
tional finishes. These routine finishes are often referred to as preparation.
Routine Steps in Producing a Fabric
The normal order of production of a basic commodity all-cotton or cotton/polyester,
­bottom-weight, plain-weave fabric will be used as the basis for discussion. Because many
steps of production are discussed in detail elsewhere, some steps are included in the dis-
cussion for continuity (see other chapters for review). Routine finishing steps for other fiber or
fabric types are discussed at the end of this chapter.
Fiber Processing
In fiber processing, cotton fibers are processed separately from polyester fibers because of the
differences in properties of the two fiber types. If used in filament form, synthetic fibers such
as polyester generally require little additional processing once the fiber has been produced.
However, if the fabric needed is a cotton/polyester blend, staple polyester fibers are neces-
sary. Thus, the polyester fibers will be produced as filament tow, crimped and cut or broken
into staple fibers, baled, and shipped to the yarn-spinning facility.
Since cotton is a natural fiber, considerably more processing is necessary than for syn-
thetic fibers. The fiber is grown, picked at the appropriate time, ginned, baled, and shipped
to the yarn-processing facility. The cotton’s grade must be assessed because the suitability
of the cotton fiber is matched to the end use based on its grade. Higher grades of cotton
demand higher prices in the market. These prices fluctuate on a daily and seasonal basis, as
do most agricultural commodities. Hence, the price of cotton is more likely to vary than that
of the polyester fibers. The processing of these two fiber types is discussed in more detail in
Chapters 4 and 8.

Yarn Processing
In yarn processing, the fibers are aligned, blended, and twisted. Both cotton fiber bales and
polyester fiber bales are opened, with dirt and soil removed. The compact fibers are loosened
and aligned in a parallel fashion before the yarns are produced. Several different bales of cot-
ton are blended to ensure that fabric performance and quality is consistent from season to
season and year to year. Since the properties of cotton and polyester differ significantly, the
processing is separate until well into the yarn-production process. For blends, fibers are often
combined at the drawing or roving stage. Once the fibers are blended, the appropriate amount
of twist is added to the yarns. In general, warp yarns have a slightly higher twist to facilitate the
weaving process. After the yarns have been spun, they are wound on bobbins and shipped to
the mill to be processed into fabric. Yarn processing is discussed in Chapter 10.

Yarn Preparation
Preparation involves several steps. The first step involves the yarns and will be discussed
before the fabrication step.
In sizing (also known as slashing), warp yarns are treated before being threaded into
the loom for weaving. These yarns are usually wound onto a creel and then coated with a
mixture of natural starches, synthetic resins (polyvinyl alcohol or polyacrylamide), and other
ingredients so that they resist the abrasion and tension of weaving. Natural starch and its
derivatives are most common and the predominant ingredient in most sizings because of low In sizing (also known as slashing), warp
cost, availability, and renewability factors. However, environmental concerns related to their yarns are treated before being threaded
use involve non- or low-treatment of wastewater in some countries and the challenges in into the loom for weaving.
recycling the chemicals. Other sizings are used because of demands from new spinning and
weaving technologies.
Sizing uses large quantities of chemicals, energy, and water in the process. Research
focusing on reducing, improving, or eliminating warp sizing should decrease cost and sus-
tainability issues related to this process. However, sizeless weaving requires greater improve-
ments in yarn quality and loom mechanisms and settings than currently exist. Research has
contributed to smaller particle dimensions of the sizing and lower amounts of sizing applied
to warp yarns.
Sizing adds a protective coating to the yarn to obtain optimal weaving efficiency, increase
yarn rigidity, and decrease yarn hairiness, factors of importance with the faster shuttleless
looms. If the sizing is not uniformly applied, warp streak defects may appear on the woven

finishing: an overview 409


(a)
(b)
Figure Yarns that break during weaving
16.4 create fabric flaws: warp yarn
break (a) and filling yarn break (b).
410 chapter sixteen
(a) (b)
Figure Warp streaks result from irregular application of sizing on denim: face (a)
16.3 and back (b).
fabric (Figure 16.3). The sizing may contain a starch, metal-to-fiber lubricant, preservative,
defoamer, or a combination of these ingredients. Recipes vary by fiber type. For the cotton/
polyester-blend fabric, the sizing is probably a mixture of a starch and a lubricant or polyvinyl
alcohol. The filling yarns generally receive little, if any, treatment prior to weaving. The sizing
must be removed after weaving in order for dyes and finishes to bond with the fibers.
Fabrication
The process of creating the fabric, or fabrication normally follows sizing. In the fabrication
step, the fabric is woven, knitted, or created in some other manner. At the mill, the cotton/­
polyester yarns are repackaged into the appropriate-size unit for weaving. Warp yarns are
threaded through the heddles in the harnesses and the spaces in the reed after sizing. Filling
yarns are packaged for the specific type of loom to be used in weaving. Since shuttleless looms
are common in the global textile complex, let’s assume that this fabric will be made on such
a loom. The filling-yarn length is measured during weaving, and the yarns are cut so that only
the length needed for one insertion or pick is available at any time. The filling yarn is inserted in
a shed that has every other warp yarn raised to create a plain weave. When the length of warp
yarns has been woven, the fabric is removed from the loom and transported to the finishing
plant for further treatment. For a more detailed discussion of weaving, see Chapter 12.
If yarns break during weaving, fabric defects occur. Figure 16.4 shows defects in denim
that occurred when filling or warp yarns broke.
Fabric Preparation
Preparation or pretreatment of fabric is an important step in dyeing and finishing. Fabrics
that are properly prepared dye well. Fabrics that are not properly prepared do not dye well
or finish poorly. Key preparation steps include desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerization,
and heat setting. These steps focus on improving absorbency, reducing shrinkage, removing
impurities, and whitening. Research efforts related to preparation usually focus on improving
equipment design, process efficiencies, and chemical and effluent awareness. Because of its
impurities, cotton requires more preparation than any other fiber, a significant factor regarding
sustainability.
Other dimensions of finishing will be discussed in this section to explain factors that influ-
ence fabric quality and freedom from defects that might occur during finishing.
Handling refers to the physical form of the fabric during finishing. The components that
Preparation or pretreatment of fabric is
influence how a fabric will be handled are its width, length, and fabrication. The choices made
an important step in dyeing and finishing.
with regard to handling influence cost, quality, and minimums. Minimums describe the small-
Key preparation steps include desizing,
est quantity of a fabric a buyer can purchase from a mill. Firms that allow for shorter minimums
scouring, bleaching, mercerization,
tend to charge higher prices because the cost per yard of finishing short pieces or short runs
and heat setting. These steps focus on
of fabrics is higher. Run describes the quantity of fabric receiving the same processing at the
improving absorbency, reducing shrinkage,
same time. In general, as the length of a run increases, the cost per yard decreases. Thus, in
removing impurities, and whitening.
general, it is cheaper for a mill to work with a longer piece of fabric than to work with several
shorter pieces of fabric.
In terms of fabric width, one option is open-width finishing, during which the fabric is
held out to its full width. Open-width finishing is often done with the fabric mounted on a ten-
ter frame. Tentering will be discussed later in this chapter.
In a second option, the fabric is allowed to roll and fold in on itself to form a tube or rope.
This form of finishing is known as rope or tubular finishing. Heavier-weight woven fabrics
are usually finished at open width because of the likelihood of creases and wrinkles or tube
marks being set in fabric finished in rope form (Figure 16.5). Fabrics for prints or whites can be
finished in tube form because rope marks will be removed or hidden during bleaching or print-
ing. However, lighter-weight woven fabrics, especially polyester/cellulose blends, give better
results if finished in open-width form. Knit fabrics are usually finished in tube form because of
the difficulties in controlling the knit structure in open-width form.
Tube finishing is more economical, but it may create problems with penetration of fin-
ishes and dyes into interior portions of the rope or tube. Creasing and wrinkling occur more
readily when fabrics are finished in tube form, and some machine-induced creases, wrinkles,
and marks are permanent. New techniques and use of different processing chemicals mini-
mize problems with tubular finishing. Figure Rope marks on denim. These long,
A second component of handling refers to whether the fabric is handled in a batch or a 16.5 irregular marks are caused by
continuous process. In batch processing, a relatively short length of fabric, for example sev- abrasion during finishing when the
fabric is in rope or tubular form.
eral hundred yards, is processed as a unit at one time in one machine. The entire quantity of
fabric is immersed in a solution at the same time. Continuous processing works with longer
pieces of fabric that move into and out of a solution. Continuous processing is more eco-
Handling refers to the physical form of the
nomical but requires larger quantities of fabric to achieve its full potential for minimizing costs
fabric during finishing. Options include
per yard. In addition, the size of the finishing equipment requires fairly long pieces of fabric
open-width and tubular or rope finishing.
in order to engage all parts of the equipment. It is not as sustainable as batch processing
because it consumes huge quantities of water and energy. Because the heavyweight blend
fabric used as the example in this chapter is a commodity fabric, continuous open-width pro- In batch processing a relatively short length
cessing would likely be used. However, batch processes are not necessarily sustainable since of fabric, say several hundred yards, is
entire treatment baths may be discarded after each run. processed as a unit at one time in one
Singeing burns any fiber ends projecting from the surface of the fabric. These protruding machine. Continuous processing works
ends cause roughness, dullness, pilling, and interfere with finishing. Singeing may be the first with longer pieces of fabric that move in
finishing operation for smooth-finished cotton or cotton-blend fabrics and for clear-finished and out of a solution.
wool fabrics. The fabric is passed between two gas flame bars or hot plates to singe it on both

finishing: an overview 411


Singeing burns any fiber ends projecting
from the surface of the fabric. These
protruding ends cause roughness, dullness,
and pilling and interfere with finishing.
In desizing, the sizing added to the warp
yarns is removed. Desizing is necessary
so that dyes and finishes will bond to both
warp and filling yarns.
Scouring is a general term referring to
removal of foreign matter or soil from the
fabric prior to finishing or dyeing.
412 chapter sixteen
sides in one step. Fabrics containing heat-sensitive fibers such as in a cotton/polyester blend
must be singed carefully and often are singed after dyeing because the melted ends of the
polyester may cause unevenness in color. Singeing is one way to minimize pilling. Singeing
is used to give a smooth surface to fabrics that will be printed so that the print remains sharp
and clear with crisp and distinct edges of the print pattern. Even a slightly fuzzy surface would
produce a hazy or blurred print.
In desizing, the sizing added to the warp yarns is removed. Desizing is needed with
wovens, but not with knits. (Remember, only woven fabrics have warp yarns, which usually
require sizing before weaving.) Desizing is necessary so that dyes and finishes will bond to
both warp and filling yarns. For desizing to be effective, the finisher needs to know the sizing
agent used to select the best means of desizing.
Physical, biological (bio), or chemical desizing may be done, depending on the sizing
agents and fiber content. Although sizing is present only on the warp yarns, the entire fabric is
treated since the warp and filling yarns cannot be separated. In cotton-blend fabrics, a com-
bination of physical desizing (agitation) and biological desizing using an amylase enzyme may
be used to destroy the starch.
Desizing is another significant step in terms of energy and water use. Desizing is a large
source of wastewater pollutants. Bio desizing with enzymes, also known as enzyme desizing,
is gaining in popularity since it saves water, energy, and time. But it is a more expensive and
slower process as compared to chemical desizing. Combining bio desizing with ultrasonic
energy may speed the process without affecting sustainability of this process.
All gray goods must undergo cleaning in order to accept any finish. Warp sizing residue
left on gray goods after desizing must be removed because it makes the fabric stiff and inter-
feres with the absorption of liquids. Fabrics that are soiled during fabrication and storage also
must be cleaned. Warp sizing, dirt, and oil are removed by a washing process. Terms used to
describe cleaning vary with fiber content. Degumming of silk usually is done in boiling water
with detergent, although acid degumming and enzyme degumming are also used. Scouring,
also know as kier boiling or boiling-off, of cotton is done in an alkaline solution at high tem-
perature and under pressure in large vessels called kiers. Scouring of wool is a gentler wash-
ing process under less alkaline conditions.
Scouring is a general term referring to removal of foreign matter or soil from the fabric
prior to finishing or dyeing. The specific procedure is related to the fiber content. The foreign
matter involved may be processing oils, starch, natural waxes, pectins, proteins, minerals,
soils, and tints or color added to aid in fiber identification during production. Foreign matter
must be removed to achieve absorbency, which is necessary for good dyeing and finishing.
Scouring usually involves the use of detergents and alkaline solutions. It may be repeated
during finishing to remove excess chemicals or soil.
Alkaline souring is widely used, but it is not considered a sustainable practice because of
the high temperatures, quantities of water and scouring chemicals used, and the content and
3 Learning Activity
As a product manager for a private label line for accessory pillows for the home, you
are discussing fabric options with the product development team. Define these terms:
minimum, run, batch process, continuous process, open-width, and tubular finishing.
Explain why these terms might be important in determining fabric purchases for private
label merchandise.
pH of the wastewater. For example, scouring wastewater contains alkalis, fats, oils, waxes,
lint, and wetting agents.
Bio-scouring or enzyme scouring uses pectinase enzymes and is more sustainable.
In some facilities, bio-desizing is combined with bio-scouring in one step, further increasing
savings, reducing time and energy use, and decreasing waste water treatment. Ultrasonic
scouring is an alternate to chemical scouring and may be combined with bio-scouring.
Bio-polishing is the use of a cellulase enzyme treatment to remove surface fuzz from
spun yarns of cellulose or cellulose blends. The process is most often applied to cotton or
cotton/polyester-blend fabrics. Bio-polishing is a permanent finish. The finished fabric has a
soft, smooth appearance with very little surface fuzz. Protruding fiber ends that make up the
fuzz in most spun-yarn fabrics are destroyed by the enzyme treatment. By removing the fiber
ends, the potential for fabric pilling during use is decreased. Colors look brighter because the Bio-polishing is the use of a cellulase
fabric’s smooth surface does not scatter the light as much as a fuzzy surface would. Although enzyme treatment to remove surface fuzz
the surface properties and appearance of the fabric are improved, a slight decrease of 3% from spun yarns of cellulose or cellulose
to 10% in tensile strength usually occurs. Some products may be marketed with a hang-tag blends.
indicating that they have been bio-polished. This process may be used instead of singeing.

Whitening
Bleaching is the process of whitening fibers, yarns, or fabrics by removing irregular natural
color (Figure 16.6). Most bleaches are oxidizing agents; the actual bleaching is done by active
oxygen. A few bleaches are reducing agents and are used to strip color from poorly dyed
fabrics. Bleaches may be either acidic or alkaline in nature. The goals of bleaching are uniform
removal of hydrophobic fabric impurities and a high, uniform degree of fabric whiteness in
order to achieve clear uniform colors when dyeing, especially for pale colors.
The same bleach is not suitable for all fibers. Because chemical reactions differ between
fibers, bleaches are selected with regard to fiber content. Synthetic fibers rarely need bleach-
ing since fiber whiteness can be controlled during fiber creation at the spinning stage.
Any bleach damages fibers. Since damage occurs more rapidly at higher temperatures Figure Unbleached and bleached fabric.
and concentrations, these two factors are carefully controlled. Bleaches clean and whiten 16.6
gray goods. Natural fibers have an off-white color because they contain impurities. These
impurities are easily removed from cotton, so most cotton gray goods are bleached with-
out damage. Bleaching may be omitted with wool because it has good affinity for dyes and
Bleaching is the process of whitening
other finishes even when not bleached. Ultrasonic energy can be combined with conventional
fibers, yarns, or fabrics by removing
bleaching to speed the process and improve whiteness, especially with fine fibers.
irregular natural color. Optical brighteners
Peroxide bleaches are common commercial bleaches for cellulose and protein goods.
are also used to whiten off-white fabrics.
Hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizing bleach most often used on cotton. Peroxide bleaches best
at high temperatures in alkaline solutions. These bleaching conditions make it possible to
bleach cellulose gray goods as the final step in the kier boil. However, fiber damage occurs
if the process is not closely controlled. In the peroxide cold-bleach procedure, the fabric is

Learning Activity 4
A friend is complaining about a brushed cotton and polyester shirt that, after several
wash and wear cycles, now has lots of little balls of fuzz all over the surface. Describe
the problem and how finishing might have prevented your friend’s dissatisfaction with
the shirt.

finishing: an overview 413


Mercerization is the process of treating
a cellulosic fabric or yarn with an alkali
to make cellulosic fabrics stronger, more
lustrous, and more absorbent.
(a)
(b)
Figure Cotton yarn: (a) regular (bottom)
16.7 and mercerized (top); (b) label for
mercerized yarn.
414 chapter sixteen
soaked for several hours. This procedure is common with cotton-knits and wool to preserve
a soft hand. Peroxide bleaching is not as sustainable as alternate procedures because of the
high temperatures and high use of energy, water, and additional chemical agents needed
such as salt and stabilizers.
Peracetic acid bleaching is a more sustainable alternative because of the cooler tempera-
tures, lower energy and water use, and minimal fiber damage. It is used for nylon, cotton, and
flax that will be dyed medium or dark colors.
Optical brighteners are also used to whiten off-white fabrics. These fluorescent whit-
ening compounds are not bleaches. They soak into the fiber and mask yellow by absorbing
energy in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum and re-emitting it as visible light. Optical bright-
eners work best when used with bleach rather than as a substitute for it. They are also added
to the spinning solution of some manufactured fibers to optically brighten them, since bleach
may not be effective on these fibers. Optical brighteners can be used with delustered and
nondelustered fibers without affecting fiber luster.
Alternate Preparation Steps
Mercerization is the process of treating a cellulosic fabric or yarn with an alkali (caustic soda,
also known as sodium hydroxide or lye). Although Native Americans used wood ash (lye) to
strengthen plant fibers, modern mercerizing was discovered in 1853 by John Mercer, a calico
printer. He noticed that cotton fabric shrank and became stronger, more lustrous, and more
absorbent after filtering the caustic soda used in dyeing. Mercerization was little used until
1897 when H. Lowe discovered that fabrics under tension became lustrous and silky.
Mercerization is used on large lengths of cotton, linen, and some HWM rayon and lyocell
fabrics. It increases luster, softness, strength, and affinity for dyes and waterborne finishes.
Cotton yarn, fabric, and sewing thread are mercerized. Plissé effects are achieved with cotton
fabrics (see Chapter 17). Systems are available to handle shorter lengths of fabric.
Yarn mercerization is a continuous process in which the yarn under tension passes
through a series of boxes with guide rolls and squeeze rolls, a boil-out wash, and a final wash
(Figure 16.7).
Fabric mercerization is done on a frame that contains rollers for saturating the fabric; a
tenter frame for tensioning the fabric both crosswise and lengthwise while wet; and boxes
for washing, neutralizing the caustic soda with dilute sulfuric acid, scouring, and rinsing. In
tension mercerization, the fabric or yarn being mercerized is held under tension. The con-
centration of the sodium hydroxide solution is high enough that the fiber swells. Because the
fibers are under tension during swelling, they become rounder in cross section and more
rodlike, and the number of convolutions decreases (Figure 16.8). The smoother fiber reflects
more light. A small percentage of cotton, primarily long-staple cotton yarns and fabrics, is
mercerized for the luster increase.
Mercerization increases absorbency because the caustic soda causes a rearrangement
of the molecules, making more of the hydroxyl groups available to absorb water and water-
borne substances. Moisture regain improves to approximately 11%. Dyes enter the fiber more
readily and have better colorfastness. For the same reason, mercerized fabrics take resin
finishes better.
Mercerized cotton fibers are stronger because in the swollen fiber the molecules are more
oriented. When stress is applied, the end-to-end molecular attraction is harder to rupture than
in the more spiral fibril arrangement. The increase in fiber strength is approximately 30%.
 Learning Activity 5
A neighbor has just gotten involved in quilting and wants to know the advantages or
disadvantages of mercerized quilting thread over regular sewing thread. What are the
pros and cons of mercerized quilting thread?

In slack mercerization, cotton fabric is dipped, at low tension, into a weaker caustic
soda solution for a shorter time before neutralizing and washing. As the fabric shrinks, yarn Cotton
crimp increases. Straightening the crimp when stress is applied produces stretch. In addition, (a)
slack mercerization increases fiber absorbency and improves dyeability.
Sodium hydroxide is a strong alkali with a high pH. It requires careful handling and can
cause severe tissue burns. Solutions containing sodium hydroxide or rinses after merceriza-
tion require neutralization of the high pH and treatment to remove sodium salts.
An ammoniating finish is an alternative to mercerization used on cotton and rayon.
Yarns or fabrics are treated with a weak ammonium solution at high temperatures, passed
through hot water, stretched, and dried in hot air. The finish is similar to mercerization but is
less expensive. Liquid ammonia is complex to process and dangerous to handle. However,
Mercerized cotton
safer and more workable systems are available. The ammonia swells the fiber less than sodium
(b)
hydroxide. Ammonia-treated or ammoniated fabrics have good luster and dyeability, but less Figure The cross section of cotton becomes
than mercerized fabrics. Ammonia-treated fabrics have good crease recovery with less loss of 16.8 rounder with mercerization: original
strength and abrasion resistance and may not need to be treated to be wrinkle-resistant. They cotton (a); mercerized cotton (b).
are softer than mercerized fabrics, with an increase in tensile strength of 40% and an increase
in elongation two to three times that of untreated cotton. These fabrics are less sensitive to
thermal degradation. Sanforized is a trade name for easy-care cotton fabrics. Liquid ammonia
treatments are a common substitute for mercerization of cotton sewing threads.

Coloration An ammoniating finish is an alternative to

mercerization in which yarns or fabrics are
Color is normally added to the fabric after the routine finishing steps discussed previously. treated with a weak ammonium solution.
Properly prepared goods are critical to the quality of the dye or print. Dyeing and printing are
discussed in detail in Chapter 19.

Finishing
Special-purpose finishes that might be appropriate for the cotton/polyester-blend fabric
include wrinkle-resistant, soil-release, and fabric-softening finishes. They usually follow dyeing
to avoid interfering with dye absorption. These finishes are discussed in Chapters 17 and 18.

Drying
Because of the frequent wetting of textiles in finishing, drying also is frequent, especially
with cellulosics, to minimize mildew and weight. In drying, hot air is blown past the textile in
a large convection oven to remove the water quickly by evaporation. Fabrics in convection
ovens are usually tentered. Some dryers combine hot air and radio frequency technology
that agitates water molecules and speeds drying, Other less efficient means of drying fabrics
include contact with hot metal rollers (conduction drying) and use of infrared lamps, or micro-
waves (irradiation). Computers and software reduces the risk of poor or overdrying that will
create problems in other processes. Drying should not create wrinkles or creases. Overdrying

finishing: an overview 415


Drying unit
Fabric
Figure Drawing of pin-tenter frame. Note the
16.9 pins on the sides of the frame that
hold fabric in place.
Figure Fabric selvages of clip tentering and
16.10 pin tentering. Clip tentering rarely
leaves easily visible marks. Pin
tentering almost always leaves telltale
holes along the edge.
Tentering applies crosswise and lengthwise
tension to fabric while it dries.
In heat setting, the fabric is placed on a
tenter frame and passed through an oven,
where the exposure time and temperature
are carefully controlled based on fiber
content and resins used.
Calendering is a mechanical finishing
operation performed by a series of rollers
between which the fabric passes. Types
include simple, friction, moiré, schreiner,
and embossing.
416 chapter sixteen
of cotton can create problems in dyeing. Some dryers combine heat exchangers, cooling
exchangers, and condensers for increased efficiency and energy recovery.
Tentering, an important finishing operation, applies crosswise and lengthwise tension
to fabric while it dries. Its purpose is to produce fabric that meets specifications for width and
width uniformity, and warp and filling count. Tenter frames are either pin tenters or clip tenters.
The mechanisms on the two sides move around like a caterpillar tractor wheel, holding the fab-
ric selvage by a series of pins or clips. More tension can be exerted by the clip tenter. The pin
tenter is used for stretch and knit fabrics that are tentered at slower speeds to reduce fabric
stretching (Figure 16.9). To minimize lengthwise shrinkage or to minimize stretching of knits,
overfeeding is used. In overfeeding, the fabric is fed into the tentering frame faster than the
frame moves. The marks of the pins or the clips may appear along the selvage (Figure 16.10).
Tentering is an important finishing step in determining fabric quality. If the filling yarns are
not exactly perpendicular to the warp yarns, the fabric is off-grain. When the filling yarn does not
cross each warp yarn at a 90-degree angle, the fabric exhibits skew. When the center of the
fabric moves at a slower speed than the two edges, the fabric exhibits bow (see Chapter 12).
Both off-grain problems can be eliminated by proper tentering. Most tentering frames have elec-
tronic sensors to reduce off-grain problems. Fabric may go through a tentering frame several
times during finishing. When a fabric is tentered off-grain, it will be printed off-grain. Tentering is
usually the last opportunity to correct any fabric variations that develop during finishing.
Fabrics with a soft finish, towels, and stretchy fabrics such as knits are not dried on the
tenter frame but on a loop dryer without tension. Many rayon fabrics are dried on loop dryers
because of their lower wet strength and soft hand.
In heat setting, the fabric is placed on a tenter frame and passed through an oven,
where the exposure time and temperature are carefully controlled based on fiber content
and resins used. A cotton/polyester fabric would require heat setting if it had been given a
wrinkle-resistant or soil-release finish or if the percentage of polyester was 50% or more to
achieve a degree of shrinkage control. Heat setting must be carefully controlled because the
heat history of polyester and other synthetic fibers affects their dyeability. Heat setting of syn-
thetics can set yarn twist, weave crimp, and wrinkle resistance.
Calendering is a mechanical finishing operation performed by a series of rollers between
which the fabric passes. The types of calendering include simple, friction, moiré, schreiner,
and embossing. Each type produces a different finish. Simple calendering will be discussed
here; the others will be discussed in Chapter 17.
The simple calender produces a smooth, flat, ironed finish on the fabric. The fab-
ric is slightly damp before it enters the calender. Calenders have from two to seven rollers.
Hard-metal rollers alternate with softer rollers of foam, solid paper, or fabric-covered metal.
Two metal rollers never run against each other. The metal rolls are heated. The fabric trav-
els through the calender at the same speed as the rollers rotate, so they exert pressure to
smooth out the wrinkles and produce a slight sheen (Figure 16.11).
Reworking
After finishing, fabrics are inspected for defects and repaired or reworked wherever possi-
ble. The fabric inspection is completed by moving fabrics over an inverted frame in good
light. Fabric inspectors mark flaws in the fabric and record its quality at the same time. Flaws
may be marked on the fabric, usually on the selvage, so that subsequent cutting and sewing
operators can avoid working with and adding value to product parts that incorporate flaws.
Computers and electronic sensors help assess fabric quality. Fabric quality is a complex area
that takes into account the number of flaws, their severity, and their length or size. Mills and
buyers work together to define quality levels acceptable to both parties.
When economically feasible, repairing corrects flaws marked by inspectors. Broken
yarns are clipped, snagged yarns are worked into the fabric, and defects are marked so that
adjustments can be made when fabrics are sold. The fabric is then wound on bolts or cylin-
ders, ready for shipment.

Routine Finishing Steps for Wool Fabrics Fabric

There are specific finishing techniques unique to wool fibers. Crabbing is a finishing process
used to set wool fabrics. Fabrics are immersed first in hot water, and then in cold water, and
passed between rollers as in simple calendering. Figure Calender machine.
Decating produces a smooth, wrinkle-free finish and lofty hand on woolen and worsted 16.11
fabrics and on blends of wool and manufactured fibers. The process is comparable to steam
ironing. A high degree of luster can be developed by the decating process because of the
Reworking includes inspecting fabric for
smoothness of the surface. The dry fabric is wound under tension on a perforated cylinder.
defects or flaws and repairing problems
Steam is forced through the fabric. Moisture and heat relax tensions and remove wrinkles.
wherever possible.
The yarns are set and fixed in this position by cold air. For a more permanent set, dry decating
is done in a pressure boiler. Wet decating often precedes napping or other finishes to remove
wrinkles that have been acquired in scouring. Wet decating as a final finish gives a more per-
manent set to the yarns than does dry decating. Decating may also be used with wool blends
of rayon and other manufactured fibers or knits.
Carbonizing, the treatment of wool yarns or fabrics with sulfuric acid, destroys plant
matter in the fabric and allows for more level dyeing. Recycled wool is carbonized to remove
any cellulose that may have been used in the original fabric. Carbonizing, a preparation fin-
ish for wool, gives better texture to all-wool fabrics, but the process requires high tempera-
tures and strong acid. The process can damage wool fibers causing subsequent problems
in dyeing and finishing wool. The acid must be neutralized to avoid problems in dyeing or in
consumer use. High temperatures require more energy use and increase the cost of finishing
wool. Bio-scouring of wool to remove plant matter is a more sustainable alternate to carbon-
izing because it can be done at lower temperatures and less wastewater treatment is needed. Finishing steps for wool include crabbing,
Pressing is the term used with wool or wool blends. In pressing, the fabric is placed decating, carbonizing, and pressing.
between metal plates that steam and press the fabric.

Learning Activity 6
Use Fabrics #108, 109, and 126 from your swatch kit. Explain the differences and sim-
ilarities among the three 100% cotton fabrics. Describe the serviceability of each based
on fiber content, yarn type, fabrication method, and finish. How has finishing changed
the serviceability of these fabrics?

Learning Activity 7
Select one of the textiles you are wearing today and list the finishes in the most likely
sequence that were probably used to finish this fabric. Describe their impact on the
quality and performance of the product. How would this sequence change if the fabric
were made of wool or silk?

finishing: an overview 417

 Sustainability of Finishing
Finishing transforms a harsh and unattractive fabric into an attractive one. Unfortunately, the
impact of this transformation can be significant. Almost every step in finishing a fabric has
an impact on the environment. The textile complex is acutely aware of the situation and has
become proactive to safeguard the environment. Many environmental concerns and issues
of sustainability were discussed with specific finishes. Finishing facilities incorporate systems
for air-pollution control, pollution prevention, and hazardous-waste disposal. These systems
minimize discharge into any part of the environment (air, land, or water).
Pollution prevention and pollution reduction are important in the textile complex. Changes
in finishing include closed-loop systems, reclaiming or reusing chemicals, recycling water,
using new technologies like plasma treatment, and using less hazardous chemicals such as
enzymes. Influential factors driving these changes include costs, regulations and laws, liability
lawsuits, and public awareness.
Finishing uses significant quantities of water and energy. Fifty years ago, it was not
unusual for a large finishing facility to use millions of gallons of water daily. Water use has
decreased, but water continues to dissolve chemicals and to remove waste and soil from the
system. The quality of the water supply is a growing concern. Foam finishing and other less
water-intensive processes are increasing in importance. Better and more efficient means of
extracting water from fabrics prior to drying and heat-recovery systems minimize energy use.
Finishing uses quantities of potentially hazardous chemicals. There are restrictions on the
discharge of waste with high biological oxygen demand (BOD), such as sizing agents, and
high chemical oxygen demand (COD), such as chlorine-containing compounds. Hazardous,
toxic, and carcinogenic finishing chemicals are replaced with less hazardous, nontoxic, and
noncarcinogenic chemicals. Biodegradable finishes are becoming more common. Many com-
panies are phasing out chemicals used as ingredients in some finishes because they are not
sustainable. Such chemicals include some wetting agents, detergent additives, and soften-
ing compounds. Sustainable textile manufacturing can only be accomplished with greener
textile chemistry. Relevant to the global textile complex, the following are elements of green
chemistry:

Pollution prevention: Prevent chemical waste rather than treating or cleaning it.
Atom economy: maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the
final product.
Less hazardous synthesis: Use and generate substances that possess little to no toxicity.
Safer chemicals: Designed to achieve the desired end result with minimal toxicity.
Safer solvents: Solvents should be innocuous when used.

Inherently safer chemistry for accident prevention: Substances should be chosen to min-
imize the potential for chemical accidents, including fires and explosions.
In addition, changes in technology and good operating practices ensuring that fabrics are
finished correctly and limit excess use of chemicals, water, and energy; minimize environmen-
tal impact; and improve sustainability. Many finishers have treatment facilities on-site so that
they can reclaim and reuse chemicals and remove contaminants before discharging waste to
municipal systems. Membrane technology and reverse osmosis provide effective means of
producing high-quality discharge by separating salts, metals, organic compounds, and other
contaminants before water leaves the finishing plant’s treatment facility.

418 chapter sixteen

 Learning Activity 8
Describe the environmental impact of finishing one of the textile products you are wear-
ing today. How much of the appeal of this product was due to its finish(es)? How likely
would its purchase have been if the fabric had not been finished? List five things a tex-
tile producer could do to enhance the sustainability of their practices?

Learning Activity 9
Select one of the finishes discussed in this chapter and describe the changes that have
been made to make the finish more sustainable. Compare your finish and list to that of
three other students. Identify three general changes in finishing that are being made to
make the process more sustainable. Explain why these changes are being made.

terms
key terms
Ammoniating finish
Batch processing
Bio-polishing
Enzymes
Fabrication
Fabric inspection
Preparation
Pressing
Renewable finish
Bio-scouring Finish Repairing
Bleach Foam finishing Reworked
Calendering Gray goods Rope or tubular finishing
Carbonizing Handling Run
Cleaning Heat setting Scouring
Continuous processing Mercerization Singeing
Converted or finished goods Mill-finished fabric Sizing
Converter Minimum Slack mercerization
Crabbing Open-width finishing Solvent finishing
Decating Optical brighteners Temporary finish
Desizing Permanent finish Tension mercerization
Drying Pickup Tentering
Durable finish Plasma treatment Water-bath finishing

questions
review questions
1. Describe the differences and similarities among permanent
finish, durable finish, temporary finish, and renewable finish.
2. Why are yarns finished before fabrication? What finishes are
4. At what stage is bleaching normally done? Why is it done
at that time?
5. What problems can occur if tentering is improperly done?
used on yarns? Of these yarn finishes, which are designed How does this affect fabric quality?
to facilitate other processes and which will be present when 6. What differences may occur in finished fabrics between
items are purchased by consumers? open-width and tubular or rope finishing?
3. Why are fabrics finished before dyeing or printing? How 7. Describe a finishing routine for each of these fabrics.
does the quality of finishing affect the quality of the dye or Explain how the finishing routine differs because of fiber
print?

finishing: an overview 419

 content or fabric structure from that of a cotton/polyester 9. Explain why finishing is done for almost all fabrics.
bottom weight plain-weave fabric. 10. How does finishing add value to textile fabrics?
a. Acetate velvet
11. How has finishing been modified to be more sustainable?
b. Cotton knit velour
What kinds of chemicals are becoming more common
c. Polyester crepe de chine
in finishing? How do these chemicals reduce the
d. Upholstery weight wool pocket cloth
environmental impact of finishing?
e. Silk brocade
12. Why should sustainability concern you as a future
8. Explain how tentering can affect fabric quality. How can
professional in the global textile complex?
improper tentering create bow or skew in fabrics?

Case Study
Eco-Denim*
According to the Global Lifestyle Monitor,
almost 90% of consumers worldwide own at
least one pair of denim jeans with consumers
wearing jeans an average of three days a
week. Despite its popularity, denim has
been dubbed “one of the worst consumer
products for the environment.” The reasons
denim is such an enemy to the environment
include the dyes and treatments used to
achieve the fashionable and desirable look.
Some of the chemicals used to create indigo,
or the dye that makes blue jeans blue, are
toxic to people and to the environment.
Furthermore, the finishing treatments,
such as spraying denim with potassium
permanganate (a strong oxidizer), while
cheap and effective at achieving the abraded
bleached look, are hazardous. In order to
make denim more sustainable, the entire
production line must be environmentally
optimized: from cotton growing, yarn
dyeing and finishing, fabric finishing, and
garment finishing. For example, enzymes
which are biodegradable catalysts could
replace the harsh bleaching chemicals to
improve denim’s sustainability profile.
Discussion Questions
1. Were you surprised by how
environmentally unfriendly denim is?
With this knowledge, will your
purchasing decisions change? Why
or why not?
2. Name several finishes that may be
applied to denim and discuss why
they are harmful to the environment.
3. Explain how denim finishes and its
unsustainability might affect consumer
satisfaction with a pair of jeans.
4. How might your laundry and care
practices impact the durability of the
finishes, your denim jeans, and the
environment?

*Thiry, M. C. (2009). Eco-denim: Can jeans save the earth? AATCC Review, 9(9), 24–31.

readings
suggested readings
Anastas, P. T., & Warner, J. C. (2000). Green Chemistry: Theory
and Practice. New York: Oxford University Press.
Gouveia, I. C., Fiadeiro, J. M., & Queiroz, J. A. (2008). Enzymatic
wool treatment: Preliminary evaluation of Trichoderma
reesei cellulases and Aspergillus aculeatus pectinases and
Atlas, S., & Pamul, G. (2007). Ultrasonic energy in the textile
industry. AATCC Review, 7(6), 29–31. hemicellulases. AATCC Review, 8(10), 38–44.

Etters, J. N., & Annis, P. A. (1998, May). Textile enzyme use: A Holme, I. (2009). In search of cost-effective biotreatments. ATA
developing technology. American Dyestuff Reporter, 5, 18–23. Journal, 20(2), 42–43.

Goswami, B. C., Anandjiwala, R. D., & Hall, D. M. (2004). Textile Isaacs, M. (1999, September). Tenterframes: Finishing plant
Sizing. New York: Marcel Dekker. workhorses. Textile World, 149(9), 112–115.

420 chapter sixteen

Kuilderd, H., & Wu, G. (2008). Simultaneous desizing and scouring
with enzymes. AATCC Review, 8(6), 33–36.
Patra, J. K., & Gouda, S. (2013). Application of nanotechnology in
textile engineering: An overview. Journal of Engineering and
Technology Research Review, 5(5), 104–111.
Preša, P., & Tavčer, P. F. (2008). Pretreated cotton fiber
characterization. AATCC Review, 8(11), 37–43.
Sawhney, A. P. S., Sachinvala, N. D., Calamari, T. A., Dumitras,
P. G., Bologa, M. K., & Singh, K. V. (2005). Approaches for
reducing or eliminating warp sizing in weaving: An interim
report. AATCC Review, 5(9), 23–26.
Thiry, M. C. (2006). A thirsty industry. AATCC Review, 6(7), 21–24.
Thiry, M. C. (2006). Do you believe in magic? AATCC Review, 6(4),
21–26.
Thiry, M. C. (2008). Half-dyed: The importance of preparation.
AATCC Review, 8(9), 24–31.
Thiry, M. C. (2010). Done by machine: The role of mechanical
finishing. AATCC Review, 10(4), 28–31.
Thiry, M. C. (2011). Moving in a greener direction. AATCC Review,
11(6), 33–35.
Thiry, M. C. (2009). Eco-denim: Can jeans save the earth? AATCC
Review, 9(9), 24–31.
Thiry, M. C. (2012). Writ in water. AATCC Review, 12(2), 22–28.
Wang, Y. (Ed.), (2006). Recycling in Textiles. Cambridge, England:
Woodhead.
Zille, A., Almeida, L., Amorim, T., Carneiro, N., Esteves, M. F., Silva,
C. J., & Souto, A. P. (2014). Application of nanotechnology
in antimicrobial finishing of biomedical textiles. Materials
Research Express, 1(3), 1–38.
finishing: an overview 421
 Geargodz/Fotolia Coka/Fotolia

Worldwide_Stock/Fotolia Dream79/Fotolia
Aesthetic Finishes

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To differentiate between applied design and structural design and their implications
for quality and performance.
• To describe how aesthetic finishes are applied to fabrics, alter aesthetic aspects of
fabrics, and add value to products.
• To integrate aesthetic finish, fabrication method, yarn type, and fiber content with end
use and performance.

17

Aesthetic finishes change the appearance
and/or hand of fabrics.
Aesthetic finishes are an applied or surface
design. They are applied to alter some
visual, textural, hand, or other aesthetic
dimension of the fabric. They are quicker
and less expensive than structural design.
In additive finishes, a finishing chemical
is added to the fabric to produce texture,
luster, embossed designs, and abrasion
resistance in the fabric. In subtractive
finishes, something is removed from the
fabric during finishing. Finish permanence
depends on the process, the fiber content,
and the type of finish itself.
(a)
(d)
Figure Fabric converted from print cloth: gray goods (a), screen-printed (b), waxed and friction-calendered (c), plissé—printed with caustic
17.1 soda (d), embossed (e), piece-dyed and flocked (f).
424 chapter seventeen
Aesthetic finishes change the appearance and/or hand of fabrics. The finished fabric’s
name may reflect the change in appearance or the technique. For example, eyelet embroi-
dery, ciré satin, and organdy are made by aesthetic finishes. Figure 17.1 shows several fabrics
that were converted from print cloth: percale (printed), chintz (waxed and friction calendered),
plissé (caustic-soda print), and embossed cotton (embossed calendered). This fabric also
could be flocked, embroidered, or surface-coated.
Applied Design versus Structural Design
Aesthetic finishes are an applied design. This means they are applied to a fabric with the
express purpose of altering some visual, textural, hand, or other aesthetic dimension of the
fabric. They are quicker and less expensive than incorporating the design as the fabric is pro-
duced (structural design). Sometimes applied designs are also referred to as surface design,
meaning that the finish is applied to the surface of the textile. Many of these finishes are used
for both apparel and interior textiles. Table 17.1 compares structural and applied design.
To facilitate learning, this chapter groups aesthetic finishes by the change produced in
the fabric: luster, drape, texture, and hand. The process, its aesthetic effect, impact on per-
formance, and the relationship of the finish to the fabric name are explained for each group.
Some aesthetic finishes determine or influence the name of a fabric. Other finishes give certain
fabrics their traditional luster, drape, texture, or hand. The flowchart in Figure 17.2 ­identifies
fabrics with aesthetic finishes.
Many of these finishes are additive finishes where a finishing chemical is added to the
fabric to produce texture (body, stiffness, softness), luster, embossed designs, and abrasion
resistance in the fabric. Some are subtractive finishes: Something is removed from the
(b) (c)
(e) (f)
Table 17.1  Comparison of Structural and Applied Designs
Structural Design Applied Design
Cost Usually more expensive Usually less expensive
Process Decisions made earlier in the process; more time-consuming Decisions made later in the process; less time-consuming
Permanence Permanent design Permanent, durable, or temporary design
Grain Often on-grain; skew in some knits and wovens Figures may be off-grain
Impact on fabric Fabric not damaged by process May tender or weaken fabric

Process may damage fabric

Kinds and types Novelty or fancy yarns (in any fabrication) Printed

Woven—jacquard, dobby, extra yarn, swivel dot, lappet, Flocked

piqué, double cloth, or any fabric made with novelty or
Tufted
fancy yarns
Embroidered
Knitted—jacquard single knits, jacquard double knits, or any
fabric made with novelty or fancy yarns Burned out
Lace Embossed

Plissé

Napped

Emerized

Abrasive or chemical wash

Typical fabrics Huck, damask, brocade, tapestry, shirting, madras, piqué, Flocked dotted swiss, embroidered, burned out, glazed chintz,
dotted swiss, matelassé moiré

Taffeta, embossed, frosted, suede

fabric during finishing. Some finishes are mechanical where the fabric is mechanically d
­ istorted
or altered with heat or pressure; other finishes are chemical where the fabric is chemically
changed. Finish permanence depends on the process, the fiber content, and the type of
finish itself.
The padding machine applies dyes and finishing chemicals in either liquid or paste form
to fabric (Figure 17.3). Padding is done by passing the fabric through the solution, under
a guide roll, and between two padding rolls. The type of roll depends on the finish to be
applied. Rolls exert tons of pressure on the fabric, forcing the finish into the fiber or yarn to
ensure good penetration. Excess liquid is squeezed off. The fabric is then steamed, cleaned,
and dried.
The backfilling machine is a variation of the padding machine. It applies the finish to
one side only, usually to the back of the fabric (Figure 17.4). Padding and backfilling machines
that use less water in the process are becoming increasingly common. Padding and backfill-
ing machines are used to apply most additive finishes.
Sustainability issues associated with aesthetic finishes relate to use of chemicals, energy
use for the process, and processing of waste. As with routine finishes, efforts to make these

Learning Activity 1
Examine Figure 17.2. Identify the basic weave, knit structure, or other fabrication
method used to create each of these fabrics. Hint: Figures 12.1, 12.15, 13.1, 14.4,
and 15.1 might be of assistance in this identification. How does Figure 17.2 aid in your
ability to name fabrics?

aesthetic finishes 425

 Does the fabric have a finish?*

Yes No

How does the finish change the aesthetics of the fabric? See the charts for basic weaves,
fancy weaves, knit fabrics, or
other fabric structures

Luster Drape Texture/Hand

Surface glazing: Glazed Parchmentize: Emerized****

Shear: Velvet, Corduroy,
chintz, Polished cotton** Organdy** Abrasive wash:
Velveteen***
Ciré finish: Ciré tricot** Burned out: Frosted denim***
Brushed: Corduroy***
Moiré: Moiré taffeta, Burned out** Chemical wash:
Embossed: Embossed
Moiré faille** Sizing**** Frosted denim***
cotton (raised design)***
Schreiner calender: Weighting: Enzyme wash:
Pleated****
Sateen, Damask*** Weighted silk** Washed denim***
Puckered surface****
Embossed: Embossed Crepeing****
Plissé: Plissé**
nylon (flat design)*** Silk boil-off****
Flocked: Dotted swiss***
Tufted: Carpet*** Caustic Treatment****
Embroidery: Schiffli, Eyelet Hand Builders****
embroidery***
Expanded foam****
Napped: Brushed tricot,
Brushed denim, Flannel,
Flannelette***
Beetled: Crash, Damask***
Coronized****

* Only some finishes create a visual or tactile change in the fabric

** Fabric name influenced by this finish
*** Examples of fabrics with this finish
**** Finish is not used to determine a fabric name

Figure Flowchart of fabrics with aesthetic finishes.

17.2

finishes more sustainable focus on controlling energy use, recycling chemicals, reducing
water use, treating waste, and substituting sustainable chemicals and processes. Specific
details impacting sustainability will be discussed with each finish.
Fabric Finished
roll fabric
Guide roll
to keep fabric
flat
Padded
roller Aesthetic Finishes
Finish solution
Aesthetic finishes can be organized in a variety of ways. In this section, they are grouped by
Figure Padding machine.
the impact they have on the fabric and its perception. Finishes are grouped here by luster (the
17.3
impact on how light is reflected), drape (the impact on how a fabric falls over a 3D form), and
texture and hand (the impact on how a fabric feels).

Luster
Blade Luster finishes produce a change in a fabric’s light reflectance. Most of these finishes
increase light reflectance and improve the fabric’s luster or shine. The increase in luster may
be over the entire fabric—as in the glazed, ciré, and schreiner finishes—or it may be a local-
Starch ized increase in luster—as in the moiré and embossed finishes. These finishes are done by
paste
Fabric calendering—passing the fabric between two cylinders that exert pressure on the fabric.
Figure Backfilling machine. Different calenders produce different effects on the fabric: glazed, ciré, moiré, schreiner, and
17.4 embossed. Table 17.2 summarizes the finishes that impact luster.

426 chapter seventeen

Table 17.2 Summary Table: Luster Finishes
Process Characteristics Fabric Examples
Glazed Friction calender Highly glazed surface Glazed chintz

Durable or permanent depending on Polished cotton

fiber content and chemical
Ciré Hot calender Permanent on thermoplastic fibers Taffeta

Highly polished surface Satin

Tricot
Plasticize Polymer layer added to surface Pronounced glaze and slicker hand Usually applied to heavier weight fabrics

Permanent
Moiré True moiré Wood grain or other pattern created Moiré taffeta

Embossed calender Permanence related to fiber content Moiré faille

Schreiner Schreiner calendar Soft luster Cotton sateen

Better cover Damask

Tricot
Embossed Embossed calendar Flat design Almost any light to medium weight woven or
knit fabric

Glazed  Glazed chintz and polished cotton are two fabrics that receive surface glazing.
A friction calender produces a highly glazed surface. If the fabric is first saturated with
starch and waxes, the finish is temporary. If resin finishes are used, the glaze is durable. The
fabric is passed through the finishing solution and partially dried. It is then calendered. The
speed of the metal roller is greater than the speed of the fabric, and the roller polishes or
glazes the surface (see Figure 17.1). Glazed chintz and polished cotton are used for apparel,
lightweight upholstery, window treatments, and bedspreads. Because of consumer expecta-
tions and sustainability issues, wax and starch are less commonly used while resins, modified
to decrease environmental impact, are more commonly used because they produce a more
durable aesthetic change.

Ciré A ciré finish is similar to a glazed finish, except that the metal roll is hot to pro-
duce greater luster on the fabric’s surface. When thermoplastic (heat-sensitive) fibers are
used, the fiber surface that comes in contact with the metal roll melts and flattens slightly,
producing a highly polished fabric (See Figure 8.2). Ciré is a taffeta, satin, or tricot fabric
hot-friction-calendered to give a high gloss, or wet look for apparel and accessories. While
the luster change can be easily seen, there may be little or no change in texture or hand with
this finish.

Plasticize A plasticize finish is a very thin layer of polymer added to the face of a dyed
fabric. Often applied to heavier-weight fabrics, this finish adds a more pronounced glaze and
slicker hand to the fabric’s surface. As an added bonus, the fabric is also soil-resistant and
water-repellent. Plasticize fabrics are most often used for apparel.

Moiré  Moiré fabrics have a wood grain or watermarked appearance and are used for
more formal looks for apparel and interior textiles, especially upholstery and wall and window
­coverings. Two techniques produce a moiré pattern on fabric. In true moiré, two layers of

aesthetic finishes 427

 an unbalanced plain-weave rib fabric such as taffeta or faille are placed face to face so that
the ribs of the top layer are slightly off-grain in relation to the underlayer. The two layers are
stitched or held together along the selvage and are then fed into a smooth heated-metal-roll
calender. Pressure of 8 to 10 tons causes the rib pattern of the top layer to press into the
bottom layer and vice versa. Flattened areas in the ribs reflect more light and contrast with
unflattened areas. This procedure can be modified to produce patterned moiré designs other
than the traditional watermarked one.
In the second technique, an embossed-metal calender is used. The embossed cal-
ender has a moiré pattern engraved on it. When it passes over a ribbed fabric, the ribs are
Figure Moiré taffeta. flattened in areas and a moiré pattern is created. If the fabric is thermoplastic and the roll
17.5 is heated, the finish is permanent (Figure 17.5). The pattern of the embossed roll deter-
mines the pattern achieved. The length of the pattern repeat is related to the diameter of the
embossed roll.
Heat 12'' engraved roll
hollow for heating
Schreiner  Fabrics with a schreiner finish have a softer luster than most of the other l­uster
finishes. The schreiner calender (Figure 17.6) has a metal roller engraved with 200 to
Tensionless fabric Fabric 300 fine diagonal lines per inch that are visible only under a magnifying glass. (These lines
take-up
roll should not be confused with yarn twist.) Unless resins and thermoplastic fibers are used,
Delivery
this finish is temporary and removed by the first washing. This finish scatters light rays and
roll
produces a deep-seated luster rather than a shine. It also flattens the yarns to reduce the
space between them and increase smoothness and cover. It can upgrade a lower-quality
Enlarged view of yarn
fabric. A schreiner finish is used on cotton sateen for apparel, upholstery, wall and window
Figure Schreiner calender machine for tricot. coverings, and table damask to make them more lustrous and on nylon tricot for apparel to
17.6
increase its cover.

Embossed  Embossed fabrics for apparel and interiors are created using an embossing
Heat calender that produces either flat or raised designs on the fabric. Embossing is an import-
Fabric
ant and inexpensive finish with heat-sensitive fibers because it produces a durable, washable
Solid Solid embossed pattern. Fabrics made of solution-dyed fibers can be embossed directly off the
roll roll loom and sold.
The embossing calender consists of a heated, hollow engraved-metal roll and a solid roll
Flat designs Raised designs
twice the size of the engraved roll (Figure 17.7). The fabric is drawn between the two rollers
(a) (c)
and is embossed with the design. Embossing can be done to both flat and pile fabrics.
The process differs for the production of flat and raised designs. Raised embossed
designs will be discussed later in this chapter in the section on texture. Flat embossed designs
are the simplest to produce. A metal, foam, or plastic roll engraved in deep relief (Figure 17.7)
revolves against a smooth roll. The hot engraved areas of the roll produce a glazed pattern on
the fabric. Embossed brocades are an example of this type of design. The effect is seen as a
difference in luster only; there is no change in texture. Embossing will be discussed again later
in this chapter when the process creates a 3D fabric texture.

(b) (d)
Figure Embossing process: flat design (a),
17.7 embossed fabric (b); raised design (c),
2 Learning Activity
embossed fabric (d). Work with a partner to identify the possibilities of types and names for taffeta. For each
possibility, identify fabrication method, balance, yarn type, and finish. Star the key ele-
ments for each fabric that will help you name it.

428 chapter seventeen

Drape
Drape finishes change the way a fabric falls or hangs over a 3D shape. These finishes make
the fabric stiffer or more flexible. They usually add a chemical compound to the fabric (additive Luster finishes produce a change in a

finish) or dissolve a portion of the fibers present (subtractive finish). Table 17.3 summarizes the fabric’s light reflectance. Types include

finishes that impact fabric drape. glaze, ciré, plasticize, moiré, schreiner,
and embossed.

Transparent and Crisp  Treating cotton fabric with a weak sulfuric acid solution produces
transparent or parchment effects; this is called parchmentizing. Since acid dissolves cotton,
this subtractive process must be very carefully controlled. Split-second timing is necessary to
prevent tendering (weakening) of the fabric. Several effects are possible: all-over, localized,
or plissé.

Learning Activity 3
Use Fabrics #28, 48, 93, 110, and 111 from your swatch kit. Name the fabric based
on its structure and finish. Use the key from the swatch kit to identify the fiber content.
Based on your knowledge of fibers and aesthetic finishes, predict which of these fin-
ishes are permanent, durable, or temporary. How could temporary finishes be made
durable or permanent? Name an end use for each fabric and predict its serviceability
for that end use based on fiber content, yarn structure, fabric structure, and finish. Are
these finishes additive or subtractive? How can you tell?

Learning Activity 4
Return to the information you developed for Learning Activity 1. For each of the fabrics
under the Luster grouping, add elements or details that would assist you in identifying
these finishes and naming fabrics.

Table 17.3 Summary Table: Drape Finishes

Process Characteristics Fabric Examples
Parchmentizing Treat with sulfuric acid Transparent and crisp Organdy

Permanent

All-over or localized designs possible

May tender fabric

Burned out Dissolve areas in fiber blend to Pattern of sheer areas and heavier, more opaque areas Pile or flat fabrics such as
create pattern burned out satin, burned
out velvet
Sizing Mixture to add fabric body or Variety of chemicals used Crinoline
weight
May add weight to lower quality fabrics Buckram

Adds luster to rayon fabrics Other fabrics, usually for

apparel
Permanence related to chemicals and application method
Weighting Compound used to add weight Variety of chemicals used Weighted silk
and body to fabric
Permanence related to chemicals used Other apparel fabrics

Adds fiber volume, luster, and hand

aesthetic finishes 429


Figure Localized parchmentizing (acid finish)
17.8 yields a transparent background.
Figure Burned-out design.
17.9
Drape finishes change the way a fabric falls
or hangs over a 3D shape. Types include
parchmentizing, burned out, sizing,
and weighting.
430 chapter seventeen
Because all-over parchmentizing produces a transparent effect, sheer combed lawn is
used. The lawn is singed, desized, bleached, and mercerized. The fabric is then dyed or printed
with colors that resist acid damage. The fabric is immersed in the acid solution and the fiber sur-
face is partially dissolved. This surface rehardens as a cellulosic film, and when dry, it is perma-
nently crisp and transparent. After the acid bath, the fabric is immersed in a weak alkali bath to
neutralize the acid, rinsed to remove the alkali residue, calendered to improve surface gloss, and
perhaps mercerized again to improve transparency. This all-over treatment produces organdy.
In localized parchmentizing, if the design is a small figure with a large transparent area,
an acid-resistant substance is printed on the fabric and it is run through the acid bath. The
acid-resistant areas retain their original opacity and contrast sharply with the transparent
background (Figure 17.8). If a small transparent design is desired, the acid is printed on the
fabric in that pattern in a paste form and then quickly washed off.
Burned-Out  Burned-out effects are produced by printing a chemical solvent on a blend
fabric made of different generic fibers, such as rayon and polyester. One fiber, usually the
more solvent-sensitive fiber, is dissolved, leaving sheer areas (Figure 17.9). Frequently, fabrics
are specifically made so that they can be burned out later during finishing. Fiber combinations
are usually either rayon and polyester or nylon and silk. Rayon is the fiber dissolved in the first
example while silk is dissolved in the second example. Both rayon and silk are more sensitive
to the solvents used than the nylon or polyester, the other fiber, in the fabric. Fabrics with
this finish can be flat or pile weaves and include burned-out satin and velvet for apparel and
window treatments. This finish is also known as etched or devoré because part of the fibers
are removed by this subtractive finish. After the solvent has removed one of the fibers in the
desired areas, the fabric is washed. The wastewater must be treated before discharge. Some
solvents are reclaimed and reused; others are not.
Sizing In sizing, or starching, the fabric is immersed in a mixture containing waxes,
oils, glycerine, and softeners to add or control fabric body. For added weight, talc, clay, or
chalk may be used, but this is usually done only with lower-quality fabrics. Gelatin is used
on rayon because it gives a clear finish that enhances rayon’s natural luster. Sizing adds stiff-
ness, weight, and body to fabric. Its permanence is related to the type of sizing and method
of application. If the sizing is resin-based and heat-set, it will be permanent. If the sizing is
water-soluble, it will be removed during washing or it may create problems for consumers.
Gelatin, for example, may create water spots on rayon that are difficult to remove if droplets
(such as condensation from cold beverages during the summer) or other water drops onto the
fabric. Sizing is most often used to add body to apparel fabrics. Crinoline is an example of a
heavily sized fabric used to support other fabrics. It is used in window treatments to support
the drapery fabric and shape pleats and in apparel to give shape to full skirts. Buckram is used
to shape hats and other headgear produced by the millinery industry.
Weighting  Weighting is another technique used to add weight and body to apparel fabric.
A metallic salt, a mineral weighting compound such as tin phosphate silicate, or plant-based
compounds are used. Some salts bond with the fiber and are durable; other salts produce
temporary surface coatings. Mineral weighted silk was common once but is rare today; these
silks are sensitive to light damage and do not age well. (See Figure 5.29.) Plant and metallic
salts add fiber volume, luster, and hand.
Texture and Hand
Texture and hand finishes modify fabric texture, add components that greatly alter a fabric’s
original texture, or alter the feel of a fabric. Table 17.4 summarizes the finishes that impact
fabric texture and hand.

Embossed Some embossed fabrics have a 3D raised design or pattern. The embossed

design is permanent if the fiber is thermoplastic or if a resin is used and heat-set. To create
raised, or relief designs, a more complicated technique is used. Two calenders are used:
one hard and one soft to create the relief design. The two fit together so that the fabric
is forced to take on the shape of the relief design. In heat embossing, the temperature is
adjusted based on the fiber content of the fabric. The fabric is passed between the cal-
enders to create permanent 3D designs that can be seen and felt (See Figures 17.7c and
17.7d). In dry embossing, the process is the same, but the design is temporary or d
­ urable
rather than permanent. Three-dimensional embossed textiles are used for both apparel
and interiors.

Pleated A pleated fabric is a variation of an embossed fabric. Pleated fabrics include

cotton and cotton blends, wool and wool blends, silk fabrics, synthetics, and lighter weight
suede leathers. Pleating is a highly specialized operation done by either the paper-pattern
technique or the machine process.
The paper-pattern technique is a more costly hand process, but it produces a wider
variety of pleated designs. Partially completed garment components, such as hemmed skirt

Learning Activity 5
Explain how the finishes in this section impact fabric drape. Are these finished addi-
tive or subtractive? How might each finish influence serviceability for finished fabrics or
products?

Learning Activity 6
Use Fabrics #112, 113, and 114 from your swatch kit. Name the fabric based on
its structure and finish. Use the key from the swatch kit to identify the fiber content.
Based on your knowledge of fibers and aesthetic finishes, predict which of these
finishes are permanent, durable, or temporary. How could temporary finishes be
made durable or permanent? Name an end use for each fabric and predict its ser-
viceability for that end use based on fiber content, yarn structure, fabric structure,
and finish.

Learning Activity 7
Return to the information you developed for Learning Activity 1. For each of the fabrics
under the Drape grouping, add elements or details that would assist you in identifying
these finishes and naming fabrics.

aesthetic finishes 431

Table 17.4 Summary Table: Texture and Hand Finishes.
Process Characteristics Fabric Examples
Embossed Embossing calenders 3D design and texture Embossed cotton and other
fiber fabrics
Permanence dependent on fiber content
Pleated Paper-pattern technique 3D pleats Variety dependent on fashion;
used for apparel, upholstery,
Machine-pleating technique Partially completed garment components
wall coverings, window
Permanence dependent on fiber content treatments, and lampshades
Puckered surface Print phenol on nylon or polyester Puckered surface area Flat fabrics like taffeta
fabric
3D texture or pattern
Plissé Caustic soda printed on cotton fabric 3D texture Plissé

Permanent
Flocked Surface fiber applied to fabric all over Imitates extra yarn weaves or pile fabrics Flocked fabric
or in pattern
3D surface
Embroidered Thread or other decorative element Decorative element with subtle or Eyelet
stitched on fabric surface (shuttle pronounced texture
Ajouré
or multihead embroidery)
Expanded foam Compound printed on fabric, Foam pattern Expanded foam fabric
expands during processing
Durable

Problems with pressing, yellowing, or

disintegrating with age
Sheared Pile or nap cut to give uniform height Smooth, patterned, or sculptured surface Sculptured velvet, carpet,
or pattern. and other napped and pile
fabrics
Brushed Fiber ends cleaned off fabric Combined with steaming, gives up/down Pile and napped fabrics like
direction to pile velveteen and corduroy
Napped Mechanical brushing action pulls up Less expensive way of producing 3D fabric Worsted and woolen flannels
fiber from ground fabric
Adds thickness and insulation Cotton flannel

Soft and attractive Flannelette

Outing flannel

Suede

Duvetyn
Crepeing Special compacting process Soft hand Some crepe

All-over or localized texture

Fulled Moisture, heat, and friction in carefully Dense fabric Most woven wool fabrics
controlled felting process
More compact structure Many knit wool fabrics

Stiffer hand Boiled wool

Beetled High pressure and resin flattens Provides better cover Damask
thermoplastic fiber yarns
Increased fabric luster, absorbency, and Crash
smoothness
Linen-like fabrics
Coronized Heat set at very high temperature Softens glass yarns to give greater wrinkle Glass window treatments
resistance and softer drape
Emerizing, Sueding, Surface abraded by emery paper Soft hand Apparel and interior fabrics like
Sanding peach skin silk
Suede-like texture
Abrasive, chemical, Surface abraded by stones, chemical, Alters fabric surface to simulate wear Applied to denim, poplin, silk
enzyme wash or enzymes pattern suiting and other apparel
fabrics

432 chapter seventeen

 Process Characteristics Fabric Examples
Silk boil-off Treatment to remove sericin Creates looser, more mobile fabric structure Silk apparel and interior fabrics
Caustic treatment Caustic soda treatment of polyester Creates synthetic with a hand and texture Polyester crepe de chine and
fabric like silk others
Hand builders Compounds to soften and improve Dryer and softer hand Most apparel and some
fabric hand interiors like bedding
Better wrinkle resistance

Improved durability if combined with

durable press finish

Some yellow with age

If added by consumers, may reduce

absorbency

panels, are placed in a pattern mold by hand. Another pattern mold is placed on top pleating
the fabric between the pleating papers. The three layers are rolled into a cone shape, sealed,
and heat-set in a curing oven.
The machine-pleating or running process is less expensive. Blades pleat the fabric as
it is inserted between two heated rolls in the machine. A paper backing under the pleated
fabric and paper tape holds the pleats in place. After leaving the heated-roll machine, the
pleats are set in an aging unit. Stitching the pleats in place produces permanent 3D effects
in apparel, upholstery, wall coverings, window treatments, and lampshades. Pleated fabric
without stitching is used in similar products, but the pleats soften with use.
Some hand pleating is used in the apparel and interiors industry by designers. Hand-
pleated fabrics require specialists who understand the process and the fabrics used. These A pleated fabric is a variation of an
specialists tend to be located in major design centers, such as New York and Milan, where embossed fabric.
they work directly with design firms.

Puckered Surface  Puckered surfaces are created by partially dissolving the surface of
a nylon or polyester fabric. Sculptured and damasque effects are made by printing phenol on
the fabric to partially dissolve or swell it. As the fabric dries, it shrinks and creates a puckered
surface, used primarily in apparel.

Plissé  Plissé is converted from either lawn or print-cloth gray goods by printing an alkali,
sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), onto the fabric in the form of stripes or designs. The alkali
shrinks the fabric in the treated areas causing the untreated areas to pucker and a slight differ-
ence in count between the flat and puckered areas.
The crinkle stripes can be narrow or wide. In piece-dyed fabrics, the flat treated area may
be a deeper color than the puckered area (Figure 17.1). The texture change is permanent but
can be flattened somewhat by steam and pressure. The fabric must be neutralized after fin-
ishing and the sodium hydroxide washed off and reused. Wastewater with sodium hydroxide

Learning Activity 8
Compare the diagrams and photos in Figure 17.7. Explain why embossing is identified
in both the luster and texture groups of aesthetic finishes.

aesthetic finishes 433


Figure Eyelet.
17.10
Figure Close-up of the needle action in an
17.11 embroidery machine.
Figure Multihead embroidered design on a
17.12 pillow.
434 chapter seventeen
requires treatment before being discharged into natural or municipal water systems. Because
of issues related to wastewater treatment, environmental and worker safety issues related to
using hazardous chemicals, and fashion changes, plisse has become essentially a historic
fashion and is very difficult to find on the market. Seersucker, plissé, and embossed fabrics
can be similar in appearance and price range.
Flocked  In a flocked fabric, a fine natural or synthetic surface fiber is applied to a base
fabric. Flocking can be localized to imitate extra yarn weaves or all-over to imitate pile fabrics
(see Chapters 13 and 15). When flocking is localized, only small areas of the fabric appear
to have pile yarns, but the imitation pile is applied to the surface. An adhesive holds the very
short, straight fibers in place. Area or localized flocking can be done using either ­mechanical or
­electrostatic methods. Area and all-over flocking is used to create inexpensive pile upholstery
and wall and window coverings. Area flocking is more commonly used to add pattern and
interest to apparel. All-over flocking is seldom used for apparel. See Table 15.10 to c
­ ompare
flocking methods and Table 15.11 to compare flocking with other methods used to produce
fabrics with a pile or imitation pile surface.
Embroidered  Embroidered fabrics for apparel and interiors are decorated by hand
or by machine with a surface-applied thread. Machine embroidery uses compact zigzag
stitches of various lengths. Two machines are used for embroidery: the shuttle and the multi-
head. The shuttle embroidery machine produces all-over embroidered fabrics such as eyelet
(Figure 17.10). Schiffli embroidery describes earlier machines that used punched cardboard
rolls to produce all-over embroidered fabrics. Contemporary shuttle embroidery machines use
computers to control the pattern.
Multihead embroidery creates flat embroidery or pile embroidery. Multihead machines
have several sewing heads combined in one machine operated simultaneously by the same
computer system (Figure 17.11). Multihead machines are extremely versatile and apply a vari-
ety of threads, ribbons, or bead/sequin strands. One or more colors of thread create simple to
elaborate designs in small or large scale. They create designs and emblems that are sewn to
products such as letter jackets, hats, and shirts, or they are used to stitch crests, logos, and
other designs on finished items (Figure 17.12).
Embroidery businesses are a part of the local fiber movement. These entrepreneurs
usually own fewer than five embroidery machines and may employ machine operators
9 Learning Activity
Compare Fabrics #74 and 111. Propose how an all cotton print cloth would look if fin-
ished to be plissé. How do these three fabrics compare or differ in terms of structure?
Which ones are applied designs and which ones are structural? Based on fiber content
(see the fabric key), yarn type, fabric structure, and finish, explain the serviceability of
these three fabrics. In what kinds of products would you expect to see these fabrics?
10 Learning Activity
Explain why flocking appears in both Chapter 15 Other Fabrications and Chapter 17
Aesthetic Finishes.
and graphic designers who help create the logos, crests, emblems, or other designs
to meet the needs of local businesses, athletic teams, community organizations, and Embroidered fabrics for apparel and
­others. Small runs of one or more reflect the flexibility of these small businesses to meet interiors are decorated by hand or by
­community needs. Embroidery is almost always applied to finished goods like shirts, hats, machine with a surface-applied thread.
and T-shirts. Multihead embroidery creates flat
Embroidered figures are very durable, often outlasting the ground fabric. The fabric is embroidery or pile embroidery of crests,
more expensive than the same fabric unembroidered. Like other applied designs, the figure logos, or other designs on finished goods
may or may not be on-grain. However, the embroidery is more likely to snag since it lies above like hats or shirts. Eyelet is an embroidery
the ground fabric. fabric with small round holes cut in the
Eyelet is an embroidery fabric with small round holes cut in the fabric, with stitching fabric, with stitching completely around
completely around the holes. The closeness and amount of stitching, as well as the quality of the holes.
the background fabric, vary tremendously.
Ajouré is an embroidery technique in which open areas are created within a figure or pat-
tern. Ajouré embroidery is often made by embroidering on a base or ground structure. Once
the embroidery is complete, the base or ground structure is dissolved leaving a stable, open
finished component ready to be used as is or applied to another material.
Fabrics and products with hand embroidery and beading are also available. In these
cases, the stitching is done by individuals by hand with needle and thread. While hand
embroiderers can create one-of-a-kind products, most often they are paid by the piece to
meet mass merchandise demands. Embroiderers often work at home as a component of a
cottage industry. While this allows families to work together, income is based on the num-
Figure Shearing creates the look of this
ber of items produced. Abuses can occur when companies gather embroiderers together in
17.13 sculptured velvet.
more factorylike settings expecting long hours of work, providing poor working conditions, or
rewarding efforts with low pay.

Expanded Foam  Another technique to create surface texture for apparel uses expanded
foam. A colored compound printed on the fabric expands during processing to give a 3D tex-
ture to the fabric. These foams are durable but create problems with pressing. Some do not
age well, with the foam yellowing or disintegrating with age.

Sheared   A sheared fabric is a pile or napped fabric in which the surface has been
cut to remove loose fiber or yarn ends, knots, and similar irregularities or surface flaws. Figure When the nap in corduroy does not
Shearing, a finish done by a machine similar to a lawn mower, controls the length of the 17.14 match, two pieces may look as if they
pile or nap. It may create a smooth surface or a patterned or sculptured effect by flatten-
are different colors.
ing portions of the pile with an engraved roller, shearing off the areas that remain erect,
and steaming the fabric to raise the flattened and now taller portions. Most pile fabrics
Shearing, a finish done by a machine
and many napped fabrics, including cut-pile carpet, are sheared (Figure 17.13). At one
similar to a lawn mower, controls the
time, the fiber ends from shearing were discarded as waste, but today they are gath-
length of the pile or nap. When brushing
ered together and sold to parts of the textile complex that work with very short, mixed
is combined with steaming, the nap or
content fiber.
pile is set so that it slants in one direction,
producing an up-and-down direction for
Brushed  After shearing, the fabric surface usually is brushed to clean off the fiber ends. pile and nap fabrics. Fabric types include
When brushing is combined with steaming, the nap or pile is set so that it slants in one sculptured velvet and carpet, corduroy,
­direction, producing an up-and-down direction for pile and nap fabrics such as corduroy and others.
(Figure 17.14).

aesthetic finishes 435

 Napped  Napping pulls up a layer of fiber ends from the ground weave of the fabric by
a mechanical brushing action. Napped fabrics are literally made by finishing. Figure 17.15
shows a fabric before and after napping.
Napping is less expensive than many other ways of producing a 3D fabric. Originally
a hand operation using several teasels or dried plant burrs (Figure 17.16) to gently brush
up fiber ends, today napping uses pile rollers covered by a heavy fabric in which bent
wires are embedded (Figure 17.17). Napping machines may be single-action or double-­
action. The single-action machine uses fewer rollers. The bent wires point in the direction
in which the fabric travels. A single large drum or cylinder hold several identical rollers that
rotate in the same direction as the fabric. The pile rolls must travel faster than the fabric to
raise any nap.

(a) In the double-action napping machine, every other roll is a counterpile roll, with wires that
point in the direction opposite that of the pile roll. The counterpile roll travels more slowly than
the fabric to produce a nap. When the pile rolls at slower speed and the counterpile rolls at
faster speed, a tucking action occurs that pushes the raised fibers back into the fabric and
smooths the surface.
Napping produces a fabric with appealing characteristics. A napped surface combined
with soft-twist filling yarns increases the air volume. The fabric is soft and attractive and is a
good insulator. A dense mat of fiber ends on the surface imparts a degree of water repellency.
The amount of nap does not indicate fabric quality. The amount may vary from the slight
fuzz of flannel to the thick nap of imitation fur. A short compact nap on a fabric with firm yarns
and a closely woven ground wears best. Stick a pin in the nap and lift the fabric; a durable
nap will hold the weight of the fabric. Hold the fabric up to the light and examine it. Move the
nap aside and examine the ground weave. A napped surface may cover defects or a sleazy
(b)
Figure Fabric (a) before and (b) after napping. construction. Rub the fabric between your fingers and then shake it to see if short fibers drop
17.15 out. Thick nap may contain very short fibers or flock. Rub the napped surface to see if it is
loose or likely to pill.
Napped fabrics are made from gray goods in which the filling yarns are made of low-twist
staple (not filament) fibers (see Chapter 11 for information about yarn twist). This difference in
yarn structure makes it easy to identify the lengthwise and crosswise grain of the fabric.
Fabrics can be napped on either or both sides. The nap may have an upright position,
or it may be laid down or brushed. A heavy nap sometimes weakens the yarns in the fabric.
Yarns of either long- or short-staple fibers are used in napped fabrics. Worsted flannels
are made of long-staple wool. The short-staple yarns used in woolen flannels have more fiber
ends per inch, which produce a heavier nap. In wool blankets, which may be heavily napped
for maximum loft, a fine-core ply adds strength to the yarn.
Figure At one time, teasel (a plant burr) was Napped fabrics may be plain or twill weave, or knit. More filling yarn is exposed on the
17.16 used to create napped fabric. surface in a twill, especially on a filling-faced twill, and a heavier nap can be raised on twill
fabrics. Napped knit fabrics are used for soft and flexible items and may be given woven pile
fabric names such as velvet, velour, or fleece. Almost all napped fabric is used for apparel.
The major exception is flannel bedding (blankets and sheets) where the raised fibers provide
extra warmth during colder weather.
Flannel is an all-wool napped fabric made in dress, suit, or coat weights. It may be made
Pile roll Counterpile roll
with either worsted or woolen yarns, which may be yarn-dyed. Worsted flannels are firmly
travels faster than travels slower than
fabric to do napping fabric to do napping woven with a very short nap. They wear well, are easy to press, and hold a press well. Woolen
Figure Napping rolls. flannels are fuzzier, less firmly woven fabrics. Because napping causes some weakening of
17.17

436 chapter seventeen

the fabric, 15% to 20% nylon or polyester may be blended with the wool to improve the
strength. Fleece is a coat-weight fabric with a long brushed nap or a short clipped nap.
Cotton flannels flatten under pressure and do not insulate as well as wool because cot-
ton is less resilient. The shorter cotton fibers shed more lint. These fabrics are used in robes,
nightwear, baby clothes, sheets, and lightweight blankets. Flannelette is a plain-weave fabric
that is converted from a gray-goods fabric called soft-filled sheeting. It has a short nap on
one side only and is often printed. Small pills will form on the nap, and the fabric is subject to
abrasion. Suede and duvetyn are converted from the same gray goods but are sheared close
to the ground to make a smooth, flat surface. Of the two, duvetyn is lighter weight. Outing
flannel is a yarn-dyed, white, or printed fabric that is similar in fabric weight and nap length to (a) (b)
flannelette but is napped on both sides. Since the warp yarns in these fabrics are standard Figure Wool fabric (a) before and (b) after
yarns, it is easy to identify fabric grain. 17.18 fulling.

Crepeing  Crepeing is a special compacting process to produce a fabric with a soft hand.
In crepeing, the fabric is fed into the machine by a special blade at a faster rate than it is Napping pulls up a layer of fiber ends

removed from the machine. Crepeing can create an all-over texture or a localized texture and from the ground weave of the fabric by

add comfort stretch with soft drape to apparel fabrics. a mechanical brushing action. Napped
fabrics include flannel, cotton flannel,
outing flannel, and others.
Fulled  Fulling of wool fabrics for apparel and upholstery fabrics improves their appearance,
hand, thickness, softness, body, and cover. Fabrics are fulled by moisture, heat, and friction in a
very mild, carefully controlled felting process. Fulled fabric is denser and more compact in both
warp and filling directions (Figure 17.18). Almost all woven wool fabrics and many knit wool fabrics Fulling of wool fabrics for apparel
are fulled. Some are lightly fulled while others are heavily fulled. Boiled wool is a heavily fulled jersey. and upholstery fabrics improves their
appearance, hand, thickness, softness,
Beetled  Beetling is a finish originally used on linen and fabrics resembling linen. As the body, and cover. Fabrics are fulled by
fabric revolved slowly over a wooden drum, it was pounded with wooden hammers until the moisture, heat, and friction in a very mild,
carefully controlled felting process.

Learning Activity 11
Compare flocked, embroidered, sheared, brushed, and napped finishes. Which of these
finished are additive and which are subtractive? What kind of component is added or
altered during finishing? How is the change made? Are these finishes temporary or per-
manent? How has the finish altered the serviceability of the fabric?

Learning Activity 12
Use Fabrics #66, 71, 116, 117, and 118 from your swatch kit. Name the fabric based
on its structure and finish. Use the key from the swatch kit to identify the fiber content.
Based on your knowledge of fibers and aesthetic finishes, predict which of these fin-
ishes are permanent, durable, or temporary. How could temporary finishes be made
durable or permanent? Name an end use for each fabric and predict its serviceability for
that end use based on fiber content, yarn structure, fabric structure, and finish.

Learning Activity 13
Describe how you can determine the quality of a napped fabric.

aesthetic finishes 437


Figure False wear patterns in a pair of denim
17.19 jeans.
438 chapter seventeen
yarns flattened into an oval, not round, cross section. The weave appeared tighter than it really
was. The greater surface area increased fabric luster, absorbency, and smoothness.
A contemporary method of producing a beetled fabric uses high pressure, resin, and
thermoplastic fibers. In this case, the pressure flattens the yarns into the oval shape associ-
ated with beetled fabrics. The heat and resin result in a permanent flattening of the yarns. This
finish is used on damask, crash, and other linenlike fabrics for apparel and interiors.
Coronized  Coronizing is a process for heat setting, dyeing, and finishing glass fiber fab-
ric in one continuous operation. Since the flexibility of glass is low, the yarns resist bending
around one another in a woven fabric. Heat setting at a temperature of 1,100° F softens the
yarns so that they bend and assume yarn crimp. Coronized fabrics have greater wrinkle resis-
tance and softer draping qualities and are used for window treatments.
Emerizing, Sueding, or Sanding  Emerizing, sueding, sanding, or peach skin is a
process used on fine silk-like fabrics of natural or manufactured fibers for apparel and some
interior uses. The different terms describe different starting plain- or twill-weave fabrics and
different surface effects produced by the process. It may be applied to polyester microfiber
fabrics to improve their hand and comfort. The finish is usually applied to washed fabrics
before they are heat-set or dyed. The fabric moves at a speed of 15 to 20 meters per min-
ute under two or more rollers with fine emery paper on the first roller to more abrasive paper
on each successive roller. The process abrades the surface, causing fibrils to split from the
fibers, producing a soft hand and sueded texture on the fabric. Too much abrasion or too
coarse an abrasive rips or tears the fabric. Too little abrasion may generate sufficient heat to
produce a harsh hand with thermoplastic fibers. The process damages the fabric and can
decrease its tensile strength by as much as 60%. After treatment, the fabrics are heat-set
and washed to remove the dust. Dyeing follows. These fabrics need to be handled carefully.
Machine washing may abrade the fibrils and destroy the look of the fabric. Peach-skin finishes
can be applied to silk, nylon, polyester, and cotton blended with nylon or polyester. Emerizing,
sueding, and sanding applied to denim jeans and other denim produces create false wear
patterns, distressing the jeans to the desired appearance (Figure 17.19). Because of the con-
trolled damage to the fabric, holes and tears are likely to develop with use.
Abrasive, Chemical, or Enzyme Washes  Abrasive, chemical, and enzyme washes are
processes that were used originally on denim garments and go in and out of fashion under
names that reflect the current fashion look. These finishes are modified for application to other
fabrications and fibers. The washing process alters the surface of the fabric and damages it
14 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #1, 2, and 58 from your swatch kit. Name the fabric based on its struc-
ture and finish. Use the key from the swatch kit to identify the fiber content. Based
on your knowledge of fibers and aesthetic finishes, predict which of these finishes are
permanent, durable, or temporary. How could temporary finishes be made durable or
permanent? Name an end use for each fabric and predict its serviceability for that end
use based on fiber content, yarn structure, fabric structure, and finish. Why is this finish
used for linen fabrics and damask?
to some degree. This look is used for apparel and interiors. Localized abrasive washes create
false wear patterns in apparel, especially items made of denim.
Manufacturers can do the washing at a sewing facility in an area known as the laun-
dry. These processes require special equipment and knowledge and cannot be duplicated
at home. Some consumers have attempted to duplicate these finishes at home, resulting in
expensive washing-machine repair or replacement.
The sustainability among these processes differs depending on the look desired
and chemicals used. When enzymes are used, the impact is reduced compared to alka-
lines, oxidizing compounds, bleaches, and other chemicals. Enzymes are easier to pro-
Figure Pumice stones used in abrasive
cess in wastewater, use less energy and chemicals in finishing, and require less energy.
17.20 washes.
Alternate procedures with better sustainability are discussed with each wash where such an
alternate exists.
With abrasive washes, pumice or other abrasive material is saturated with a ­chemical
and tumbled with the fabric or garment for a predetermined time related to the desired change
in hand and appearance (Figure 17.20). The abrasive material is removed, and the chemi-
cal is neutralized in a bath. With fabrics such as cotton, abrasion is controlled by the cycle
length and the style and type of abradant used. With lighter-weight fabrics like silk, abrasion
results from tumbling against other fabrics in the chamber. Fabrics finished in this manner
are described by a variety of terms, including stone-washed denim; sanded, sand- or mud-
washed silk; and sand-washed nylon.
In a chemical wash, a special chemical is added to the wash solution to alter the fiber’s
surface. Chemicals include alkalis, oxidizing agents, bleaches, and others that are specific to
the fiber being treated. These chemicals partially destroy the fiber and create irregularities,
pits, pores, or other surface aberrations. This technique is used to produce fashion denims,
comfort polyesters, and washed silks. Sometimes a chemical name is attached, such as acid
wash, even though acid is not or rarely used in the process.
Bleaches are used to strip color from fabric or products to create fashion looks.
Sodium hypochlorite is used in the majority of bleaching treatments of denim fabrics and
products. Unfortunately, this process releases adsorbable chlorinated organic compounds
in the wastewater, requiring expensive treatment before the water is released into natural
or municipal water systems. Alternate chlorine-free bleaching agents are possible, but the
results are grayer and not as clear. Other options include ozonation or treating cotton fab-
rics with ozone, which breaks down easily and is currently used to remove color from dye
wastewater.
Enzyme washes are similar to chemical washes except that they use cellulase, an
enzyme that dissolves part of the cellulose molecule. The process has a permanent effect With abrasive washes, pumice or other
on the surface of the fabric, producing a softer hand. The enzyme removes surface fuzz, abrasive material is saturated with a
reduces pilling with use or care, decreases fabric weight, and reduces strength loss by less chemical and tumbled with the fabric
than 10%. Cellulase and other enzymes produced by the fermentation of molds are naturally or garment for a predetermined time
occurring proteins used to degrade the surface fuzz. Relatively small concentrations of these related to the desired change in hand
sustainable and biodegradable enzymes are used with little negative environmental effect as and appearance. In a chemical wash, a
compared with that of chemical washes. After treatment with the enzyme, mechanical action special chemical is added to the wash
removes the weakened fiber ends. In some instances, abrasive stones are combined with solution to alter the fiber’s surface. Enzyme
the enzyme for mechanical abrasion. Enzyme washes, also known as bio-polishing or bio-­ washes use cellulase to dissolve part of the
finishing, increase productivity with fewer seconds. They increase moisture absorption and cellulose molecule.
dyeability. Some yarns are also enzyme treated.

aesthetic finishes 439


Figure Silk with a boil-off finish is a looser,
17.21 more mobile fabric.
440 chapter seventeen
15 Learning Activity
Use Fabric #8 from your swatch kit. Name the fabric based on its structure and finish.
Use the key from the swatch kit to identify the fiber content. Based on your knowledge
of fibers and aesthetic finishes, predict if the finish is permanent, durable, or temporary.
Name an end use for this fabric and predict its serviceability for that end use based on
fiber content, yarn structure, fabric structure, and finish.
16 Learning Activity
Examine your clothing and that of others nearby. Are any of these items emerized,
sueded, or sanded or finished with an abrasive, chemical or enzyme wash? If yes, iden-
tify the item of apparel and suggest one of the finishes that was used to achieve this
fashion look. What will the impact of this finish be on the serviceability of the item?
Silk Boil-Off  Sericin comprises about 30% of a silk fabric’s weight. The boil-off process
removes the sericin and creates a looser, more mobile fabric structure (Figure 17.21). Options
include using an alkaline solution, enzymes, ultrasonic vibrations, plasma treatment, or sodium
salts. If the fabric is in a relaxed state when the sericin is removed, the warp yarns take on
a high degree of fabric crimp. This crimp and the looser fabric structure together create the
liveliness and suppleness of silk, a suppleness that has been compared with the action of
the coil-spring Slinky toy. While used primarily for apparel fabrics, some silk window and wall
treatment fabrics receive a boil-off treatment to enhance their texture.
The properties are quite different when the boil-off is done under tension. The fabric
crimp is much less, and the response of the fabric is duller, more like that of a flat spring. This
explains some of the differences between qualities of silk fabric.
In some areas where silk is produced, the wastewater from the boil-off process is not
always treated before discharge. However, socially responsible companies are demanding
that suppliers treat wastewater before it is discharged.
Caustic Treatment  Caustic treatment creates a synthetic apparel fabric with a hand and
texture like silk. Finishing starts with heat setting to stabilize the fabric to a controlled width,
remove any wrinkles, and impart resistance to wrinkling. The next step is a caustic-soda (alkali)
treatment to dissolve a small amount of the fiber, usually 5% to 18%. Similar to the degum-
ming of silk, this step gives the fabric structure greater mobility, with a slight loss in tensile
strength and abrasion resistance. The fabric is more hydrophilic and more comfortable. In all
remaining finishing, the fabric is completely relaxed to achieve maximum fabric crimp. With the
microfibers, caustic treatment is not as necessary. As with any treatment using caustic sodium
hydroxide, sustainability concerns relate to wastewater treatment and recycling of the chemical.
Hand Builders  Hand builders soften fabric hand. Resin special-purpose finishes and heat
setting of synthetics often produces a harsh hand. These hand builders, usually silicone soft-
eners and cellulase enzyme, are used primarily for apparel and bedding. The compounds pro-
duce a dryer hand as compared with compounds previously used. They improve the ability of
fabric to be sewn into products. Better wrinkle resistance and improved durability occur with
some of the silicone softeners. When used during laundry in the home, they have good fiber
affinity, but may yellow with age and build up if used frequently, reducing fabric absorbency.
Because of health and environmental issues related to some silicone softeners, use of enzymes Texture and hand finishes modify fabric
as softening agents is becoming more common. They are also known as fabric softeners. texture, add components that greatly alter
a fabric’s original texture, or alter the feel of
a fabric. Types include embossed, pleated,

Performance of Aesthetic Finishes puckered, plissé, flocked, embroidered,

expanded foam, sheared, brushed,
Aesthetic finishes change fabric performance. While this change always occurs in the aes- napped, creped, fulled, beetled, coronized,
thetic area of serviceability, other changes in performance may also occur. Finishes that emerized, washed, boiled-off, caustic
add components to a fabric may incorporate an inherent problem such as an adhesive that treated, and hand-built or softened fabrics.
degrades or yellows over time. Subtractive finishes may reduce durability because of the loss
of components or damage to components. Aesthetic finishes often alter the performance rel-
ative to comfort, appearance retention, and care.
Finish permanence is related to the process and fiber content. Whenever thermoplastic
fibers and heat are used, the finish is permanent. When resins are used, the finish is more likely
to be durable because resins wear off or degrade with time. Finishes that add components to a
fabric may incorporate an inherent problem such as an adhesive that degrades or yellows over
time. Specific details impacting satisfaction and performance were discussed with each finish.

Learning Activity 17
Examine the textile products you are wearing or have with you today. Do any of these
items have applied design? If yes, which ones? How can you be sure it is an applied
design and not a structural design? Which of the items with an applied design have an
additive finish and which have a subtractive finish? For each of the applied designs with
you today, name the fabric, identify the fiber content (or make your best guess if no
labels are present), and name the aesthetic finish used. Select one of the products and
describe your satisfaction with that product.

Learning Activity 18
You are part of a creative team developing a new line for casual summer sportswear.
Identify an appropriate list of five aesthetic finishes that might be used in this line. Explain
the process used for each of the finishes, the value each finish would add to a product,
and how that finish would reflect current fashion.

Learning Activity 19
Work in groups of two. Select three finishes—each one from a different main type—and
discuss the sustainability of each of the finishes you selected. Consider the finishes
applied to fashion denim items. How have these processes been modified to make
them more sustainable?

Learning Activity 20
Return to the information you developed for Learning Activity 1. For each of the fabrics
under the Texture and Hand grouping, add elements or details that would assist you in
identifying these finishes and naming fabrics.

aesthetic finishes 441

 21 Learning Activity
Work in groups of three or four to answer these questions:

1. How do aesthetic finishes add value to textiles?

2. What are the interactions between fashion and aesthetic finishes?
3. How do aesthetic finishes affect product serviceability?
4. Are aesthetic finishes sustainable? Why or why not?

terms
key terms
Abrasive wash
Additive finish
Aesthetic finish
Embroidered fabric
Emerizing, sueding, or sanding
Enzyme wash
Napping
Ozonation
Padding machine
Applied design Expanded foam Parchmentizing
Backfilling machine Eyelet Plasticize finish
Beetling Fabric softener Pleated fabric
Boil-off Flocking Plissé
Brushing Friction calender Puckered surface
Burned-out Fulling Schreiner calender
Caustic treatment Glazed surface Shearing
Chemical wash Hand builder Sizing
Ciré finish Luster finish Starching
Coronizing Moiré Subtractive finish
Crepeing Multihead embroidery Surface design
Embossed fabric Nap Tendering

questions
review questions
1. Identify how you can distinguish between a structural
design fabric and an applied design fabric.
6. Predict the serviceability of each fabric listed in Question 5.
7. Which of these finishes would be permanent, and which
2. Explain the differences between embossed and dobby in would diminish with time or use? Why?
terms of process and fabric. a. Heat-embossed polyester taffeta
3. Explain the changes in serviceability of a fabric after it has b. Pressure-embossed cotton for a child’s top
been napped. c. Burned-out rayon/polyester sheer drapery
d. Fulled wool gabardine
4. What is the purpose of shearing? What kinds of fabrics are
e. Water-soluble sizing on 100% cotton print cloth
generally sheared?
f. 65% polyester/35% cotton glazed chintz upholstery
5. Describe the manner in which each fabric of these pairs (resin compound)
was produced. Which are applied designs and which are g. Caustic-treated 100% polyester crepe de chine for a
structural? blouse
a. Swivel dotted swiss and flocked dotted swiss h. 100% cotton denim with a hand builder finish for a skirt
b. Extra yarn eyelash fabric and burned out i. 100% polyester moiré taffeta for a formal gown
c. Embossed and seersucker j. 100% nylon tricot with a Schreiner calendar finish for
d. Flocked velvet and true velvet lingerie
e. Velveteen and napped denim k. 100% cotton organdy for a girl’s party dress
f. Damask and embossed cotton l. 100% silk for a chiffon scarf (boil-off finish)
g. Piqué and puckered surface nylon m. 100% acrylic pleated flannel for a skirt
442 chapter seventeen
 n. 100% olefin flocked velvet for an upholstered chair
o. 100% embroidered linen crash for a decorative pillow
p. 100% cotton corduroy for casual pants
8. Which of the fabrics described in Question 7 are additive
and which are subtractive finishes? How is the aesthetic
change in the fabric achieved?
9. How do the finishes in this chapter add value to textiles and
textile products?
10. Explain the difference in structure and process among
woven pile fabrics, knit pile fabrics, flocked fabrics, tufted
fabrics, and napped fabrics. How would these differences
influence product serviceability? What do these fabrics
have in common?
11. How do the abrasive and chemical wash finishes affect
product durability?

Case Study
Softeners and Fabric Sewability*
Softening or hand building is one of the most
common finishes used. Besides adding
softness, fullness, and a special unique
hand, hand builders may improve resilience,
abrasion resistance, and tear strength. They
also impart good sewability properties by
reducing the force required for the needle
to penetrate the fabric. Sewability describes
the ability of thread and fabric to combine
so that stitch and seam formation do not
create problems with production and product
performance. However, these finishes can
cause sewing problems including seam
deformation, seam puckering, or seam
slippage. Since sewability is one of the
most important factors impacting product
quality, the researchers wanted to examine
the impact of commonly used softeners on
cotton fabrics. They found that there was
no difference based on the level of softener
added. In other words, the lowest level will
be the most cost-effective. The chemical
type of softener that was most effective
differed between plain and twill weave fabrics
with a macro-silicone emulsion softener for
plain weave fabrics and a silicone softener for
twill weave fabrics.
Discussion Questions
1. Why would use of a softener be of interest
to a production engineer for a sewn
products manufacturing plant?
2. While this study focused on cotton woven
fabrics, what results might you expect
for cotton knit fabrics or fabrics of other
fibers?
3. Have you considered purchasing sewn
products, but where the quality of the
seams discouraged your purchase?
How might this research be beneficial to
retailers?
4. How does the sewability of seams relate
to textiles, fiber content, and finishes?

*Dalbaşi, E. S., M. Güner, & Çoban, S. (2013, October). Effect of various softeners on sewability of woven fabrics and seam quality. AATCC Review, 13(5), 43–49.

readings
suggested readings
Baugh, G. (2011). The Fashion Designer’s Textile Dictionary.
London: Barron’s Educational Series, Inc.
Dalbaşi, E. S., M. Güner, & Çoban, S. (2013, October). Effect of
various softeners on sewability of woven fabrics and seam
quality. AATCC Review, 13(5), 43–49.
Franck, R. R. (Ed.) (2001). Silk, Mohair, Cashmere and Other Luxury
Fibres. Cambridge, England: Woodhead.
Goswami, B. C., Anandjiwala, R. D., & Hall, D. M. (2004). Textile
Sizing. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Lacasse, K., & Baumann, W. (2004). Textile Chemicals:
Environmental Data and Facts. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Özdemir, D., Duran, K., Bahtiyari, M. I., Perincek, S., & Körlü, A.
E., (2008). Ozone bleaching of denim fabrics. AATCC Review,
8(9), 40–44.
Schindler, W. D., & Hauser, P. J. (2004). Chemical Finishing of
Textiles. Cambridge, England: Woodhead.
Thiry, M. C. (2008). Half-dyed: The importance of preparation.
AATCC Review, 8(9), 24–31.
Waddell, R. B. (2002). Bioscouring of cotton: Commercial applications
of alkaline stable pectinase. AATCC Review, 2(4), 28–30.
Wang, Y. (Ed.) (2006). Recycling in Textiles. Cambridge, England:
Woodhead.

aesthetic finishes 443

 Lorenzot81/Fotolia Ugrum1/Fotolia

Markobe/Fotolia Ecco/Fotolia
Special-Purpose
Finishes

CHAP TE R O B J ECT I V ES
• To describe how special-purpose finishes influence fabric performance and add value
to products.
• To integrate special-purpose finishes with fabric, yarn, and fiber types and end use.

18

A special-purpose finish is a chemical finish
that is applied to fabrics to enhance per-
formance for specific end uses. They add
value and cost to textiles.
446 chapter eighteen
Aesthetic finishes are one way that value is added to textiles after fabrication. Another way
to add value to textiles is to add finishes that address problems consumers and others may
experience with textiles or that enhance product performance. After a discussion of these
finishes in general, the chapter is organized by performance categories.
Special-Purpose Finishes
A special-purpose finish or functional finish is a chemical finish that is applied to fabrics
to enhance performance for specific end uses. Although these finishes usually do not alter the
appearance of fabrics, they address some consumer problem or performance deficiency with
textile products or enhance fabric suitability for a specific purpose. New techniques and new
applications appear frequently. Many finishes incorporate nanotechnology; some make use of
smart textile technology so that the finish responds to environmental stimuli.
Special-purpose finishes add to product cost. Every time a fabric or product undergoes
another process, costs increase. This increase occurs because of the costs of the finishing
chemicals, the costs associated with the process (energy, chemicals, equipment, specialized
operator training, more building space, and additional plumbing, wiring, or ventilation needs),
moving the textiles (conveyor belts, skid loaders, and other methods), and clean-up and dry-
ing costs (water, detergent, and energy).
Special-purpose finishes add to product value. Products perform better, yet, their impact
on performance is often difficult for consumers to recognize. The effect of some finishes may
be invisible or beyond consumer perception, especially at point of purchase. Even during use,
assessment is difficult. For example, how does one assess the effectiveness of a soil-resistant
finish if the fabric stays cleaner longer? Unfortunately, for some finishes, improved perfor-
mance in one area means a loss of performance in another.
Many functional finishes are topical finishes—a chemical compound dissolved in a liq-
uid is added to the surface of the fabric, but it may not penetrate to the interior of fibers or
yarns. Many of these finishes are water-based. When applied in liquid form, these finishes
are known as wet processes. Although fabric finishing is traditional, many garments are
wet-processed to satisfy demand for quick response.
Wet processing of textiles is of great concern because of its sustainability issues—impact
on the environment and use of water, chemical, and energy. Researchers are investigating
alternate procedures, chemicals, and technology to reduce problems and make finishing
­textiles more sustainable.
Nanotechnology is one alternative to traditional wet process finishing of textiles. Nano-finishing
uses significantly smaller amounts of chemicals to achieve the desired result with few adverse
effects. Nanoparticles are transparent and have very small mass with large surface area. While fin-
ishing has not moved completely to nanotechnology processes, significant progress is being made.
Nanofinishes can be added during dyeing or finishing, by spray coating, or electrostatic methods.
1 Learning Activity
Work in groups of two or three. Describe the kinds of problems or performance issues
you have had with textile products. Discuss how performance issues could be resolved
or reduced by finishes. Scan this chapter and select one or two of the performance
issues to determine how a finish might reduce or remove the problems described.
Stabilization Finishes
A fabric is stable when it retains its original size and shape during use and care. Unstable fab-
rics shrink or stretch, usually as a result of cleaning. Shrinkage, the more serious and more
frequent problem, is the reduction in size of a product. Shrinkage is reported as a percentage
of the original length and width dimension, for example, 2.5% warp and 1.5% filling.
Shrinkage potential is introduced in spinning, fabrication, and finishing. Yarns are under
tension during spinning and slashing. Fabrics are under tension during fabrication. In wet fin-
ishing, fabrics may be pulled through machines in long continuous pieces and may be dried
and set under excessive tension, leaving the fabric with high potential shrinkage. Shrinkage
occurs when tensions are released by moisture and heat, as in laundering or steam pressing.
Predicting lengthwise and crosswise shrinkage is difficult. Many factors contribute to shrink-
age: fiber type, blend level, yarn process, fabrication type, and number and type of finishes.
Some manufacturers of sewn products try to address this problem during pattern-making by
oversizing patterns, but these efforts are inaccurate at best.
Shrinkage is necessary in the processing of some fabrics, as in fulling or shrinkage of
crepe yarns in matelassé. But, it is a problem for manufacturers and consumers when it
changes product dimensions.
Two major types of shrinkage are relaxation shrinkage and progressive shrinkage. Shrinkage is the reduction in size of a
Relaxation shrinkage occurs during washing, steam pressing, or dry cleaning. Most relaxation product. Relaxation shrinkage occurs
shrinkage occurs during the first care cycle. However, many manufacturers and retailers test for during washing, steam pressing, or dry
shrinkage through three or more cleaning cycles because progressive shrinkage often con- cleaning, usually during the first care cycle.
tinues at smaller rates for several additional care cycles. If the care is mild in the first cycle and Progressive shrinkage continues at smaller
more severe in later cycles, the product may shrink more during these later cycles. For exam- rates for several additional care cycles.
ple, for items dried flat in the first cycle and machine-dried later, shrinkage will be more severe
with machine drying. Relaxation shrinkage can be eliminated by mechanical-control methods or
heat. Chemical-control methods are used to prevent progressive shrinkage. Table 18.1 summa-
rizes shrinkage types by fiber and finishes designed to reduce or eliminate shrinkage.

Shrinkage Control
Figure Knit stitches: after finishing, as
Relaxation Shrinkage and Finishes  Knit fabrics shrink because the stitches may elon-
18.1 produced. Note that the shape and
gate lengthwise from 10% to 35% in knitting and wet finishing (Figure 18.1). During launder- thickness of the loops change with
ing, the stitches return to their normal shape and the item becomes shorter and wider. finishing.

Table 18.1  Summary Table: Shrinkage Control

Fiber Type Shrinkage Finish Type
Most cellulosics (cotton, flax lyocell, HWM Relaxation shrinkage Wovens: Resin finish (See durable press) or
rayon) Compressive shrinkage
Knits: Overfeed in finishing or Loop drying
Some progressive shrinkage Wovens: Resin finish
Knits: same as above
Regular rayon High relaxation shrinkage Resin finish
Moderate progressive shrinkage Resin finish
Wool Moderate relaxation shrinkage London Shrunk
High progressive shrinkage For both relaxation and progressive shrinkage:
Surface coating and Chemical treatment
Other Manufactured fibers Relaxation shrinkage only Heat set

special-purpose finishes 447


Figure Position of the warp (blue yarns) on the
18.2 loom (left), after the fabric relaxes (right).
448 chapter eighteen
Shrinkage of knits is minimized in finishing by overfeeding the fabric between sets of
rollers to induce lengthwise shrinkage or by using loop drying (see Chapter 16). Heat setting
of thermoplastic fibers or blends with at least 50% thermoplastic fibers also stabilizes knits.
Woven fabrics shrink when wetting relaxes the strains of yarn production, weaving,
preparation finishes, and wet finishing. The warp yarns are under tension while they are on the
loom, and the filling is inserted as a straight yarn. The filling takes on crimp as it is beaten back
into the fabric, but the warp stays straight (Figure 18.2). When the fabric is thoroughly wet
and allowed to relax, the yarns readjust themselves and the warp yarns take on some crimp,
shortening the fabric in the warp direction (Figure 18.2). With the exception of crepe fabrics,
less change occurs in the filling direction.
In compressive shrinkage, a thick felt blanket helps maximize shrinkage. The
moist fabric adhering to the blanket’s surface passes around a roll that feeds the fab-
ric in slightly faster than it is taken off. The rubber belt and pressure roll hold the fabric
tight against the rubber cylinder and compress it. The fabric then passes against a dryer
cylinder to dry and set it with a smooth finish. The count increases after compressing
(Figure 18.3). Compressive shrinkage is used on many woven fabrics, but is not effec-
tive with rayon. Because of its high swelling and wet elongation, rayon does not hold a
­compressive-shrinkage treatment.
However, even with a compressive-shrinkage finish, incorrect laundering may shrink fab-
rics. Tumble drying may compress yarns beyond their normal shrinkage.
London shrunk was developed in the 18th century as a relaxation finish for wool fabrics
to remove production strains. A wet wool or cotton blanket is placed on a long platform, a
layer of fine worsted fabric is spread on it, and alternate layers of blanket and fabric are built
up. Weight placed on the top for about 12 hours forces moisture from the blankets into the
wool. The fabric is hung to dry naturally. When dry, the fabric is layered with special press-
boards. Preheated metal plates are inserted at intervals and on the top and bottom of the
stack. This setup of fabric, boards, and plates is kept under pressure for hours.
Progressive Shrinkage and Finishes  Thermoplastic fibers are stabilized by heat ­setting,
a process in which fabrics are heated to temperatures at or above their glass transition
­temperature (Tg: the temperature at which the amorphous regions of a fiber are easy to distort)
Rubber belt cylinder
Dryer
Fabric
Rubber belt
Rubber
belt
Felt-covered cylinder
feed-in rolls
Pressure
Rubber belt roll
Figure The compressive-shrinkage process.
18.3
and then cooled. The glass transition temperature is lower than the melting point of a fiber; it
differs for each fiber type. When properly heat-set, fabrics have no progressive shrinkage and
little relaxation shrinkage.
Washable wool is important in apparel and some interior textiles and in blends with
washable fibers. Wool must be finished to retain its original size and surface texture during
laundering. Figure 18.4 illustrates the shrinkage of wool.
To prevent felting shrinkage, a finish must alter or mask the scale structure and reduce
the differential-friction effect that prevents wool fibers from returning to their original position
in fabric. The effectiveness of felting-shrinkage treatments depends on the kind and amount
of finish used and on the yarn and fabric construction. Worsteds need less finish than wool-
ens. Low-count fabrics and low-twist yarns need more finish to produce good washability.
Treated-wool fabrics may be machine-washable, but use warm (not hot) water, gentle agita- Figure While originally the same size, the
18.4 wool sock (top) has dramatically
tion, and a short agitation period. Hand washing is preferred, because soil is easy to remove
altered in size and shape from the
from wool, and hand washing ensures a lower temperature and less agitation. Machine wash- nylon sock (bottom) after machine
ing may produce a fuzzy or slightly pilled surface. washing and drying.
Two methods are used to smooth off the free edges of the wool scales: surface coating
and halogenation treatment. Surface coating with a polyamide solution (a very thin, micro-
scopic film applied to fiber surfaces) enables the fibers to move back and forth without entan-
gling. In addition to controlling shrinkage, the coating minimizes pilling and fuzzing (a problem
with washable wool), gives the fabrics better wash-and-wear properties, and increases resis-
tance to abrasion. Total Easy Care Wool is promoted as having the same attributes (hand,
comfort, and resiliency) as untreated wool while being able to be washed repeatedly without
shrinkage.
Halogenation or chemical treatments, originally with chlorine and now with oxidizing
agents and enzymes, partially dissolve the fiber scales and reduce felting shrinkage. These
finishes cost little, can be applied to large batches of small items such as wool socks, do
not require padding or curing equipment, and are fairly effective. The process damages the
fibers and must be carefully monitored to minimize damage. The scales are more resistant
to damage than the interior of the fiber and should not be completely removed or the fabric
will feel harsh and rough and be lighter weight and less durable. To maintain the strength
of the fabric, nylon fiber is often blended with wool. Halogenation is especially good for
hand-­w ashable items. A process combining chlorination and resin makes wool knits
machine-washable and machine-dryable. Shrinkage is less than 3% in length and 1% in Figure Hand knitting wool-blend sock yarn
width, and goods retain their loft and resiliency. Superwash ® is the trade name of fabric or 18.5 with a Superwash® label.
knitting yarn with this treatment (Figure 18.5).
Shrinkage of regular rayon relates to the handling of wet fabric during finishing. Since wet
fabric stretches easily, overstretching may occur. If fabric dries in this stretched condition, it
will have high potential shrinkage. It will shrink when wet again and dried without tension. But
laboratory or home testing is required to determine this.
Shrinkage-control treatments for rayon reduce fiber swelling and make it resistant to dis-
tortion. Resins form cross links that prevent swelling and keep the fiber from stretching. The
resin also fills up spaces in the amorphous areas of the fiber, reducing absorbency. Aldehyde Relaxation shrinkage is eliminated by
resins are superior to other resins because they do not weaken the fabric, do not retain chlo- mechanical-control methods or heat.
rine, and have excellent wash-fastness. Treated rayons are machine-washable if the wash Chemical-control methods prevent
cycle is short. When HWM rayon is resin-treated, it is for durable-press purposes because its progressive shrinkage.
shrinkage is controlled by relaxation shrinkage-control methods.

special-purpose finishes 449

 2 Learning Activity
Talk to your friends, coworkers, neighbors, or family members regarding problems they
have encountered with shrinkage. Develop a table identifying the kinds of textile prod-
ucts, fiber content (if known), and comments about shrinkage. Summarize your results
and relate them to the discussion of shrinkage and stabilization or shrinkage control. Is
there more than one type of shrinkage involved? What was the general consumer reac-
tion to the problem of shrinkage?

3 Learning Activity
Take a quick poll of your friends and classmates. How many of you own an iron? If
someone has an iron, how often do they use it? What items are ironed? How fre-
quently do they iron something? Now, ask your parents and grandparents or individuals
of a similar age the same questions about their practices when they were your age.
Summarize your results. Think about possible reasons why there has been such a shift
in the need to iron textiles.

Durable Press Finishes

Even though care of contemporary textiles is time-consuming, imagine the time and physical
effort that were required by previous generations. Almost every item of apparel and bedding
needed ironing! With thermoplastic fibers, shape-retention finishes, and modern washers
and dryers, easy-care textiles are the norm. Now, it is only occasionally that items need the
extra effort of ironing.
Wrinkles occur when fabrics are crushed during use and care (creases and pleats made
by pressing are desirable style features, however). Wrinkle recovery depends on cross links

Stretched (chemical bonds that hold adjacent molecular chains together and pull them back into posi-
here tion after the fiber is bent, thus preventing wrinkles). Fibers with strong intermolecular bonds
Unchanged
here
have good molecular memory and resist wrinkling and creasing. Fibers with weak bonds
­wrinkle and crease readily.
Cellulosic fibers lack strong natural cross links. Molecular chains are held together
Compressed by weak hydrogen bonds that break with the stress of bending or the introduction of
here
water molecules within the fiber’s amorphous regions. New bonds hold the fiber in this
(a)
bent position and form a wrinkle. Resin cross links give fibers a memory and good wrinkle
recovery (Figure 18.6).
H OH Resin finishes were first used in England in 1920 and in the United States in 1940 on
O H
OH H
H rayon, cotton, and linen fabrics. Significant improvements in resins have occurred since the
H O O
CH2O original urea formaldehyde resin was used. Although early resin-treated fabrics were smooth
Resin or
R reactant and wrinkle-resistant, problems included low abrasion resistance and tear strength, yellowing,
H O
O H chlorine retention from bleach, hand, affinity for oily soils, static, pilling, odor, frosting, dye
OH H
H migration because of high curing temperatures, and construction problems with seam pucker
H O O
CH2OH or alterations.

(b)
Figure (a) Effect on internal
18.6 structure when fiber is bent
and (b) resin cross link.
Resin is a general term describing the organic chemical compounds in durable-press and
crease-resistant finishes applied to cellulosic fibers. Formaldehyde resin is restricted because
it is a possible carcinogen, so other resins are used. Modified glyoxal-based reactants slightly
decrease formaldehyde release. Polycarboxylic acid derivatives produce fabrics with better

450 chapter eighteen

abrasion resistance, good durable-press performance, and low shrinkage. While performance
problems continue, they are less pronounced with these resins. Because these resins are
more expensive, many durable-press finishes include some dimethyloldihydroxyethylene urea
(DMDHEU) in the process. Recycling chemicals used in durable-press finishing reuses old
baths by adding fresh ingredients, but the percentage of the old bath and its age determine
the effectiveness of the finish. Resins are used in other finishes as a means of binding the
­finishing chemical with cellulose molecules.
Durable press describes items that retain their shape and a pressed appearance even
after many uses, washings, and tumble dryings. The terms durable press, wrinkle-free, and
permanent press are used interchangeably, but durable is more accurate because the finish’s
effectiveness decreases with age. Older items may require some touch-up ironing to meet
appearance standards. The term wrinkle-free is misleading because many products require
some touch-up ironing to meet consumer standards. Other terms are wrinkle-­resistant,
anticreasing, shape retention, and crease retention. Most durable press treated fabrics are
­cotton, rayon, linen, lyocell, or a blend of one or more of these fibers with polyester.
Several processes for durable-press items and fabrics are outlined here. Differences
include when the chemical is applied and the stage at which cutting, sewing, and press-
ing take place. In the precured and postcured processes, the finish is applied to fabric
(Figure 18.7). In the immersion, metered-addition, and vapor-phase processes, the
­finish is applied to products (Figure 18.8). The immersion process is also known as the
­garment or product dip process. Table 18.2 summarizes these processes.
Although less severe and less frequent, problems continue with resin finishes. Blends of
cotton/polyester use less resin than 100% cotton. The high strength and abrasion resistance

Resin Dry Cure Cut, Durable-

Fabric cross-linking at open at open sew, press
solution width width and press product

Resin Dry Cut, Cure Durable-

Fabric cross-linking at open sew, press
products
solution width and press product

Figure Shape-retention finishes applied to fabric: precured process (top) and postcured
18.7 process (bottom).

Dyed Cross-linking Durable-

Dried
and agents and additives press
and Cured
finished to control hand product
pressed
products and performance

Dyed Cross-linking resin

and and additives to Dried Durable-
and Cured press
finished control hand and
products performance pressed product

Dyed
Dried Vapor-phase Durable-
and
and process press
finished
pressed (cured) product
products

Figure Shape-retention finishes applied to products: metered-addition process (top),

18.8 immersion process (center), and vapor-phase process (bottom).

special-purpose finishes 451

Table 18.2  Summary Table: Durable-Press Finishes
Precure Postcure Immersion Metered Addition Vapor Phase
Applied to Fabric Fabric Product Product Product
Stage of curing Fabric Product Product Product Product
Advantages Dimensionally stable Dimensionally stable No premature setting No premature setting No premature setting
Lowest-cost process Crease retention Wet-finished goods Wet-finished goods Wet-finished goods
used used used
Minimal seam Control performance, Control performance, Control performance,
puckering hand, aesthetics hand, aesthetics hand, aesthetics
Greater flexibility Greater flexibility Greater flexibility
Wet-on-wet Uses less chemicals
processing possible
Disadvantages No permanent Higher costs Higher costs Higher costs Higher costs
creases
Puckered seams May set prematurely Process control Process control Process control
difficult difficult difficult
Strength loss Overfinished areas Fabric preparation Fabric preparation Fabric preparation
Abrasion-sensitive critical critical critical
Uses Shirting, draperies Skirts, slacks, other Apparel of 100% Apparel and interiors Cotton and other
items with set-in cotton of 100% cotton natural-fiber
creases or pleats products

of polyester improves durability. Cotton pretreated with liquid ammonia or mercerized under
­tension minimizes strength loss due to the finish. Organic or silicone softeners and well-­
controlled tension during curing also reduce strength loss due to resin finishes. Polymer sizing
added to yarns before curing increases abrasion resistance. Although most curing uses forced-
air convection ovens, microwave ovens produce a more uniform cure for lighter-weight fabrics
such as shirtings. Continuing research on durable press finishing with alternate chemicals and
processes focuses on improving the finish’s sustainability and reducing losses in performance.
Wool has good resiliency when it is dry, but its durable-press characteristics are poor
when it is wet. Durable-press wool uses resin treatments to reduce wrinkles and control
wool’s excessive shrinkage. A typical procedure used with wool is to treat flat fabric with a
durable-press resin and steam it for a few minutes. The wool is made into a product, sprayed
with more durable-press resin and pressed to achieve a permanent-crease effect. Shrink
resistance resin is mixed with dry cleaning solvent. The product is dry cleaned and cured for
several days. Si-Ro-Set is a trade name for the finish.
Silk wrinkles easily when wet. Polycarboxylic acid produces durable-press or wrinkle-­
resistant silk. The finish is durable to laundering but results in a 20% loss in strength, increase
in stiffness, and decrease in whiteness.
Because performance standards had not been developed during the wash-and-wear
era, fabric’s varied widely in performance. To avoid problems with consumer confidence,
the quality performance standards for durable press were developed by professionals.
Registered trade names indicate to the consumer that the product has met standards related
to performance, hand, and minimal odor.
General care guidelines for durable-press items include the following:

• Wash items frequently. Resins have a strong affinity for oil and grease. Soil penetrates
deeply and builds up.
• Pretreat stains, collars, and cuffs. Use a spot-removal agent on grease spots.

452 chapter eighteen

 Learning Activity 4
Consider the degree of wrinkles present when you remove your laundry from the dryer,
clothesline, or drying rack. Based on the fiber content and presence or absence of
wrinkles, which items have probably been treated to be durable press and which have
not? What kinds of trends do you see in terms of product categories with and without
treatment? Return to the information compiled for Learning Activity 3. How do your
results relate to durable-press finishing? Based on your information, approximately what
percentage of your laundry has been treated to be durable press? Is the additional cost
worth the convenience of little or no ironing?
Wrinkle recovery depends on cross links to
hold adjacent molecular chains together,

Learning Activity 5 pull them back into position after the fiber
is bent, and prevent wrinkles. Several pro-
Use Fabrics #30, 34, and 108 from your swatch kit. For each fabric, crumple it in your cesses add durable-press finishes to help
hand and hold it for three seconds. Release and flatten out the fabric. Is it wrinkled?
items retain their shape and a pressed
Compare the results for all three fabrics. Can you determine which of the three has
appearance. The processes differ by when
a durable-press finish? Describe the kinds of problems associated with durable-press
finishes. How might these side effects of the finish affect consumer satisfaction with a the finish is added, when it is cured, end
textile product? use, advantages, and side effects.

• Keep wash loads small to minimize wrinkling.

• Avoid setting in wrinkles with heat. Use cool washer and dryer temperatures.
• Remove items promptly when dry.

Appearance-Retention Finishes
Finishes in this section focus on maintaining the new or nearly new look of textile products.
Table 18.3 summarizes these finishes.

Soil- and Stain-Release Finishes

Soil- and stain-release finishes reduce the degree of fabric soiling by repelling the soil or
by preventing formation of bonds between soil and fabric. They improve a fabric’s perfor-
mance in resisting soil, releasing soil, and retaining whiteness by resisting redeposition of
soil from the wash water. Finished fabrics are easier to clean than those without such fin-
ishes. Fluorochemicals and silicon-based compounds are durable and effective soil-resistant
finishes. These finishes may only be durable enough to last through 20 to 30 washings. The
lack of permanence is due to the finish’s surface application. These finishes are also known as
soil-repellent, stain-resistant, and antisoil or antistain finishes.
Soil-release finishes counteract the tendency of durable-press items to pick up and hold
oily stains and spots. Soil-release finishes either attract water to permit soil to be lifted off the
fabric or coat the fibers to prevent soil from penetrating the coating and bonding with the fiber.
Many cotton/polyester blends are treated to be durable-press. Untreated cotton is hydro-
philic and releases oily soil when laundered. A resin finish, however, is hydrophobic and does
not release the oily soil. Since polyester is hydrophobic and oleophilic, spot-treatment helps
remove oily soil from areas such as shirt collars. When the polyester is coated with resin, as it

special-purpose finishes 453

Table 18.3  Summary Table: Appearance Retention Finishes
Finish Type Function
Soil-stain release Reduce soiling, improve soil
removal
Abrasion resistance Resin fixes fibers in place
Antislip Resin fixes yarns in place
Fume-fading resistance Reduce color change when
exposed to atmospheric
pollutants
Surface or back coating Reduces heat transfer, alters
fabric appearance, locks yarns
in place, controls porosity,
minimizes air and water
permeability, and blocks light
Light stabilizing Minimize damage from light
Pilling resistance Reduce formation of pills
Anti-yellowing Prevent formation of nitrogen
oxides that combine with BHT
Application
Cotton/polyester blends, carpet,
upholstery
Lining fabric
Low count, smooth surface woven
fabric and sheer knits
Most often for interiors, especially
draperies
Metallic, plastic, or foam applied
to fabric
Interior and technical products
Cotton and rayon blends with
polyester; wool blends
Pale or white textiles
Side Effects
Carpets exposed to high heat,
high humidity, and UV light may
yellow over time
May increase wet soiling
Reduces seam slippage and
fraying
Increased cost
May reduce soiling
May crack or peel
Adds dimensional stability
Outgassing of fumes
Comfort issues
Poor resistance to aging or
exposure to heat and light
Increased cost
Fiber ends weakened
Color develops in transit or storage
because of contact with some
plastic wraps or packaging

is in durable press, its oil affinity is increased. Finer fibers soil more readily than coarse fibers,
and soil can penetrate low-twist yarns more easily than high-twist yarns. Soil-release finishes
make the surface less attractive to oil and more easily wetted—more hydrophilic.
Soil-release finishes are mechanically or chemically bonded to the surface. Many are
organic silicone or fluorocarbon substances. Soil-release finishes include Scotchgard®
by 3M, Visa ® by Milliken, and Teflon ® by DuPont. Soil-resistant, stain-repellent fabrics
use nanofibers attached to individual fibers. The hand and comfort of the fabric are not
affected and liquids roll off the surface. Solid soils do not bond with the fibers so that
staining is minimal. Fluorocarbon compounds can be reclaimed by an ion exchange pro-
cess and reused.
Soil resistance for carpets is especially important given their wide use and exposure to
soil. The process for carpets is a three-part program that combines a special carpet fiber
(larger denier, modified cross section, and antistatic modification) with a fluorocarbon stain-­
repellent finish and a compound to block dye sites on fibers. Blocking dye sites means that
fibers no longer accept color from stains. These blockers concentrate near the fiber’s surface,
the area most susceptible to staining. They are most effective against the coloring agents (acid
dyes) found in food and beverages and are not effective against other staining agents. The
stain-resistant treatments are not easily wetted by oil or water but may yellow with exposure
to heat, ultraviolet light, or high relative humidity. Ultraviolet light may destroy the stain blocker
part. A side benefit is that these carpets are more resistant to fading when exposed to ozone.
Design firms or consumers can hire service businesses to add a chemically protective
soil- and stain-resistant finish on site to products such as carpeting, upholstery, and wall
coverings and provide follow-up service as needed, a cleaning kit, and care instructions.
Consumers can purchase soil-resistant finishes to apply on site. However, research has
shown that some of these finishes may actually increase soiling.

454 chapter eighteen

 Learning Activity 6 Soil- and stain-release finishes reduce the

Work with a partner and identify the advantages and disadvantages of soil- and degree of soiling of the fabric by repelling
stain-resistant clothing. Identify an interior or apparel product that would have a soil- soil or by preventing formation of bonds
and stain-repellent finish and explain how you would market it to consumers. between soil and fabric.

Abrasion-Resistant Finishes
Abrasion-resistant finishes are resins that
Abrasion-resistant finishes are thermoplastic acrylic resins that fix fibers more firmly in
fix fibers more firmly into the yarns so they
place so they do not break off as readily. They are used on lining fabrics, especially for pock-
do not break off as readily.
ets, waistbands, and other areas that receive significant abrasion. The resin may increase wet
soiling of the fabric. Blending nylon or polyester with cotton or rayon produces better abrasion
resistance compared to finishes, but blends may cost more than finished fabric.

Antislip Finishes
Antislip finishes are used on low-count, smooth-surfaced woven fabrics and some sheer, open
knits to prevent yarn movement within the fabric. When fabrics are treated with resins, stretched,
and dried under tension, yarns are bonded at their interlacing points. Antislip finishes reduce
seam slippage and fraying. Seam slippage occurs when yarns near the seam slide away from the
stitching line (Figure 18.9). Thus, in areas next to seams, only one set of yarns is seen. Slippage
is especially noticeable where warp and filling yarns differ in color. Areas that have experienced
seam slippage have poor abrasion resistance and an unacceptable appearance. In some cases,
seams can ravel completely. Antislip finishes are also called slip-resistant, anti-ladder, or nonslip
finishes. The most effective and durable finishes are resins of urea or melamine formaldehyde.

Fume-Fading-Resistant Finishes
Fume-fading-resistant finishes are used on dye–fiber combinations that are susceptible to
fading when exposed to atmospheric fumes or pollutants. The most common problem is with
acetate dyed with disperse dyes. Of course, this problem disappears with mass pigmentation. Figure Seam slippage can be reduced with
18.9 an antislip finish.
However, when mass pigmentation is not economical, fume-fading-resistant finishes of ter-
tiary amines and borax are applied primarily to interiors, especially draperies. The finish is also
known as antifume-fading finish and atmospheric-fading protective finish.

Antislip finishes are used on low-count,

Surface or Back Coatings
smooth-surfaced woven fabrics and some
Metallic, plastic, or foam coatings reduce heat transfer, alter fabric appearance, lock yarns sheer, open knits to prevent the movement
in place, control porosity, block light, and minimize air and water permeability. The general of yarns within the fabric.
terms surface or back coating are also used to describe these finishes. Metallic or aluminum
coatings are used on apparel and window-treatment fabrics. A very thin layer of aluminum
is bonded to the back of drapery fabric for greater heat retention or lower heat transfer. In
apparel, these coatings are found in winter coats for cold climates and specialized protec-
tive apparel for extreme temperature conditions such as firefighters’ uniforms and spacesuits. Fume-fading-resistant finishes are used on
Some of these finishes will be discussed in the section on comfort. dye–fiber combinations that are susceptible
Plastic coatings reduce fabric soiling and give a leatherlike look to fabrics. (See Coated to fading when exposed to atmospheric
Fabrics in Chapter 15.) Metallic and plastic coatings may crack and peel. In order to increase fumes or pollutants.
the life of these fabrics, follow care instructions.

special-purpose finishes 455


Figure Window-treatment fabric with acrylic-
18.10 foam coating: face and back.
Surface or back coatings reduce heat
transfer, alter fabric appearance, lock yarns
in place, control porosity, and minimize air
and water permeability.
Light-stabilizing finishes are light-stabilizing
or ultraviolet-absorbing compounds that
minimize damage to fabrics from
light exposure.
Pilling-resistant finishes minimize the
formation of tiny balls of fiber bits on
a fabric’s surface.
456 chapter eighteen
Acrylic-foam back coatings, common on drapery fabrics, minimize air movement through
the draperies, give a greater comfort factor by increasing the thickness of the fabric, and
improve opacity, thereby minimizing the need for a separate lining. Draperies with a foam-
back coating may be sold as self-lined draperies (Figure 18.10).
Latex or polyurethane back coatings are used on tufted fabrics for interior uses. Back
coatings on tufted carpet and tufted upholstery lock tufted yarns in place and add dimen-
sional stability to fabric and durability to low-count upholstery fabrics. However, back coated
upholstery may be uncomfortable because of low air and moisture permeability. Outgassing
of fumes from the back coating can also create environmental problems.
These coatings may have poor resistance to aging. They separate, peel, flake off, or
experience a change in hand with age or exposure to environmental conditions such as heat
or light. Acrylic-foam backing on draperies may become tacky or sticky, and stick to itself
when the drapes are opened.
Back coating is also used as a means of delivering water-based polymers for finishes
such as flame retardancy.
Light-Stabilizing Finishes
Light-stabilizing finishes apply light-stabilizing or ultraviolet-absorbing compounds to fab-
rics to minimize damage from light exposure, especially important for interior and technical
products. Products that are exposed to sunlight or interior lighting that has a high percentage
of ultraviolet light may require this finish. Artificial-light sources that may contribute to fading
include the lights found in many office buildings and retail establishments. Products that require
light stabilizers include tarpaulin and awning fabrics, tents, sewing thread for outdoor products,
outdoor furniture, car interiors, window treatments, and some carpeting and upholstery.
Pilling-Resistant Finishes
Pilling-resistant finishes minimize the formation of tiny balls of fiber bits on a fabric’s sur-
face. The fabric is exposed to short-wavelength ultraviolet radiation and then immersed in a
mild oxidation solution. Surface fiber ends are weakened and much less likely to form pills.
This finish, Siroflash, is used on wool and cotton blends and as a finish to prepare wool for
printing. The finish is different than the fiber modification discussed in Chapter 6.
7 Learning Activity
Use Fabric #63 from your swatch kit. Describe the purpose of the back coating on
this fabric. Identify an end use for this fabric. Predict the serviceability of this fabric and
explain how the back coating alters serviceability.
8 Learning Activity
Explain how pills develop on fabric. Describe three ways that pills can be prevented
or their frequency reduced. (Hint: You might want to review information in Chapters 3,
6, and 16.) Describe items that you have with pills. How could the pilling have been
prevented or reduced for each of these items? How does pilling affect your satisfaction
with these textile products?
Anti-Yellowing Finishes
Because so many textile products are produced far from their intended market, they
can spend months in transit or storage. Most often textiles are packaged or wrapped in
plastic to avoid soiling or mildew. Unfortunately, this can also mean interactions with the
chemicals in the plastics so that pale or white textiles develop a yellowish discoloration.
This storage yellowing, as it is known, often occurs where the textile and the plastic wrap Anti-yellowing finishes prevent the nitrogen
come in contact. The yellow develops because of a colorless additive in the plastic (butyl oxides from combining with a chemical in
hydroxytoluene or BHT) that reacts with nitrogen oxides from vehicle exhaust in humid, some plastic wraps and packaging so that
warm climates. These conditions and chemicals produce a yellow dye. Anti-yellowing the yellow dye does not develop on textile
finishes prevent the nitrogen oxides from combining with the BHT so that the yellow dye products in transit or storage.
does not develop.

Comfort-Related Finishes
Finishes in this section focus on improving comfort. The finishes are summarized in
Table 18.4.

Water-Repellent Finishes
A water-repellent finish makes a fabric resist wetting, but if the water strikes with enough
force, it will penetrate the fabric (Figure 18.11). A waterproof fabric will not wet regardless of
the amount of time it is exposed to water or the force with which the water strikes the fabric.
Waterproof fabrics are almost always films or coated fabrics. Waterproof, water-­repellent, and
microporous fabrics are compared in Table 18.5. (The Federal Trade Commission recom-
mends using durable and renewable in describing water-repellent fabrics.) Water-repellent
composite fabrics that incorporate a film or membrane were discussed in Chapter 15. Surface
coatings were discussed early in this chapter.

Table 18.4  Summary Table: Comfort-Related Finishes

Finish Function
Moisture management Remove sweat and cool
Porosity control Limit penetration of fabric by air
Water absorbent Increase moisture absorbency
Ultraviolet absorbent Absorb energy in the UV region of
the electromagnetic spectrum
Antistatic Reduce static build-up by
improving surface conductivity,
attracting water molecules, or
neutralize static charge
Phase-change/temperature Minimize heat flow through fabric
regulation
Application
Apparel: athletic, sportswear, work,
socks, and others
Technical filters
Towels, diapers, underwear,
sportswear
Outerwear, beach wear
Carpet, slips, synthetic apparel,
uniforms
Active sportswear, outerwear,
boots, gloves, socks, liners,
sleeping bags, wetsuits,
blankets, bedding, hats
Side Effects
Potential problems with air
permeability
May be too effective
Increase in drying time
May facilitate dyeing
Some protection provided by
certain dyes and detergent
additives
Can feel soapy or oily
Can cause allergic reactions
Antistatic behavior
Improved water absorbency
Better resiliency, soil release, and
pilling resistance

special-purpose finishes 457

 (a) (b)
Figure Fabric before and after treatment with a water-repellent finish. Notice how the water
18.11 soaks into the untreated fabric (a) and beads up on the finished fabric (b).

Table 18.5  Summary Table: Waterproof and Water-Repellent Fabrics

Waterproof Fabrics Water-Repellent Fabrics Water-Repellent Microporous Fabrics
Films or low-count fabrics with a film High-count fabrics. Composite fabrics
coating Finish coats yarns but does not block space
between yarns.
Characteristics
No water can penetrate Heavy rain will penetrate Liquid water and wind will not penetrate
Films may stiffen in cold weather Fabric is pliable, similar to untreated fabric Fabric is pliable
Cheaper to produce Moderate cost Expensive to produce
Fabric can be clammy Fabric breathes and is comfortable for rainwear Fabric breathes, but pores may stretch or fill with
soil
Permanent Durable or renewable finish Permanent

Water repellency depends on surface tension and fabric penetrability. It is achieved by a

combination of dense fabric structure and finish. Calendering flattens yarns and reduces the
spaces between them so it is harder for liquid water to penetrate the fabric. Chemical finishes fill
in the spaces between fibers and yarns. Compounds that make fabric water-repellent include
fluorocarbons, wax emulsions, metallic soaps, silicones, and surface-active agents. These
chemicals are applied in a water-based solution to fabrics with a very high warp count and
small regular yarns. Some fluoropolymer waterproof finishes are applied using plasma treat-
ment where ionized vapor modifies fiber surfaces providing a more effective and uniform finish.
Fluorocarbons are popular for improving both water and oil repellency. Water repellency
decreases significantly with washing but recovers with heat treatment. (See the earlier discus-
sion on soil- and stain-resistant finishes for more detail.) Wax emulsions and metallic soaps
coat the yarns but do not fill the interstices, or spaces, between the yarns. These finishes are
removed in cleaning but can be renewed. Surface-active agents have molecules with one
end that is water-repellent and one end that reacts with the hydroxyl (OH) groups of cellulose.
After application, heat bonds the finish to the fabric making it permanent to washing and dry
cleaning. Silicone combined with durable-press chemicals produces a durable finish and fab-
rics with good drape, soft hand, and stain resistance.
Outerwear often incorporates three layers: an outer waterproof layer, a middle insu-
lating layer (or layers), and an inner or internal wicking layer. The outer layer is sometimes

458 chapter eighteen

called a hard shell if waterproofing was achieved with a coating that produced a stiff coat or
jacket. Soft shell coats and jackets use finishing technology to achieve a durable (not per-
manent) water repellent (DWR) finish that is less wind resistant. Soft shells protect from light
rain and snow and are used for active wear for skiing, bicycling, jogging, and related activ-
ities. Components of inner layers differ depending on the demands of various body parts.
For example, better wicking in underarm areas removes perspiration while the mid-back area
needs more thermal insulation.
Some water-repellent finishes hold greasy stains more tenaciously than untreated fab-
rics. However, some water-repellent finishes, such as the trade-name finishes Scotchgard®
and Teflon®, impart resistance to both oil-borne and water-borne stains. Syl-mer is a sili-
cone finish that resists water-borne stains. Teflon is a trade name for the fluorocarbon finish.
Nanowhiskers (0.0001 the size of regular fibers) attached to nylon and polyester fibers absorb A water-repellent finish makes a fabric
and wick moisture, improve comfort, and reduce static buildup. resist wetting, but if the water strikes with
Nanoparticles, nanospheres, or nanowhiskers produce highly water-repellent fabrics enough force, it will penetrate the fabric.
based on the lotus effect. This effect is a biomimicry or bionic finish based on the lotus leaf’s A waterproof fabric will not wet regardless
ability to repel moisture due to nanoparticles of wax on the leaf’s surface. This self-cleaning of the amount of time it is exposed to water
and water-repelling effect will soon be a new smart textile. or the force with which the water strikes
Although not a finish, microporous composite fabrics also produce a water-repellent the fabric.
effect. See Chapter 15 for more details.

Moisture Management Finishes

Moisture management finishes remove sweat from the skin’s surface and help cool the
body. These smart finishes are applied to athletic apparel, sportswear, leisurewear, work
apparel, socks, and interlinings for shoes. Moisture transport is a measure of the speed
with which perspiration is drawn from the skin’s surface to the fabric’s surface so it can evap-
orate, cool the body, and keep the wearer dry. While manufactured fibers may have modified
cross sections to improve moisture management, finishes also improve comfort.
One challenge is to produce a fabric that resists wetting or penetration by liquid while
allowing air and water vapor to flow through the fabric. Air permeability and water vapor trans- Moisture management finishes remove
port are key factors in comfort in water-repellent textiles. Air permeability allows body heat to sweat from the skin’s surface and help cool
dissipate and keep the wearer from getting too warm while water vapor transport allows per- the body.
spiration to evaporate, keep the wearer dry, and reduce or eliminate clamminess.

Learning Activity 9
Select apparel or interior items you own that are water resistant or water repellent.
Closely examine them to identify how that performance is achieved. Compare your per-
ceptions of the performance of these products with the information in Table 18.5.

Learning Activity 10
Use Fabrics #35 and 110 from your swatch kit. Use an eyedropper or a fingertip to drop
1 or 2 drops of water on each fabric. Describe what happened. Wait 30 seconds to see
if the drop is being absorbed or if the fabrics are getting wet. Use the end of the eye-
dropper or nonwriting end of a pen or pencil to work the drop of water into the fabric.
Explain what is happening and why.

special-purpose finishes 459


Ultraviolet-absorbent finishes incorporate
chemical compounds or nanoparticles that
absorb energy in the ultraviolet region of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
460 chapter eighteen
Porosity-Control Finishes
Porosity-control or air-impermeable finishes are used to limit penetration of the fabric
by air. These finishes are used for technical air filters and use low-density foam as a back
coating.
Water-Absorbent Finishes
Water-absorbent finishes increase the moisture absorbency of fabric and its drying time.
These finishes differ from the water-repellent and moisture management finishes. These
fairly durable finishes are applied as surface coatings on synthetic fabrics for towels, diapers,
underwear, and sportswear. On nylon, a solution of nylon 8 is used; on polyester, the finish
changes the molecular structure of the fiber surface so that moisture is broken up into smaller
particles that wick more readily; on cellulosics, the finish makes them absorb more moisture.
Fiber modifications and different fabric structures may be more effective than some finishes.
Visa® is a trade name. Hydrolon is a trade name for a polymer finish applied to nylon, polyes-
ter, and acrylic that improves surface wicking. The finish Capilene® wicks perspiration from a
garment’s base layer to its outer layer. Water-absorbent finishes may facilitate dyeing.
Ultraviolet-Absorbent Finishes
Ultraviolet-absorbent finishes incorporate chemical compounds or nanoparticles that
absorb energy in the ultraviolet (UV) region of the electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 18.12).
Because of the ever-increasing incidence of skin cancer, photosensitivity-based illnesses,
and accelerated aging of skin (wrinkles and desiccated appearance), apparel is an important
means of reducing exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Fabrics are treated with ultraviolet inhibi-
tors during dyeing that absorb energy in this region.
These finishes are also known as sunprotective and ultraviolet or UV blockers. Many dyes
and fluorescent whitening agents also absorb ultraviolet energy. The darker the color of a
fabric, the more ultraviolet energy it will absorb and the more protection it will provide. Fabrics
with ultraviolet absorbent finishes or modifications may be promoted with an ultraviolet-­
protection factor (UPF). Higher UPF ratings are better than lower ratings: good (15–24);
very good (25–39); and excellent (40–50+).
Other ways of improving the sunprotective factors of fabric include using thicker and
denser fabrics and manufactured fibers modified to be sunlight-resistant or modified with sun-
light blockers. Protection from ultraviolet radiation is related to fiber content: polyester offers the
most protection followed by nylon, wool, silk, cotton and rayon (in that order). Wet or stretched
fabrics offer less protection. Using detergents with optical brightening or fluorescent whitening
VIS**
Gamma Micro- Radio Long radio
X-rays UV* IR***
rays waves waves waves
10–16 10–12 10–10 10–8 10–6 10–4 10–2 100 102 104 106 108
Length in meters
*Ultraviolet
**Visible light (400–700 nm)
***Infrared
Figure The electromagnetic spectrum.
18.12
 Learning Activity 11
Search local stores or websites for apparel with UPF ratings. What kinds of apparel have
this rating? What kinds of ratings do you find? Why are UPF ratings important? Do you
own any apparel with UPF ratings? Why did you buy the item or why was it given to you?

agents improves a fabric’s ability to block damaging ultraviolet radiation. Other commercial
compounds can be added to the wash water to improve absorption of ultraviolet radiation.

Antistatic Finishes
Antistatic finishes are important in both the production and use of the fabrics. Static buildup
causes fabrics to cling to machinery in factories and to people, attract dust and lint, and pro-
duce sparks and shocks.
To control static buildup on natural-fiber fabrics increase humidity and use lubricants,
but these measures are inadequate with thermoplastic fibers. Antistatic finishes (1) improve
the surface conductivity so that excess electrons move to the atmosphere or ground;
(2) attract water molecules to increase fiber conductivity; or (3) neutralize electrostatic charge
by developing a charge opposite to that on the fiber. The most effective finishes combine all
three effects. Most finishes use temporary quaternary ammonium compounds that must be
reapplied after cleaning. Washing aids such as fabric softeners help control static. Chemical
finishes can feel soapy or oily and cause allergic reactions for some people. An alternate to a
chemical finish is nanoparticles that make textiles more conductive. Because the nanoparti-
cles work with moisture in the atmosphere, static problems develop when the air is dry.
Incorporating antistatic substances into the fibers produces the best static control. Most Antistatic finishes improve the surface
manufactured fibers are produced in antistatic form, especially for rugs, carpets, lingerie, and conductivity; attract water molecules;
uniforms (see Chapter 6). Some trade names of antistatic nylon variants are Ultron, Antron, or neutralize electrostatic charge.
Staticgard, and Anso.

Phase-Change and Temperature Regulation Finishes

Phase-change finishes minimize heat flow through a fabric. They insulate against very
hot or very cold temperature extremes. A phase-change finish is a type of smart textile that Cooling effect
absorbs or releases heat in response to environmental stimuli. (heat absorbed by PCM)
Melting or
Several hundred phase-change chemicals exist. Textile finishes use only the ones that PCM liquifying PCM
solid liquid
operate in a temperature range compatible with the human body. These phase-change Freezing or
solidifying
materials (PCM) absorb or release heat in a relatively narrow temperature range as they Warming effect
undergo phase change (Figure 18.13). As the chemicals change phase from solid to liquid, (heat released by PCM)
Phase change material (PCM)
they absorb heat and cool the body. As they change phase from liquid to solid, they release Microcapsule
heat and warm the body. The time span of these phase changes is relatively brief—approx-
Figure The phase-change process.
imately 20 minutes. The phase-change chemical is microencapsulated and applied in a thin 18.13
coat (0.002 inch) onto a fabric (Figure 18.13). The insulation properties are not affected by
compression, washing, or moisture. PCMs are used in gloves, boots, socks, garment liners,
sleeping bags, ski and winter wear, wetsuits, underwear, jackets, blankets and other bed- Phase-change finishes minimize heat flow
ding, and hats. Outlast® is a trade name of a PCM finish. Aside from the heat flow aspects, through a fabric and insulate against very
this finish contributes antistatic characteristics, water absorbency, resiliency, soil release, and hot or very cold temperature extremes.
pilling resistance.

special-purpose finishes 461

 Other finishes that help regulate body temperature use nanotechnology. Ceramic
nanoparticle coatings applied to the surface of a fabric help keep wearers warm. Ceramic
coatings add a slightly yellow tint, reflect external heat, absorb contact heat, block ultraviolet
light, are stable to heat, and insulate from electricity. They are used in military, automotive and
technical products.

Biological-Control Finishes
Finishes in this section focus on reducing damage to textiles from biological agents. Table 18.6
summarizes these finishes.

Insect- and Moth-Control Finishes

Moths and carpet beetles damage protein fibers such as wool, but they may also damage
other fibers if soil is present. More than 100 species of insects and spiders, including silver-
fish, crickets, and cockroaches, damage textiles. In most cases, an insect-infestation problem
develops when a food source exists and environmental conditions are ripe. Manufactured
fibers are not immune, but natural fibers are more likely to be damaged by insects.

12 Learning Activity
Explain how phase-change materials (PCM) cool or warm the body. Do you own any
textile products that include PCMs? Describe your degree of satisfaction with the textile
product and PCMs.

Table 18.6  Summary Table: Biological Control Finishes

Finish Function
Insect and moth control Impart resistance to insect pests.
Mold and mildew control Prevent damage from mold and
mildew
Rot proof Prevent rot of cellulosic fabrics
Antimicrobial Inhibit growth of microorganisms
and problems related to their
growth
Microencapsulated Smart textile finish of a material
in tiny capsule form that are
released when force is applied
Application
Wool and wool blends; some
technical textiles like tents,
hunting blinds
Natural fibers, usually cellulosic
(active sportswear, towels)
Outdoor products of cellulosic like
tents, tarpaulins, awnings, and
others
Skin contact apparel,
handkerchiefs, hospital linens,
pillow covers, bed pads, towels,
shower curtains, air filters, wall
coverings, upholstery, diapers,
contract carpeting, medical
products
Capsule contents include wide
variety of chemicals ranging from
insect repellants to oils to relief
stress applied to wide range of
textiles from ribbons to bedding
Side Effects
Depends on chemical
May yellow fiber
Often has unpleasant odor
May cause color loss
Most are poisonous
More common in moist, humid
environments and when soil is
present
Improved durability and longevity
Some cause yellowing and fading
on nylon
Nanosilver may create
environmental problems
Ruptured capsules cannot be
refilled

462 chapter eighteen

 Insect- and moth-control finishes use chemicals that are harmful or distasteful to
insects to impart resistance to insect pests. These finishes are also known as fumigants,
insecticides, insect-repellent finishes, and other terms that imply resistance to a specific
insect pest, such as silverfish or moths. Clothes moth and carpet beetle larvae (not adults)
damage 100% wool and blends of wool and other fibers (Figure 18.14). Although they digest
only the wool, the larvae damage other fibers. Clothes moths and carpet beetles are small,
about 1/4 inch long, and difficult to see. Making it even more difficult, larvae are even smaller,
shun bright light, and live in dark places making, it is necessary to clean often under sofas
and furniture cushions, in the creases of chairs, and protect apparel stored in dark closets.
Figure 18.15 shows the casings of the clothes moth larvae.
Most wool interior fabrics are treated with a moth-control or mothproofing chemicals.
Approximately 70% of the chemicals are used by the carpet industry; wool and wool blend
carpets should be labeled with the Wool Mark standard of quality.
Traditionally, mothproofing used a chemical, often Permethrin, at the scouring or dyeing
Figure Insect damage to wool yarn.
stage. Because excess chemical would be flushed into nearby water systems, killing inverte-
18.14
brates, foam application of Permethrin is preferred. Permethrin repels and kills spiders, ticks,
mosquitoes, and other crawling and flying insects. It is also applied to tents of all kinds and
canvas used in fold-down camping trailers and hunting blinds. Expel, by Graniteville, is odor-
less and resistant to washing, heat, and ultraviolet light.
Means of controlling insect damage are listed below:

1. Cold storage decreases insect activity and significantly reducing or halting dam-
age. Museums use freezing to control insect problems in storage areas because
the extreme conditions kill the insects. This technique is generally not practical for
consumer use.
2. Odors can repel insects. Paradichlorobenzene and naphthalene (mothballs) are used
in storage. These poisonous insecticides should be used with caution and only when
absolutely necessary.
3. Stomach poisons such as fluorides and silicofluorides are finishes for dry-cleanable
wool.
4. Contact poisons such as DDT are very effective, but DDT is banned in the United
States and many other parts of the world.
5. Chemical additives in the dye bath permanently change the fiber, making it unpalat-
able to the larvae. Surface and on-site applications may yellow carpet fiber or cause
color loss.

Figure The casing of the clothes moth larvae

Mold- and Mildew-Control Finishes 18.15 (the coin is shown to suggest size).
Mold- and mildew-control finishes, also known as fungicides or mildew-preventive finishes, By the time the casing is found, fiber
damage has occurred.
prevent the growth of mold and mildew and the resultant damage to cellulosic and protein
fibers. While both groups of fibers are susceptible, the problem is far more common on cellulos-
ics. Mold and mildew also grow on, but do not damage, thermoplastic fibers. Mold and mildew
growth is prevented by many compounds. Salicylanilide is used on cellulosic fibers and wool.
Insect- and moth-control finishes use
chemicals that are harmful or distasteful to
Learning Activity 13 insects to impart resistance to insect pests.

Identify two textile products that might have an insect control finish. Explain why these
finishes are used. Describe how an insect control finish might work. Are there any safety
or health concerns for the wearer or user of textiles treated with these finishes?

special-purpose finishes 463


Mold- and mildew-control finishes prevent
the growth of mold, mildew or other com-
pounds that damage cellulosic fabrics.
Figure The odor control claim on the label for
18.16 an athletic sock implies the presence
of an antimicrobial finish.
464 chapter eighteen
Prevention is the best solution to the problem because cures are often impossible.
Mildew occurs when a microorganism feeds on the fiber, creating tiny pits and craters. The
dark gray or black color associated with mildew is from shadows in damaged areas. To pre-
vent mold or mildew, keep textiles clean and dry. Keep soiled items dry, and wash them as
soon as possible. Periods of high humidity require frequent sunning and airing. Use a light and
dehumidifier in dark, humid storage places. If mildew occurs, wash the item immediately. Mild
stains can be removed by bleaching.
Rot-Proof Finishes
Rot-proof finishes are used primarily on technical products made of cellulosic fibers that are
used outdoors to improve their durability and longevity. Textiles rot when they are exposed
to moist, warm conditions for several days or more. Soil microbes secrete enzymes that dis-
integrate the textile. Cellulosic textiles are most susceptible, but protein fibers will rot under
certain conditions. Finishing agents N-methylol and glyoxal impart rot resistance to cotton
canvas for tents, tarpaulins, awnings, lawn and deck furniture, and other outdoor applications.
Because synthetic fibers are replacing cotton in these technical applications, rot-proof finishes
are not common.
Antimicrobial Finishes
Antimicrobial finishes inhibit the growth of microbes, reduce or prevent odor, prevent decay
and damage from perspiration, control the spread of disease, and reduce the risk of infection.
Antimicrobial finishes are also known as antibacterial, bacteriostatic, germicidal, permafresh,
antiodor, or antiseptic finishes. There are two types of finishes: leachable (not bonded to the
fiber) and nonleachable (bonded to the fiber or used as additives during fiber production).
Leachable finishes are removed by water. Nonleachable finishes are fast to repeated wash-
ings. Ideally, both types should be safe for consumers and producers, be easy to apply, and
not adversely affect the fabric.
These finishes range in effectiveness from a weak antimicrobial effect (slows growth rate
of microorganisms) to a strong effect (kills some microorganisms within 10 minutes). Weak
antimicrobial finishes would help control odor while the strongest finishes might slow the
spread of infection. Because of the widespread use of antimicrobials and concerns over their
misuse, two U.S. agencies, the Environmental Protection Agency and the Food and Drug
Administration, regulate them, especially products that claim to have public health or medical
benefits.
These finishes are used in apparel that comes in contact with the skin, shoe linings, hos-
pital linens, contract carpeting, medical textiles, pillow covers, bed pads, towels, shower cur-
tains, handkerchiefs, and air filters (Figure 18.16). The chemicals are surface reactants such
14 Learning Activity
Have you experienced problems with mold or mildew on textiles (especially with all
cotton active sportswear and towels)? If yes, describe the problem and its severity.
How did you resolve the problem? Did you have to replace the item? If you have not
experienced the problem, talk to friends or relatives to gather information about their
experience(s) with the problem.
as quaternary ammonium or silicone compounds, diphenyl ether, chitosan (a natural polymer),
or silver-based compounds. Liquid solutions containing the active ingredient are applied by
padding, exhaust, or spraying. The chemicals are added to the spinning solution of manufac-
tured fibers for use in wall coverings and upholstery. Diaper services may add an antimicrobial
finish, such as Sanitized®, with each laundering.
The processes include chemical treatment, gas treatment, irradiation treatment, and
addition of nanoparticles. Chemical antimicrobial finishes may cause yellowing and fading
on nylon—a major problem for carpets. Ethylene oxide gas, an effective treatment method
using a hazardous material, is being replaced with irradiation sterilization, also known as
electron-beam sterilization. This treatment is cheaper, simpler, safer, and ideal for medical Antimicrobial finishes inhibit the growth of
products such as bandages, sutures, and surgical gloves. Since the beam penetrates ther- microbes, reduce or prevent odor, prevent
moplastic and foil packaging, items are packaged and then treated to maintain the sterile decay and damage from perspiration,
environment until the package is opened. Silver nanoparticles are applied to fabrics during control the spread of disease, and reduce
dyeing. Use of silver nanoparticles may be regulated because of their release during launder- the risk of infection following injury.
ing and accumulation in bio-solids in water treatment facilities.

Microencapsulated Finishes
Microencapsulated finishes, a smart textile finish, incorporates a water-soluble or other
material in a tiny capsule form. The capsules are between 5 and 50 microns and may contain
fragrance, insect repellents, disinfectants, cleaning agents, cooling chemicals like menthol,
warming chemicals like capsaicin, body lotions, oils to relief stress, deodorants, activated
charcoal, or other materials. Phase-change materials in microcapsule form were discussed
earlier in this chapter. The microcapsules are sprayed onto a fabric and held in place with a
polyvinyl alcohol or acrylic binder. The finish may be durable for up to 10 washings for some
products. They cause no skin irritation. Unfortunately, once the microcapsules have been rup-
tured and released their content, they cannot be refilled or replenished.
End uses for microcapsules with fragrance include ribbons, handkerchiefs, scarves, cur-
tains, upholstery, bedding, hosiery, sweaters, ties, and T-shirts (Figure 18.17). Normal physi-
cal forces during wear rupture the capsules and release the fragrance. Synthetic and natural
insect-repellent microcapsules have been used in outdoor and military apparel, in bedding
Figure Microencapsulated finishes contain
to control dust mites, and in tents. Extra repellent can be released by squeezing the fabric.
18.17 chemicals released when force is
Cooling or warming chemical microcapsules are used in sportswear, underwear, and socks. applied.
Lotions and oils are used in hosiery, lingerie, bedding, and gloves. Mothproofing microcap-
sules are applied to wool carpet. Microcapsules containing bactericidal agents are applied
to hospital gowns and bed linens, protective apparel worn in the pharmaceutical and food A microencapsulated finish incorporates a
industries, socks, underwear, and activewear. Activated charcoal and nanoparticles are used material in a tiny capsule form. Contents of
as deodorant finishes to absorb body odor and for gym wear and hunters’ apparel. Other the capsule determine the overall effect of
deodorant nanoparticles are being engineered to absorb specific odors such as cigarette the smart textile finish.
smoke and will be effective longer than activated charcoal that absorbs all odors.

Learning Activity 15
Identify five textile products that might have an antibacterial finish. Be sure your list
includes apparel, interior, and technical products. Are there concerns about use of
these finishes?

special-purpose finishes 465

 Safety-Related Finishes
Finishes in this section focuses on improving safety or reducing risks associated with textile
products. Table 18.7 summarizes these finishes.

Flame-Retardant Finishes
Each year a large number of fatalities and injuries result from fires associated with flammable
fabrics. Huge financial losses from such fires also occur. Five common causes of these fires
are smoking in bed, starting fires with flammable liquids, children playing with matches and
lighters, burning trash, and being trapped in a burning structure.
Fabrics that burn quickly are sheer or lightweight fabrics and napped, pile, or tufted sur-
faces. Some items made from these fabrics ignite quickly, burn intensely, and are difficult to
extinguish. Torch sweaters (a sweater that presents a fire hazard), fringed cowboy chaps, and
chenille berets are examples of some apparel items that catch fire and cause tragic accidents.
Hazardous style features include long full sleeves, flared skirts, ruffles, frills, and flowing hems.
Terms that describe the ability of a fabric to resist ignition, burn more slowly than normal,
or self-extinguish once the source of ignition has been removed from the fabric include:

Figure Flame retardant textiles reduce injury
18.18 and death from textile-related fires.
When tested, this sample ignited, but
the flame quickly self-extinguished
providing safety for the wearer.
• Flame retardant: Chemical used to impart flame resistance to a fabric (also known as
fire retardant).
• Flame resistant: A fabric that burns but self-extinguishes rapidly with or without the
removal of the ignition source. Flame resistant fabrics may still suffer damage from fire,
but the fabric passes federal specifications or voluntary standards for a specific end
use. Fire resistance is an alternate term.
• Flammability: Those characteristics of a material that pertain to its relative ease of
ignition and relative ability to sustain combustion.
Fabrics are made flame-resistant by (1) using inherently flame-resistant fibers, (2) using
fiber variants that have been made flame-resistant by adding chemicals to the spinning solu-
tion, or (3) applying flame-retardant finishes to fabric (Figure 18.18).

16 Learning Activity
Work with a partner. Make a list of six chemicals that are used in microcapsule form
on textiles. List a purpose and an end use for each of the chemicals. Compare your list
with another team. Select one end use on your list and describe the serviceability of the
finish. Are these finishes temporary, durable, or permanent?

Table 18.7  Summary Table: Safety Related Finishes

Finish Function Application Side Effects
Flame retardant Block ignition or cause flame to Apparel, interiors, technical Increased cost
self-extinguish products May decrease strength and
abrasion resistance
May need special care

Stiffer hand
Liquid barrier Prevent liquids from penetrating Medical apparel, agricultural and Loss in comfort
fabric chemical workers apparel Increased cost
Light reflecting Increase wearer visibility in low light Apparel and trim Some have limited durability
situations Often found on trim only

466 chapter eighteen

 The burning characteristics of fibers are listed in Table 3.6. Fibers that are inherently
flame-resistant include aramid, PBI, and sulfar. Flame-retardant additives are used in the spin-
ning solution of some acetate, nylon, polyester, rayon, and other manufactured fibers.
Flame-retardant (FR) finishes function by blocking the flame’s access to fuel and hin-
dering further flame propagation or cause the flame to self-extinguish. A foam-containing,
flame-extinguishing gas may be produced, which extinguishes the flame, or the solid may be
modified so that the products of combustion are not volatile or require excess heat to con-
tinue the fire, thus extinguishing the flame.
Flame-retardant chemicals may contain halogens such as bromine, phosphorus, or anti-
mony. Regulations requiring registration and assessment of these and other finishing chemi-
cals on the environment are increasing. (See Chapter 21.)
Flame-retardant finishes are used on cotton, rayon, nylon, and polyester fabrics. Flame-
retardant finishes must be durable to 50 washings, nontoxic, and noncarcinogenic. Ideally,
they should not change the hand and texture of fabrics or have an unpleasant odor. Most fin-
ishes are not visible, and they add significantly to the cost of the item, so the consumer pays
for something that cannot be detected by the senses.
Flame-retardant finishes can be classified as durable and nondurable. Durable finishes
are specific to fiber type and are usually phosphate compounds or salts, halogenated organic
compounds, or inorganic salts.
Flame-retardant finishes are less expensive than flame-resistant fibers or fiber variants.
Knitted or woven gray goods are given a topical flame-retardant finish when necessary, a
more economical process for fabric producers.
In general flame-retardant finishes require the addition of a fairly large quantity of finish to
the fabric. Add-on describes the percentage by weight of solids left on a fabric after finishing
and drying. Normal rates for flame retardant cellulosics range from 5% to 30% of the fabric’s
weight. For polyester, the normal rates are 1% to 10% of the fabric’s weight. The range of
add-on is related to the specific chemical used, performance expectations, and the cost of
the finish.
Finishes for cotton are of two general types. The ammonium cure provides excellent
protection with minimal strength loss and most often used on apparel. However, it requires
special equipment, so the investment in capital is great. The second type uses conventional
finishing equipment and a resin. The resin results in greater strength loss and is therefore used
more commonly for window treatments.
Cost, durability, and care of FR finishes are the greatest problems for the consumer. The
cost of research and development for finishes, testing of fabrics and products, and liability
insurance result in higher costs for apparel and interior textiles. Because the items look no dif-
ferent, the consumer may think the item is overpriced. Government standards limit consumer
choices. For example, even people who do not smoke in bed pay a higher price for mat-
tresses because only mattresses that pass safety standards can be sold in interstate com-
merce. The safety component is present regardless of consumer preferences.
Most of the topical finishes require special care in laundering to preserve the flame resis-
tance. Labels should be followed carefully: do not bleach, do not use soap, and do not use hot
water. Excess soil can block the effectiveness of a finish, so frequent cleaning may be required. Flame-retardant (FR) finishes function by
Flame-retardant-treated fabrics are more expensive. The fabric may be stiffer, weaker, blocking the flame’s access to fuel and hin-
and less abrasion-resistant than unfinished fabric. Consumers may develop a false sense of dering further flame propagation or cause
security; even though the finish makes the fabric flame retardant and slower to ignite and the flame to self-extinguish.
burn, it will not prevent the fabric from igniting or burning when conditions are right.

special-purpose finishes 467


Liquid-barrier finishes protect the wearer
from liquids penetrating through a fabric.
Light-reflecting finishes on fabrics increase
wearer visibility in low-light conditions.
468 chapter eighteen
17 Learning Activity
Use Fabric #69 from your swatch kit. Explain why flame-retardant finishes are import-
ant for upholstery. What other kinds of end uses often have flame-retardant finishes?
Describe two other ways that a fabric may be made flame retardant.
Liquid-Barrier Finishes
Liquid-barrier finishes protect the wearer from liquids penetrating through a fabric. These
finishes are important to health care professionals because of the presence of viral and bac-
terial pathogens in body fluids. Agricultural and chemical workers require liquid-barrier protec-
tion because of the toxic and hazardous liquids with which they work. Finishes that combine
the degree of protection and comfort required are usually very thin, impermeable films applied
to the fabric face or back.
Antipesticide protective finishes protect from pesticides penetrating through the fab-
ric and aid in pesticide removal during washing.
Light-Reflecting Finishes
Light-reflecting finishes are used on fabrics to increase the visibility of its wearers in low-light
conditions. Two types are painted or printed on the fabric’s surface: fluorescent dyes and small
glass retroreflective materials. Fluorescent dyes will be discussed in more detail in Chapters 19
and 20. Small glass retroreflective spheres or prisms are used on apparel (Figure 18.19). The
glass surface alters the angle of reflected light and makes objects more visible. Bonding agents
are used with the retroreflective finish. These finishes are expensive and durable to a limited
number of washings and are used most often on trim for footwear and actionwear. Occasion-
ally, these finishes are used on fabric for social events because of the effect with black light.
Reflected Incident
light light
Incident light
Reflective material
Reflected light
Micro prism Microsphere Binder
Figure Retroreflective materials increase wearer visibility at night.
18.19
18 Learning Activity
Pay attention the next time you are near a road construction zone, bicyclists, or outside
during the night. If it is safe for you and the workers, note if their clothing has reflective
components (often a silver strip that contains retroreflective materials). For bicyclists,
note if their clothing, shoes, or bicycles have similar components. Also note the visibil-
ity of pedestrians and joggers away from street lights at night. Explain why these light
reflecting textiles are used and how they increase visibility. Visibility is improved when
the reflective strip is on a body or bicycle part that moves because the eye sees motion
quickly. Why would that improve safety for road workers and bicyclists? Where would
you wear the strip if you were walking or jogging at night?
 Learning Activity 19
Special-purpose finishes enhance product performance but are usually difficult to see.
In some cases, the effect of the finish is difficult to perceive. Select one of the finishes
from this chapter and explain how it could be promoted and marketed to enhance sales.

Learning Activity 20
Work with several other students. Assign at least one of the tables in this chapter to each stu-
dent. (Some tables summarize several finishes; other tables focus on only one finish.) Take the
table and/or your book to a big box store. Search the merchandise in the store. Record the
number of finishes found, the type of products, and the label information that suggested
the finish. Compare your results with those of the other students. Summarize the information.
What does the summary tell you about the types and varieties of finishes on the market?

Learning Activity 21
Return to the list you started for Review Question 10, Chapter 2. Identify characteristics
related to special-purpose finishes that you use in determining the quality of a textile product.

terms
key terms
Abrasion-resistant finish
Add-on
Air-impermeable finish
Halogenation
Heat setting
Immersion process
Progressive shrinkage
Quality performance standards
Relaxation shrinkage
Antimicrobial finish Insect- and moth-control finish Resin
Antipesticide protective finish Light-reflecting finish Rot-proof finish
Antislip finish Light-stabilizing finish Shape-retention finish
Antistatic finish Liquid-barrier finish Shrinkage
Anti-yellowing finish London shrunk Soil-release finish
Chemical finish Metallic coating Special-purpose finish
Compressive shrinkage Metered-addition process Stain-release finish
Cross links Microencapsulated finish Surface coating
Durable press Moisture management finish Topical finish
Flame retardant Moisture transport Ultraviolet-absorbent finish
Flame resistant Mold- and mildew-control finish Ultraviolet-protection factor (UPF)
Flame-retardant (FR) finish Phase-change finish Vapor-phase process
Flammability Pilling-resistant finish Water-absorbent finish
Foam coating Plastic coating Waterproof fabric
Fume-fading-resistant finish Porosity-control finish Water-repellent finish
Functional finish Postcured process Wet process
Glass transition temperature ( Tg ) Precured process

questions
review questions

1. Explain how stabilization finishes work for these products:
a. 100% wool stockinette sweater
b. 65% cotton/35% polyester upholstery of glazed chintz



c. 100% acetate antique satin draperies
d. 100% cotton flannelette bedsheets
e. 100% cotton jersey T-shirt
special-purpose finishes 469
 f. 100% nylon mesh tank top
g. 100% polyester crepe de chine blouse
2. How do the differences among the stabilization finishes
relate to fiber structure and characteristics?
3. Describe the differences in process and product
performance for methods used to apply durable press to a
fabric or a product.
4. Describe some of the problems associated with fabrics or
products with durable press finishes.
5. Compare and contrast water-repellent and stain-repellent/
soil-release finishes.
6. For what end uses are metallic, plastic, and foam coatings
used? What purpose do they serve?
7. Explain how these finishes enhance comfort:
a. Water-repellent
b. Moisture management
c. Antistatic
d. Phase-change
8. For what fibers and products are moth-control finishes likely
to be used? How do they function?
9. How can flame retardancy be achieved with fabrics?
10. Explain how these finishes affect fabric properties such as
comfort, care, durability, and appearance:
a. Halogenated wool
b. Antistatic nylon
c. Durable-press cotton
d. Flame-retardant rayon
11. Explain how nanotechnology is used in finishing textiles. In
what kind of end uses is this technology used?
12. Explain how smart textiles relate to special-purpose finishes.
13. Describe how and why fragrance is added to textiles.
14. Identify an appropriate finish and explain how it enhances
the safety of these products:
a. Carpet for a movie theatre lobby
b. Hazardous material clean-up coveralls
c. Child’s pajamas
d. Trim on bicycling shorts
e. Welder’s pants
f. Gloves for a farm worker
15. Explain the differences and similarities among these finishes:
a. Water absorbent and water repellent
b. Soil resistant and water repellent
c. Fume fading resistant and anti-yellowing
d. Light stabilizing and ultraviolet absorbent
e. Surface coating and water repellent
f. Moisture absorbent and antistatic
g. Insect-control and antimicrobial
16. For the end uses and products below, identify the finishes
that would enhance product performance.
a. All cotton athletic socks
b. Cotton/polyester gabardine slacks
c. Cotton/polyester glazed chintz draperies
d. All nylon carpet for glass office building
e. All nylon carpet for a family’s television room
f. All cotton bed linens
g. Ski jacket of nylon shell and lining and polyester fiberfill
h. 100% polyester uniform for fast food worker
i. All cotton baby’s one piece play outfit
j. All polyester baby’s sleeper
k. 80% wool/20% nylon yarn for socks
l. Nylon and spandex swimsuit with matching cover-up

Case Study
Skin Cancer Prevention*
The connection between skin cancer and
ultraviolet (UV) dosage is well known. Skin
cancer is the most common form of can-
cer in the United States with millions of
cases being diagnosed each year. That is
more than the combined total for cancers
of the breast, prostate, lung, and colon. It
is ­estimated that one in five Americans will
­develop skin cancer in their lives. Cancer
rates are increasing at alarming rates for
young women, especially for those who
­engage in indoor tanning.
Clothing and textiles can be used to mini-
mize the risk of skin cancer. The ultraviolet
protection factor (UPF) helps quantify the
protection provided by some textiles. Fabrics
made of all polyester (delustered) or 50/50
blends with delustered polyester provide
the best protection. Heavy and thick fabric
with a high cover factor (yarns are opaque
to UV and a tight weave) are best. Darker
color fabrics are better at blocking UV than
lighter colored fabrics. Finishing chemicals
can e­ nhance fabric inherent characteristics in
terms of blocking damaging UV from the skin.
Discussion Questions
1. Why is delustered polyester identified as
providing the best protection of the fibers?
(Hint: What is used to deluster polyester
and also used as a sun block for those
who spend a lot of time in the sun?)
2. What parameters would you look for in a
fabric with a high cover factor?
3. How can a fabric finish enhance perfor-
mance in this area?
4. What design features would you look for
in an item of apparel to gain the most
UPF?

*Krishnan, L. (2013, March/April). Use of clothing as an affordable means of skin cancer prevention. AATCC Review, 13(2), 43–48.

470 chapter eighteen

readings
suggested readings
Anton-Katzenbach, S. (2008). Keep cool or get hot. AATCC Review,
8(6), 28–31.
Dehabi, V. A., Buschmann, H. J., & Gutmann, J. S. (2013), Durable
press finishing of cotton fabrics: An overview. Textile Research
Journal, 83(8), 1974–1995.
Holme, I. (2004). Microencapsulation: The changing face of finishing.
Textiles Magazine, 31(4), 7–10.
Hyde, T, (2006, June). Simple proven technology for the control of
bad odours. Technical Textiles International, 15, 25–26.
Judge, A. (2014, Winter). Moths: A flock of sheep, a murder of
crows, a fluttering of moths. Spin-Off, 37(4), 32–34.
Krishnan, L. (2013, March/April). Use of clothing as an affordable
means of skin cancer prevention. AATCC Review, 13(2), 43–48.
Lacasse, K., & Baumann, W. (2004). Textile Chemicals:
Environmental Data and Facts. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Lam, Y. L., Kan, C. W., & Yuen, C. W. M. (2012). Developments
in functional finishing of cotton fibres-wrinkle resistant, flame-
retardant and antimicrobial treatments. Textile Progress, 44
(3–4), 175–249.
Lo, L. Y., Li, Y., Yuen, C. W. M., & Yeung, K. W. (2007). Understanding
wrinkle resistance (Part I). AATCC Review, 7(11), 28–31.
Lo, L. Y., Li, Y., Yuen, C. W. M., & Yeung, K. W. (2007). Understanding
wrinkle resistance (Part II). AATCC Review, 7(12), 25–28.
Mansfield, R. G. (2004, March). Phase change materials. Textile
World, 154(3), 36–38.
Meirowitz, R. (2003). Water proosistance. AATCC Review, 3(3),
19–22.
Menezes, E., & Choudhari, M. (2007). Special finishes and effects.
AATCC Review, 7(3), 29–32.
Musante, G. B. (2013, May/June). Relief from the blistering heat.
AATCC Review, 13(3), 32–37.
Perkins, W. S. (2000). Functional finishes and high performance
textiles. TCC & ADR, 32(4), 24–27.
Purwar, R., & Joshi, M. (2004, March). Recent developments in
antimicrobial finishing of textiles—A review. AATCC Review,
4(3), 22–26.
Ramaratnam, K., Iyer, S. K., Kinnan, M. K., Chumanov, G., Brown,
P., & Luzinov, I. (2008), Unltrahydrophobic textiles: Lotus
approach. AATCC Review, 8(1), 42–47.
Schindler, W. D., & Hauser, P. J. (2004). Chemical Finishing of
Textiles. Cambridge, England: Woodhead.
Tanner, B. D. (2009, November). Antimicrobial fabrics—Issues and
opportunities in the era of antibiotic resistance. AATCC Review,
9(11), 30–33.
Thiry, M. C. (2007). A pleasing scent. AATCC Review, 7(7), 18–25.
Thiry, M. C. (2007). Lightening on a small scale. AATCC Review,
7(11), 18–23.
Thiry, M. C. (2007). Small scale—Huge potential. AATCC Review,
7(6), 22–26.
Thiry, M. C. (2006). Special effects, special finishes. AATCC Review,
6(11), 21–25.
Thiry, M. C. (2011, September/October). The send of victory:
Controlling odor in the locker room. AATCC Review, 11(5),
24–31.
Thiry, M. C. (2005). The sunnier side of textiles. AATCC Review,
5(8), 18–22.
Thiry, M. C. (2009, May). Unsung heroes: Antimicrobials save the
day. AATCC Review, 9(5), 20–27.
Thiry, M. C. (2006). Wet and dry. AATCC Review, 6(6), 26–31.
Yao, M. (2013, May/June). Antimicrobial textile product regulatory
issues in the United States. AATCC Review, 13(3), 40–42.
Yang, C. Q. (2013, May/June). Crosslinking: A route to improve
cotton performance. AATCC Review, 13(3), 43–57.
special-purpose finishes 471
Vvoe/Fotolia

Andreaobzerova/Fotolia

Tuayai/Fotolia Mortazza/Fotolia
Dyeing and
Printing

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To discuss the theory and practice of dyeing and printing textiles and matching color.
• To identify the stages of dyeing and types of printing.
• To integrate performance and quality with the end use and the materials and
processes used in dyeing and printing.
• To explain problems related to dyed and printed textiles and textile products.

19

Figure Yarns in a range of colors for fiber
19.1 artists.
Colorant is a general term describing
materials that are used to add color to a
fabric. Manufacturers select colorants and
dyeing or printing processes based
on their capabilities, knowledge, and
market demands.
474 chapter nineteen
Color is one of the most significant factors in the appeal and marketability of textile
­products. Consider the array of color when scanning the merchandise in a specialty store.
Each season has a fashion palette and a wide range of color available to appeal to con-
sumer taste (Figure 19.1). Determining how the color is applied and what colorants are
used is challenging.
This chapter discusses the characteristics of color and focuses on identification (when
color was added to the product), process (how color was added to the product), service-
ability (how color affects product performance), sustainability (chemicals, energy and water
use, and health and environmental issues), and problem solving (what kind of problems can
develop because of color). While many processes and products are included, some are of
minor importance. Others are mainstays in the industry and represent the vast majority of
colored textiles. Watch for these distinctions.
Theory and Practice in Dyeing and Printing
The manner in which color is added to a textile and the chemical nature of the colorant con-
tribute to a product’s appearance, performance, rate of response to fashion change, quality,
and cost. Most apparel and interior textiles have colorant added at one or more stages in
the process. Colorant is a general term describing materials that are used to add color to
a fabric. Colorants are either dyes or pigments. (See the discussion later in this chapter.)
Manufacturers select colorants and dyeing or printing processes based on their capabilities,
knowledge, and market demands. That information is important because it is combined with
such data as fiber content, other materials used in the product, and product assembly pro-
cesses to identify appropriate care label instructions. For example, a plaid shirt made of dyed
yarns looks different, costs more, and is of different quality than a shirt made from plaid print.
The care required for red T-shirt dyed with a reactive dye differs from that of a shirt dyed with
a direct dye.
Manufacturer capabilities include the type and size of equipment, laws and regulations,
air- and water-quality requirements, and the colorants used. Type and size of equipment
determines the amount of textile materials a manufacturing facility can color at one time and
the type of material they work with. For example, some manufacturers only dye cotton yarn
or fiber while others only dye wool yarn or fiber. Some manufacturers only dye warp yarns for
denim. Some manufacturers only dye fabric and still others only screen print fabric. Laws and
regulations involving dyeing and printing or marketing of dyed or printed textile products vary
country by country. In some parts of the world, the focus is on water treatment and air quality.
In other parts of the world, the kinds of colorants used may also be addressed by laws and
regulations. For example, the European Union bans certain dyes.
Although some consumers try home dyeing, they are usually not happy with the process
because it is difficult to predict the final color, achieve a fast color, produce uniform and level
color, and clean up the mess after dyeing. Commercial dyeing uses specialized equipment
and dyes or pigments not available to the consumer. In addition, dyers and printers have a
great deal of training and experience that minimize problems with the process and finished
product.
Dyeing and printing is important to the local fiber movement. Some entrepreneurs
­specialize in dyeing yarn, fiber, or fabric for the fiber artist, hobbyist, or other small local fiber
business. Other entrepreneurs dye or print products like silk scarves, cotton T-shirts, or cotton
 Learning Activity 1
Have you attempted to add color to textiles? Were you doing it as part of a school or
group activity or was it something you attempted on your own? Did you have instruc-
tions as to procedure and materials? Describe the process and materials (dye, other
chemicals, type of water, and textile product). Describe the outcome. Be sure to include
comments regarding cleanup of the area, color achieved, levelness of the color, color-
fastness, and the condition of your wearing apparel and hands once you have finished
the process. Were you dyeing this item to match the color or coordinate with another
item? If yes, how successful were you?

canvas bags for sale to consumers through local galleries, art or fiber fairs, or online sites. Still
others provide a dye-to-order service for consumers who need a product in a specific color,
but cannot find it in the market.
The goal of adding color to textiles is to produce an appealing, level, fast color that
matches color specifications on a product at a reasonable price, with good performance Coloration is evaluated based on its
characteristics and with minimal sustainability impact. Level describes a color that looks levelness, color match to a predetermined
the same throughout the product. Level color has the same hue, value, and intensity in all color, and colorfastness. Level describes a
areas. There are no lighter or darker areas. Colorfastness refers to dyes and prints that color that looks the same throughout the
do not shift hue or fade when exposed to light and other environmental factors and that product. Colorfastness refers to dyes and
do not move onto other fabrics or material during storage, processing, use, or care. Poor prints that do not shift hue or fade when
colorfastness can create problems in production, storage, and use. Figure 19.2 shows exposed to light and other environmental
color migration that occurred during storage. Colorfastness is evaluated for conditions factors and that do not move onto
that a fabric may experience in finishing in textile mills, heating and pressing in production other fabrics or material during storage,
facilities, storage in warehouses and distribution centers, and use, care, and storage by processing, use, or care.
consumers.
Color has always been important in textiles. Until 1856, plants, insects, and minerals were
the sources for natural dyes and pigments. When William Henry Perkin discovered mauve,
the first synthetic dye, a new industry—synthetic dyeing—came into being. Europe was the
center for synthetic dyes until World War I interrupted trade with Germany and a dye industry
developed in the United States and other parts of the world. Today, hundreds of colorants or
coloring agents are available.
While consumers are not aware of the challenges involved in achieving a particular color
in a uniform manner on a textile product, they have high expectations for the product. They
expect that the color will remain vivid and uniform throughout the life of the product and that
it will not create problems in use, care, or storage. It is remarkable that dyed and printed
textiles generate as few complaints from consumers as they do, since achieving uniform and Figure Color migration that occurred during
fast color is such a challenge. Slight differences in fabric due to minor irregularities in fiber, 19.2 storage.
yarn, fabrication, or finishing can result in subtle color variations that can be readily apparent in
­finished products when seams join parts cut from different bolts.
Adding color to a textile product is an involved process. Fiber chemistry plays an import-
ant role. Differences in the chemical compositions of fibers were discussed in Chapters 3
through 9. These differences can be seen in various properties and performance charac-
teristics. A match between the chemistry of the dye and that of the fiber must occur for the
color to be permanent. Any colored textile product may be exposed to such potential color
degradants as detergent, perspiration, dry-cleaning solvents, sunlight, air or water pollutants,
makeup, and personal care products. To achieve a fast color, the dye must be permanently

dyeing and printing 475

 2 Learning Activity
Examine the textile products you are wearing or have with you today. In products with
seams, closely examine the fabric on both sides of the seam to determine if the color is
level. Is the color of each product level? Have you experienced colorfastness problems
with any of these products? If yes, describe the kinds of problems you have experienced
with them. What kinds of special precautions are included on the care labels? (Special
precautions might include such instructions as wash cold, wash with like colors, do
not bleach, or wash separately.) For what types of products, fiber types, and colors are
these special instructions included? Why are such precautions needed during cleaning?
As you read the rest of this chapter, keep these precautions in mind.

Infrared attached to or trapped within the fiber by using a combination of heat,

Ultraviolet Visible range
Violet Red pressure, and chemical assistants. Since access to the fiber’s internal
regions is critical, crystallinity, chemical finishes, and fabric and yarn
200
structure are factors that influence the success of dyeing.

150 Color Theory

Radiant Power

Color theory is a complex phenomenon that combines the physics

of light, the chemistry of colored objects, the biology of the eye, the
100 behavioral sciences in terms of social and cultural meaning of color, and
average
daylight ­aesthetics—the appreciation of what one sees. These elements interact

sunlight
to determine what is seen and how it is perceived. Understanding these
50 interactions helps us understand why color is hard to perceive in low
incandescent or tungsten light light, why color matching is a problem, and why some colors are used in
certain settings.
0 The color seen depends on the light source, the colorant used,
300 400 500 600 700
and the human eye. During an average day, textile products are viewed
Wavelength, nm
under a variety of different lights and conditions (Figure 19.3). Ideally,
Figure Light spectra of standard illuminants.
19.3 colors that matched in one set of conditions should match in another set
of conditions, but that is not always the case. In addition, color vision or
color blindness may limit color perception.
Light is a form of energy in wavelengths that are visible to the human eye. Light sources
vary in the quantity and type or wavelength of light emitted. Visible light wavelengths range
from 400 to 700 nanometers (see Figure 18.12). But no single common light source is
equally strong across that range. For example, sunlight is strong in the yellow region of the

3 Learning Activity
Search online for a color vision test. Several free ones are available. Take the test and
compare your results to others who took the same test. How does your color vision rate
compared to others? Is there a difference in color vision between females and males in
your class? (Males are much more likely to be colorblind than are females.) How would
your results influence a potential career in the global textile complex? (While poor color
vision does not restrict one from a career in this complex, it does restrict some career
areas within the complex.)

476 chapter nineteen

spectrum but varies in intensity throughout the day and year. Incandescent light is stronger
while f­luorescent light is weaker in the yellow region. Figure 19.3 shows the spectra of several
common light sources. This means that two textile products that looked as if they were the
same color at home may look quite different in a classroom or retail setting or a parking lot
with other types of lights.
In metamerism, two colors match under one light source, but not under another.
Consumers expect items to match regardless of the light source and will return or not buy Metamerism occurs when two colors
items that do not match. Companies within the global textile complex recognize this prob- match under one light source, but not
lem and conduct color-matching assessments using multiple light sources, focusing on those under another. The Bezold effect appears
commonly encountered in stores, homes, or work environments. Using multiple light sources to merge two or more colors into one
in assessing color match reduces the potential for metamerism. new color.
In the Bezold effect, two or more colors appear to merge into one new color when
viewed. This effect is seen when small-scale prints or yarn-dyed fabrics are viewed from
a distance. Individual colors are not seen, but rather a new color that blends the individual
colors together. This effect was used by Impressionist painters and is used in color digital
printers.

Learning Activity 4
Examine Figure 19.3. Reflect on problems you have experienced with color matching
and different light sources. How do the spectral differences in the light sources com-
pare to your problems with color matching?

Learning Activity 5
Go through your fabric swatch kit and select two or three samples that are the closest
match in color in the classroom. Compare these same swatches using natural light,
home, or parking lot lights. Do the samples match using all light sources? What kinds
of color matching problems did you identify? How does this relate to the spectra in
Figure 19.3?

Learning Activity 6
Select a fabric with a small-scale print or pattern from your swatch kit such as Fabric
#24. Describe its color when you are sitting with the sample in front of you. Now, place
this sample 10 or more feet from you and describe the color you see. Explain how the
Bezold effect relates to this activity. How might a designer make use of the Bezold
effect in creating the aesthetics of a design?

Learning Activity 7
Compare the fabric swatches used in Learning Activity 5. Describe how these colors
are the same or similar in terms of hue, value, and intensity. (Hue refers to the name
of the color. Value refers to the lightness or darkness of a color. Intensity refers to the
purity of a color.) Explain how an understanding of color, the ability to discern small
color differences, and the ability to describe these differences would be important to
individuals working in the global textile complex.

dyeing and printing 477


A color standard is a large sample of fabric
or precise and accurate digital information
that represents the desired color.
Color measurement assigns numerical
values to a color. A lab dip is a sample that
the dyehouse sends to the creative team
to determine when a color match has been
achieved. A color match occurs when the
lab dip and the color standard are within
tolerances Shade sorting groups fabrics
by color so that all fabrics of one color
purchased by a manufacturer match.
478 chapter nineteen
Several complex processes must occur to move from a creative team’s color concept to
the finished products in the desired color. Color must be specified and measured. Samples
must be created and approved before full-scale production occurs. When specifying color,
the process works best if the creative team provides a color standard, a large sample of
fabric or precise and accurate digital information that represents the desired color. Digital
color standards improve precise and accurate color reproduction and reduce time and cost
in matching color.
Color measurement, the process of assigning numerical values to a color, facili-
tates color matching and shade sorting. Color measurement can be done with the trained
human eye or with instruments that assess color in three or more dimensions. Many dif-
ferent instruments and systems are used in this process. The color standard is used to
measure the desired color. That information is converted into a dye recipe based on a
reference library developed by the dyehouse that will dye the fabric. A lab dip is a sample
that the dyehouse sends to the creative team to determine when a color match has been
achieved. Lab dips are usually assessed digitally until recipe adjustments have achieved a
good match. Once a digital lab dip match occurs, then a physical lab dip (dyed fabric sam-
ple) is created and sent to the creative team for final approval. A color match or color
matching occurs when the lab dip and the color standard are within tolerances. Once
approval is given, full-scale production begins. During production, color is checked on a
regular basis to ensure that color drift does not occur and the textile continues to match.
Shade sorting, grouping fabrics by color, ensures that all fabrics of one color purchased
by a manufacturer match. This reduces concern that parts from different layers will not
match when sewn into a completed product since many layers of fabric are cut at once in
commercial production.
8 Learning Activity
Work in teams of two. One member of the team selects a color from the items (not nec-
essarily a textile) he or she has while the other team member looks away or closes his
or her eyes. The first team member will describe the color with words while the second
team member listens closely and visualizes the color. After the first team member has
finished the description, the second team member opens her or his eyes and describes
what she or he expected compared to the color seen. Now, switch roles and repeat the
process with another colored object. Describe the difficulty in using words to convey a
specific color.
9 Learning Activity
Use your swatch set and select two samples that are a close match in color. Work
in teams of two. One team member uses the pair of samples and selects one as the
desired color (the standard) and the other as the dyed sample provided by a supplier.
The second team member listens with eyes closed as the first team member tries to
explain how the standard and the sample do or do not match. After the first team mem-
ber has finished the description, the second team member opens her or his eyes and
describes the differences between the visualization and the actual standard and sam-
ple. Now, switch roles and repeat the process with another pair of swatches. Describe
the difficulty in using words to convey a problem with a required color match.
Colorants
Color can be added to textile objects by either dyes or pigments, often as mixtures of two or
more dyes or pigments rather than a single dye or pigment. Mixtures achieve a specific color,
visual effect, or cost requirement.

Pigments  Pigments are insoluble color particles that are held on the surface of a fabric by
a binding agent. Their application is quick, simple, and economical. Any color can be used on Pigments are insoluble color particles that
any fiber, because the pigments are held on mechanically. However, the binder or adhesive is are held on the surface of a fabric by a
key for the process to be successful. Fabric problems such as stiffening, crocking, and fading binding agent.
may be encountered.
Pigments are very important in coloring fabrics. Most of the printed fabrics on the U.S.
market are colored with pigments. However, many printed fabrics are made using dyes as Wash-off is a rinsing step that removes
the colorant, too. Pigments are used on all kinds of goods at all quality levels and price points excess dye or other material from a fabric.
for a variety of reasons. Pigments are common on short-run prints such as university logos or Washdown is a color loss that occurs
professional sports teams, event T-shirts, and other casual apparel. over time as a fabric is laundered or
Pigment printing as a process has fewer sustainability issues compared to dyes. dry-cleaned.
However, pigments have low color strength so lots more pigment is needed to color a spe-
cific amount of fabric compared to a dye. Pigments sit on the surface of a textile so none of
the pigment adds color to the interior or the back of textiles (Figure 19.4). On the other hand,
the surface application means that the fabric is more sensitive to abrasion. In some cases, the
area of the fabric with the pigment print can be perceived by touching the fabric. Pigmented
fabrics do not require a wash-off step to remove excess colorant from the fabric. Wash-off is
a rinsing step that removes excess dye or other material from a fabric. However, washdown
with fabrics laundered by consumers can be a problem if the binder has poor resistance to
water or abrasion. Washdown is a color loss that occurs over time as a fabric is laundered
or dry-cleaned.
Pigments’ popularity is due to their relatively simple process, ability to be applied to
almost all fibers and fabrics, extensive color range, excellent light-fastness, potential to com-
bine some finishing steps with pigment coloration, and low cost. Pigments include manu-
factured organic or inorganic compounds whose production may create problems with
environmental quality and sustainability. Ink is a term for pigments when they are combined (a)

with other ingredients in a paste form. Besides being used in printing, pigments color some
solid-colored garments during garment processing.
Pigments must be bonded to the fiber surface. The binder works like a glue and holds
the pigment to the fiber. The specific binder is determined by the fibers present and the per-
formance expectations for the product. Ideally, binders should not interfere with the pigment’s
color or with the fabric’s hand and function. Combined with pigments and other materials in
a liquid, paste or powder form, binders are activated by heat or catalyst. Pigment solutions
sometimes are referred to as pigment dyes. Pigment pastes are used in printing.
Pigment pastes combine several ingredients to produce the desired outcome. Catalysts
help bond the pigment to the fiber. Opacifiers produce a pigment with good covering power
and the preferred luster, ranging from dull and matte to full gloss to pearlescent or metallic.
Thickeners produce dark shades and a paste that does not migrate or spread from the appli-
(b)
cation area. Thinners or reducers thin pastes that are too thick. Antibleeding agents keep the
Figure Close-up of a pigment: face (a) and
edges of a print sharp and clear and eliminate the halo effect. Softeners maintain a flexible
19.4 back (b). Note that the back shows
hand after printing. Retarders slow the drying rate, especially important for screen printing nothing of the print on the face.

dyeing and printing 479


Pigments are applied in a relatively simple
process to almost all fibers and fabrics.
They have an extensive color range with
excellent light-fastness and at low cost.
Pigments are usually applied in paste form
and combine numerous ingredients.
480 chapter nineteen
to keep the screens functional. Dryers speed the drying of slow-drying inks to prevent color
staining of other items in later stages of processing.
Pigments produce the color of the paste, although some other ingredients may alter the
color. Pigment colors are easier to color match than are dyes because the color is held on the sur-
face and does not chemically combine with the fiber. Dyes are more difficult to match because the
chemical reactions of dyeing may cause color or hue shifts. Hue shifts are more difficult to control
in dyeing as compared with pigment printing. Some problem areas with pigments are the change
in hand with some inks, washdown problems, and poor dry-cleaning fastness of some binders.
Pigments also may be added to the spinning solution of manufactured fibers. Mass pig-
mentation of manufactured fibers will be discussed with the stages of dyeing.
Dyes A dye is a complex organic compound that is used to add color to materials by bind-
ing with them. Most dyes are synthetic dyes, which are complex colorants usually derived
from hydrocarbons. Some dyes are natural dyes, which are complex colorants derived from
plants, animals, or minerals. A dye is composed of a chromophore, the colored portion of
the dye molecule, and an auxochrome, which slightly alters the color, makes the dye solu-
ble, and the area that bonds the dye to the fiber. Figure 19.5 shows several red dyes from
10 Learning Activity
Work in groups of three or four. Examine the textile products the members of the group
are wearing and using today. Which ones are likely to incorporate a pigment in the
color or pattern? How can you tell? What kinds of products are usually printed with
a pigment? What are the characteristics of a pigment that make them appropriate for
this kind of application? How satisfied is the owner/wearer with the performance of the
pigment print? Has anyone had a pigment print fail? What kinds of problems developed
with the print? How did that failure affect the owner’s/wearer’s satisfaction with the
product?
NaO3S
CH3 N
H H N H2N
N O N O N
NH2
N N
NaO3S SO3Na SO3Na
(a) (c)
Cl
SO3Na
N N
C2H5 H H
N O N N NH2
N N N
O2N N CH2CH2OH
NaO3S SO3Na
(b) (d)
Figure Dye molecules: (a) C. I. Acid Red 1 (CICN 18050), (b) C. I. Disperse Red 1 (CICN
19.5 11110), (c) Direct Red 28 (CICN 22120), (d) C. I. Reactive Red 12 (CICN 18156). Careful
examination of these molecules will show some similarities among them including
the six-sided ring structure, the presence of nitrogen-nitrogen bonds (-N=N-), and a
somewhat linear structure.
Source: Colour Index, Society of Dyers and Colourists and AATCC.
different dye classes identified in the Colour Index, a reference book with information about
thousands of dyes. Dyes are complex organic compounds
Dye molecules must be dissolved in water or some other carrier to enable them to pene- that are used to add color to materials by
trate into the fiber. Any undissolved particles of dye remain on the outside of the fiber, where binding with them.
they can color or bleed onto adjacent materials and are sensitive to surface abrasion. Dyes
have great color strength; a small amount of dye will color large quantities of fabric. Pigments
have much lower color strength; much more pigment is needed to color an equal amount
of fabric. Most dyes bond chemically with the fiber and are found throughout the fiber, even Dyes are dissolved in water or other solvent
into its interior, rather than on the surface, where pigments are found (Figure 19.6). Dyes are and must be a chemical match in order to
used as solutions (for dyeing) or as pastes (for printing). Fabrics printed with dyes can often bond with the fiber. Dyes are available in
be distinguished from fabrics printed with pigments because the dyes tend to penetrate a bit several classes that differ in their chemistry,
more within and between yarns so a more discernable pattern is seen on the reverse side of color range, fastness, and processing ease.
the fabric (Figure 19.7).
A fluorescent dye absorbs light at one wavelength and re-emits that energy at another.
Fluorescent dyes are used for many applications. In detergents and preparation finishing, they
make whites appear whiter and mask the yellowing of fibers. Fluorescent dyes in apparel
increase the wearer’s visibility at night. In costumes and protective apparel, they produce
intense glow-in-the-dark effects. And, they allow assessment of blockage in some medical
procedures.
Dyes with environmental sensitivities create novel effects on textiles. These photosensi-
tive or photochromic dyes in selected pattern areas or as embroidery thread change hue or
develop color with exposure to ultraviolet light or sunlight. When removed from the light, the
fabric returns to its original color. Heat-sensitive dyes combined with another dye cause dra-
matic color changes, such as purple to bright blue, when exposed to body heat. Incorporating
tiny liquid crystals in a surface coating creates color patterns as temperature changes.
A small amount of metal nanoparticles will color natural and synthetic fibers. The fabric
is soaked in a special solution, dried, then dipped in a salt solution of the metal and dried.
(a)
Chromium produces a golden sheen, while gold gives a purple cast.
A dye process describes the environment created for the introduction of dye by hot
water or other solvent steam, or dry heat. Chemical additives such as salt or acid regulate
penetration of the dye into the fiber. A knowledge of fiber–dye interactions, methods of dye-
ing, and equipment produces a better understanding of color behavior and more accurate
communication within the global textile complex.

Learning Activity 11
Compare both parts of Figures 19.4, 19.6, and 19.7. Identify key points that you can
use to differentiate between dyed and printed fabrics.

Learning Activity 12 (b)

Figure Face (a) and back (b) of dyed fabric.
Use Fabrics #46, 55, and 121 from your swatch kit and the key points you identified 19.6 Note that the color is the same
in Learning Activity 11. Apply those concepts to real fabrics and determine which were between the two sides of the fabric.
printed with dyes and which were printed with pigments. What kinds of general con-
clusions can you draw regarding the differences and similarities between pigments and
dyes? Select one pigment print swatch and one dye print swatch. Identify an end use
for each sample and describe the serviceability of the two fabrics.

dyeing and printing 481


(a)
(b)
Figure Face (a) and back (b) of fabric printed
19.7 with a dye paste. Note that a ghost of
the pattern is visible on the back of
the fabric.
Figure Dye card showing the range of colors
19.8 for a 100% cotton jersey.
482 chapter nineteen
In order for fabric to be colored, the dye must penetrate the fiber and either be combined
chemically with it or be locked inside it. Fibers that dye easily are absorbent with chemical
sites in their molecular structure that react with the dye molecules. The dye reacts with the
surface molecules first. Moisture and heat swell the fibers, pushing polymer chains farther
apart so that sites in the fiber’s interior are exposed to react with the dye. During cooling and
drying, the chains move back together, trapping the dye in the fiber. Wool dyed with an acid
dye is a good example of a fiber that is absorbent and has many sites that chemically react
with the dye to color the fiber.
Thermoplastic fibers are difficult to dye because their absorbency is low. However, most
of these fibers are modified to accept different classes of dyes. This makes it possible to
achieve different color effects or a good solid color in blends of unlike fibers by piece-dyeing.
Dyes are classified or grouped by chemical composition or method of applica-
tion. Table 19.1 is a resource for future use that lists major dye classes along with some
of their characteristics and end uses. These dye classes include acid, azoic, cationic or
basic, developed direct, direct, disperse, fluorescent brighteners, mordant, natural or
­vegetable, reactive or fiber reactive, sulfur, and vat. No one dye is fast to everything. Dyes
within a class are not equally fast. A complete range of shades is not available in each dye
class; for example, some dye classes are weak in greens. The dyer chooses a dye or mixes
several dyes to achieve the color desired based on fiber content, end use, performance
expectations for the product, and dye and process costs. The dyer must apply the color
so that it penetrates and is held in the fiber. Occasionally the manufacturer or the consumer
selects fabrics for uses for which they were not intended. For example, an apparel fabric used
for draperies may not have good fastness to sunlight. Poor colorfastness might not be a prob-
lem for apparel, but it is a problem for a window treatment. Suppliers or retailers should be
notified when products or fabrics do not give satisfactory performance.
Dyes vary widely in their usage. Some classes are rarely used or used for specific end
uses. Other dyes are widely used, such as indigo for denim.
Dye cards are used by dye manufacturers to demonstrate the colors that select dyes
produce on specific fibers. These cards help dyehouses meet designers’ color specifications
(Figure 19.8). Information includes how a dye responds to washing, exposure to light, or other
factors that cause dyes to bleed, shift hue, or fade.
Sustainability of Dyeing and Printing
Dyeing and printing textiles have a significant impact in terms of sustainability. Factors
include the processes used to produce dyes and pigments; water and other chemical use;
discharge of dyes, pigments, and other chemicals into water systems; air pollution; health
concerns for workers and their families; and energy consumption. Components that con-
tribute to water-quality problems include color of the dye or pigment, salt, acids, and heavy
metals. Some materials create problems because of high biological oxygen demand (BOD);
others have high chemical oxygen demand (COD). High BOD and COD materials create
environments that are hostile to aquatic plants and animals and may create problems with
future use of the water. Color in water creates problems with photosynthesis of aquatic
plant life.
Dyes also vary widely in their sustainability. Synthetic dyes, which comprise the major-
ity of dyes used, are processed from organic compounds, many of which are by-products
of the petroleum industry. Natural dyes are sustainable in the sense that they can be grown
Table 19.1  Classification of Fiber Dyes
Dyes
Acid (Anionic)
Complete color range.
Azoic (Naphthol and Rapidogens)
Complete color range.
Moderate cost.
Cationic (Basic)
Used with mordant on fibers other
than silk, wool, and acrylic.
Complete color range.
Developed, Direct
Complete color range.
Direct (Substantive)
Commercially significant dye class.
Complete color range.
Disperse
Commercially significant dye class.
Dye particles disperse in water.
Good color range.
Fluorescent brighteners
Specific types for most common
fibers.
Mordant
Fair color range.
Natural or Vegetable
Derived from plant, animal, or mineral
sources.
Earliest dyes used.
Reactive or Fiber-reactive
Combines chemically with fiber.
Sulfur
Insoluble in water.
Complete color range except for red.
Vat
Insoluble in water.
Incomplete color range.
Fiber Types and End Uses
Major dye class used on wool, silk, and nylon.
Modified rayon, acrylic, and polyester.
Minor dye class used primarily on cotton and
some polyester.
Minor dye class used on acrylics, modified
polyester and nylon, direct prints on acetate,
and discharge prints on cotton.
Primarily cellulose fibers.
Discharge prints.
Major dye class used on cellulose fibers.
Developed for acetate, major dye class used on
most synthetic fibers.
Used on textiles and in detergents.
Used to achieve intensely bright colors.
Major dye class used on same fibers as listed for
acid dyes.
Minor dye class; used to dye some apparel and
interior textiles.
Primarily used on natural fibers.
Most important dye class used on cotton and
cellulose fibers; also used on wool, silk, and
nylon.
Minor dye class, used primarily for heavyweight
cotton.
Primarily for cotton work clothes, sportswear,
prints, drapery fabrics. Some use on cotton/
polyester blends.
Characteristics
Bright colors.
Vary in lightfastness.
May have poor washfastness.
Bright shades.
Good to excellent lightfastness and washfastness.
Poor crocking resistance.
Fast colors on acrylics. May bleed and crock. On natural
fibers, poor fastness to light, washing, perspiration.
Duller colors than acid or basic.
Good to excellent lightfastness.
Fair washfastness.
Good colorfastness to light.
May have poor washfastness, especially with hot water.
Fair to excellent lightfastness and washfastness.
Blues and violets on acetate fume fade.
Mask yellowing and off-whiteness that occur naturally or
develop with age and soil.
Good to excellent lightfastness and washfastness. Duller
than acid dyes.
Fastness varies.
Limited colors and availability.
Bright shades.
Good lightfastness and washfastness.
Sensitive to chlorine bleach.
Dull colors. Poor to excellent lightfastness and
washfastness.
Sensitive to chlorine bleach.
May tender stored goods.
Good to excellent lightfastness and washfastness.
dyeing and printing 483

Sustainability issues related to dyeing and
printing include the processes used to
make the dyes and pigments, the amount
of water and energy used, the chemicals
used to mix up the dyebath or pigment
paste, the impact on the environment, and
the health of the workers.
Figure Naturally dyed silk scarf.
19.9
484 chapter nineteen
and harvested on a regular basis. While the use of natural dyes is growing, they also create
problems in terms of water and chemical use, toxicity of plant materials and chemicals
used in processing, and disposal of plant residue. Natural dyes may provide families with
income, but they compete with food production since land usually only produces one crop
at a time. However, in many areas, natural dyes are grown on land where food cannot be
grown or as an extension crop. In some cases, residue from food production can be used
as a natural dye. For example, carrot tops are discarded after harvest, but the tops can be
used to dye textiles. Another advantage is that natural dyes help preserve cultural tradi-
tions. Dyers preserve traditional and nontraditional dyeplants that might otherwise be lost.
Unfortunately, a lot of the cultural traditions of natural dyes were lost during the century or
so of primarily synthetic dye use. Today, few individuals are trained in using natural dyes
so converting industrial processes to using natural dyes will require significant amounts of
research.
Dyes use a significant amount of water and such chemicals as salt and acid to control
the process. Water is used to prepare textiles for dyeing, to mix up the dyebath, and to
rinse textiles after dyeing. Water used in dyeing must be treated to remove contaminants
including color before it is returned to the natural or municipal water system. Significant
energy is used to heat the water, to move heavy, wet fabric, and to dry fabric after dyeing,
printing, and rinsing. New facilities use water-free technology in dyeing and reduces the
use of other chemicals in the process. Estimates are that these new processes reduce
dyeing time by 40% and energy use by 60% and produce good depth of color and good
colorfastness.
Most textiles are colored in one manner or another because consumers demand color.
One option to decrease environmental impact is to use fewer dyed or printed textiles. White
textiles create problems with the use and disposal of chemical bleaches. Even though con-
sumers purchase goods that have not been dyed or printed, they will probably continue to
demand a broader range of colors. Even white textiles require treatment to achieve a bright,
uniform white. Beige or off-white goods are almost always dyed to achieve that consistent
and level color. Another option is to use color-grown textiles, such as the naturally colored
cottons (Figure 4.12) and wools (Figure 5.13). However, a full color spectrum is not available
and these natural colors tend to be low in intensity.
Another alternative is to greatly expand the current use of natural dyes in commercially
available fabric and products (Figure 19.9). In order to compete with synthetic dyes and
pigments, natural dyes must be economical, consistent in quality, and available in quantity.
Mordants used with natural dyes must be restricted to those that have little, if any, impact on
the environment or the health of the dyer and family members. Examples of commercial nat-
ural dyes from Earthues, A Natural Color Company include indigo, madder, cochineal, cutch,
and osage. Natural dyes are used on cotton, wool, silk, and some synthetic fabrics for apparel
and interior uses.
Color in water systems in very dilute concentrations can be detected by the unaided eye.
Unfortunately, color is very difficult to remove by traditional waste (sludge) treatment facilities.
Alternatives for treating color in water systems include use of hyperfiltration, electrochemi-
cal methods, ozonation, and chemical coagulation. Reconstitution and reuse of textile dyeing
water is another possibility being investigated.
Limiting the use of salt and other chemicals is another option. For example, some reac-
tive dyes use large amounts of salt, but others use significantly less salt and have higher
fixation rates. Lower-sulfide sulfur dyes are replacing higher-sulfide sulfur dyes. Using more
 Learning Activity 13
Based on the information related to sustainability and environmental concerns of dye-
ing and printing, would you be willing to purchase and use only undyed or unprinted
fabric or textile products? Why or why not? Explain how you as a consumer and as a
professional can change the sustainability of dyeing and printing in the global textile
complex.

sustainable chemicals as dyebath auxiliaries is being investigated by many researchers. Use

of heavy metals in dyes, catalysts, or after-treatments is restricted in many parts of the world.
Dye producers are developing dyes that incorporate iron rather than chromium because iron
is more environmentally safe. Dyes and pigments with low environmental impact will continue
to be a major thrust in preparing goods with consumer appeal. Biodegradable dyes are also
becoming more readily available.
Liquid carbon dioxide or supercritical carbon dioxide can be used as the carrier rather than
water for dyeing polyester and high-performance fibers. Liquid carbon dioxide dyeing increases
dye-fixation rates, decreases energy use, and decreases treatment of waste. In addition, this
process does not require use of salt or other dye-bath chemicals, and drying is not needed. The
process is quick and efficient, with good leveling. Carbon dioxide can be recycled and is readily
available, nontoxic, and economical. Unfortunately, initial equipment costs are high and opera-
tor training is required. In some parts of the world, the infrastructure is not sufficiently developed
to support this method because of irregular electrical supplies and transportation issues.
In an effort to reduce the energy use in dyeing, ultrasonic applications are being investi-
gated. For cotton, nylon, silk, polyester, and PLA, ultrasonics have a positive impact in one or
more of the following areas: dyeing time, dyeing temperature, dyeing efficacy, and the amount
of dyes and other chemicals needed in the dyebath. In some cases, ultrasonics improved
colorfastness to washing.
Efficient use of dyes, chemicals, and water or other solvents is yet another concern. For
example, with some reactive dyes, standard utilization rates are only 60% to 80%. Some new
reactive dyes have utilization rates of 80% or more. Solvent dyeing systems use a liquid other
than water. Such systems are required for aramid, but they must achieve recovery rates of 98%
to be economically feasible. Solvent dyeing has great potential, especially with increasing water
costs, problems with access to the quantity of water needed, and water-quality issues. With sol-
vent dyeing, geographic regions with limited availability of water could become involved in dyeing.
Computer monitoring of dyeing and printing processes decreases sustainability issues
as manufacturers recognize the direct costs of inefficient use of materials and energy and
incorporate closed-loop recycling of chemicals, solvents, water, and energy. Dye chemists
use computers to calculate formulas to match swatches submitted by designers and monitor
dyeing or printing processes so color is consistent. Computers automatically register each
color in a print so that edges match.

Stages of Dyeing and Printing

The stage at which color is applied has little to do with fastness but has a great deal to do
with dye penetration. Dye stage is governed by fabric design, quality level, and cost. Color
may be added to textiles during the fiber, yarn, fabric, or product stage, depending on the

dyeing and printing 485

 color effects desired and on the quality or end use of the fabric. Better dye p
­ enetration
is achieved with fiber-dyeing than with yarn-dyeing, with yarn-dyeing than with piece-­
dyeing, and with piece-dyeing than with product-dyeing. Good dye penetration is easier to
achieve in products in which the dyeing liquid or liquor is free to move between adjacent
fibers. This freedom of movement is easiest to achieve in loose fibers. It is more difficult to
achieve in products in which yarn twist, fabric structure, and seams or other product fea-
tures minimize liquor movement. Because pigments are bonded to the surface, the stage
at which printing is done is more related to the desired look, end use, or product type.
Dye houses continue to shift from large runs of the same color or print. Speeds of
100 meters per minute do not contribute to extremely high quality or intricate prints. As
quality increases in importance, production speeds and length of standard runs decrease.
Consumer demands for better performance, higher quality, and a rapid response to fashion
change are forcing these changes. At one time, thousands of yards of fabric were dyed
at one time, but that has dropped significantly over time. For example, in the 1950s and
1960s standard runs were 100,000 yards. By the 1980s, standard runs were less than
10,000 yards. Standard runs of 250 yards or less are common today, but costs are higher
for shorter runs.
Specialization of fabric and design continues. The textile complex is strongly committed
to minimal seconds, strict color control, and decreased dead time. Dead time is the time the
equipment is not operating because of changing equipment components, like screens, or
changing colors for different patterns. This means that the equipment and workers are not
actively making money for the company. Dead time in screen printing has decreased to less
than 30 minutes for most systems and patterns.
Manufacturers and producers want to add color to products as late in processing as
possible because it enables them to respond quickly to demand for fashion colors. But this
puts tremendous demands on dyeing. It is absolutely essential for goods to be prepared
well in order for good dyeing to occur. The earlier color is added in processing, the less
critical is the uniformity or levelness of the dyeing. For example, remember the Bezold
effect? In fiber dyeing, two adjacent fibers need not be exactly the same color since minor
color differences in the yarn will be masked because of the small surface area of each
fiber that is visible. However, the color must be level in products that are sewn before the
color is added. Areas along seams where the color is slightly irregular will be obvious and
will result in an item being labeled a second and a financial loss for the producer. Level
commercial dyeing is not easy, as anyone who has attempted dyeing on a small scale
can attest.
Printing also demands uniform and level color for the same reasons. Areas along
seams that differ in color intensity in prints create the same kinds of problems as for dyed
textiles.
This section discusses the stages at which the dye or pigment is added to the textile
(Table 19.2). Dyeing can be done at any stage. Printing is almost always done at the fabric
or product stage, but some yarns are printed. Product printing usually means that a design
is applied to one or more areas of the product, such as the designs on the fronts or sleeves
of active sportswear. This section does not address color-grown fibers such as wool from
a black sheep or naturally colored cotton. For information regarding color-grown fibers, see
Chapters 4 and 5.

486 chapter nineteen

Table 19.2 Summary Table: Stages of Dyeing and Printing
Stage Industry Term Advantages Disadvantages Identifying Features

Prefiber Mass pigmentation or solution Excellent fastness.
dyeing.
Good for hard-to-dye fibers
Gel-dyeing. and products that require
exceptional fastness.
Fiber Stock or top* dyeing. Heather and tone-on-tone
fashions possible.
Good dye penetration.
Considered high-quality.
Yarn Skein, package, or beam Used for structural design—
dyeing.* plaids, stripes, and
patterns.
Good dye penetration.
Warp printing Considered high-quality.
Fabric Piece-dyeing. Inexpensive process.
Flat or rope dyeing.* Quick response to fashion
changes.
Cross or union dyeing.**
Printing (screen, roller and
others)
Sewn product Garment dyeing (for apparel). Least expensive process.
Quickest response.
Product dyeing (for other Low cost.
items).
Distressed looks and other
product finishes possible.
Printing (usually screen, On-demand pattern.
transfer, or digital).
One-of-a-kind possibilities.
Slow response. Solid uniform color throughout
fiber; used for hard-to-dye
High cost.
fiber/color combinations.
Limited to manufactured
fibers.
Slower response. Color varies from fiber to fiber.
High cost.
Slow response. Can trace yarn path in fabric.
High cost. Rare with solid colors.
Used to produce patterned Yarn color forms pattern.
fabric.
Yarn color forms hazy pattern.
Rope form may cause irregular Solid-color fabric of single
color. fibers and union-dyed
blends; patterns or heather
Continuous process may
effect with cross dyed
contribute to ending
blends.
problems.
Print patterns
Requires well-prepared Solid-color fabric (trims and
materials. other materials may not
match).
Layered areas may have poor Labels may be tinted.
penetration.
Difficult to match all parts,
thread, trim, and fasteners.
May change texture and hand. Small area of surface printed.
Challenge to accurately
position design.

*Describes the form of the textile or the manner in which it is handled.

**Refers to presence of two or more generic fiber types.

Fiber Stage
In the fiber-dyeing process, color is added to fibers before yarn spinning. Many fiber-dyed
items have a slightly irregular color, like a heather or tone-on-tone gray. Printing of fibers does
not occur because the same effect can be achieved using less labor or equipment intensive
processes.
Mass pigmentation is also known as solution-dyed, producer-colored, spun-dyed,
dope dyeing, or mass coloration. It consists of adding colored pigments or dyes to the spin-
ning solution before the fiber is formed. Thus, when each fiber is spun, it is colored. The color
is an integral part of the fiber and fast to most color degradants. This method is preferred for
fibers that are difficult to dye by other methods, for certain products, or where it is difficult

dyeing and printing 487


Dyeing in the fiber stage includes mass
pigmentation (manufactured fibers) and
stock or fiber dyeing (almost any fiber).
Loose fiber
Dye
To pump that
circulates dye
Figure Stock or fiber dyeing: process and
19.10 tweed-fabric example.
Figure Dyed roving available to the hand
19.11 spinner.
488 chapter nineteen
to get a certain depth of shade. Colors are generally few because of inventory limitations.
Examples of mass-pigmented fibers include many olefins, black polyester, and acrylics for
awnings and tarpaulins.
Another type of dyeing similar to mass pigmentation is gel dyeing. The color is added to
the acrylic fiber while it is in the soft gel stage—the limited time between fiber extrusion and
fiber coagulation.
Stock, or fiber, dyeing is used when mottled or heather effects are desired, such as
with tweed or heather. Dye is added to loose, staple fibers before yarn spinning. Good dye
penetration is obtained, but it is expensive (Figure 19.10).
Top dyeing gives results similar to stock dyeing and is more commonly used. Tops, the
loose ropes of wool from combing, are wound into balls, placed on perforated spindles, and
enclosed in a tank. The dye is pumped back and forth through the wool. Continuous pro-
cesses with loose fiber and wool tops use a pad-steam technique.
In the local fiber movement, fiber dyed tops and rovings of wool, wool blends, and other
fibers, silk hankies (silk layers in square forms from cocoons), and other combinations are
available for hand spinners to use to create one-of-a-kind yarns. Many of these fiber-dyed
items are dyed in three or more colors producing a wide range of colored yarns depending on
how the spinner works with the dyed fiber (Figure 19.11).
Yarn Stage
Yarn dyeing can be done with the yarn in skeins, called skein dyeing; with the yarns wrapped
on cones or packages, called package dyeing; or with the yarn wound on warp beams,
called beam dyeing. Yarn dyeing is less costly than fiber dyeing but more costly than fabric
or product dyeing and printing. Yarn-dyed designs are more limited and larger inventories are
involved (Figure 19.12).
Yarn-dyed fabrics are more expensive to produce because larger inventories of yarns,
in a variety of colors, are required and more time is needed to thread the loom or set up
the knitting machine correctly. In addition, whenever the pattern of color is changed, time is
needed to rethread the loom or change the setup for the knitting machine. Yarn-dyed fabrics
Cones of yarn
Figure Yarn dyeing: process and fabric.
19.12
are considered to be better-quality fabrics, but it is rare to find solid-color yarn-dyed fabrics. It
is much cheaper to produce solid-color fabrics by other processes. Yarn-dyed fabrics include Yarn dyeing is used primarily for fabrics
stripes, plaids, checks, and other structural design or fancy patterns that result from yarns of with stripes, plaids, checks, and structural
different colors in different areas of the fabric. Examples of yarn-dyed fabrics include gingham, design or fancy patterns.
chambray, and many woven or knit fancy or patterned fabrics. Fancy two- or more-ply yarns
with each ply a different color are usually yarn dyed.
Skein dyed yarns in a wide variety of fiber types, yarn types, and yarn sizes are widely
used in the local fiber movement. Hand-painted or hand-dyed yarn has variable color along
its length. The color can shade from light to dark or include several distinctly different colors
(Figure 19.13). In some cases, the yarn is dyed in a small vat with dye added to select por-
tions of the yarn in a dyepot with a small amount of water that prevents the dye from spread-
ing. In other cases, a concentrated solution of dye is painted on the surface of a yarn that
is arranged on a covered table or surface. Both techniques produce yarn of widely varying
colors and color lengths.
Printing of yarn is not common, but it is done for specialty fabrics and some yarn used
by fiber artists and hobbyists. Warp print fabrics are made from yarn that was printed with a
design before weaving. Warp printing is discussed later in this chapter. Some hand knit argyle
is made from hand-printed or hand-painted yarn.

Figure Hand-painted yarn with a fingerless

Piece or Fabric Stage 19.13 glove knit from that yarn.
When a bolt or roll of fabric is dyed, the process is referred to as piece dyeing. Piece dyeing
usually produces solid-color fabrics (Figure 19.14). It generally costs less to dye fabric than
to dye loose fibers or yarns. With piece dyeing, color decisions can be delayed so that quick
adjustments to fashion trends are possible. Solid-color piece-dyed fabrics of one fiber are
common, but piece dyeing offers additional possibilities for dyeing multiple color patterns
into a fabric. Yarn incorporating plies of different fiber types or fabrics incorporating yarns
representing two or more fibers of different dye affinities or dye-resisting capabilities present
interesting possibilities. Cross dyeing is the use of different dye classes in different colors Piece dyeing is dyeing of fabric to achieve
to provide many color combinations and pattern options. Union dyeing is just the opposite. a solid color. Almost all solid color fabrics
Here, the goal is for a solid color even though different fibers are combined or blended in are piece dyed.
the fabric.

(a) (b)
Figure Piece-dyed fabric face (a) and back (b).
19.14

dyeing and printing 489


Figure Cross-dyed fabric: Blue yarns are
19.15 100% cotton, red yarns are 100%
wool.
Cross dyeing is piece dyeing of fabrics
made of fibers from different generic
groups to produce a yarn-dyed or fiber-
dyed appearance. Union dyeing is another
type of piece dyeing of fabrics made with
fibers from different groups to produce a
finished fabric in a solid color.
Product- or garment-dyed or printed items
are colored after the fabric is cut and sewn
into a finished product.
Figure Union-dyed fabric after several wash/
19.16 dry cycles starts to take on a heather
look because the two dyes do not
have the same fastness.
490 chapter nineteen
Cross Dyeing  Cross dyeing is piece dyeing of fabrics, and sometimes yarns, made of fibers
from different generic groups—such as protein and cellulose—or by combining acid-­dyeable
and basic-dyeable fibers of the same generic group. Each fiber type or modification bonds with
a different dye class. When different colors are used for each dye class, the dyed fabric has a
yarn-dyed appearance. Figure 19.15 shows a fabric made of wool and cotton yarns dyed with
a red acid dye and a blue direct dye, respectively. Some products are also cross-dyed, but suc-
cessful outcomes require well-prepared goods and careful attention to detail.
Union Dyeing  Union dyeing is another type of piece dyeing of fabrics made with fibers
from different groups. Unlike cross dyeing, union dyeing produces a finished fabric in a solid
color. Dyes that produce the same hue on the fiber, but of a type suited to each fiber to be
dyed, are mixed together in the same dye bath. Union dyeing is common—witness all the
solid-color blend fabrics on the market. A problem with these fabrics involves the different
fastness characteristics of each dye class. Aged, union-dyed fabrics may look like a heather
because of the differences in colorfastness of the dyes (Figure 19.16).
Product Stage
After the fabric is cut and sewn into a finished product, it can be product- or garment-dyed.
Once the color need has been determined, the product is dyed. Properly prepared gray goods are
critical to good product dyeing. Great care must be taken in handling the materials and in dyeing to
produce a level, uniform color throughout the product. Careful selection of components is required,
or buttons, thread, and trim may be a different color because of differences in dye absorption
between the various product parts. Product dyeing is important in the apparel and interiors indus-
tries, with an emphasis on quick response to retail and consumer demands (Figure 19.17).
Printing of products is common, especially with items for special events and athletic
teams. The print methods most often used include flat screen, heat transfer, or digital. Small
entrepreneurs often produce screen printed T-shirts, hats, bags, and other items on-demand
for consumers. Fiber artists and others also do fiber art like accessories and wall hangings
and custom printed products like apparel and pillows.
14 Learning Activity
Examine the textile products you are wearing or have with you today. List the products
and determine the stage(s) at which color was applied. How can you tell when color
was applied? What are the clues you should consider in making this determination?
Divide the items into those that were dyed and those that were printed. How can you
distinguish between the two?
15 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #11, 24, 27, 39, 45, 60, 70, 72, 79, 119, and 120 from your swatch kit.
Examine each fabric and determine the stage(s) at which the color was applied. Why might
some fabrics represent more than one stage? Check the key for the fabric kit and deter-
mine which fabrics are cross or union dyed. Without fiber content information, is there
any way to identify union- or cross-dyed fabrics based on fabric appearance? Select two
fabrics from this list. Identify an end use for each and describe the serviceability of each
fabric in terms of fiber content, yarn structure, fabrication method, finish, and coloration.
Dyeing
The method chosen for dyeing depends on fiber content, fabric weight, type of dye, and
degree of penetration required in the finished product. In mass production, time is money, so
processes in which the goods travel quickly through a machine are used whenever possible.
Many methods and processes are used in dyeing. The methods tend to involve one of
three ways of combining the dye bath with the textile: The textile is circulated in a dye bath;
dye bath is circulated around the textile; or both textile and dye bath are circulated together.
Table 19.3 summarizes dyeing methods.

Batch Dyeing
Batch dyeing is also known as exhaust dyeing. In this process, the textile is circulated Figure Garment-dyed children’s pants.
through the dye bath. Batch dyeing can be used for textiles in any stage of production from 19.17
fiber to product but tends to be used for smaller lots or shorter yardages. The process has
good flexibility in terms of color selection, and the cost is low, especially if done close to the

Table 19.3 Summary Table: Methods of Dyeing

Method Equipment Stage of Dyeing Advantages Disadvantages

Batch dyeing: Beck, reel, or winch Fabric as loose rope Good flexibility for color Beck dyeing: uses large amounts of
textile water, chemicals, and energy. Causes
Low cost
circulated abrasion, creasing, and distortion of
through Temperature control possible some fabrics.
dyebath
Good for lightweight fabrics and
woolens
Jig Fabric at open width Large runs of fabric Level dyeing a challenge

Used for carpets, some twills, Warp under tension (distortion or

some satins that may crease in stretching possible)
rope form.
Pad Fabric at open width Economical for piece dyeing High pressure may flatten pile and texture
Package Beam dyeing, Yarn, fiber, and some Used for stock dyeing, yarn Shorter runs
dyeing: package dyeing, fabric dyeing, and carpets, knits
Less economical than some methods
dyebath skein dyeing
Level dyeing
circulated
around textile
Combination Jet dyeing Fabric in continuous Good for delicate polyester fabrics High equipment and maintenance costs
dyeing: textile loop
Rapid speed Foaming
and dyebath
circulated Efficient use of chemicals Fabric abrasion

Good fastness

Lower use of energy

Paddle machines, Product Colorant added late in processing Requires well prepared goods
rotary drums, and
Level color difficult
tumblers
May color labels
Continuous Fabric or yarn in large Efficient for large runs Color tolerance often relaxed
machines or lots or runs
Used for union and cross dyeing Large space needed for equipment
ranges
Thermosol process Polyester fabric Efficient Color tolerances often relaxed

Equipment requires lots of space

dyeing and printing 491

 product stage. Temperature can be controlled for the dye–fiber combination. Equipment used
There are three ways the dye bath and includes the beck, jig, and pad.
the textile are combined: The textile is The oldest type of piece dyeing is beck, reel, or winch dyeing (Figure 19.18). The fabric, in
circulated in a dye bath; dye bath is a loose rope sewn together at the ends, is lifted in and out of the dye bath by a reel. Most of
circulated around the textile; or both textile the fabric is immersed in the dye bath except for the few yards around the reel. Penetration of
and dye bath are circulated together. dye into the fiber is obtained by continued immersion of slack fabrics rather than by pressure
on the wet fabrics under tension, as is done in some other processes. This method is used
on lightweight fabrics that cannot withstand the tension of the other methods, and on heavy
fabrics, especially woolens.
In beck dyeing, a pressurized liquor ratio of 5:1 or 4:1 is used. Liquor ratio refers to the
Reel weight of solution as compared with the weight of the textile to be dyed. Thus, liquor ratios of
5:1 have five times as much liquid as the textile by weight. Beck dyeing is generally used for
fabric lengths ranging from 50 to 100 meters in rope or full width forms. It is simple, versatile,
and low cost. Fabrics are subjected to low warp tension, and bulking of yarns occurs. Beck
Fabric Dye bath dyeing uses large amounts of water, chemicals, and energy. It also causes abrasion, creas-
ing, and distortion of some fabrics when they are dyed in rope form.
Jig dyeing uses a stationary dye bath with two rolls above the bath. The fabric is car-
Figure Winch dyeing. ried around the rolls in open width and rolled back and forth through the dye bath at regular
19.18 intervals. It is on rollers for the remaining time. Level dyeing is a challenge with this process.
Acetate, rayon, and nylon are usually jig-dyed (Figure 19.19).
In jig dyeing, much larger runs of fabric at open width are used; several thousand meters
is common. The way the fabric is moved in the process creates great warp tension. Fabrics
that may crease in rope form are dyed in this manner, such as carpet, some twills, and some
satins.
In pad dyeing, the fabric is run through the dye bath in open width and then between
Fabric
squeeze or nip rollers that force the dye into the fabric with pressure (Figure 19.20). Because
the pad box holds a very small amount of dye bath or dye liquor, this is an economical way
to piece-dye. The fabric runs through the machine at a rapid rate, 30 to 300 meters a minute.
Dye bath
Pad-steam processes are common methods of dyeing fabric.
Guide rolls

Package Dyeing
In package dyeing, the dye bath is forced through the textile. Normally, the textile is in the
Figure Jig dyeing.
19.19 yarn stage and wound on a perforated core of stainless steel, plastic, or paper and placed on
a perforated spindle in a pressurized machine. This technique is also used for some fiber and
fabric dyeing. In beam dyeing, the yarn or fabric is wound on perforated beams. This method
is practical for fabrics whose warp is one color and filling another. Figure 19.12 shows pack-

Nip rollers age dyeing. In skein dyeing, the yarn skeins are hung in the machine and the dye circulates
around the hanging skeins. Package dyeing is used primarily for bulky yarns such as acrylic
and wool for knits and carpet. Liquor ratios are high to ensure uniformity of the dyeing, usu-
ally ranging from 10:1 to 4:1 (depending on the process, dye–fiber combination, and quality
Fabric
desired).

Dye bath
Combination Dyeing
Figure Pad dyeing. In combination dyeing, both the textile and the dye bath are circulated. Techniques include jet
19.20 dyeing, paddle machines, rotary drums, tumblers, and continuous dyeing.

492 chapter nineteen

 Jet dyeing is similar to beck dyeing. Here, the fabric is processed as a continuous
loop. The technique is especially useful for delicate polyester fabrics; but, depending on the
machine, almost any weight, structure, or fiber type can be used. It involves vigorous agitation
of the dye bath and the textile. Because of its rapid speed (200 to 800 meters per minute),
fabric wrinkling is minimal. Low warp tension helps develop bulk and fullness. High tempera-
Paddle wheel
tures result in rapid dyeing, increased efficiency of dyes and chemicals, good fastness char-
acteristics, and lower use of energy. However, equipment and maintenance costs are high.
Dye bath
Problems include foaming and fabric abrasion. Garments
Paddle machines and rotary drums are used primarily for product dyeing (Figure 19.21). Perforated
plate
Both the dye bath and the product are circulated by a paddle or by rotation of the drum. Steam pipes
Tumblers are similar to rotary drums except that they tilt forward for easier loading and
Figure Paddle dyeing.
unloading. Tumblers are used in product dyeing and in abrasive or chemical washes. 19.21

Continuous Machines  Continuous machines, called ranges, are used for large fabric
lots. Ranges include compartments for wetting-out, dyeing, after-treatment, washing, and
rinsing.
Both fabrics and yarns are dyed. Yarns are usually warp yarns for denim; fabrics are
often cotton/polyester blends or carpeting. About 25% of all carpet is colored in this way.
Continuous dyeing is efficient for long runs, but color tolerances may be relaxed because of
the variables involved. This technique is most commonly used in union dyeing of blends, but it
is also used in cross dyeing. In one-bath dyeing, both dyes are present in one bath. One-bath
processes are used for disperse/direct-dye combinations in many medium–dark shades. The
two-bath process is used for heavier-weight goods, darker shades, or dyes that cannot be
combined in one bath. In this process, the dye is added from two separate dye baths, one for
each dye type.
The Thermosol process was developed for polyester. It is a continuous method in
which the dye is padded onto the fabric and dry heat is used to force the dye into the fiber
and fix it there.
The long-chain method is continuous dyeing of yarns. It usually involves indigo or a sulfur Methods of dyeing work in one of three
dye. Yarn is immersed in the dye, squeezed to remove excess dye, and skyed (exposed to ways: the textile is circulated in the
air) to oxidize and develop the color and fix the dye inside the fiber. Consecutive dips and dyebath, the dyebath is circulated around
skying progressively darken the shade until the desired color is reached. Indigo yarns may the textile; or the textile and the dyebath
undergo as many as 16 separate dips to achieve a very dark navy blue. Sometimes indigo are circulated together. These include
dyed fabric is described according to the number of dips required to achieve that depth batch dyeing, package dyeing, and
of color. A 16-dip indigo is a dark navy blue. The ranges normally run at 30 to 35 meters combination dyeing.
per minute.

Learning Activity 16
Work in groups of two or three. Select two of the textile products you are wearing or
have with you today. Identify two dyeing methods that might have been used to dye
the fabrics. Considering the product, fabrication method, and fiber content should
help in selecting appropriate methods. Explain why that information would be import-
ant to a product development specialist developing a private label line for a com-
pany. Would product dyeing have been used for any of these products? Explain your
response.

dyeing and printing 493


Resist methods block color absorption
during yarn or fabric dyeing. In these
processes, the yarn or fabric is treated to
block dye absorption in some areas while
allowing dye absorption in other areas.
Methods include batik, tie dye, and ikat.
Figure Hand-produced batik.
19.22
Resist Dyeing
Resist methods block color absorption during yarn or fabric dyeing. In these processes, the
yarn or fabric is treated to block dye absorption in some areas while allowing dye absorption
in other areas. Table 19.4 summarizes and compares these processes.
Batik  Batik is generally a hand process in which hot wax is applied to a fabric in a design.
When the wax has set or hardened, the fabric is piece-dyed in a cool or cold dye bath. While
most dyeing is done in a hot bath, it is not used for batik since the heat would melt the wax
and destroy the pattern being created. Dye penetration is prevented in the wax-covered por-
tions. Colors are built up by piece-dyeing light colors first, waxing new portions, and redye-
ing until the design is complete. The wax is later removed by a solvent or by boiling. True
batik is hand produced, but some imitation batiks are screen printed. Figure 19.22 shows a
hand-produced batik from Indonesia.
Batik is popular in the local fiber movement because it allows artistic expression and is a
technique easily identifiable by many consumers. In many cultures, batik is an expression of a
people’s heritage and helps preserve their traditions as well as providing a source of income
for the family.
17 Learning Activity
Use Fabrics #122 and 123 from your swatch kit. Describe the process used to add
color to each of these samples. Name the technique. Based on the fiber content listed
in the swatch set key and Table 19.1, what dye class might have been used to dye
these swatches?

Table 19.4 Summary Table: Resist Dyeing

Stage Name Advantages Disadvantages Identifying Features

Wax-resist on fabric, Batik Hand process. Expensive. Fabric may have wax cracks or drips.
then dyed
Multiple color patterns. Wax removal difficult. Patterns vary from simple to elaborate.

Unique look. Slow, labor-intensive

process.
Helps preserve cultural traditions.

Provides income source for family.

Fabric tied, then dyed Tie-dye Hand process. Hand process. Sunburst ray effect and undyed ground
in tied areas.
Unique look. Expensive.
Patterns vary from simple to elaborate.
May use many colors. Labor-intensive.

Helps preserve cultural traditions.

Provides income source for family.

Yarn tied, dyed, and Ikat Warp, filling, or double ikat possible. Labor-intensive. Woven-in pattern due to planned
woven variations in yarn color in warp, filling,
Hand process. Hand process.
or both.
Unique look. Requires careful planning.
Simple to elaborate patterns possible.
May combine many colors and bands of Expensive.
ikat with solid color.

Helps preserve cultural traditions.

Provides income source for family.

494 chapter nineteen

Tie-Dye  Tie-dye is a hand process in which areas of the yarn or fabric are wrapped with thread
or string. The yarn or fabric is dyed and the string removed, leaving undyed areas (Figure 19.23).
Manufacturing techniques using fabric in rope form have been developed to imitate tie-dyed fabric.
Tie-dye has been a popular craft for several years because it is easy to do and requires
little equipment. Small children, with adult supervision, can tie-dye. Bright colors and simple
patterns are common on tie-dyed T-shirts. However, in many cultures, tie-dye is more elabo-
rate and an expression of a people’s heritage. Besides helping preserve traditions it provides
a source of income for the family.

Figure Tie-dyed fabric showing thread used

Ikat  Ikat (é-köt or Iʹ-kat) is an ancient form of resist. In ikat, the yarn is tied, dyed, then 19.23 to create the resist and make the
woven. The technique can be applied to warp yarns only (warp ikat), filling yarns only (filling design.
ikat), or both warp and filling (double ikat). These designs do not have precise edges. Some
ikat is in simple patterns of indistinct blocks of color or irregular geometric patterns. However,
some patterned ikat demonstrates the great skill and years of experience required to create
and place the design in the finished fabric (Figure 19.24).
While there are a few fiber artists and hobbyists who focus on ikat, it is more commonly
found in cultural textiles as an expression of a people’s heritage. Ikat helps preserve their
traditions as well as provide income for the family. In some cultures, experts at producing ikat
are considered national cultural treasures.

(a)
Printing
Color designs are produced on fabrics by printing with pigments or dyes in paste form or by
positioning pigments or dyes on the fabric with specially designed machines. Printing adds
color in localized areas only. Printed fabrics usually have sharp edges in the design portion
on the face, with the color seldom penetrating completely to the back of the fabric. There is a
definite face and back to printed fabrics (Figure 19.25). The pattern is clear and precise on the

(b)
Figure Ikat: simple pattern (a) and complex
19.24 pattern (b).

(a) (b)
Figure Printed fabric: face (a) and back (b). Note the difference between the face and the
19.25 back in terms of the distinctness of the pattern and the intensity of color.

dyeing and printing 495


Figure Garment-printed textile where the
19.26 fabric was deliberately folded or
pleated before printing to create this
unusual look. Look closely to see
where the neckline has been pulled to
the side to show the V-shape on the
inside of the garment. Also, note that
the sewn-in label was printed over.
Printing is used to add color in localized
areas only. In direct printing, color is
applied directly to the fabric in the pattern
and location desired in the finished fabric.
496 chapter nineteen
face and irregular or difficult to see on the back. Yarns raveled from printed fabrics show the
color unevenly positioned on them. In some cases of garment printing, the fabric is folded or
pleated before printing producing areas of no pattern within a patterned area (Figure 19.26).
Some techniques combine dyeing and printing, such as yarn-dyed denim that is printed or
overdyed. In overdyed denims, the yarn-dyed fabric is dyed another color after an abrasive or
chemical wash (see Chapter 17).
Printing allows for great design flexibility and relatively inexpensive patterned fabric.
Patterns can be achieved with printing that are not possible with any other method. Dyed fab-
rics can be printed, often referred to as overprinting. Some companies such as Brunschwig &
Fils allow custom coloring of their prints.
Computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), and inexpensive
and powerful personal computer system have revolutionized the design and preprinting pro-
cess. The design is created on-screen or scanned in and manipulated in scale or pattern and
recolored as desired. CAD allows designers to quickly create coordinating prints for apparel
and interior uses by selecting a portion of the original design and copying it.
Different colorways, variations in scale, or changes in pattern detail can be examined
in seconds with a few simple commands. Colorways describes the different color options
available for a fabric. Some fabrics are produced in one color combination only, but most are
available in several colorways.
A paper or fabric copy of the design is printed using a color printer. With contemporary
color printers, inks, and textile fabrics prepared for ink-jet printers, rapid development of sam-
ples significantly decreases development and preproduction time and costs.
Screens are created and sample yardage is printed, if necessary, or bulk production
occurs immediately. Computer systems engrave the screens, predict color matches, and pre-
pare print pastes for bulk production. It is possible to create designs and convert them into
fabrics in a few hours or days rather than months. Computers increase automation of the
process and decrease costs associated with labor, raw materials, and inventory.
Wet prints use a thick liquid paste; dry prints use a powder. In foam prints, the colorant
is dispersed in a foam. The foam is applied to the fabric and then collapses. The small amount
of liquid limits color migration. Foam printing has less environmental impact than some other
printing methods.
Table 19.5 groups the methods of creating printed designs. Table 19.6 summarizes the
characteristics of printing methods.
Table 19.5 Printing Processes
Direct Discharge Screen Others
Block Discharge Flat Heat transfer or transfer
Digital Rotary* Electrostatic
Direct-roller* Differential
Foil printing
Stencil
Warp
*Major printing processes.
Table 19.6  Summary Table: Printing
Stage Name Advantages Disadvantages Identifying Features

Direct print Block print Handmade craft. Expensive process. Irregular depth of color.
on fabric
Used to produce unique, one-of-a-kind Slow. Repeat blocks may be out of
items. alignment.
Pattern alignment difficult.
Preserves cultural tradition One to several colors in
pattern.
Provides family income.
Fabric and Digital print Inexpensive. Currently commercially limited to carpet. Most common method of
carpet printing carpet.
Quick response. Fineness of detail limited.
Widely used in textile design
Minimal downtime. Fastness and fabric hand problems.
and development of
Quick colorway changes. Production speed and fabric width samples.
limitations.
Mass customization possible.
Image-quality and color matching issues.
Unique designs possible.

May preserve cultural traditions.

Provides income for families.

Direct print Roller print Multiple colors. Number of colors limited by equipment. From 1 to 16 colors in
on fabric pattern.
Less-expensive method. Creating engraved rollers expensive.
Scale of repeat can vary.
Versatile in colors, pattern, and scale. Out-of-register prints.
Second most common
Duplex prints possible. Scale limited by size of roller.
printing method.
Direct print Warp print Soft edge to pattern. Expensive process. Hazy, irregular pattern edges
on yarn that become more distinct
Unique look. Not quick response.
when filling removed.
Minor process.
Dyed fabric Discharge Cost dependent on design. Discharge paste may tender fabric. Patterned areas show ground
printed print color on back; usually
Limited to patterns with few colors and
with white or one to two colors
dark ground.
discharge with dark ground.
paste
Print fabric Screen print Fine detail possible. Registration of screens critical to Most common printing
or product process. method.
Many colors possible with overprinting.
with resist
Potential change of fabric hand.
screens Inexpensive process.
Separate screen for each color of print.
Quick response.
Quality of screen related to quality of
Applicable to fabric and product.
fabric.
Minimal downtime.
Out-of-register, if careless.
Quick colorway changes.

Hand or commercial process.

Can imitate many other techniques.

Print paper, Heat-transfer Quick response. Disposal of waste paper. Sharp print on face; little, if
transfer print, any, transfer to fabric back.
Minimal downtime. Limited to sublimable disperse dyes and
to fabric/ sublimation-
synthetic fibers.
product transfer Detailed designs possible.
print, or Storage conditions may cause dye
transfer Minimal environmental impact from dyes.
transfer.
print Inexpensive.

Low capital and space needs.

(continued)

dyeing and printing 497

Table 19.6  Summary Table: Printing (continued)
Stage Name Advantages Disadvantages Identifying Features

Powdered Electrostatic No washdown needed. Powder difficult to control. Printed face, unprinted back.
dye print
Minimal environmental impact from dyes. Limited to synthetic fibers and disperse Minor process.
applied to
dyes.
fabric Inexpensive.
Dye applied Differential Unique looks possible. Limited to carpet. Carpet with less precise
to carpet print patterns.
Quick response. Difficult to control design.
fibers with
different
dye
affinities
Adhesive Foil print Metallic film designs possible. Detailed and time-consuming process. Metallic film design.
applied
Stencil print Combine with screen or heat-transfer Expensive. Minor process.
to fabric,
printing for multicolor patterns.
heat- Easily duplicated with other processes. Most often simple patterns.
transfer Hand process.
printed Color may be irregular. Minor or hand process.
Preserves cultural traditions.

Provides income for families.

Unique look.

Direct printing applies color directly to the
fabric in the pattern and location desired
in the finished fabric. Types include block
printing, digital printing, direct-roller
printing, and warp printing.
Figure Block printing.
19.27
Direct Printing
In direct printing, color is applied directly to the fabric in the pattern and location desired
in the finished fabric. Direct printing is a common method of printing a design on a fabric
because it is easy and economical.
Block Printing  Block printing is a hand process; it is probably the oldest technique for
decorating textiles. It is seldom done commercially because it is expensive and slow. A pat-
tern is carved on a block. The block is dipped in a shallow pan of dye paste and stamped on
the fabric (Figure 19.27). More than one color print is possible, but a separate block is needed
for each color. Extra time and attention are needed to align blocks correctly. Slight irregular-
ities in color register or positioning are clues to block prints, but these can be duplicated by
other techniques.
Block printing requires minimal equipment and is a common art/craft technique. While
done as a way of embellishing textiles as part of the local fiber movement, block printing is
more commonly seen in textiles that preserve cultural traditions and help support families. In
some cultures, blocks are used to print the wax on fabric in creating batik.

Digital Printing In digital (ink-jet) printing, microdrops of colored liquid ink are applied
through tiny nozzles onto the fabric surface at precise points. Computers control the specific
color ink jet, amount of ink, and location of the microdrops. Digital printers operate with four,
eight, or more basic colors. A four-color system would include yellow, magenta, cyan, and
black. Systems with more colors include additional colors or variations of intensity of the basic
four colors. The more colors available in a digital printer, the fewer the challenges in mixing
colors for textiles and the greater the flexibility in creating designs.
There are several types of digital printers, including continuous ink jet (CIJ) and drop
on demand (DOD). High numbers of separate, tiny nozzles are used for each color. These

498 chapter nineteen

 (a) (b)
Figure One yarn tuft may include more than one color depending on the pattern for the digital print carpet (a) compared to
19.28 the tuft of all one color in the tufted and yarn-dyed patterned carpet (b).

printers are used to print carpet (Figure 19.28), samples, prototypes, and limited commercial
or production fabrics, usually less than 500 meter lengths. Proofing is the printing of strike-offs
or samples to check the pattern, color, and design. The print facility is able to get customer
approval before preparing equipment for commercial or full-scale production and significantly
speeds up the production process.
Digital printing has had a pronounced impact on small-lot, custom printing and samples by
textile designers (Figure 19.29). As part of the local fiber movement, individuals are custom print-
ing fabric for quilts, wall hangings, scarves, T-shirts, and other items to meet their individual needs.
Its very slow production speed (only a few meters per minute) as compared with other
commercial printing methods is a limitation. Image resolution and crispness can also be prob-
lems. Limitations in color reproduction, color matching, fabric width, fastness of the print inks
and pastes, and changes in fabric hand are additional concerns with digital prints. Besides
the strike-off and custom applications, other benefits of digital printing include the ability to
use large numbers of colors, application to a wide range of substrates, excellent reproduction
of images (especially continuous-tone images), unlimited repeat size, and ability to print engi-
neered designs that cross seam lines.
Digital printing is being used to create smart fabrics. Nanoparticles with conductive prop- Figure Digital print fabric made into a dress:
19.29 Back view of Turtle Turtle by Aultman.
erties are printed onto fabrics. Changes in the environment and heat and pressure applica-
tion to specific spots of a touchpad allow the wearer to control comfort, communication and
entertainment devices, and global positioning systems, and monitor such health and medical
conditions as activity, respiration, and heart rate.

Direct-Roller Printing  Direct-roller printing was developed in 1783, about the time all In digital printing, microdrops of colored
textile operations were becoming mechanized. Figure 19.30 shows the essential components liquid ink are applied through tiny nozzles
of the roller printer. The fabric is drawn around a metal or high-density foam cylinder during onto the fabric surface at precise points. It
printing. Each engraved printing roller is etched with the design for each color in the print. is most often used for small lots, fiber art,
There are as many different rollers as there are colors in the fabric. Furnisher rollers revolve in a custom printing, and samples.
small color trough, pick up the dye paste, and deposit it on the rollers. The fabric to be printed,

dyeing and printing 499

 Blanket 18 Learning Activity
Fabric Back gray Back gray
Blanket Check online to determine the availability of custom digital printing options available to
Fabric
consumers. Identify the types of fabrics or products printed, the product development
time, and the guarantees in terms of product performance (colorfastness, abrasion resis-
Metal
cylinder tance, change in hand, strength, or drape, or other aspects of fabric performance), and
the costs associated with this custom option. What other details concerning the pro-
Engraved roller
cess or outcome are included that might be of interest to consumers? To professionals?
Furnisher roller
Color trough

19 Learning Activity
Figure Direct-roller printing. This diagram
19.30 shows the setup for a three-color Work in groups of four. Identify the experience individuals have had with digital design
print. and digital printing of textiles. What kinds of items have been designed and printed?
How successful was the design? If no one in your group has experience with this tech-
nology, combine with another group.

Direct roller printing applies color to fabric

using engraved rollers; each roller prints a
separate color. A duplex print is a
roller print with a pattern on both sides
of the fabric.
a rubberized blanket that provides a good surface for a sharp print, and an unfinished-back
fabric that protects the blanket and absorbs excess dye pass between the cylinder and the
engraved rollers. Roller printing, once the most common printing method, has been almost
completely replaced by screen printing except in areas where a developing infrastructure limits
access to a uniform and continuous power supply.
A duplex print is a roller print with a pattern on both sides of the fabric (Figure 19.31).
Both sides of the fabric may be printed at the same time or the face and back may be printed
in two separate steps.

Warp Printing In warp printing, the warp yarns are printed before weaving. This tech-
nique gives a hazy pattern, softer than other prints. To identify it, ravel adjacent sides. The
color design is only on the warp yarns. Filling yarns are white or solid color. Imitations have
splotchy color on both warp and filling yarns. Warp printing is usually done on taffeta, satin
ribbons, cotton fabric, and on upholstery or drapery fabric (Figure 19.32). Since the practice is
time-consuming and expensive, it is not common.

Figure Duplex print. Note that a pattern is

19.31 printed on both sides of this fabric.
Figure Warp-printed fabric. Note the
19.32 difference in yarn appearance and
clarity of design between woven and
raveled areas.
Discharge Printing
Discharge prints are piece-dyed fabrics in which the design is made by removing color from
selected fabric areas (Figure 19.33). Discharge printing is usually done on dark backgrounds.
The fabric is first piece-dyed by an appropriate method. A discharge paste containing chemi-
cals to remove the color is printed on the fabric using screen or roller techniques. Dyes that are
not harmed by the discharge chemicals can be added as part of the paste if color is desired in
the discharge areas. The fabric is then steamed to develop the design, as either a white or a
colored area. Discharge printing produces better dye penetration compared to screen or roller
printing because piece dyeing is the best way to achieve good, rich dark colors.
Discharge prints can be detected by examining the back of the fabric. The background
color may not be completely removed, especially around pattern edges. For discharge printing
to work, dyes for the background colors must be removable by strong alkalis. Unfortunately,
the discharge chemical may cause tendering or weakening of the fabric in the areas where the
color was discharged.

500 chapter nineteen

 (a) (b)
Figure Discharge print (a), direct print (b). The folded areas show the back of the fabric to
19.33 illustrate the differences in the depth of color and clarity of the pattern between the
two sides and techniques.

Screen Printing
Screen printing is an incredibly versatile, yet simple process. A mesh screen is coated with
a compound that seals all openings in the screen and prevents the pigment or dye paste from
Figure Close-up of the polyester mesh used
moving through the screen, except in the areas to be printed according to the design. A sepa-
19.34 in screen printing.
rate screen is used for each color. The paste is forced through the openings within the screen
by a squeegee. Patterns can have up to 32 colors in them. Figures 19.34 and 19.35 show a
close-up and a screen used in screen printing. Screen printing is a printing process where
Flatbed screen printing is done commercially for lengths from 500 to 1,000 meters screens are created that block all areas of
and often is used for designs larger than the circumference of the rolls used for roller printing. a fabric from receiving color except those
While the percentage of flatbed screen prints is low worldwide, many of these fabrics help areas of the design where a specific color
preserve cultural heritage and provide incomes for families. In terms of the local fiber move- appears. A separate screen applies each
ment, fiber artists and hobbyists screen print fabrics and products for sale at local galleries, color. The types of screen printing include
art fairs, and fiber festivals. Small entrepreneurs provide a service to communities by printing flat and rotary. Rotary screen printing is the
T-shrts, banners, bags and other items commemorating events, athletic teams, and charities. most common method of printing fabric.
In the hand process, the fabric to be printed is placed on a long table. One or two people
position the screen on the fabric, apply the color paste, move the screen to a new position, and
repeat the process until all the fabric is printed with that color (Figure 19.36). Then they repeat
the process for each color until all the colors have been applied. For screen-printing products,
a similar process is used, but the equipment is specifically adapted to the type of product.
In the automatic-screen batch process, the fabric to be printed is placed on a conveyor belt.
A series of flat screens are positioned above the belt and are lowered automatically. Careful posi-
tioning of the screen is required to be sure print edges match. On screen-printed yardage, small
color squares or blocks along the selvage aid in print alignment and help identify a screen print.
Color is applied, and the fabric is moved automatically and fed continuously into ovens to be dried.
Rotary screen printing is much more common and done with cylindrical nickel metal
mesh screens that operate in much the same way as the flat screens, except that the opera- Figure Screen used in flatbed screen printing
tion is continuous rather than the step-by-step or batch process as is the case for flat screen 19.35 by a fiber artist.
printing. Rotary screen printing is more economical for pieces of fabric at least 1,000 meters
long. These printers are fast—more than 100 meters per minute when printing with pigment
inks and about half that when printing with dye paste. Pigment inks are used more frequently
in the United States; dye pastes are used more frequently in Europe and Asia. Rotary screens
are much cheaper than the rollers used in roller printing (Figure 19.37).
Screen printing can print regular inks and pastes in patterns, but it can also add special
effects such as glitter, texture, sparkle, foam, and half-tones. While production of the metal

dyeing and printing 501


Figure Flatbed screen printing by hand at a
19.36 commercial factory in Malaysia. The
fabric is a traditional sarong pattern
for sale to locals and tourists.
SPG Prints
Figure Screen used in rotary screen printing.
19.37 Source: Courtesy of Stork Prints B.V.
Figure Heat-transfer printing: Design on
19.38 paper (left) is transferred by heat to
fabric (center). Design on paper is
lighter after printing (right).
502 chapter nineteen
20 Learning Activity
Work in teams of two. One member of the team will explain to his or her partner how
screen printing is done from the development of the screen through the application of
color. The other member of the team will explain the differences and similarities between
flatbed and rotary screen printing. It might be helpful to use one or more of the fabrics
from your swatch kit during this discussion. (The Swatch Kit key identifies such fabrics
under the section titled Dyeing/Printing).
mesh screens is expensive, high production speeds and large fabric runs make it economical.
Pattern repeats are related to the diameter of the cylindrical screen. Flatbed screens allow for
larger repeats, especially popular for interior textiles.
Screen printing is useful for printing almost any size design on fabrics. The majority of
printed fabrics in the market are screen prints. Differential printing describes screen printing
on carpets tufted with yarns that have different dye affinities.
Other Printing Methods
Heat-Transfer Printing In heat-transfer printing, designs are transferred to fabric from
specially printed paper by heat and pressure (Figure 19.38). The paper is printed by one of
several paper-printing techniques: gravure, flexograph, offset, or converted rotary screen. The
fabric, yarn, or item is placed on a plastic frame and padded with a chemical solution. Paper
is placed over the fabric and then covered with a silicone-rubber sheet. These layers are
compressed under high pressure at high temperatures for a few seconds so that the print
sublimes and migrates from the paper to the fabric. In sublimation, a solid evaporates and
recondenses as a solid in a new location. High pressure ensures that the edges of the print
are sharp and clear. Heat-transfer printing is also known as transfer printing, especially when
the printing is done at lower, or even, room temperature.
The advantages of heat-transfer printing are better penetration and clarity of design,
lower production costs, and elimination of some chemical waste. However, disposal of waste
paper is a problem. Transfer printing can be done on 3D fabrics such as circular knits without
splitting them and on 3D products such as garments. Although other options exist, synthetic
fibers and disperse dyes are the most common combination on the market. Heat-transfer
or sublimatic printing is used for apparel, drapery fabrics, upholstery, shower curtains, and
floor coverings. Small, local entrepreneurs use heat-transfer printing when applying decals
and other patterns to T-shirts and other apparel or accessory items.
Electrostatic Printing  Electrostatic printing is similar to electrostatic flocking. A pre-
pared screen is covered with powdered dye mixed with a carrier that has dielectric properties.
The screen is positioned about ½ inch above the fabric. When passed through an electric
field, the dye powder is pulled onto the material, where it is fixed by heat.
Foil Printing In foil printing, an adhesive is applied to the fabric by a flatbed or rotary
screen. The fabric is dyed and partially cured. The foil combines a thin polyester film with a
heat-sensitive release coating, a very thin layer of aluminum, and a clear or tinted lacquer. The
metallic foil is heated on a heat-transfer press and foil bonds only where the adhesive pattern
exists on the fabric.
 Learning Activity 21
Select fabrics from your swatch kit that illustrate these print methods (direct roller, discharge,
resist, screen, and heat transfer). Be sure to include at least one dye print and one pigment
print. Identify the printing method used to apply color to each of these fabrics. Explain the
visual clues you used in that identification. Which of these samples represent more than
one coloration method? How can you tell? Select two of the samples and use the fabric
key to determine fiber content. Explain the serviceabilty of these two fabrics based on fiber
content, yarn structure, fabrication method, finish(es), and coloration method.

Learning Activity 22
Examine the textile products you are wearing and have with you today. Determine which
of these products have been printed. You might want to check product labels, too.
Identify the printing method used for each printed product. Theorize as to which items
were printed with a dye and which were printed with a pigment. Explain the evidence Figure Bleeding of red dye in water at 130˚F.
19.39
you used in making that assessment. Describe how the print influenced your decision
to purchase the item.

Stencil Printing In stencil printing, a separate pattern is cut from a special waxed paper
or thin metal sheet for each color. Color, in a thick solution or paste, is applied by hand with
a brush or sprayed with an air gun. Stenciling is done on limited yardage. Stencil printing is
used by fiber artists and hobbyists to create printed fabric for their use or for sale to others.

Color Problems
Good colorfastness of dyed and printed fabrics is expected, but not always achieved.
Colorfastness is resistance to change in any color characteristic or to transfer of color to
another object. When considering all the variables connected with dyeing and printing and
Figure Laboratory testing of crocking uses
the hostile environment in which fabrics are used, it is amazing how well most colored fabrics 19.40 a piece of white fabric and rubs
perform. it against the test fabric. If color
The factors that influence colorfastness are: transfers to the white fabric, crocking
has occurred. The pink circle on the
1. Chemical nature of fibers white fabric shows that the test fabric
2. Chemical nature of dyes and pigments exhibited severe crocking.
3. Penetration of dyes into the interior of fibers
4. Fixation of dyes or pigments on or in the fibers

The coloring agents must resist washing, dry cleaning, bleaching, and spot and stain
removal with all of the variables of time, temperature, and cleaning chemicals used. Colorants
must resist light, perspiration, abrasion, fumes, and other use and environmental factors.
Dyes for products like car interiors and outdoor furniture must be stable to ultraviolet light.
Upholstery, toweling, carpeting, and bedding may experience color problems from exposure
to acne medication, bleaches, acids, and alkalis. These color-damaging agents are found in a
host of materials with which interior textiles are likely to come in contact, such as vomit, drain
and toilet cleaners, spray room deodorizers, urine, plant food or fertilizers, insecticides, furni-
ture polish, and disinfectants and germicides found in bathroom cleaners.
If the color is not fast in the fabric as purchased, it is not possible to make it fast. Salt
and vinegar are used as exhaust agents for household dyes, but research does not support

dyeing and printing 503


Figure Bleeding of sewing thread on a hat.
19.41
Color loss occurs through bleeding, crocking,
migration or fading. Other problems include
fabric tendering, frosting, and prints that are
out-of-register or off-grain.
Figure Fume fading: navy blue dress fading
19.42 to pink.
Figure Cotton-and-rayon drapery fabric. After
19.43 washing, damaged areas of the fabric
had disappeared as a result of fiber
swelling in water and abrasion from
the washer.
504 chapter nineteen
the theory that they will set color. If the dye could not be set using the knowledge of the
dye chemist, the specialized equipment available in the dyehouse, and the carefully selected
dyeing chemicals, the consumer will not be able to accomplish this task at home with salt,
vinegar, or any other common household ingredient identified on some improper care labels.
Color loss occurs through bleeding, crocking, and migration or through chemical
changes in the dye. Bleeding is color loss in water. In bleeding, other fibers present in
the wash load may pick up the color (Figure 19.39). Crocking is color loss from rubbing
or abrasion. In crocking, some color may be transferred to the abradant (Figure 19.40).
For example, tight-fitting dark denim jeans may color the wearer’s thighs or white leather
upholstery. Migration is shifting of color to the surrounding area or to an adjacent sur-
face (Figure 19.2). An example of migration occurs with some red-and-white striped fabrics
when the white closest to the red takes on a pinkish cast. Figure 19.41 shows a hat whose
sewing thread was not fast to washing. Atmospheric gases (fume fading), perspiration,
and sunlight may cause fading, a loss of color as a result of a chemical change in the dye
(Figure 19.42).
Certain vat and sulfur dyes tender, or destroy, cotton fabric. Green, red, blue, and
yellow vat dyes and black, yellow, and orange sulfur dyes have been the chief offenders.
Manufacturers can correct the problem by thoroughly oxidizing the dye within the fiber or
after-treating the fabric to neutralize the chemical causing tendering. The damage is increased
by moisture and sunlight, a problem for draperies. Damage may not be evident until the drap-
eries are cleaned, and then slits or holes occur (Figures 19.43 and 19.44). Sunlight, air pol-
lution, and acidic atmospheric gases, as well as some dyes, cause fabric damage. Some
reactive dyed cotton fabrics also demonstrate weak or tender areas. Tender fabrics abrade
and tear more easily. In extreme cases, the fabric may literally crumble to dust when moved
or crushed in the hand.
Frosting occurs when the colored portion of fibers or yarns are abraded (Figure 19.45)
as is common with denim where the large indigo dye molecule does not penetrate into the
center of cotton fibers. Frosting occurs with blends and with durable-press garments that
have been union-dyed. During wear, the surface is abraded and becomes lighter in color,
while the unabraded or more durable area maintains its color.
The movement of yarns during use may cause undyed fibers to work their way to the
surface. Color streaks may result from uneven removal of sizing before the dye is applied. The
best way to check the dye penetration in heavy fabrics is to examine the fabric. If possible,
ravel a yarn to see if it is the same color throughout. With finished products, look at the edge
of seams. For prints, look at the reverse side. The more color on the back, the better the dye
penetration.
A defect in printed fabrics occurs when two colors of a print overlap each other or do not
meet. This defect is referred to as out-of-register (Figure 19.46). Computer registering of
screens and rollers during printing has significantly reduced this problem.
Printed fabrics may be printed off-grain. Off-grain prints create problems because the
fabric cannot be both straight with the print and cut on-grain (Figure 19.47). If cut off-grain, the
fabric will likely assume its normal position when washed, causing twisted seams and uneven
hemlines. If cut on-grain, the print will not be straight. In an all-over design, this may not be
important, but in large checks and plaids or designs with crosswise lines, matching at seams
becomes impossible and slanting lines across the fabric are not pleasing. Off-grain prints are
created by incorrect fabric finishing. The gray goods start into the tentering frame crooked, the
mechanism moves the two selvages at slightly different speeds, or the fabric is not properly
supported in the center of its width. Mills can correct the off-grain problem before printing.
Other problems related to dyeing and printing are concerns of the producer and man-
ufacturer. These are problems related to the consistency of the color throughout the width
and length of the fabric or from dye lot to dye lot. Manufacturers of apparel and interior textile
items require a fabric that is consistent in color. The color needs to be the same from side to
side (selvage to selvage), side to center (selvage to center), and end to end (from one end of
the roll of fabric to the other). If the color is not consistent, the producer will have problems
with off-shade or with product parts not matching in color. When several rolls of the same
color fabric are required, all rolls must be consistent in color. Color-matching equipment, like a
colorimeter, assesses color uniformity within or among fabric rolls.
The fastness of the dye often determines the method of care that should be used.
The consumer must depend on the label, but some knowledge of color problems that
occur in use and care will allow for more intelligent choices. Table 19.7 summarizes color
problems.

Figure Tendering of cotton draperies caused

19.44 by sulfur dye, atmospheric moisture,
and heat.

(a) (b)
Figure Printed fabric: out-of-register (a), in register (b).
19.46

Learning Activity 23
Consider textile products that you own or have owned that have failed because of
colorfastness issues. Describe the problem that occurred and identify that problem
Figure Denim jeans exhibiting frosting or loss
by name. (See Table 19.7.) How did the problem influence your satisfaction with the 19.45 of surface color.
product?

Learning Activity 24
Go to your list of textile quality started in Chapter 2, Review Question #10. Add at
least four details concerning dyeing and printing that address the quality of a fin-
ished textile.

Learning Activity 25
Explain why coloration is so important in terms of product development, fashion, and Figure Off-grain print. Note the torn edge of
consumer satisfaction. 19.47 the fabric (torn along a yarn) and the
pattern that moves off the torn edge.

dyeing and printing 505

Table 19.7 Summary Table: Color Problems
Problem Component Description Cause

Bleeding Fiber Dye loss in water that may color Poor fiber–dye bond, poor washfastness.
other items in water.
Poor washdown (excess dye on fabric).
Crocking Fiber Color transfers to other fabrics, Dye only on fiber surface.
skin, etc.
Poor washdown.
Migration Fiber Color moves to other areas or Poor fiber–dye bond; dye migrates.
materials.
Fume fading Disperse dye (most Fading or hue shift when Dye sensitive to pollutants.
common) exposed to some atmospheric
pollutants.
Poor fastness Dye Fading or hue shift when exposed Energy in sunlight degrades dye.
to sunlight, to the degrading factor.
Chemical reaction of dye with perspiration, deodorant
perspiration, etc.
chemicals, or bacterial enzymes.
Tendering Fiber Fabric becomes weak and Dye–fiber interaction.
sensitive to abrasion.
Frosting Fiber With abrasion, white areas Poor dye penetration into fiber.
appear on fabric, seams, or
As colored portion of fiber is abraded away, uncolored portion
hems.
shows through. Also seen in blends where one fiber is more
abrasion-resistant.
Out-of-register Fabric Edges of print do not match. Poor alignment of screens or rollers in printing.
Off-grain Fabric Fabric printed off-grain. Fabric not tentered properly, defect not detected before
printing.
Off-shade Fabric Products, components, thread, Evaluation of color match under different lights, chemical
other materials, or coordinating composition requires dyes from different classes, poor
fabrics don’t match in color or control of bath or paste.
don’t meet color specifications.

terms
key terms
Acid dyes
Azoic dyes
Batch dyeing
Developed dyes
Differential printing
Digital printing
Garment-dyed
Heat-transfer printing
Ikat
Batik Direct dyes Jig dyeing
Bezold effect Direct printing Lab dip
Bleeding Direct-roller printing Level
Block printing Discharge printing Liquor ratio
Cationic dyes Disperse dyes Mass pigmentation
Colorant Duplex printing Metamerism
Color match Dye Migration
Color matching Dye process Mordant dyes
Color measurement Electrostatic printing Natural dyes
Color standard Fading Off-grain print
Color theory Fiber dyeing Out-of-register
Colorfastness Flatbed screen printing Package dyeing
Colorways Fluorescent dyes or brighteners Pad dyeing
Continuous dyeing Foam printing Piece dyeing
Crocking Foil printing Pigment
Cross dyeing Frosting Printing

506 chapter nineteen

Producer-colored Solution-dyed Union dyeing
Product dyeing Stencil printing Vat dyes
Reactive dyes Stock dyeing Warp printing
Resist methods Sulfur dyes Washdown
Rotary screen printing Synthetic dyes Wash-off
Screen printing Tender Yarn dyeing
Shade sorting Thermosol process
Skye Tie-dye

questions
review questions
1. Name the factors that influence the color seen and explain
how they interact.
13. What are the visual clues to determine if a fabric has been
2. Why is color matching so important to the global textile
complex?
3. Why is digital exchange of color information important?
How is digital color information used in the global textile
complex?
4. Explain metamerism and why it is an important factor in
assessing color matches and approving color.
5. Describe the process commonly used achieving a color
match between the creative team’s concept of a color and
a finished product in that color.
6. List the characteristics of pigments and dyes. Identify end
uses where one would be preferred over the other and
explain your answer.
7. Indicate four factors that should be considered in selecting
a dye for a specific product.
dyed or printed? How can the stage or the technique used
in dyeing or printing be determined?
14. Name a coloration process (dye stage or print type) that
would be appropriate for these products:
a. Solid blue cotton and nylon upholstery velvet
b. Patterned nylon carpet for hotel lobby
c. 100% cotton chambray work shirt
d. Irregular or fuzzy plaid gingham
e. Floral pattern 100% rayon faille dress
f. 100% cotton T-shirt with local ski club name
g. Cartoon print on 100% polyester quilt for child’s bed
h. 100% wool tweed upholstery
i. Vinyl shower curtain with beach print
j. Silk honan draperies for luxury apartment
k. Polyester and modacrylic warp insertion draperies for
business office lobby
l. Woven twill olefin upholstery for theatre seats

8. Why is it important to know about and be able to determine 15. Describe the appearance of and problems created by these
the stage at which color was applied to a fabric or textile color defects:
product? a. Poor leveling
b. Frosting
9. Explain why a designer or product development specialist
c. Migration
would need to know about the various processes used to
d. Bleeding
apply color to fabric. How would this information be of use
to those professionals? 16. What factors influence colorfastness? How can
colorfastness be determined?
10. Explain why product or garment dyeing is used less
commonly than piece dyeing to achieve solid-color goods. 17. What dye class(es) are commonly used for these fibers?
a. Cotton, rayon, flax, or ramie
11. Explain circumstances when product or garment dyeing
b. Acetate, polyester
would be preferred for achieving a solid color product.
c. Wool, nylon, or silk
12. Identify the most common method used to print fabric d. Olefin
today. Explain why that method has become so widely e. Leather
used. f. Acrylic

dyeing and printing 507

 questions
section review questions
1. Describe four sustainability issues related to finishing and
dyeing/printing textiles.
2. Describe how the global textile complex is addressing the
issues listed for Question 1.
3. How do preparation finishes affect aesthetic finishes,
special-purpose finishes, dyeing, or printing? For what
stage of dyeing is preparation most critical?
4. Describe a sequence of finishing for an all-rayon geometric
print fabric. List three concerns that should be considered
in finishing rayon fabrics. Name an end use. Identify two
special-purpose finishes that would be appropriate for this
fabric and product. Describe the performance problems the
special-purpose finishes address.
5. Describe a sequence of finishing for an all-nylon solid-color
velvet fabric. Identify the fabrication method for this fabric
(several possibilities exist). List two concerns that should be
considered in finishing nylon fabrics. Name an end use for
the fabric. Identify two special-purpose finishes that would
be appropriate. Describe the performance problems the
special-purpose finishes address.
6. Explain how finishing adds value to textile products.
7. How are finishes marketed to consumers?
8. Describe the factors that influence the type of finishing a
textile product will receive.
9. Explain how finishing can enhance the serviceability of a
textile product.
10. Explain why so many different options exist for finishing
textiles.
11. Describe the serviceability of the following products. Be
sure to address fiber content, yarn structure, fabrication
method, finishes, and coloration in your response.
a. Yarn-dyed, durable-press, all-cotton broadcloth shirt
b. Piece-dyed, microfiber polyester poplin raincoat
c. Screen print 50% rayon/50% polyester challis skirt
d. Fiber-dyed 100% wool tweed blazer
e. Yarn-dyed 100% nylon friezé overstuffed chair
f. Screen print 100% Pima cotton sateen sheets
g. Printed nylon tufted carpet
h. Screen printed 50% cotton/50% polyester draperies
with matching bedspread
i. Discharge print silk blouse
j. Screen print silk scarf made by local fiber artist
k. 100% olefin upholstery mass pigmented.
l. 100% nylon carpet of anionic dyeable fibers and
cationic dyeable fibers for hotel hallways

Case Study
Indigo Farming*
In 2012 in Tennessee, Stony Creek Colors
was founded as a way to provide more
industrial solutions for using natural dyes,
to help the textile supply chain be more
transparent and sustainable, and to support
small U.S. farmers. Indigo was selected
because of its popularity in denim. Land that
had been used for the production of tobacco
is being transitioned to growing indigo. Indigo
is ideal for these farms because they are
too small to compete with large farms that
grow cash crops like corn, soybeans, and
wheat. Indigo is expected to be a high dollar
cash crop, but it is more labor intensive.
Indigo requires less fertilizer, fungicide, and
pesticide use compared to tobacco. No
new equipment will be needed. The goal is
to replace about 2.8% of the synthetic indigo
with natural indigo and save a lot of farmers
from going out of business. Approximately
15,000 acres of farm land would be
needed to produce the quantity of indigo
needed.
Discussion Questions
1. How would the domestic production of
indigo alter the marketing of denim and
denim products? Would consumers be
willing to pay more for natural indigo? For
domestically produced indigo?
2. Describe how Stony Creek Colors would
fit in with the local fiber movement
described throughout this book?
3. Go online and investigate the processes
used in extracting indigo from the plant
and applying it to yarn or fabric. What
sustainability positives and issues do
you see with this process? How does
synthetic indigo differ? (Be sure to
consider the synthesis of synthetic indigo
in your answer.)
4. Identify issues related to quality that
would need to be addressed during the
processing of indigo and dyeing of yarns
for denim.

*Pelc, C. (2015, July/August). Helping to keep farm land in farming. AATCC Review, 15(4), 39.

508 chapter nineteen

readings
suggested readings
Anton, A. (2000). Piece dyeing for style and performance. Textile
Chemist and Colorist and American Dyestuff Reporter, 32(3),
26–32.
Azoulay, J. F. (2005). Color, light, and getting it right. AATCC
Review, 5(4), 40–45.
Azoulay, J. F. (2005). The devil in the details: The challenge of color.
AATCC Review, 5(2), 9–13.
Cardon, D. (2007). Natural Dyes: Sources, Tradition, Technology,
and Science. London: Archetype Publications.
Davies, N. (2015, May/June). Colors of the future: Color psychology
and textile aesthetics. AATCC Review, 15(4), 40–45.
Eckman, A. L. (2004). Developments in textile ink jet printing.
AATCC Review, 4(8), 8–11.
Freeman, H. S. (2004). Color yes, toxicity no: Systematic
approaches to meeting this challenge. AATCC Review, 4 (12),
16–21.
Galbraith, J. (2004). An assessment of the technical performance
of photochromic dyes in textile printing. AATCC Review, 4(12),
26–30.
Jaruhar, P., & Chakraborty, J. N. (2013). Dyeing of cotton with
sulfur dyes using alkaline protease. Textile Research Journal,
83(1), 1345–1355.
King, K. M. (2009, August). Emerging technologies for digital textile
printing, AATCC Review, 8(8), 34–36.
Lacasse, K., & Baumann, W. (2004). Textile Chemicals:
Environmental Data and Facts. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Malm, V., Strååt, M., & Walkenström, P. (2014). Effects of surface
structure and substrate color on color differences in textile
coatings containing effect pigments. Textile Research Journal,
84(2), 125–139.
Park, J., & Shore, J. (2000). Dyeing blended fabrics—The ultimate
compromise. Textile Chemist and Colorist and American
Dyestuff Reporter, 32(1), 46–50.
Pelc, C. (2015, July/August). Au naturel: The impact of natural
dyes. AATCC Review, 15(4), 32–38.
Pelc, C. (2015, July/August). Helping to keep farm land in farming.
AATCC Review, 15(4), 39.
Sawhney, A., Agrwal, A., Lo, T. C., Patra, P. K., Chen, C. H., &
Calvert, P. (2007). Soft structured polymeric sensors and
connectors by inkjet printing. AATCC Review, 7(6), 42–46.
Shamey, R., & Sawartwarakul, W. (2014, December). Innovative
critical solutions in the dyeing of protein textile materials.
Textile Progress, 46(4), 323–450.
Smith, B. (2007). Dyebath monitoring and control: Past, present,
and future. AATCC Review, 7(11), 36–41.
Sulcoski, C. (2015, Summer). Yarn 101: Handpainted yarns. Love
of Crochet, 82–83.
Thiry, M. C. (2010, June). Color it greener. AATCC Review, 10(3),
34–40.
Thiry, M. C. (2010, September/October). Garment printing: Art and
industry. AATCC Review, 10(5), 332–339.
Thiry, M. C. (2007). Pretty as a picture. AATCC Review, 7(9), 22–27.
Wyman, D. A. (2007). A conversation about color. AATCC Review,
7(10), 32.
Yang, Y., Naarani, V., & Thillainayagam, V. (2007). Color repeatability
in inkjet printing. AATCC Review, 7(1), 45–48.
dyeing and printing 509
 Tan4Ikk/Fotolia

Franzdell/Fotolia Billionphotos.Com/Fotolia

Eugenesergeev/Fotolia
 OTHER ISSUES
Section VI

RELATED TO
TEXTILES

20 Care of Textile Products

21 Legal and Sustainability

Issues Related to Textiles

22 Career Exploration
 Rosinka79/Fotolia Snyfer/Fotolia

Vasily Merkushev/Fotolia Ragne Kabanova/Fotolia

Care of Textile
Products

CHAP TE R O B J ECT I V ES
• To describe the theory of detergency, cleaning methods, compounds, and ingredients
used in cleaning.
• To integrate care and storage requirements with product performance in terms of
fiber content, yarn type, fabrication, finish, and coloration.

20

Care describes the cleaning procedures
used to remove soil and return products to
new or nearly new condition and appropri-
ate storage for textile products. The ability
to clean textile products makes them reus-
able and sustainable.
Care describes the cleaning procedures used to remove soil and return products to new or nearly
new condition. Care also addresses appropriate storage for textile products. Care is an important
consideration for most apparel and interior textiles as well as many technical textiles. The ability to
clean textile products makes them reusable and sustainable. However, care also can be the route
through which product problems and serviceability issues become apparent. For example, a new
striped shirt of white and an intense color may fit, be attractive, comfortable, and appropriate to
wear with several other apparel items in the closet. After a day or two of wearing, the shirt needs
to be cleaned and made usable again. If the shirt is washed and all stains and odor are removed,
it does not shrink or wrinkle, and the colors do not bleed or fade, the consumer is satisfied.
However, if the stains or odor are not removed, if the shirt shrinks or wrinkles severely, or if the
colors bleed, then the consumer is not satisfied with the performance of the shirt.
Because there are so many variables that impact cleaning, many countries require care labels
in most apparel and some interior textile products. These laws and regulations state the informa-
tion required, define terms and symbols, and identify appropriate locations for the care labels.
Table 20.1 provides definitions and shows the care symbols for terms common on care labels.
(For the entire list of terms, see Appendix E. For the entire set of care symbols, see Figure 21.3.)
Because care labels are required, it is the responsibility of the creative team, manufac-
turer, or supplier to determine appropriate care information and affix the correct label on a
product. Determination of appropriate care is based on material performance testing—or
an assessment of the materials used in the product and the performance of these materials

Table 20.1  Terms Commonly Found on Care Labels

Machine wash—A process by which soil may be removed from products through the use of water, detergent or soap, agitation, and a machine
designed for this purpose. When no temperature is given, hot water up to 145°F (63°C) can be used.

a.  Warm—Initial water temperature setting 87°F to 111°F (31°C to 44°C) (hand comfortable)
b.  Cold—Initial water temperature setting same as cold water tap up to 86°F (30°C).
c.  Delicate cycle or gentle cycle—Slow agitation and reduced time.
d.  Durable-press cycle or permanent-press cycle—Cool-down rinse or cold rinse before reduced spinning.
e. Separately—Alone.
f.  With like colors—With colors of similar hue and intensity.
Hand wash—A process by which soil may be manually removed from products through the use of water, detergent or soap, and gentle squeezing
action. When no temperature is given, hot water up to 150°F (66°C) can be used.
Tumble dry—Use machine dryer. When no temperature setting is given, machine-drying at a hot setting may be used.

a.  Remove promptly—When items are dry, remove immediately to prevent wrinkling.
b.  Dry flat—Lay out horizontally for drying.
c.  Block to dry—Reshape to original dimensions while drying.
Iron—Ironing is needed. When no temperature is given, the highest temperature setting may be used.

a.  Warm iron—Medium temperature setting.

b.  Cool iron—Lowest temperature setting.
Bleach when needed—All bleaches may be used when necessary.
No bleach or do not bleach—No bleaches may be used.
Wash or dry-clean, any normal method—Can be machine-washed in hot water, can be machine-dried at a high setting, can be ironed at a hot
setting, can be bleached with any bleaches, and can be dry-cleaned with any commercially available solvent.
Dry-clean—A process by which soil may be removed from products or specimens in a machine that uses any common organic solvent located in
any commercial establishment. The process may include moisture, hot tumble drying, and restoration by steam-press or steam-air finishing.
Professionally dry-clean—Use the dry-cleaning process, but modified to ensure optimal results either by a dry-cleaning attendant or through the
use of a dry-cleaning machine that permits such modifications or both.

Source: Web site of Federal Trade Commission (July 23, 2015). http://www.ftc.gov/node/119451, 16 CFR Part 423, Appendix A.

514 chapter twenty

 Learning Activity 1
Examine the care labels present in the textile items you are wearing or have with you
today. Find the terms from your product’s labels in Table 20.1 or Appendix E. Read
through these terms. Did you find anything new or surprising in the definitions that you
did not know about cleaning these items? Will you use this new information the next
time you clean any of them? How might an understanding of these definitions help
consumers in cleaning their textiles? Do you think most consumers are aware of the
specific details in these definitions?

Learning Activity 2
Work in teams of two. Assume that the two of you are part of a creative team for one of
two companies: Company A produces a private label line of casual all-cotton shirts for men
and boys. Company B produces a private label line of all cotton dobby-weave bedspreads.
Select the company most appropriate to your career focus. What aspects of cleaning
should be considered when determining care label information for the private label line of
interest? How could the performance specific to each term or symbol on the care label be
assessed? If your company does not require that this assessment be made, what kinds of
problems, complaints, or repercussions might develop if the care labels are not correct?
Would this omission cost your company business, money, or profit? Why or why not?

in standard test methods. However, not all care labels for all products are based on material
performance testing. Many labels are based solely on the fiber content, color, or use of other
materials in products.
Many textile items combine materials that simply are not compatible. For example, color
that bleeds from the trim to the base fabric combines incompatible materials. There is little the
consumer can do to reduce this problem or prevent it from occurring. Consumers’ expecta-
tions for quality and performance of textiles are ever increasing. Consumers demand more
and expect more from textile products. An appropriate and accurate care label for all textile
products is one area where these expectations are evident. However, even though care labels
are required, many consumers do not read them before cleaning the item or only read labels
for unusual items or items that have unusual stains.

Factors Related to Cleaning

To understand care, discussion of soils and soiling, the interaction between detergent and
solvent, and the additives that improve soil removal and the appearance of the cleaned item
provide useful information for making appropriate cleaning decisions and for understanding
the sustainability of cleaning.

Soil and Soil Removal

Soil is any substance not intended to be on a textile. Soils can be classified into several cate-
gories based on its type and how it is held on the fabric. Soil classification also helps determine
how the soil is removed from the textile. Soils such as gum, mud, or wax are held on the fabric
mechanically and can be removed mechanically by scraping or agitation. Sometimes r­emoval
of these soils is most effective if it is allowed to cool or dry before removal is attempted. Care
should be taken since excessive agitation or vigorous scraping can abrade fabrics.

care of textile products 515


Figure As water temperature decreases,
20.1 cleaning power decreases. These
white fabrics received the same
soiling and were washed in cold water
(70˚F), warm water (100˚F), and hot
water (120˚F) (top to bottom).
Soil is any substance not intended to be
on a textile. Soil is classified by its type and
how it is held on the fabric.
Figure Notice the difference in surface tension
20.2 between the shape of the water drop
and the water with detergent.
A soap or detergent molecule includes an
organic tail that has an affinity for organic
soils and a polar head that has an affinity
for the solvent. In detergency, the two
parts of the soap or detergent molecule
dislodge the soil. Agitation breaks it into
very tiny globules that are held in suspen-
sion until they are rinsed away.
516 chapter twenty
Lint and dust soils are held on the fabric by electrostatic forces. When the static is neu-
tralized, the soil is removed. Because water is such an excellent conductor of electricity,
immersing the fabric in water, as is done in laundering, neutralizes any static charge on a
fabric’s surface.
Water-soluble soils, such as coffee and other beverages, are absorbed into hydrophilic
fibers. When the fabric is immersed in water, the soil is dissolved. Organic soils such as
grease and oily food can be absorbed by oleophilic fibers and require the chemical action of
a detergent, an organic solvent (such as is used in dry cleaning), heat, or thermal energy to
be removed. Removing organic soils using a cold-water wash is especially difficult since these
compounds are often solids at cold temperatures. The warmer the water, the more likely
organic soils, especially oil and grease stains, will liquefy and be easier to remove.
Of course, many soils are mixtures and are removed by a combination of thermal,
mechanical, and chemical actions. If one aspect of removal is decreased, another aspect
must be increased in order to maintain the degree of soil removal. For example, if the water
temperature is decreased, more detergent, more powerful detergent, or more agitation will
be required for the cleaning process to be as effective. As temperature decreases, cleaning
power, even when cleaning cycles are repeated, decreases (Figure 20.1).
Detergency
Detergency refers to the manner in which the soap or detergent removes soil. Adding soap
or synthetic detergent to solvent lowers the surface tension of the solvent, allowing things
to wet more quickly. The solvent does not bead up but spreads over and wets the surface
(Figure 20.2). A soap or detergent molecule includes an organic tail that has an affinity for
organic soils and a polar head that has an affinity for the solvent. As a result of its nature, the
two parts of the soap or detergent molecule literally dislodge the soil. Agitation breaks the soil
into very tiny globules that are held in suspension until they are rinsed away (Figure 20.3). If
hot solvent and agitation are used, oily soils soften and break into small globules.
Because of the different functions of each ingredient in detergents, the amount of detergent
needs to be sufficient to clean. Recommendations, based on research, for the proper amount of
detergent to use are included on detergent labels. Many detergents are sold with a measuring
device in the container, engineered within the lid or cap for liquid detergents, or predetermined
as tablets or packets. If too much detergent is used, it may build up on textiles or be wasted and
flushed down the drain. If too little detergent is used, soil will remain on the textiles.
Detergent or soap is needed to remove most soils. Expensive devices like laundry
disks, globes, and doughnuts of plastic or ceramic materials claim to replace detergents.
3 Learning Activity
Take a very clean glass or beaker. Be sure it is well rinsed so no detergent residue
remains. Fill it about ⅔ full of water and place it on the table or counter. Carefully place a
thumbtack (point side up) or a needle on the surface of the water. If the container is clean,
the thumbtack or needle should float. Without disturbing the container, look closely and
describe what you see. Now, fill a separate container about ⅔ full of water and add a drop
or two of soap or detergent (hand, dish, or laundry). Stir the water so that the detergent or
soap is dissolved. Take one or two drops of the soapy water and add it to the water that is
floating the thumbtack or needle. Explain what happens and why it happened.
Research has demonstrated that these laundry gimmicks are no more effective than water
Removes soil from fabric
used alone in cleaning soil from fabric.

Solvents
A solvent is a liquid that dissolves other materials. Solvents dissolve common soils such as
Suspends soil
salt from perspiration or body oils. The most common and widely used solvent is water. Other
cleaning solvents include organic liquids such as perchloroethylene. The choice of a particular
solvent is based on the soil types present, the cost and availability of the solvent, and the
textile product’s characteristics. The basic care methods of washing and dry cleaning differ by
the solvents and equipment used.
Figure Mechanism of soil removal: Detergent
Water  Water is used as the solvent in washing because it is cheap, readily available, non- 20.3 surrounds soil and lifts it off the fabric.
toxic, and requires no special equipment. Hardness, temperature, and volume are water
characteristics that affect cleaning. Water hardness refers to the type and amount of mineral
contaminants present. Water that contains mineral salts is known as hard water. The more
mineral salts dissolved in water, the harder it is. Hard water makes cleaning more difficult and A solvent is a liquid that dissolves other
can accumulate as deposits in pipes and faucets (Figure 20.4). In softening the water, the materials. Water is most commonly used.
minerals are removed, or sequestered (bonded to another molecule). Water is usually soft- Dry cleaning uses organic solvents.
ened by adding a water-softening agent, such as sodium hexametaphosphate, to the water or
by using an ion-exchange resin in a water softene.
Water temperature determines the effectiveness of the cleaning additives used and in
removing some soils. Some additives are more effective at certain temperatures. The following
water-temperature ranges are identified by the Federal Trade Commission in the Care Labeling
Rule: Cold water is 85°F (29°C) or less, or the initial water temperature from a cold-water tap;
warm water is 90°F to 110 F (32°C to 43°C), or hand comfortable; and hot water is up to 150°F
(66°C). However, these temperatures rarely correspond to actual home-water temperatures.
The temperature of the water in the washing machine is dependent on many factors.
Warm and hot water temperature is dependent on the temperature at which the water heater
is set, the distance between the water heater and the washer, the air temperature of the
room, the temperature of the washer, the temperature of the cold water, and the mix level
established by the washer manufacturer. Mix level describes the percentage of hot and cold
water combined to achieve warm water. The temperature of water entering the house can
vary widely depending on the geographic location and season. In some areas in the warmer
months, water from the cold-water tap may be 75°F (24°C). In other areas during the winter Figure Water hardness deposits on faucet.
months, it might be 38°F (3°C). 20.4

Learning Activity 4
After your next meal or activity that leaves some oily residue on your hands, exper-
iment when you wash your hands. (1) Try removing the oily residue with cold water
only. Note the effectiveness of cold water only. (2) Use water that is a mix of cold and
hot water. Again, note the result. (3) Adjust the mix of water temperature so it is signifi-
cantly warmer. Try this and make note of the results. (4) Using the same water mix from
Step 3, add hand soap to the cleaning process. After noting the results, summarize
your findings. This principle of water temperature and soap/detergent applies to clean-
ing of textiles, too.

care of textile products 517


Water is the solvent used for most cleaning
because it is cheap, readily available, non-
toxic, and requires no special equipment.
Hardness, temperature, and volume are
water characteristics that impact cleaning.
518 chapter twenty
In an effort to reduce energy use in laundry and reduce scalding burn injuries from hot
water, consumers are encouraged to lower the temperature of water heaters and use colder
wash water.
Detergents were originally formulated for use in hot water. However, sustainability, envi-
ronmental, regulatory, and cost issues have driven the development of cold-water detergents.
These detergents include a mix of ingredients specifically selected because of their effective-
ness in cooler water. The surfactants in cold-water detergents are based on enzyme chem-
istry. However, the ability of washing to remove bacteria and other microbes is temperature
dependent. Hotter water is more effective at killing microbes; colder water is less effective. For
more discussion on cold-water detergents, see the discussion on surfactants.
Water volume is controlled to allow for agitation, to remove and keep soil suspended,
and to avoid wrinkling items in the load. Actual water volume relates to the amount of fabric
present in the machine. Water use for laundry is phenomenal. Older machines might use
50 gallons (189 liters) of water per wash cycle. While contemporary machines use less water
and energy, the water use is still significant.
Other Solvents  Organic solvents are used in dry cleaning, spot removal or spotting agents,
and carriers for other spotting materials. Perchloroethylene, also known as perc or PCE, is
the solvent most often used in dry cleaning. Liquid silicone, hydrocarbons, and glycol ether
are other organic solvents used in commercial dry-cleaning plants in many countries. These
solvents dissolve oils, greases, and other stubborn stains that are difficult to remove in
­water-based systems.
Perc is carefully regulated as a possible carcinogen and identified as contributing to for-
est decline. Significant changes in dry-cleaning equipment and standard operating proce-
dures have greatly reduced the amount of perc used. Current usage is a small percentage of
what it was in 1990.
Research has identified some solvents that equal or exceed perc’s effectiveness in
some areas of cleaning, but no one solvent is consistently equal to perc in all areas. Most
of these alternate solvents have less environmental impact compared to perc. These other
solvents include hydrocarbons with high flash points, polypropylene glycol ethers, silicones,
and liquid carbon dioxide. Hydrocarbons are used as solvents in some stain-removal com-
pounds and by some dry cleaners as their primary solvent in cleaning. Hydrocarbons are
biodegradable and virtually odorless. Polypropylene glycol (PG) ethers are not considered
hazardous chemicals. A silicone-based solvent is another alternative to perc that works
well in removing soil and odor. Unfortunately, these alternate solvents cannot be used in
machines designed for perc; so, switching solvents is expensive for dry cleaners. Most
cleaners are small business owners who do not consider switching solvents until replacing
dry-cleaning machines.
When liquid carbon dioxide is used, special cleaning additives, special cleaning machines,
and high pressure are needed. The machines needed for liquid carbon dioxide are almost
twice as expensive as those used with perc. The process is effective at cleaning and does not
subject items to the high temperatures used to remove perc in traditional systems.
Synthetic Detergents and Soaps
Synthetic detergents and soaps are used to remove and suspend soils, minimize the effects
of hard water, and alter the surface tension of water and other solvents.
Synthetic Detergents  Synthetic detergents are mixtures of many ingredients. The recipe
depends on the type of detergent. Detergent formulas differ from region to region of one
country and from country to country. The differences are related to the types of soil regularly
encountered, water quality and conditions, regulations, and laws. In this text the term deter-
gent will be used to refer to the box, tablet, or bottle of general cleaning compound. Detergent
options include liquids, pods, powders, and tablets. Each form makes use of different ingredi-
ents, but all detergents include basic ingredient categories.
Some detergents are promoted as being nontoxic, phosphate-free, biodegradable,
and made from renewable resources. Other detergents promote their lack of perfumes and
dyes. Still others promote the convenience of using an all-in-one detergent that combines
cleaning, bleaching, and fabric softening. Many detergent ingredients are based on synthetic
compounds while others are derived from plant-based materials. Approximately 35% of the
compounds used in a typical laundry detergent originate from renewable resources. More
concentrated detergents use less packaging and require less energy to transport them from
the manufacturing site to the store and to the consumer’s home.
Surfactants are organic compounds that are soluble in hard water and, unlike soap,
do not form an insoluble curd. They are vigorous soil-removal agents and are frequently
sulfonated, linear, long-chain fatty acids. Surfactants include nonionic, anionic, and cat-
ionic types. Nonionic surfactants, such as ethers of ethylene oxide, are used in liquids and
recommended for use in cold or warm water because they are effective at cooler tempera-
tures. Anionic surfactants are good at removing oily soils and clay-soil suspension and func-
tion best in hotter water. These surfactants are usually biodegradable linear alkyl sulfonates
(LAS) in powder or liquid form. Liquid anionic and nonionic surfactants are used in liquid
detergents. Some liquid detergents are combinations of both anionic and nonionic surfac-
tants; others include only one type of surfactant. Cationic surfactants are used primarily in
liquid form in disinfectants, fabric softeners, and compounds to clean hard surfaces, like
toilets and floors.
Cold-water detergents include anionic and nonionic surfactants. Many cold-water sur-
factants include enzymes that attack protein-based and carbohydrate-based soils and are
effective on oily soils in cold water.
Builders soften water; add alkalinity to the solution, since a pH of 8 to 10 is best for
maximum cleaning efficiency; emulsify or break up oils and greases; and minimize soil rede-
position. Builders are present in very small quantities in most detergents.
Builders include citrates (sodium citrate) silicates (sodium silicate). phosphates
(sodium tripolyphosphate), and carbonates (sodium carbonate). Phosphate builders offer
the best performance over the widest range of laundering conditions, but they have been
replaced in the United States because of their role in water pollution. However, research-
ers have found that phosphates may have the lowest life-cycle costs and are urging
reevaluation of phosphate bans. Although carbonate builders do not contribute to water
pollution, they are found in some powder detergents and combine with hard-water miner-
als to form water-insoluble precipitates that may harm the washing machine, fabric, and
zippers (Figure 20.5).
Citrate builders, used in liquid detergents, are weaker at softening hard water. Sodium
silicate functions as a builder when present in large concentrations, but it is usually present in
small concentrations because it is a corrosion inhibitor. Zeolites, insoluble ion-exchange com-
pounds, are used in some heavy-duty detergents, but are being reevaluated for sustainability Figure Residue forms on fabrics laundered
and environmental impact. New biodegradable builders are used in Europe. 20.5 with carbonate builders in hard water.

care of textile products 519


Figure Color-transfer inhibitors would
20.6 minimize the stains on this multifiber
test fabric laundered with a fabric
sample that bleeds. Darker stripes in
the test fabric indicate greater color
transfer during washing. From top to
bottom in the photo: new multifiber
test fabric, multifiber test fabric
stained after laundering with fabric
sample (bottom).
520 chapter twenty
Enzymes in detergents remove fuzz resulting from the abrasion of cellulosic fibers. Since
cotton or cotton blends comprise up to 80% of the fabrics in a normal load, this ingredient has
a profound effect on home laundering. Enzymes prevent the formation of pills and keep textile
products looking newer longer. By removing fuzz, enzymes also minimize physical entrap-
ment of soil in worn areas of fibers. Use of biodegradable enzymes may slightly decrease the
product’s life because a tiny portion of the fibers is destroyed with each laundering. Other
types of enzymes are used to remove specific food stains, but these are usually present only
in stain-removal aids.
Other ingredients are designed to enhance the textile product’s appearance. Antifading
agents maintain original color intensity by minimizing color bleed in the wash. Dye-transfer
inhibitors usually contain borax compounds to prevent any dye that bleeds in the wash from
redepositing on lighter-colored products (Figure 20.6).
Antiredeposition agents, such as sodium carboxymethylcellulose or organic polymers,
minimize fabric picking up soil from the wash water. Perfumes are designed to mask the
chemical smell of detergents and to add a clean smell to the wash. Perfume-free detergents
usually incorporate a compound that masks or absorbs the odor of the other ingredients.
Dyes make the detergent look better and function as bluing. Detergent manufacturers have
replaced some of the dyes used with food-grade and more benign dyes. Perfume-free and
dye-free formulations are available.
Fluorescent whitening agents are also known as fluorescent brightening agents, opti-
cal whitening agents, and optical brightening agents. These compounds are low-grade or
weak dyes that fluoresce or absorb light at one wavelength and reemit the energy at another
wavelength. Thus, it is possible to have whites that are whiter than white. These ingredients
do not contribute to soil removal; they mask soil and make yellow or dingy fabrics look white.
Other ingredients that may be found in detergents include fabric softeners and bleaches
(to be discussed later in this chapter), processing aids that keep powders from caking and
liquids from separating, suds-control agents, and foam-control agents. Bleaches that are
activated by catalysts are effective at low concentrations when included as one of several
ingredients in a laundry detergent. Processing aids include sodium sulfate in powders, and
water, alcohol, and propylene glycol in liquids. Alcohol dissolves some ingredients of the
detergent, assists in stain removal, and acts as an antifreeze during shipping in colder cli-
mates. Opacifiers give a rich, creamy appearance to some liquid detergents. A soil-release
polymer, present in some detergents, is deposited on the fabric in the first wash, soil binds
with it in use, and the soil is released in the wash. Ultraviolet (UV) absorbers and antibacterial
compounds are incorporated in some specialty detergents.
Soaps  Soaps are salts of linear, long-chain fatty acids produced from naturally occurring
animal or vegetable oils or fats. Soaps react with hard-water minerals and produce insoluble
curds that form a greasy, gray film on textiles and a ring on tubs or sinks. Because this curd is
5 Learning Activity
Work in groups of three or four. Make a list describing an ideal laundry detergent. Be
sure to specify the type. Discuss your degree of satisfaction with your current detergent.
Suggest a list of likely ingredients for that detergent. Are there additional ingredients
that might improve its performance? If yes, what are they? How would they improve
performance?
lighter than water, it floats on the surface (Figure 20.7). Soaps are effective in removing oily or
greasy stains, but they are not vigorous soil-removal agents and have been replaced by syn-
thetic detergents in almost all applications, except for hand soaps and some hair shampoos.

Other Cleaning Additives

Many bleaches are oxidizing agents. The bleaching is done by active oxygen. Bleaches may
be either acid or alkaline. They are usually unstable, especially in the presence of moisture.
Bleaches that are old or have been improperly stored lose their oxidizing power.
Any bleach will cause damage, and because damage occurs more rapidly at higher tem-
Figure Soap curd is lighter than water and
peratures and concentrations, these factors should be carefully controlled. Because fibers 20.7 floats on the surface.
vary in their chemical composition, the choice of bleach should reflect fiber content.
Liquid chlorine bleach is a common household bleach. It is a cheap and efficient bleach
for cellulosic fibers. The bleaching is done by hypochlorous acid, which is liberated during the
Synthetic detergents and soaps are used
bleaching process. Because acid weakens cellulosic fibers, the bleach must be diluted before
to remove and suspend soils, minimize the
coming in contact with textiles and thoroughly rinsed out (Figure 20.8). Chlorine bleaches will
effects of hard water, and alter the sur-
cause yellowing on protein and thermoplastic fibers. As effective bactericidal agents (disinfec-
face tension of water and other solvents.
tants), they are also used for sterilizing or disinfecting fabrics.
Synthetic detergents are liquid, packet,
Powdered-oxygen bleaches, also known as all-fabric or color-safe bleaches, may be
powder, or tablet mixtures of ingredients.
used on all fibers and colored fabrics and in cold, warm, and hot water. They include catalysts
Each ingredient contributes one or more
that activate the powder bleaches, making them more effective in cooler water temperatures.
functions to cleaning.
Their bleaching effect is much milder than that of chlorine bleaches. These bleaches include
sodium perborate and sodium percarbonate. Powdered sodium perborate combines with
water and forms hydrogen peroxide. It is a safe bleach for home use with all fibers. However,
since perborates are harmful to plant life, sodium percarbonate is a safer and equally effective
alternative. Powder bleaches are recommended for regular use to maintain a fabric’s original
whiteness rather than as a whitener for discolored fabrics. Bleach may be an effective ingre-
dient found in detergents—often marketed as color-safe detergents with bleach. However,
color-safe bleaches are not as effective at removing stains as are chlorine bleaches nor do
they disinfect.
Acid bleaches, such as oxalic acid and potassium permanganate, have limited use. Citric
acid and lemon juice, also acid bleaches, are used as rust-spot removers.
Fabric softeners coat the fabric to increase its electrical conductivity, minimize static Figure Adding liquid chlorine bleach directly
charges, and decrease fabric stiffness. Some softeners incorporate compounds to minimize 20.8 to the wash water can bleach color
as demonstrated by the areas of color
wrinkling during washing and drying. The types of fabric softeners include those added to the
loss on this shirt.
final rinse, those present in detergent, and those used in the dryer. Many fabric softeners are
cationic compounds that form insoluble precipitates with anionic surfactants, the cleaning
compound found in many detergents. This means that the anionic surfactant must be rinsed
off the fabric before the softener is added or the formulation changed so that the softener and
surfactant are compatible and effective. Nonionic softeners do not create the compatibility
problem seen with cationic softeners, but they are not as effective at softening fabrics. Some
fabric softeners include microcapsules that, when activated by motion, release a fragrance for
up to seven days after washing.
The instructions for any fabric softener need to be followed or problems may result. For
example, fabric-softener dryer sheets should be added to a cold dryer. If they are added
to a warm or hot dryer, oil from the fabric softener may spot synthetic items. Some fabric
softeners build up on fabrics in a greasy layer, resulting in less absorbent fabrics. Instead of

care of textile products 521

 using a fabric softener with every washing, using it every other time or every third time may be
­sufficient and reduce buildup.
Water softeners are used as separate ingredients that can be added to increase deter-
gent efficiency if the water is especially hard. If a water softener is used, a nonprecipitating
type is recommended to avoid buildup of precipitates on washer parts and textiles.
Disinfectants include pine oil, phenolics, chlorine bleach, and coal-tar derivatives. These
items are used occasionally to disinfect sickroom apparel and bed and bath linens.
Enzymatic presoaks are used to remove tough stains. These additives contain
enzymes—such as protease (for protein stains), lipase (for fat stains), and amylase (for
­carbohydrate stains)—that aid in the removal of specific soils. Enzymatic presoaks require
more time to work than most other additives. A presoak of one-half hour or longer, even over-
night, is recommended. Presoaks also include a surfactant to improve performance. These
additives are not safe with protein fibers such as silk, wool, and specialty wools.
Pretreatments are used to remove difficult stains. They usually are added directly to
the stain shortly before the item is laundered. Pretreatment products contain a solvent and a
surfactant.
Starch or sizing is used after washing to add body and stiffness to fabrics. Laundry
starch is seldom used today, but spray starches and sizings to be applied during ironing are
available.
Bluing is a weak blue dye that masks yellowing in fabrics. Bluing is seldom used by itself
but it may be present in detergents as a dye. Use of fluorescent whitening agents in deter-
gents may make it unnecessary to add bluing.
There are many specialty products for cleaning textiles. Products available in the
­fabric-care section of stores are designed for home use.
Compounds for cleaning items containing down minimize clumping of down and damage
by alkaline detergents. Some manufacturers’ care labels suggest placing tennis balls or other
objects in the dryer with down-filled items to minimize clumping. These items may cause prob-
lems: The rubber in the ball may not be sufficiently resistant to heat, dye may transfer, and
balls may become wedged between the baffles and the bulkhead, creating expensive repair
problems. Stopping the dryer periodically and shaking the item vigorously reduces clumping.
Special soaps and detergents for hand washing of wool and other items work in cooler
water and remove body and other light soils and perspiration. Read and follow label instruc-
tions. Long soak periods can cause problems with some dyes.
Detergents for use in cleaning hand-crafted items are available in yarn and fiber shops,
at fiber festivals, and through online retailers or catalogs. Other detergents are formulated
to remove baby formula and diaper-accident soils. Another product incorporates com-
pounds to remove dust mite matter from textiles—especially important to consumers who are
allergic to dust mites.
Stain removal compounds in powder or spray form remove stains from carpet and home or
car upholstery and neutralize odor on textiles. Other products retard the soiling of leather, uphol-
stery, carpet, and outdoor textiles. Antistatic sprays minimize problems with static soiling from
dust and lint. Still other sprays are available to remove odor from a variety of textile products,
including upholstery, draperies, car interiors, carpets, and apparel. They incorporate ring-shaped
organic chemicals, cyclodextrins, that capture odor. These organic chemicals are renewable
and many are based on corn-derived carbohydrates. Some of these fabric fresheners also claim
to remove allergens from the air. Other fabric fresheners are based on zinc compounds that
react with nitrogen and sulfur compounds that are frequently the source of unpleasant odors.

522 chapter twenty

 Specific laundry aids for removing grease and rust stains should be used with caution
because they may damage fibers or may cause minor chemical burns when they come in
contact with the skin.
Laundry aids to absorb excess dye and color from soil include pieces of cotton terrycloth
that has been saturated with a polymer to remove color from the wash solution. The fabric
with dye absorber is washed with any item that might bleed in the wash.
Compounds to freshen horizontal or front-loading washing machines should be used
once a month to prevent growth of odor-forming bacteria. Many additives address specific problems
Fragrance beads can be added to the wash to add scent to textiles. These beads include encountered in cleaning textiles. These
microcapsules that claim to release scent for up to one week after use. The scent release is additives aid in renovating textiles by
activated by motion. removing soil, stains, and odor. Others are
With the increasing concern for health, sustainability, and environmental protection, some designed to soften, disinfect, or add body
laundry compounds include all-natural ingredients. However, do not assume that these items to textiles. Products for cleaning specific
are sustainable. Issues related to all-natural detergents include ingredients with a short shelf items like diapers, baby wear, carpet,
life, environmental damage due to development of palm oil plantations to the detriment of nat- upholstery, wool, and down are available.
ural rain forests and their inhabitants, higher costs, and lower cleaning efficiencies.

Sustainability of Cleaning
Cleaning improves the sustainability of most textiles by making them reusable. Imagine the sit-
uation if all textiles were disposable! However, that does not mean that cleaning is not without Other additives for cleaning textiles
its problems. The environmental impact of cleaning textile products is profound and multidi- include bleach, fabric and water softeners,
mensional. Life-cycle analysis of cotton textiles has demonstrated that up to three-fourths of disinfectants, and stain removers.
the energy consumed during the life of the product is consumed in laundering the item. Some
dry-cleaning solvents that have replaced highly flammable ones have been linked to cancer
and environmental hazards. In addition, ground contamination by dry-cleaning solvents leads
to contamination of water systems. Several communities have experienced problems with perc
contamination of water because of accidental or deliberate spills resulting in modifications of
the way dry cleaners handle perc. Cleaners handle all items cleaned with any solvent differently
and are using to dry-to-dry equipment to minimize the loss of solvent by evaporation.
Phosphate builders in laundry detergents were replaced decades ago in the United
States and Europe because of their suspected contribution to accelerated eutrophication of

Learning Activity 6
Make a list of the laundry compounds you use on a regular basis. Explain why you use
those compounds and your degree of satisfaction with them. What are the factors you
consider when selecting laundry compounds? Do you read and follow the care label
when using those compounds?

Learning Activity 7
Examine the labels for detergents and other laundry aids in stores or listen to com-
mercials promoting these products. What kinds of claims are made? Based on your
experiences with these products, do you find the claims valid? Why or why not? Is there
information on labels describing ingredients used in these products? Is there a way you
can determine this information?

care of textile products 523

 8 Learning Activity
Select five favorite textile items you own or use. List or estimate when you purchased
or received each item. Estimate how many times each item has been laundered or
cleaned. Estimate the cost to you if you had to replace each of these items every time it
needed to be cleaned.

ponds and lakes; but some research indicates that these builders may have the least impact
on the environment as compared with other builders when one also considers the costs and
efficiency of water treatment. Phosphate builders are rarely restricted or banned in other
cleaning compounds, such as bathroom cleansers and dishwashing detergents. Bans on
phosphates in detergents have had little effect on the problems with water systems that the
bans were designed to address.
In the 1960s, detergent manufacturers voluntarily switched to biodegradable surfactants.
Manufacturers have changed formulations of detergents to concentrated forms that require
less packaging and reduce transportation costs. Recycled plastic and paper packaging is
used. Refillable containers decrease the use of packaging materials even more. Some ingre-
dients in the new formulations are multifunctional, decreasing the number of ingredients and
reducing the impact of producing many different ingredients.
Single-use pods are popular because of the convenience and the combination of clean-
ing, bleaching, and stain removal. However, the small size and bright colors of these pods
are appealing to children. Great care must be taken to keep these items away from children
to avoid accidental poisoning. The cleaning industry has established an educational program
to eliminate poisoning of children who are prone to ingesting small items that look like candy.
Concerns related to compounds from palm-oil derivatives used in many organic laun-
dry detergents relate to destruction of rain forests in Indonesia, Malaysia, and elsewhere to
develop palm tree plantations. Laundry detergents raise additional sustainability concerns
because of the amount used. After use, detergent is discarded into water-treatment systems
or, in some parts of the world, dumped into surface-water systems without treatment. Some

9 Learning Activity
Examine the items you use when doing your laundry. How many and which items iden-
tify the reusable materials in the container? Suggest reasons why this information is
provided to consumers. Do you use this information when deciding to purchase laun-
dry items? Other items such as toilet paper, paper towels, tissue, or other packaged
goods? What does this say about the changing perspective of consumers?

10 Learning Activity
Read the label of your detergent or soap. Identify all safety precautions included on the
label. If your detergent is a packet, does the label include information about keeping the
packets away from children? If yes, how is the information worded? Do you know any-
one whose child was poisoned by a laundry aid? Research online the dangers posed
by detergent packets and other laundry aids. What can you do to ensure the safety of
children in terms of laundry aids?

524 chapter twenty

 Learning Activity 11
Explain what you can do to improve the sustainability of cleaning textiles. You can
approach this from an individual consumer perspective or as a soon-to-be professional
perspective. How can you influence others to modify their cleaning practices?

large retailers have identified detergent ingredients that are chemicals of concern that they
would like to see phased out over the next few years. One such chemical is nonylphenol
ethoxylate (NPE), which is known to break down into more toxic compounds that disrupt the
endocrine systems of fish and shellfish.
Detergent manufacturers are developing products that have a lower carbon footprint Cleaning improves the sustainability of
during manufacturing and from packaging, distribution, and use. Some companies require textiles, but issues related to sustainability
that 99% of the ingredients be based on plants or minerals, be biodegradable, nontoxic to fish include water quality, dry-cleaning solvents,
and other aquatic life, and formulated without animal testing. One problem with biodegrad- synthesis of the additives used in cleaning,
able compounds is that they rarely include preservatives and begin degrading before they are and palm oil derivatives and its impact on
used. Preservatives are used to eliminate that problem, but that also decreases the biodegra- rain forest ecology.
dation of the detergent after use.

Cleaning of Apparel and Interior Textiles

Laundering
Laundering is the most common means of cleaning consumer textiles. Table 20.2 summa-
rizes the care required for generic fibers. While fibers are a significant factor in determining
appropriate care, other factors also influence care labels. The care appropriate for a textile
product depends on its dyes or pigments, fabrication, finish, product construction, other
materials (such as trims, support materials, linings, buttons, etc.), type of soil, and extent
of soiling.

Sorting
Before cleaning, consumers should sort the items to be washed to minimize problems and
remove soil as efficiently as possible. Sort by color, type of garment (e.g., separate work
­garments from delicate items), type of soil, recommended care method, and propensity of
­fabrics to lint. Closed zippers and buttons will not snag other items in the wash. P
­ ockets
should be checked for pens, tissues, and other items that may create problems during
­washing. Also check items for stains, holes, or tears and treat or repair as needed. Sort so
that the loads are as large as possible and the number of separate loads are as small as
­possible to reduce the costs of time, energy, water, and additives.

Washing Machines
Most contemporary washing machines allow for easy use by providing predetermined wash
cycles. Consumers can select wash and rinse water temperatures, agitation speeds, and
time. But spin speed, type of agitation, number of deep rinses, and other factors are usually
determined by the washing-machine producer. Instruction booklets for each machine help the
consumer understand more of the science of laundering; the machine’s performance will be

care of textile products 525

Table 20.2  Summary Table: Care of Textile Products by Fiber Type
Water Chlorine Bleach Dryer Iron Storage/Use
Fiber Group Cleaning Method Temperature Use Temperature Temperature Considerations

Acetate Dry clean* Warm Yes Low Very low Avoid contact with nail
polish remover
Acrylic Launder Warm Yes Warm Medium —
Cotton Launder Hot Yes Hot High Store dry to prevent
mildew
Cotton/Polyester/ Launder Hot Yes Warm Medium —
DP
Flax Launder Hot Yes Hot High —
Do not press in
sharp creases
Lyocell Dry-clean or Warm Yes Warm High Minimize abrasion
launder
Metallic Launder Warm Yes Warm Low —
Nylon Launder Hot Yes Warm Low —
Olefin Launder Warm Yes Warm Very low —
PLA Launder Hot Yes Warm Low —
Polyester Launder Hot Yes Warm Low —
Rayon Launder Hot Yes Hot High Store dry to prevent
mildew
Silk Dry-clean* Warm No Warm Medium —
Spandex Launder Warm No Warm Very low —
Wool Dry-clean* Warm No Warm Medium, with Protect from moths and
steam carpet beetles; do not
store in plastic bags

*Or hand-wash. Avoid excessive agitation and stretching.

12 Learning Activity
Work in groups of two. Identify the cleaning method recommended for the fibers listed
in Table 20.2. For those fibers where dry cleaning is recommended, identify why that
recommendation is made. What will happen if products made from these fibers are
washed?

enhanced if these instructions are followed. Wash-cycle information for textiles is provided on
care labels and should be followed to minimize dissatisfaction with laundry performance.
Traditional washing machines load from the top and include an agitator that occupies
significant space in the tub and reduces the cleaning capacity of the machine. These vertical
axis machines use an agitator to provide the physical energy to remove soil from textiles. They
agitate textiles in a pool of water with detergent and other additives. Consumers expect to see
a certain amount of suds if they open the machine during operation. These machines are effi-
cient at cleaning, but consume significant amounts of water and energy with every load. Their
cleaning cycles are relatively short. They remove water during a spin cycle in which the tub
rotates at 600 to 700 rpm (revolutions per minute) to pull water out of the textiles. Vertical axis
machines use approximately 90% of the energy for heating water and from 35 to 50 gallons
(132 to 189 liters) of water per load. Researchers are examining appliance design to reuse gray
water or water that has been used to clean or rinse clothes as a means of reducing water use.

526 chapter twenty

 Because of this high energy and water consumption, the federal government required
laundry equipment manufacturers to change machine design to reduce energy and water
use. New standards put in place in 2012 and mandatory in 2015 and 2018 are expected to
save approximately 2.7 quads of energy, 3 trillion gallons of water, and $80 billion in energy
savings for products shipped from 2015 to 2044. The standard will avoid approximately
141.6 million metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions, equivalent to the greenhouse gas emis-
sions of about 27.8 million cars. The U.S. Department of Energy requirements differ by the
type of machine and year. Requirements for machines manufactured before January 1, 2018
are listed first; requirements for machines manufactured after January 1, 2018 are listed in
parenthesis. The modified energy factor (MEF) ranges from a minimum of 0.86 (1.15) for com-
pact top loading machines to a minimum of 1.84 (1.84) for standard front loading machines
(the higher the number, the better the energy efficiency). The Integrated Water factor (IWF)
requirements will range from a maximum of 4.7 (4.7) for standard front loading machines to a
maximum of 14.4 (12.0) compact top loading machines (the lower the number, the better the
water use). Energy Star, a joint program by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), is a voluntary labeling program that identifies and
promotes energy-efficient appliances, equipment, lighting, and other home devices. Washers
and dryers that meet the qualifications carry an Energy Star label (Figure 20.9). Some local
governments and utility companies provide an economic incentive to purchase energy effi- Figure The Energy Star label promotes
cient appliances and other devices. 20.9 energy-efficient appliances.
Some washers include a pretreatment sink. The consumer can pretreat stains with laun-
dry aids and water directly over the tub of the washer. When pretreatment is done, the con-
tents are dumped into the tub and the washing cycle commences.
Horizontal axis machines, common in Asia and Europe for years, are now common in
the United States as well. Sometimes these machines are referred to as front-loaders, but
some horizontal axis machines also load from the top. Horizontal axis machines clean by
rotating textile products in a manner similar to that used in dryers. Figure 20.10 compares the
components and configuration of vertical and horizontal axis washing machines. The items
are dropped in or tumbled through a shallow pool of water with detergent and other additives
many times during the wash cycle. The impact from hitting or tumbling through the water
provides the physical energy needed for cleaning. Textile shrinkage is less with horizontal
axis machines, but abrasion can increase. Dye transfer or bleeding is more likely to occur.
Wrinkling is more pronounced. If consumers hang items to dry, ironing may be needed to
remove wrinkles. Savings are approximately 40% for water, 65% for energy, and 30% for dry-
ing, since extraction is more efficient in the spin cycle. Cleaning cycles are longer, but cleaning
is more efficient.

Learning Activity 13
Check your appliances and entertainment devices. How many include an Energy Star
label? Is energy efficiency something you consider when purchasing appliances and
entertainment devices? Explain your response. If you use a home washing machine,
how old is it? What does it cost to run (energy to run the machine, water use, and
energy to heat the water—search online for help with this part). How long would it take
for the energy and water savings to pay for a new machine?

care of textile products 527

 Top loading machine

Control panel
Front loading machine

Lid
Control
Panel

Fixed
outer tub
Door
Rotating
inner tub
Innertub
Baffles
Agitator
Outer tub

Heavy Duty
springs
Drive motor
Heating
Pump Drive motor
elements

Pump

Damper pads
(a) (b)
Figure Components and motion for washers: top-loading vertical axis washer (a) and front-loading horizontal axis washer (b).
20.10

Horizontal axis machines have a larger capacity since there is no internal agitator in
the tub. Consumers cannot open the machine mid-cycle as can be done with vertical axis
machines. Once the cycle has started, the last-minute item cannot be added. Most machines
have several dispensers to add bleach, fabric softeners, and other compounds that are added
during the wash cycle. Because these machines are horizontal, the doors must seal tight to
prevent water leakage and mid-cycle opening of the door. Because of this, these machines
need to be cleaned approximately every month or a musty, mildew odor develops. Vertical
axis machines dry out between uses; horizontal axis machines are much less likely to dry out.
Horizontal washers will also have an effect on fabric finishing. Durable finishes are
designed to last through a certain number of wash and dry cycles, but the standards were
established with vertical axis machines that used greater amounts of water per cycle and
a different type of agitation. These changes in washing machines may be most noticeable
on fabrics with surface finishes. In addition, the lower volume of rinse water increases the
likelihood of biofilms developing on textiles. A biofilm is an aggregate of microorganisms that
adhere to textile surfaces and may create problems with odor and mold, mildew, or fungus
growth. When heat and humidity, such as may occur during wearing, are introduced, odor
may develop. Hot water, steam, and chlorine bleach are effective disinfectants. To counteract
the development of biofilms, antimicrobial finishes may become more common.
Special cleaning compounds for horizontal axis machines are available. Specially for-
mulated high-efficiency (HE) detergents should be used in a horizontal-axis machine. These
HE detergents provide the correct level of sudsing for horizontal axis machines. Horizontal
axis machines are sensitive to sudsing. Most of these machines have suds warning devices

528 chapter twenty

because too many suds can damage the machine. In addition, HE detergents incorporate
compounds that keep soil in suspension. Remember, with these machines, less water is
used, but the same or greater amounts of textiles can be cleaned in one load. Hence, chem-
icals that are more efficient at keeping soils in solution are needed or textiles will accumu-
late soil from the wash water. Finally, HE detergents incorporate compounds that disperse
detergent more quickly. Again, this ingredient is needed because of the lower water usage in
horizontal axis machines.
Steam washers are available for home use, but the steam is used only in selected cycles
to help wet fabrics more completely. Steam is used to boost cleaning, improve detergent
action, and remove oil and other challenging stains. During the rinse, steam kills microorgan-
ism, sterilizes fabrics, and removes wrinkles that form during use or washing. Some washers
heat the water to generate steam. Others use a separate heating unit to create the steam
that is delivered to the tub by a nozzle. Steam washers use less energy and less water than
conventional washers.

Dryers and Drying

Drying removes the solvent from the textile. The drying procedure usually is specified on
the care label. In machine drying, the textiles are tumbled in a rotating drum. Heated air is
circulated through the drum. It heats the water remaining on the textiles from washing. This
water evaporates and the moisture-laden air is vented out of the dryer. Figure 20.11 shows a
drawing of a dryer.
Machine-drying is considered the most severe method because of the abrasion
and agitation. Fabrics tumble against the rotating cylinder and other items in the dryer.

7
1

3
2
2 4
5
4 3

1 Drying Chamber
2 Lint Screen
3 Fan
4 Motor
5 Dryer Vent
6 Heating Element
7 Door

Figure Parts and air flow for a clothes dryer.

20.11

care of textile products 529


Figure Line drying is a sustainable option for
20.12 drying.
Washing machines are designed for
efficient and convenient cleaning. Machine
design has changed as a result of
government mandates related to water and
energy use. Dryers remove solvent from
textiles.
530 chapter twenty
If zippers, heavy or harsh fabrics, or rough trims are present, fragile items can be dam-
aged. Sometimes, items left in pockets, like pens, markers, and crayons, stain items with
the heat from the dryer.
Other drying options use less energy, but may require more individual effort and time.
Items that are hung to dry can be hung out in the weather or inside a home, apartment, or
other building. In line drying, items are hung outside to dry in the weather (Figure 20.12). Wind
speed, humidity levels, and sunlight intensity have a significant impact on the speed of drying.
Strong winds and dust or other atmospheric pollutants can damage textiles that are hung to
dry. Dew or rain can rewet dry items requiring more time for drying. In addition, line drying in
areas with bird and insect populations may result in some clean items being soiled during dry-
ing. Strong sunlight can fade items while they dry. While fading is usually not apparent imme-
diately, it can accumulate over time. Line drying may be too severe for some items because
wet fabrics are extremely heavy and are likely to stretch or tear. This is especially a problem
for wool, rayon, and other fibers that are weaker when wet.
Items can also be hung to dry inside on drying racks or lines. Inside drying can increase
household humidity levels, especially in humid regions or humid seasons. Finding a space
where items can dry without interfering with family or household activities can be difficult. It
is a challenge to find a space to dry large items like bedding. It may require more time to dry
items indoors. Drying items in this manner is much less likely to result in damage compared to
drying in the wind and soiling during drying rarely occurs.
Drying flat is the least severe method because the fabric is under little stress. Special dry-
ing racks and sweater drying hammocks are available. However, drying flat requires the most
time and area for drying. This method is recommended only for items that cannot be tumble
dried or hung to dry. Combination dryers are available that incorporate hanging, flat, and tum-
ble drying in separate chambers in the dryer.
Steam dryers are available. They do not actually use steam to dry. Several cycle options
exist. Steam dryers use heat to dry much like a regular dryer. However, steam dryers do use
steam to more effectively remove wrinkles. Steam also softens, deodorizes, and sanitizes
fabrics. Some dryers add a fine mist of water that is heated to steam by the dryer. Others
generate steam in a small unit and deliver the steam to the textiles. Steam dryers can be used
to freshen textiles between uses. Products should be checked for stains before freshening or
the process might set the stain. Fabric softener sheets should not be used with a steam dryer
since they are more likely to stain.
Vent-free dryers do not exhaust moisture-saturated air outdoors. They use a closed cir-
cuit in which air inside the dryer is heated and circulated among the wet items. The hot air
absorbs moisture and passes through a heat exchanger, where the water is condensed and
drained off. The air is reheated and the process continues until the items are dry.
14 Learning Activity
Describe how you clean the textile items you own (apparel, interior textiles, accessories,
and other items like bags, etc.). Be sure to include such dimensions as sorting, drying,
spot or stain removal, and ironing. Describe your degree of satisfaction with the out-
comes of a normal cleaning process. Are there any problems you normally experience?
What are they? Did anyone train you as to how to clean textiles? Who? Do you continue
to follow those practices or have you changed some or most of what you do? Why?
Commercial Laundering
Commercial laundries include several types: businesses that wash apparel and some interior
textiles for individual consumers, businesses that wash uniforms for companies where uni-
forms are required, and businesses that operate an in-house laundry such as in the medical
field. Often uniforms are leased in a full-service package, meaning that the lease includes
weekly laundering.
Commercial laundering places high demands on the textiles, the equipment, and the
chemicals used in cleaning. Textiles may be washed more than 100 times and are expected
to withstand the heavy wear that results from washing and drying in commercial machines.
The wash and dry units used in commercial laundering resemble home washers and dryers,
except that they are much larger, are equipped with heavier motors and belts, and have fewer
cycle options. Factors similar to those driving the home laundry and dry-cleaning industries
impact commercial laundering: energy efficiency, reducing water use, and selecting chemicals
with the best sustainability options.

Dry Cleaning
In dry cleaning, solvents other than water are used to remove soil from textiles. The solvents
include the following: perchloroethylene (perc), petroleum solvent (Stoddard’s solvent), sili-
con-based solvent, carbon dioxide–based solvent, and fluorocarbon solvent. Of these, perc
is most common. However, because of concerns regarding the toxicity and environmental
impact of perc and fluorocarbon, new replacement solvents are available. Because of cost
and regulations associated with perc and fluorocarbon, dry cleaners are gradually switching
to other solvents or cleaning systems. If asked, most dry cleaners will identify the solvent they
use. Some items are labeled dry clean only because of the fiber content, dyes that bleed in
washing, leather or fur trim, fragile components like beads or open lace, support materials
that would lose their body and stiffness after wetting with water, or water-soluble finishes on
the fabric or fiber like sericin on silk. Washing by hand or machine would damage the item or
destroy the look or drape of the item. Many machine-washable items may be dry-cleaned.
The reverse is also true: many items labeled dry clean can be hand or machine washed with
no adverse effects.
The International Fabricare Institute (IFI), a professional organization, trains and educates
dry cleaners, has developed a fair-claims adjustment guide for use in consumer complaints,
and provides an evaluation service when problems develop. Members display an IFI plaque in
their business.
When items are brought to the dry cleaner, they are identified with a tag that includes
special instructions, the owner’s identification number, and the number of pieces in the group.
Items are inspected (Figure 20.13). Because a solvent is used, stains that are water-soluble
and other hard-to-remove spots are treated at the spot board before cleaning. Customers
who identify stains for the dry cleaner make cleaning easier and ultimately improve their sat-
isfaction with the cleaned product. About one-fourth of the items taken to a dry cleaning
business will be cleaned in water rather than solvent. Many stains and odors, including perspi-
ration, require wet cleaning to be removed.
After treatment at the spotting board, items are placed in a dry-cleaning unit to be
Figure Dry-cleaner tags help identify the
tumbled with a charged solvent (solvent, detergent, and a small percentage of water) 20.13 owner, number of items, and special
(Figure 20.14). After tumbling, solvent is reclaimed in the dry-to-dry unit or in a separate instructions.

care of textile products 531


Figure Dry-cleaning unit.
20.14
In dry cleaning, solvents other than water
are used to remove soil from textiles. Spe-
cial equipment is used to reclaim and reuse
organic solvents. Special techniques are
needed for such items as leather and fur.
532 chapter twenty
reclaimer unit. These units serves the same function as a dryer in laundering, except that
the solvent is passed through a refrigeration unit, condensed and filtered to be used again.
Because so much solvent is lost in transfer, reclaimers are being replaced with dry-to-dry
units. Use of dry-to-dry units, more efficient equipment, and better management practices
have reduced perc consumption substantially. Solvents are reclaimed to improve sustainabil-
ity and lower costs. Filtering and distilling remove soil, color, odor, and other residue and allow
the solvent to be reused many times.
After the items are dry, they go to the pressing area, where steam and special steam-air
forms give a finished appearance to the item. For example, pants are pressed with a topper
that presses the top part of the pants. Each leg is pressed separately with a press. Jackets,
shirts, and blouses are finished with a suzie, a steam-body torso form (Figure 20.15). After
pressing, items are placed on hangers or shirt boards and the group is reassembled to wait
for pick-up by the owner. More than 3 billion wire hangers (approximately 195 million pounds
of steel) are discarded and end up in landfills annually in the United States. Many dry cleaners
will reuse hangers and shirt boards if they are clean and in good condition. Check with the
dry cleaner before assuming they will reuse these items. New environmentally friendly hangers
that are durable for approximately 2 months of use are made from 100% recycled and recy-
clable paper.
Many dry cleaners also will replace buttons; make minor repairs to items; replace sizing,
water repellency, and other finishes; add permanent creases to pants; and clean fur and leather.
Some dry cleaners can also clean and sanitize feather pillows and clean and press draperies.
Many dry cleaners offer a combination service for wedding dresses that includes cleaning the
gown, preparing it for storage, and providing a special box for storage. Although this service is
appealing, it may not completely protect the gown from aging, and the dry cleaner may not use
archival materials in the box or packing materials. Some specialty gowns with lots of bead and
sequin trim may require a special expensive and time-consuming cleaning process.
Other unique items such as quilts, old laces, sheer fabrics, embroidery, historic or vintage
apparel and furnishing textiles, and other fragile items also require special care. Dry cleaners
may refuse to work with some of these items if the dyes are not fast (a problem that may
occur with pieced quilts and embroideries) or if the fabric is fragile, as it is with many vintage
items. Dry cleaners that work with unique or historic items may require a signed disclaimer
form because of their fragile nature or use of incompatible materials.
(a) (b)
Figure Pressing equipment: pants press (a), inflatable suzie for steaming blouses and
20.15 shirts (b).
Dry Cleaning of Leather and Fur  Products made of leather and fur, and those that con-
tain these materials, should be cleaned by specialists because of their complex and special
requirements. Leather and fur (furrier) dry cleaning must remove soil without damaging
the dye or finish and restore oils that cleaning removes. This is a complex and expensive pro-
cess. Wide variations in hides or skins and processing create potential problems for the con-
sumer and dry cleaner. Frequently, the leather/fur cleaner is required to redye or refinish the
item to restore it to a form that will satisfy the customer. Because of this additional processing,
leather and fur cleaning is expensive. Most dry cleaners do not clean these items themselves
but send them to a specialist.
Dry cleaners frequently see problems with leather dyes that are not fast to dry cleaning.
This is especially common with high-fashion items and items that combine leather trim with
woven or knit fabrics. The problem is more common with apparel because apparel items are
more likely to have leather trim. However, interior textiles made of leather or trimmed in leather
may also present problems in cleaning.

Home Solvent Cleaning

A product for freshening dry-clean-only items is available in a kit that includes a stain-­
removal solution, a bag for use in a home dryer, and a solvent-treated moist cloth that
can be used to gently pretreat stains. Consumers should pretreat stains and test items
for colorfastness before cleaning them. The moistened cloth is placed in the bag with
the garments. The bag is then placed in an otherwise empty dryer with an outside vent.
Heat from the dryer activates the solvent, which removes light soil and some odor. Items
should be removed promptly and hung to minimize wrinkling. The product works best
with lightly soiled items and items that do not require special care or pressing, such as
simple slacks and skirts and wool sweaters. The kit is not as effective as commercial dry
cleaning, but it reduces the number of times many products will need dry cleaning. Tra-
denames include Dryel At-Home Dry Cleaning Kit, ® Woolite at Home Dry Cleaner, ® and
Bounce 15 Minute Dry Cleaner®.

Learning Activity 15
Do you have textiles dry cleaned? If yes, describe the type of textile, the special pre-
cautions that may be on the label, the frequency of dry cleaning, and your satisfaction
with the process. Do you avoid purchasing items that require dry cleaning? If yes, why?

Learning Activity 16
Work in groups of four. Explain the differences and similarities among washing, dry
cleaning, home solvent cleaning, and professional wet cleaning. What percentage of
the textiles cleaned by the group are laundered? What percentage are dry cleaned?
Has anyone in the group tried home solvent cleaning or had any item professionally
wet cleaned? Describe individual satisfaction with the outcomes of these cleaning pro-
cesses based on cost, convenience, types of items, and cleaning outcomes. Would
hand or gentle machine washing be effective and safe for items restricting home clean-
ing? What care is listed on the care label for these items?

care of textile products 533


Professional wet cleaning is a commercial
alternative to dry cleaning for items labeled
dry clean only.
Table 20.3  Upholstery Cleaning Codes
W Use water-based upholstery cleaner only.
S Use solvent-based upholstery cleaner only.
WS Can use either water- or solvent-based upholstery cleaner.
X Do not clean with either water- or solvent-based upholstery cleaner; use vacuuming or light brushing only.
534 chapter twenty
Professional Wet Cleaning
Professional wet cleaning is a commercial alternative to dry cleaning for items labeled
dry clean only. This process is more complex than home laundering and requires training in
­selecting and using the proper technique.
Almost every type of dry-cleanable fabric can be wet-cleaned, provided there is careful
control of temperature, mechanical action, moisture levels, soap, and other cleaning additives.
Before cleaning, products are sorted by fabric type, not color; they are checked for the pres-
ence of water-soluble dyes; and stains are treated. The process is labor-intensive and uses
controlled applications of heat, steam, and natural soaps to clean textiles and pressing tech-
niques to restore the item’s appearance. Even though water is used, these ­computer-controlled
wet-cleaning and drying machines differ from home washing machines and dryers. The item
may not be fully immersed in water during the process. The cleaner selects from steam clean-
ing, spot removing, hand washing, gentle machine washing, tumble drying, and vacuuming.
Microwave drying reduces shrinkage during drying. The method selected depends on the item
and fabric type, degree of soiling, and condition. Research has found that approximately 80%
of the items labeled dry clean only can be wet-cleaned successfully.
Consumers report that wet cleaning provides similar cleaning potential as dry cleaning and
appreciate the lack of solvent odor on wet-cleaned items. Consumers are pleased with the general
cleanliness and overall appearance; however, some shrinkage, wrinkling, and color loss may occur.
Because the process uses less-expensive equipment, less capital is needed to open a
plant. Wet cleaning makes significant use of water and energy during the cleaning process,
but there are fewer risks in terms of flammability, health problems, and environmental con-
tamination that are associated with traditional dry-cleaning solvents. To clean 100 items, wet
cleaning uses only one-fourth to one-third the electricity and approximately 1.4 times more
natural gas/steam and 1.2 times more water than dry cleaning. Discharge from wet-cleaners
has not created problems in water-treatment facilities.
Cleaning of Interior Textiles
This section discusses cleaning carpets and upholstery. The challenges of cleaning carpet
and upholstery is that almost always the textile is cleaned in situ or on-site. Selection of clean-
ing compounds is based on the type of reside that is left since rinsing cannot occur. Selection
of the cleaning method is based on the degree of soil, fabric structure (loop pile, cut pile, or no
pile), and convenience. Most of these methods clean only the surface and are considered light
or surface cleaning methods because they do not clean to the base of the pile or fabric struc-
ture. As with other textiles, it may not be possible to completely clean interior textiles that have
become heavily soiled. While the myth is not true, many consumers continue to postpone
cleaning for fear that cleaning will make the carpet or upholstery soil more quickly.
Several of the methods discussed in this section are used for upholstery. Table 20.3 lists
upholstery cleaning codes that can be combined with the methods to produce optimum results.
Vacuuming  Vacuuming uses suction to pull particulate soil, such as dust, lint, and dirt,
from carpeting, upholstered furniture, and wall and window coverings. It is the most common
and important method of cleaning carpets. Vacuuming removes soil that has not adhered
to the fibers. Large particles such as small rocks and paper clips may not be removed by
vacuuming and may need to be swept or picked up by hand. Since vacuuming removes only
particulate soil, other types of soil must be removed by other means. For industrial and com-
mercial carpets, the vacuum cleaner must have a heavy-duty rating so that it cleans deeply
into the surface pile and can withstand frequent, heavy use. Most home vacuum cleaners are
not of this type.
Regular vacuuming is recommended so that soil does not work deep into the pile of the
carpet. In many applications, this means daily vacuuming. For vacuuming to be most effec-
tive, the vacuum should pass over the carpet in several directions so that soil protected by
yarns or fibers in one direction is exposed and removed when the vacuum approaches from
another direction (Figure 20.16).
Upholstery, especially pile upholstery, should be vacuumed in a similar manner to Figure Recommended pattern for vacuuming
­carpet—in multiple directions. Pockets or crevices and areas under cushions or pillows 20.16 carpets and rugs.
should be vacuumed. Many vacuum cleaners include crevice tools to assist in removing dust
and particulate matter from these areas of upholstered furniture.
On any carpet, spots and stains should be treated as soon as possible after soiling.
Carpet manufacturers provide a list of recommended cleaning compounds for specific stains.
If carpets accumulate oily soils or airborne dust and dirt that is not removed with regular vacu-
uming, corrective action should be taken. A variety of procedures are discussed in this chap-
ter. However, before attempting any of these other methods, a thorough vacuuming should
be done first to remove surface soil and separate and loosen packed pile.

Hot-Water Extraction  In the hot-water extraction method a fine spray of hot-water–­

detergent solution is injected into the carpet. To be most effective, water temperature should
be between 1508F (668C) and 2008F (938C). The solution is under pressure and wets the
carpet quickly but is removed almost immediately by a powerful vacuum. Vacuuming removes
both the water and the soil.
Several types of equipment exist. All are based on two options: a portable unit or a truck-
mounted system. A machine sprays the cleaning solution into the carpet, a powerful vacuum
removes the soiled solution, and a holding tank contains the soiled water. Truck-mounted
systems are more effective at cleaning and reduce the potential for indoor air that contains
excess humidity and tiny dirt particles. If a truck-mounted system is used, the truck runs in
neutral to power the system so it must be parked to avoid exhaust fumes from entering the
building. All-electric systems are available without the exhaust problems. Because of the hot
water used in this process, scalding injuries may occur if a hose breaks or detaches.
Overwetting of the carpet sometimes occurs if an area is treated too slowly. To minimize
rapid resoiling, the detergent must be completely removed. Since no brushes are used in this
process, pile distortion is minimized. This process is sometimes referred to as warm-water
extraction. Although sometimes also referred to as steam cleaning, no steam is used in the
process. This method is recommended by almost all carpet manufacturers because it provides
deep cleaning to the base of the pile or fabric structure with minimal pile distortion or damage.
Advantages of hot-water extraction are that the high cleaning temperatures kill bacteria,
dust mites, mold, fungus, and other organisms. If properly done, there is little or no residue.
The high pressure and powerful vacuum clean more effectively than other methods.

care of textile products 535

 Wet Cleaning  Wet cleaning or shampooing of carpets is a method that uses w
­ ater-based
detergents in foam form and requires extended drying times. The cleaning solution generates
high levels of foam to reduce wetting of the carpet yarns and eliminate wetting of the carpet
backing and padding. The foam is worked into the pile with rotating brushes. A lubricating
agent is incorporated in the cleaning solution to reduce damage to the carpet yarns and
­fibers from the rotating brushes. A thorough wet vacuuming follows to remove the soil-laden
solution. Some carpets may require several days before they are completely dry. The solution
also often includes an optical brightener to enhance the clean appearance of the carpet. In-
gredients are selected so that the residue dries without being sticky, which would attract soil
and lint.
Two types of machines are used: a cylindrical foam machine and a rotary shampoo
machine. The cylindrical foam machine includes an air compressor that creates the foam
before it is applied to the carpet. A revolving cylindrical brush applies the foam to the carpet
and provides the agitation. This method is not as effective at removing particulate soil, so it is
essential to thoroughly vacuum carpet before and after wet cleaning.
The rotary shampoo machine is the same kind of machine as used for cleaning and
polishing hard floor surfaces. This machine sprays the cleaning solution onto the carpet. The
rotary brush whips the solution into a foam and agitates the carpet surface. Many carpet man-
ufacturers do not recommend this type of cleaning because of the potential for damage to the
carpet, especially cut pile carpets which are common in residential areas. Overwetting is more
common with this machine with potential staining from carpet backing or padding, shrinkage,
and odor.
Testing the cleaning solution on an inconspicuous area of the carpet is recommended
before the entire surface is cleaned in this manner. This process is also known as the rotary
brush method.
Cleaning solutions may not be completely removed, resulting in brown stains appearing
on the surface of the pile. Brush action may permanently distort the pile. Detergents should be
selected that prevent dulling of the carpet’s surface, minimize rapid resoiling, avoid creating
problems with static electricity, and disinfect. After wet cleaning, problems with static electric-
ity may develop if a water-based antistatic agent was originally applied to the carpet and not
restored after wet cleaning. If compounds containing chlorine, such as bleach, are added to
the shampoo, a yellow discoloration may appear on the carpet. Unfortunately, this problem
also occurs in communities where chlorine is used to treat the water. Wet cleaning is not as
effective at cleaning as several other methods.
A variation of this method is carbonated cleaning or the bonnet method that uses car-
bonated water, supposedly to improve the cleaning efficiency of the process. The bonnet
machine is a modification of the hard floor spray buffing machine.

Dry-Foam Cleaning  Dry-foam cleaning or aerosol cleaning of carpet is done by hand

with a foam sprayed onto the carpet or by employing a machine that deposits a detergent
solution as a foam on the carpet just ahead of an agitating brush. The brush works the solu-
tion into the carpet, loosens soil particles, and suspends them in the foam, and the vacuum
removes the soil. Since application of the foam, agitation, and vacuuming is almost simulta-
neous, complete wetting of the carpet is avoided. Dry-foam cleaning does not remove deeply
embedded soil because the solution works more on the surface. Dry-foam processes allow

536 chapter twenty

 Learning Activity 17
Work in groups of three or four. Explain the processes used for cleaning carpeting and
upholstery. Has anyone in the group tried to clean carpeting or upholstery, including
spot or stain removal? Describe the process used and the degree of satisfaction with
the end result.

the carpet to be used soon after cleaning, often within the hour. This process is also used to
clean upholstery.

Absorbent Powder Cleaning  Absorbent powder cleaning, also known as powder

cleaning, uses absorbent powders combining detergents, water, and solvents. The dry pow-
der is sprinkled on the surface of the carpet or upholstery and brushed or otherwise worked
into the pile or fabric. The powder combines with the soil and holds it in suspension until it
is removed by vacuuming. The powder should remain in contact with the fabric’s surface for
a brief time before being removed by vacuuming. The method is fast and requires no time
for drying, but removes surface soil only. Pile distortion is related to the vigor with which the
powder is worked into the pile. With cleaning compounds that have extremely fine particles,
it may be difficult to remove all of the compound. If white powder appears on shoes or pant
cuffs, too much was used or removal was not complete. This method is also known as dry
extraction cleaning, or absorbent compound cleaning. It is also used to clean upholstery.

Many interior textiles have different cleaning

Ultrasonic Cleaning  Ultrasonic cleaning requires that the rug or carpet be removed from needs because they must be cleaned in
the use site and taken to a special cleaning facility. High-frequency sound waves ­attract the situ. Specialized cleaning methods for
soil and remove it from the carpet fibers. At present, this method is not used on carpets that interior textiles include vacuuming, wet
cannot be removed from the location. Ultrasonic cleaning in conjunction with water-based cleaning, dry foam cleaning, hot-water
and solvent-and-water-based systems is being investigated as an alternative to solvent dry extraction, absorbent powder cleaning,
cleaning. and ultrasonic cleaning.

Storage and Conservation Practices

Storage
Storage, another important aspect to consider for textile products, describes the holding
sites for textiles between production, retail, use, and cleaning. Most textile materials are
placed in storage during one or more stages of their production. With quick response and
just-in-time initiatives expected of producers and distribution centers, the amount of storage
time in the production sequence has decreased for many items. Nevertheless, storage con-
tinues to generate concerns regarding the potential for damage that may occur. The condi-
tions under which textile materials and products are stored may influence their appearance,
quality, and performance. For example, natural fibers are stored from the time they are har-
vested until they are cleaned and processed into yarns. If storage conditions are poor, the
fibers develop mildew problems, become infested with insects, or discolor. Incorrect storage
of finished fabrics or products may result in permanently set wrinkles, discoloration from con-
tact with other materials and dye or print transfer, and damage from insects, mold, or heat.

care of textile products 537


Figure Yellowed cotton napkins stored next
20.17 to wooden drawer bottom for several
years. The lighter area between
the two napkins show where they
overlapped. The yellow-brown area
was in contact with wood while the
lighter area was not.
Most textile products should never be
stored in direct contact with raw wood,
raw wood products, wood finishes, brown
paper, newspaper, or cardboard because
of the problems these materials cause with
fibers, dyes, or finishes.
Vintage and collectible textiles in private and
museum collections require different meth-
ods of handling, cleaning, and storage.
538 chapter twenty
Storage concerns also relate to conditions in transportation and shipping, especially with so
many items being produced offshore. Of course, storage in the home includes such options
as flat storage in drawers and on shelves and hanging storage in closets. Some items are also
stored supported like hats on hat stands.
Most products should never be stored in direct contact with raw wood, raw-wood prod-
ucts, wood finishes, brown paper, newspaper, or cardboard. Raw wood and wood pulp
papers and cardboard produce acid as they age. Cellulosic fibers are degraded by acid, and
brown or yellow stains may develop as a result of exposure to the wood (Figure 20.17). Plastic
bags from dry cleaners are provided as a service to avoid soiling freshly cleaned items during
transport. These bags often incorporate phenolic antioxidants and are not intended for stor-
age. They should be discarded immediately after the product is brought into the house. Items
stored in dry-cleaning bags may discolor because of the materials in the bag; build up static
and attract dust; or trap moisture, creating an ideal environment for mildew. For more infor-
mation regarding storage, see the appropriate fiber chapter.
Textile Conservation
Vintage and collectible textiles in private and museum collections require different methods of
handling, cleaning, and storage because many are one-of-a-kind, irreplaceable items. Con-
servation refers to preserving textiles through the use of special techniques that require train-
ing, specialized equipment, and mild chemicals.
These special textiles are analyzed in detail before cleaning to determine fiber
content, type of other materials present, condition, and colorfastness of all colors and
materials to water and detergent. Cleaning may include any or all of these steps: hand
removal of particulate soil and lint, carefully controlled vacuuming, supported immer-
sion soak in a solution of warm water and mild detergent, and flat drying. The goal of
cleaning in conservation is not the same as in the other processes discussed in this
chapter. Conservation cleaning removes harmful materials from the textile, but stains
and soil may remain once cleaning has been completed. Harsh and potentially damaging
spot-­r emoval agents and bleach are rarely used in conservation cleaning because they
threaten the integrity of the item.
Proper storage is especially important for these textiles since they will spend most of their
time there. Techniques that protect items from light, dust, insects, abrasion, tension, environ-
mental pollution, and changes in temperature and humidity are used. Materials that neutralize
damaging by-products of aging and provide protection from the surrounding environment
support and cushion each item individually.
18 Learning Activity
Visit a local museum or historic house. Carefully examine how the textiles that are in
exhibits or on display are supported, their location within the room, and the type and
amount of light striking the textile. Make a note of such items as protection from dust,
touching by volunteers or visitors, temperature and humidity control, and contact with
other materials like supports or display materials. If you have the opportunity, visit the
storage area of the museum. What things that you saw will help you determine appro-
priate storage for textiles that you want to preserve because of their personal, family, or
cultural meaning?
terms
key terms
Absorbent powder cleaning
Antifading agent
Antiredeposition agent
Dyes
Dye-transfer inhibitor
Enzymatic presoaks
Soil
Soil-release polymer
Solvent
Bleach Enzyme Sort
Bluing Fabric softener Starch
Builder Fluorescent whitening agent Storage
Care Fur (furrier) dry cleaning Surfactant
Conservation Hot-water extraction Ultrasonic cleaning
Detergency Leather dry cleaning Vacuuming
Detergent Material performance testing Water
Disinfectant Perfume Water softener
Dry cleaning Pretreatment Wet cleaning (shampooing)
Dry-foam cleaning Professional wet cleaning
Drying Soap

questions
review questions
1. Define detergency, and explain what happens when a soiled
textile product is cleaned.

2. Explain what happens when soap is used in hard water.
3. Why is water used in laundering and many other methods of
cleaning?
4. The next time you do the laundry, use a thermometer
and measure the water temperature of the wash water.
How does this temperature relate to the temperature you
selected? How will that difference affect the cleaning
process?
5. Explain the differences and similarities between vertical and
horizontal axis washing machines. What kinds of differences
might consumers see in terms of their textile products?
6. You are a member of a product development team for a retailer
who sells private label merchandise. A supplier wants to use a
dry-clean-only label for an all-cotton shirt. What factors might
make this label appropriate for such a product? Would such a
label affect sales for an all-cotton shirt? Why or why not?
7. Briefly explain the most appropriate process to clean the
following items:
a. Blue geometric print all-cotton sheeting after one week
of normal use
b. Dark blue, all-polyester hotel front desk staff jacket
and slacks after one week of normal use (worn for two
8-hour shifts)
c. Two-year old’s blue denim shorts stained with chocolate
ice cream and diaper accident
d. White T-shirt with branded logo worn for a casual game
of volleyball on a warm spring day with grass stains
e. Beige silk blouse with red wine stain
f. Cotton/polyester dress slacks worn all day at the office
g. Black knit cotton pants with barbecue sauce stain on
one knee
h. Nylon carpet in an apartment right before moving and
turning in your keys
i. Olefin upholstered tweed chair with oily stains from the
hands and hair
j. All linen draperies from a living room with dust and
general soil from several years of use
k. All cotton curtains from a kitchen after one year of use
l. All wool handwoven tapestry rug with a pet stain
m. Wool and acrylic dobby upholstered sofa with an oily
stain from spilled popcorn
8. Compare the similarities and differences between dry
cleaning and laundering.
9. Identify the ingredients, and their function, that may be
present in your favorite laundry detergent.
10. What ingredients have been incorporated in one container to
make doing the laundry easier and more convenient?
11. How does carpet or upholstery cleaning differ from
laundering? What factors should be considered when
selecting a cleaning method?
12. How have sustainability issues changed the manner in
which textile products are cleaned?
13. What textile problems can develop during storage?
14. How should cleaning of a vintage or historic textile item be
done? What are the concerns that should be considered
before cleaning is attempted?
15. What factors should be considered when developing a care
label for a textile product? How can the accuracy of the care
label be evaluated?

care of textile products 539

 Case Study
Sustainable Laundry Practices*
Although consumers are becoming more
aware of sustainability issues and products,
green consumers remain a small percentage
of the whole. Most consumers make decisions
based more on cost and convenience
than sustainability. They are happy to be
environmentally friendly as long as they
save money. Sustainable laundry practices
include using cold-water wash cycles, high-
efficiency washers, and line drying. These
three factors would have the largest impact
on the environment and would significantly
reduce energy demand and global warming
potential (GWP). Unfortunately, using high-
efficiency washers would require consumers
to purchase new washing machines, but
the other two actions would reduce their
expenses for energy and water use. Reducing
the number of loads and washing larger loads
would improve the sustainability of laundering
and further increase savings of energy and
water. In a further attempt to reduce costs,
some consumers are wearing clothes more
often before washing. Issues regarding the
impact of these practices on product care and
performance are being investigated.
Discussion Questions
1. Explain how these three practices
(cold-water wash cycles, high-efficiency
washers, and line drying) would be
considered sustainable.
2. What other factors would improve the
sustainability of laundry?
3. How would you help educate consumers
about sustainable laundry practices?
4. What practices do you use that are
sustainable? Why do you use them? What
factors motivate you to be sustainable?
5. How would sustainable laundry practices
impact product care and performance?
If you use sustainable laundry practices,
what have you noticed about product
care and performance?

*Peterson, M., Wallace, M., Barnes, E., Martin, V., & Reed, J. (2014, May/June). The future of sustainable laundry practices. AATCC Review, 14(3), 38–44.

readings
suggested readings
American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists. (2015).
Technical Manual, 90. Research Triangle Park, NC: Author.
DuBois, S. (2014, January/February). Wearing and caring for silk.
Handwoven, 35(1), 24–25.
Eckman, A. L. (2004). The dirt on drycleaning. AATCC Review, 4(3),
9–11.
McCoy, M. (2015, January 19). Cleaning product makers bask in
new solvents. Chemical and Engineering News, 93(3), 16–19.
Moe, K. D. (2000). With bleach detergents: How they work. Textile
Chemist and Colorist and American Dyestuff Reporter, 32(8),
79–81.
Musante, G. B. (2015, March/April). A new spin on laundry day.
AATCC Review, 15(2), 34–40.
Peterson, M., Wallace, M., Barnes, E., Martin, V., & Reed, J. (2014,
May/June). The future of sustainable laundry practices. AATCC
Review, 14(3), 38–44.

McCoy, M. (2007). Going green. Chemical and Engineering News, Ridgley, H. (2003). Cleaning up the dry cleaning business. National
85(5), 13–19. Wildlife, 41(5), 16–17.

McCoy, M. (2008). Greener cleaners. Chemical and Engineering Scott, A. (2015, March 2). Making palm oil sustainable. Chemical
News, 86(3), 15–23. and Engineering News, 93(9), 19–21.

McCoy, M. (2006). Soaps and detergents. Chemical and Thiry, M. C. (2008). It’s a new laundry day. AATCC Review, 8(3),
Engineering News, 83(5), 13–19. 22–28.

McCoy, M. (2009). The greening game. Chemical and Engineering Wang, L. (2008). Dryer sheets. Chemical and Engineering News,
News, 87(4), 13–19. 86(15), 44.

540 chapter twenty

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Rudolf Tepfenhart/Fotolia Martinlisner/Fotolia

Nikokvfrmoto/Fotolia Kalpis/Fotolia
Legal and
Sustainability
Issues Related
to Textiles
Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To explain how laws and regulations relate to the labeling and safety of textiles and
textile products.
• To discuss professional and consumer rights and responsibilities in terms of legal
concerns and sustainability.
• To describe efforts within the global textile complex to make the production, use,
care, and disposal of textiles and textile products more sustainable.

21
 Numerous regulations and laws related to fair-trade practices, information labeling, general
operations, design aspects, worker and consumer safety, sustainability, and environmental
protection impact the global textile complex. While several areas (fair-trade practices and gen-
eral business operations) are beyond the scope of this book, discussion of specific laws, and
regulations, and sustainability issues, will build an understanding of a professional’s legal and
social responsibilities.

Laws and Regulations

Because of the financial and public relations implications of failure to comply, profession-
als need to understand and abide by all laws and regulations related to textiles and textile
products in any country in which they work. Many regulations and laws relating to textiles
and textile products focus on providing the ultimate consumers with information so that they
are able to make informed decisions regarding purchase, use, and care of textile products
(Figure 21.1). In the United States, the interpretation and enforcement of these laws and reg-
ulations are the responsibility of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). The activities of the

(a)

(d)

(b)

(c) (e)

Figure Textile product labels as sewn-in labels (a through d) and printed on the technical back of the fabric (e).
21.1

544 chapter twenty-one

FTC are designed to protect the ultimate consumer and legitimate domestic segments of the
global textile complex. The FTC can levy fines and criminal penalties for violations. The FTC
is responsible for preventing unfair or deceptive trade practices, for example, the marketing
of a rayon/polyester blend crash in such a way that suggests it was made of flax, implied by
the use of the term linen. Trade and business publications frequently carry articles describing
efforts of the FTC to prevent unfair or deceptive trade practices in the United States. Many
other countries have similar truth-in-fabric laws and regulations to protect their business and
consumers. Textile laws and regulations can be viewed on the Federal Trade Commission
website (www.ftc.gov/) and by searching for the law or regulation by name.
False claims about textile products can result in substantial fines and prosecution. For
example, in 2013, the FTC levied a fine of $1.26 million against four U.S. retailers for selling
bamboo textiles that were actually rayon. The FTC’s investigation revealed that the false claims
included green marketing statements and antimicrobial properties. Part of the problem is that
consumers were being misinformed and being charged more for a fiber that was, in fact,
rayon. Rayon is far from a green fiber and has no inherent antimicrobial properties. The FTC
holds retailers responsible for any false product claims for products sold in the United States.
Retailers are responsible for substantiating all claims made about the product—whether the
claim is expressed or implied. Other examples of false claims about textile products include
fiber that was tested in souvenir magnets was cat and dog hair rather than the rabbit fiber
as claimed. Or, when marketed as organic cotton and the products actually contain conven-
tionally grown cotton. Retailers and consumers are often at a disadvantage as it is difficult to
substantiate claims and distinguish organic cotton from regular cotton.
The following sections detail specific laws and regulations important for consumers and
professionals to know.

Silk Regulation, 1932

Silk may be weighted (treated with a solution of metallic salts) to increase fabric weight and
hand and improve its dyeability. However, weighted silk is not as durable and wrinkle-resistant
as regular silk. Because of these problems, the FTC ruled in 1932 that anything labeled pure
silk or pure dye silk could contain no more than 15% weighting for black and no more than
10% for all other colors. Anything exceeding these levels is weighted silk. Very little silk on
today’s market is weighted. However, museum collections have many weighted silk items
that are disintegrating due to the metallic salts once added.

Wool Products Labeling Act, 1939 (Amended)

Wool may be blended with less-expensive fibers to reduce fabric cost or to extend its use.
The Wool Products Labeling Act of 1939 (amended) protects consumers, producers, man-
ufacturers, and distributors from the unrevealed presence of substitutes and mixtures and
informs consumers of the source of the wool fiber for any textile product containing wool,
except carpets, rugs, mats, and upholstery. The law requires that the label describe the
fiber content in terms of percentage and the fiber source. Fiber produced from sheep, lamb,
angora goat, cashmere goat, camel, alpaca, llama, and vicuña can be referred to as wool.
Further details relating to fiber size apply to fine wool and cashmere, primarily because of
problems with items claiming to include higher quality or more expensive fibers than were
found with analysis.

legal and sustainability issues related to textiles 545

 The term fur fiber can be used for the fiber from any other animal. The name of the
manufacturer or the registered identification number of the manufacturer also must be on
the label. The registered number is designated WPL or RN. WPL refers to the wool product
label number, and RN to the registered number. Finally, the act requires that the label list the
name of the country where the product was manufactured or processed. These labels must
be sewn into the item in specific locations. The act does not state or imply anything regarding
fiber quality used in the product, except for fine wools and cashmere. Consumers must rely
on their knowledge to determine the quality and suitability of the product.
The terms that appear on the labels of wool items are defined by the FTC as follows:

1. Wool—new wool or wool fibers reclaimed from knit scraps, broken thread, and noils.
(Noils are short fibers combed out in the production of worsted wool yarns.)
2. Recycled wool—scraps of new woven or felted fabrics that are garnetted or shred-
ded back to the fibrous state and used again in the manufacture of woolens.
3. Virgin wool—wool that has never been processed in any way; thus, knit clips and
broken yarns cannot be labeled virgin wool.

Fur Products Labeling Act, 1952 (Amended)

The Fur Products Labeling Act (FPLA) applies to furs—items of animal origin with the hair/
fiber attached. The act requires that the animal’s true English language name be used on
labels for wearing apparel and that dyed furs be so labeled. The country of origin must be
listed. The presence of used, damaged, or scrap fur must be identified. The act has been
amended to identify animals by name. An expanded list of modifications to the natural fur
include tip dyeing, pointing (coloring the tips of the guard hairs), and other means of artificially
altering the color or appearance of the fur. This law does not provide for a quality designation.
The law protects consumers from buying economical furs sold under names implying
expensive furs. For example, prior to this law, rabbit was sold under such highly imaginative
and blatantly false names as lapin, chinchilette, ermaline, northern seal, marmink, Australian
seal, Belgian beaver, and Baltic leopard. Hudson seal was muskrat plucked and dyed to look
like seal.

Textile Fiber Products Identification Act, 1960 (Amended)

The Textile Fiber Products Identification Act (TFPIA) protects consumers and producers
from unfair competition resulting from the unrevealed presence of substitute materials in tex-
tile products. This act was needed because several new fibers were introduced in the 1950s
and 1960s that made it very difficult for consumers to know what they were purchasing. The
TFPIA covers all fibers except those already covered by the Wool Products Labeling Act, with
certain other exceptions.
The list of manufactured-fiber generic names in Table 6.1 was established by the FTC in
cooperation with fiber producers. This list is updated whenever a new generic fiber name is
approved. A generic name is the name of a family of fibers all having similar chemical com-
position. (Find definitions of these generic names with the discussion of each fiber.)
The label does not have to be sewn into the item, but the information must be avail-
able at the point of sale on hangtags or printed packaging materials. Required fiber-content
information may be combined with promotional information such as suggested price, size,

546 chapter twenty-one

style number, trade name, or trademark. Since hangtags are removed before use and often
discarded or lost, manufacturers combine fiber-content information with such other required
information as care instructions and manufacturer-identification information and sew it into the
item as a permanent label (see Figure 21.2).
The following information is required, in English, on the label of most textile items, includ-
ing apparel, outer coverings of furniture and mattresses/box springs, bedding, and toweling:

1. The percentage of each natural or manufactured fiber present in order of predomi-

nance by weight and correct within a tolerance of 3%. For a label stating 50% cotton,
the cotton content can be no less than 47% and no more than 53%.
If a fiber or fibers represent less than 5% by weight of the item, the fiber cannot
be named unless it has a clearly established and definite function. For example, a gar-
ment that has a small amount of spandex may have a label that reads 96% Nylon, 4%
Spandex for elasticity.
2. The name of the manufacturer or the company’s registered WPL or RN number.
3. Trademarks must identify the generic fiber name and be in type or lettering of equal
size and conspicuousness. Trademarks are not required information.
4. The name of the country where the product was processed or manufactured must
be stated, such as Made in USA. Country of origin is identified as the country where
the item was assembled. That can be very confusing since the law allows labels to
identify when products have been made of components assembled elsewhere. For
example, jeans may be labeled Made in USA if they were completely assembled in the
United States from domestic fabric. If the most labor-intensive parts were assembled
in Jamaica, the jeans would be labeled Made in USA of imported components or

(a) (b) (c)

(e)

(d)
Figure Labels (a through d) and packaging (e) identify fiber content of textile products.
21.2

legal and sustainability issues related to textiles 547


The truth-in-fabrics laws and regulations
are intended to provide consumers with
accurate information about the fibers
used in textile products. Specific laws
and regulations address silk, wool, fur
fiber, and manufactured fibers. Fibers are
defined and information regarding labeling
is included.
The Care Labeling Regulation requires
manufacturers or importers of textile
wearing apparel and certain fabrics to
provide an accurate, permanently attached,
and legible label or tag that contains
regular-care information and instructions.
548 chapter twenty-one
Made in USA of components made in Jamaica. For fabrics, country of origin refers
specifically to the country where the fabric was finished. Jeans made in the United
States from imported fabric would be labeled Made in USA of imported fabric.
Guidelines and restrictions of a similar, but slightly less-restrictive nature to those for
labels also apply to advertising in terms of generic names, percentages, and use of trade-
marks or trade names. Again, the intent is to provide accurate information to the consumer to
assist in purchase and use decisions.
Permanent Care Labeling Regulation, 1972 (Amended)
The Care Labeling Regulation requires manufacturers or importers of textile wearing
apparel and certain fabrics to provide an accurate, permanently attached, and legible label
or tag that contains regular-care information and instructions (about washing, drying, iron-
ing, bleaching, warnings, and dry cleaning). The regulation specifies label location by product
type. For example, most shirt and blouse labels should be attached at the center back neck-
line. Pants and trouser labels should be at the center back waistband.
The regulation was developed because of consumer complaints regarding care instruc-
tions. Revisions of the rule have required more specific, detailed information concerning
only one care method for a product. Labels use common and carefully defined words (see
Appendix E) or standard symbols (Figures 21.3 and 21.4) that have a standard meaning.
When products are produced offshore and sold in the United States, they must meet U.S.
care-labeling requirements. When a label identifies washing, it must state the washing
method, water temperature, drying method, drying temperature, and ironing temperature,
when ironing is necessary. Procedures to be avoided must be identified, such as Only nonch-
lorine bleach, when necessary. If multiple care methods are appropriate for that product, the
manufacturer is not required to list them on the label. If the care-label instructions are followed
and some problem develops during care, the manufacturer is liable. However, if the care-­
label instructions are not followed, the manufacturer is not liable for any problems caused by
improper care.
The rule applies to most apparel. It does not apply to leather, suede, fur garments, ties,
belts, and other apparel not used to cover or protect a part of the body. Some apparel items,
such as reversible garments, are required only to have removable, not permanent, care labels.
For piece goods, the information must be supplied on the end of the bolt, but neither the
manufacturer nor the retailer is required to provide a label to be sewn to the finished product.
The rule does not apply to remnants. Although interior textiles are not required to have care
labels, voluntary care labels appear on most sheets, towels, and other items.
1 Learning Activity
Work with a partner. Discuss how or if you use fiber-content information when deciding
to purchase textile products. Talk to friends, neighbors, and family members to see
if they use fiber-content information in making decisions to purchase textile products.
Have you or any of the people you talked with experienced problems with a textile prod-
uct because the fiber content was not what you thought it was? What kinds of problems
did you experience? Has your behavior related to textile-product purchases changed as
a result of your expanding knowledge of textiles? If yes, how has it changed?
 MACHINE BLEACH TUMBLE DRY IRON DRY
WASH DRY CLEAN

(Dry or Steam)

Cool/Cold Any Bleach No Heat Line Dry/ Dry Clean

(when needed) Hang to Dry
Low

Low
Warm
Do Not
Only Drip Dry Medium Dry Clean
Non-chlorine
Bleach Medium
Hot (when needed)
High
Drip Flat
High

Do Not Bleach

Normal Any Heat Dry in the

Shade
No Steam

Permanent Normal
Press Do Not Dry
Do Not Iron

Permanent
Delicate/Gentle Do Not Wring
Press

Delicate/Gentle
Do Not Wash

Do Not
Hand Wash Tumble Dry

Figure Care symbols.

21.3 Source: Courtesy of the American Cleaning Institute®.

The FTC works with various trade and testing organizations to identify problems with
compliance with the labeling regulation and to minimize future problems with inadequate and
incorrect care labels.

Learning Activity 2
Consider how you clean textile products. Do you read the care labels on items before
cleaning them? Do you do this every time before you clean an item or only with new
items or items you seldom wear or rarely clean? What information are you searching
for when you read a care label? Do you always follow the care label? Why or why not?
Have you experienced a problem resulting from cleaning a textile product? What kind of
problem did you experience? Was the problem related to incorrectly cleaning the item
or was the care label incorrect?

legal and sustainability issues related to textiles 549

 (a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)
Figure Care information is provided on labels sewn into textile products (a through d) or printed on the technical back of the textile (e).
21.4 Sometimes the information is in symbols.

3 Learning Activity
Examine the labels on the textile items you are wearing or have with you today. List the
information on each label and categorize it as required by law or regulation. Identify the
information that a consumer might use in making a purchase, use, or cleaning decision.
How might consumer satisfaction change if no information were required on labels? Is
there additional information you would like to see on labels? Are you interested in how a
textile product addresses sustainability or cradle-to-cradle concerns?

4 Learning Activity
Describe a textile product that you commonly use or wear. Identify fiber content, yarn
type, fabrication method, and finish. Write a label for this product including all required
information and correct terminology or symbols. (Appendix E might be of help in this
activity.) Now, write a description for a special-use textile product addressing the same
details and a label for that product. Where are the labels similar? Dissimilar? What ele-
ments of the textile product necessitated a change? In what general label category did
the change occur? Why?

550 chapter twenty-one

Mandatory and Voluntary Labeling Programs Mandatory labeling describes acceptable
Mandatory labeling describes acceptable and legal commercial practices for companies to and legal commercial practices for
follow. Federal law requires that the information be available and accurate. Fiber-content infor- companies to follow.
mation and care labels are mandatory.
Voluntary practices and labeling programs may be used in marketing textile products
(Figure 21.1). Voluntary programs include certification, licensing, and warranty programs, and
such branding dimensions as trademarks and trade names and symbols, like those promot-
ing natural fibers. A voluntary program may also imply a quality-control program, since prod-
ucts must meet company performance and quality specifications.
Warranties can be implied or written. Implied warranties indicate that the product is suit-
able for the purpose for which it was marketed. For example, an implied warranty for a rain-
coat suggests that it will not shrink significantly when wet. The written warranties for apparel
and interior textiles are legally binding and imply performance at a predetermined level. NEW LINE
Danger Night 3 is a trademark
Licensing describes the situation in which one company legally uses another company’s and copyright of New line studios.
trademarks and expertise to make, use, and/or sell a product (Figure 21.5). Licensing agree- Licensed by New line studios.
All rights reserved.
ments usually are restricted to specific geographic areas. For example, Company A has a HORROR
ENTERTAINMENT
licensing agreement with Company B to produce and sell in the United States a print featuring
Figure Generic licensing information that
one of Company B’s cartoon characters. Company A cannot sell the print outside the United
21.5 would be used on a label for a textile
States, nor can it incorporate another character in the print without negotiating another licens- bearing the image of a cartoon
ing agreement with Company B. character.
Certification programs describe agreements between fiber and fabric producers
regarding product performance and trade names or trademarks. A fabric manufacturer must
demonstrate that a fabric meets specified end-use performance requirements as identified
by the fiber producer before the end product can be certified. For example, pillows marketed
with a company’s certification mark first must be tested to verify that the pillows meet end-use
specifications.
A textile may be given a trade name or trademark that distinguishes it from another
textile that is made and sold by other producers. A producer may adopt a single trade name,
word, or symbol, which may be used to cover all (or a large group) of the fibers made by that
company. Trade names are often protected by quality-control programs.
The producer assumes the responsibility for promoting the product. The company must
sell not only to its customers, the manufacturers and retailers, but also to their customer’s
customer—the consumer. Trademarks and trade names are used for fibers, finishes, yarns,
and fabrics.

Learning Activity 5
Examine the labels in Figures 21.1, 21.2, and 21.4. It might be helpful to consult
Appendix E. Organize the information for each label by the applicable law or regulation.
List the information that is mandatory and that which is optional. Do any of the labels list
information incorrectly (such as using trade names only, listing fiber content in reverse
order, or using undefined terms)?

legal and sustainability issues related to textiles 551

 Voluntary programs include certification,
licensing, and warranty programs, and
trademarks and trade names.
Table 21.1  Federal Standards Implementing the Flammable Fabrics Act
Item
Flammability of clothing,
Title 16 CFR 1610
Flammability of vinyl plastic
film, Title 16 CFR 1611
Children’s sleepwear, sizes
0–6X, Title 16 CFR 1615
Children’s sleepwear, sizes
7–14, Title 16 CFR 1616
Large carpets and rugs,
Title 16 CFR 1630
Small carpets and rugs,
Title 16 CFR 1631
Mattresses (and mattress
pads), Title 16 CFR 1632
552 chapter twenty-one
6 Learning Activity
Examine the labels on the textile items you are wearing or have with you today. Which
items include voluntary label information, such as warranties, guarantees, certification
or licensing information, and trade names or trademarks? (Keep in mind that colleges/
universities, athletic teams, and entertainment entities have licensing agreements with
companies who sell merchandise carrying their names, logos, mascots, or characters.)
Describe the items that carry this kind of information. How did that information influence
your purchase decision?
Flammable Fabrics Act, 1953, and Its Amendment
Laws and regulations addressing safety of textile products require that certain textile prod-
ucts meet a predetermined level of performance in terms of flammability as identified by the
procedure for flammability testing and a pass/fail scale. Federal regulations are designated as
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), with the identifying numbers indicating the product
category into which they fall (Table 21.1). Various governmental agencies enforce these safety
Requirements Test Method
Articles of wearing apparel except interlining fabrics, 45-degree angle test: fabric placed in a small holder at
certain hats, gloves, footwear. Ratings: Class 1 a 45-degree angle (Figure 21.6) exposed to flame for
(suitable for apparel, with a flame-spread time greater 1 second. (Ignition may not occur.)
than 7 seconds), Class 2 (suitable for apparel, with
intermediate flame spread), and Class 3 (unsuitable for
apparel, with flame spreads of less than 3.5 seconds
or 4.0 seconds for napped fabric).
Vinyl plastic film for wearing apparel. A piece of film will Similar procedure to the 45-degree angle test.
not burn faster than 1.2 inches per second.
Any item of wearing apparel intended to be worn for Vertical Forced Ignition test. Each of five fabrics is
sleeping (nightgowns, pajamas, or other) up to and suspended vertically in holders in a cabinet and exposed
including size 6X. Excludes diapers and underwear. to a gas flame along the bottom edge for 3 seconds.
All items must meet requirements as produced and Specimens cannot have average char length of more
after 50 washings and dryings. Pass/fail ratings based than 7 inches.
on burn time and char length.
Similar to 16 CFD 1615 except for size. All items must Similar to 16 CFR 1615.
meet standards.
Carpets greater than 6 feet in any dimension and a Pill test. Carpet specimens (9-inch diameter) exposed to
surface area greater than 24 square feet. Excludes methenamine tablet placed in the center of each specimen
vinyl or asphalt tile and linoleum. All items must meet (Figure 21.7).
standards: do not char more than 3 inches in any
direction; 7 or 8 samples must pass in order to meet
minimum criteria.
Carpets with no dimension greater than 6 feet and a Same as for large carpets and rugs.
surface area no greater than 24 square feet. Product
may be sold if it does not meet standards but must
be labeled: Flammable. (Fails U.S. Department of
Commerce Standard FF2–70.)
Ticking filled with a resilient material intended for sleeping Cigarette test. A minimum of nine cigarettes allowed to
upon, including mattress pads. Excludes pillows, box burn on smooth top, edge, and quilted locations of
springs, sleeping bags, and upholstered furniture. All bare mattress. Char length must not exceed 2 inches in
items must meet standards. any direction from any cigarette. Tests also conducted
with nine cigarettes placed between two sheets on the
mattress surface.
standards, including the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC, a subdivision of
the FTC) and the Department of Transportation. The Consumer Product Safety Commission
has broad jurisdiction over all aspects of consumer safety including the Flammable Fabrics
Act. The CPSC has jurisdiction over more than 15,000 kinds of consumer products used in
and around the home, in sports, recreation, and schools. Violators can be given civil and crim-
inal penalties. Fines are based on the severity and frequency of the offense. Interior textiles for
public-use areas are often included in federal, state, or local building codes.
Congress enacted the first national law dealing with flammable fabrics following several
deaths from fire involving apparel. The Flammable Fabrics Act prohibits the marketing of
dangerously flammable material, including all wearing apparel, regardless of fiber content or
construction. The law developed standards and tests to separate dangerously flammable fab-
rics from normally combustible ones (Table 21.1). Later, the act was amended to cover a
broader range of apparel and interior textiles.
Developing a standard takes considerable time. First, facts are collected to indicate a need.
Then, a notice is published in the Federal Register identifying a need for a standard. Interested
persons are asked to respond. Test methods are developed and published in a second notice.
Figure The 45-degree angle tester for
A final notice, including details of the standard and test method, is published with the effective 21.6 apparel.
date of compliance. One year is usually allowed so that merchandise that does not meet the Source: Courtesy of SDL Atlas LLC.
standard can be sold or otherwise disposed of and new merchandise can be altered as nec-
essary to meet the standard. Mandatory standards have been issued for apparel and interior
textiles: apparel, children’s sleepwear, sizes 0 to 6X and 7 to 14, large and small carpets and
rugs, and mattresses and mattress pads. City and state standards exist for some additional
textile items including tents, blankets, and career apparel for people who work near open flame. Selected textile products must meet
Each year, the CPSC recalls dangerously flammable textile items that do not meet per- predetermined levels of performance
formance requirements. Recent recalls include sweatshirts, skirts, and jackets made from related to flammability.
a fleece-type fabric and lined rayon, and imported rayon/cotton chiffon skirts. Recalls have

/GVJGPCOKPGRKNN
 %CTRGV 

5VGGNRNCVG

 
5KFGXKGY 6QRXKGY

Figure The methenamine pill test for carpets and rugs.

21.7

Learning Activity 7
Do you know anyone who has been injured in a fire? Do you know anyone who has
had property damaged in a fire? Were textile products involved? If yes, describe the
textile product(s), the loss of property, and medical treatment involved. How does the
Flammable Fabrics Act protect individuals and structures? How might the requirements
and restrictions posed by Act impact consumer choice? Professional responsibilities?

legal and sustainability issues related to textiles 553

 8 Learning Activity
Assume that you are a consumer who purchased an item that has been recalled
because of its dangerous flammability. How would notification of that potential risk
impact you and your willingness to purchase that brand or from that retailer in the
future? Would hearing about the recall on the news or social media change your reac-
tion? If yes, how?

9 Learning Activity
Assume that you work for a company that had a product that has been recalled by the
CPSC. How would the recall impact your company? What actions might a company
take if they are subject to such a recall? What would the costs (financial and otherwise)
be for a company experiencing such a recall? Who is responsible for making decisions
about product design, production, and sales? How would that recall impact profession-
als who allowed their company to invest in such an item?

significant impact on retailers and producers because of their investment in time and money,
lost sales, loss in consumer confidence, and the cost of conducting the recall.
Summaries of procedures and pass/fail flammability scales are discussed in Table 21.1
for CFR product categories. Other procedure summaries are provided.
Two other procedures are also used to assess the flammability of carpets and rugs.
The Steiner tunnel test is required by many state codes and some federal agencies. In this
procedure, a much larger sample (24 feet long, 20 inches wide) is placed on the ceiling of a
tunnel. A double gas jet burns for 10 minutes as an air draft pulls the flame into the tunnel for a
distance of approximately 4 feet. The flame spread rating is related to the distance the carpet
sample burns based on a 100-point rating scale. A 0 represents materials that will not burn

(a) and 100 represents the flammability of red oak flooring (classification A, flame spread 1 to 25;
B, flame spread 26 to 75; C, flame spread 76 to 200).
The flooring radiant panel test is used by many federal agencies. A carpet or rug sample
39 inches long by 8 inches wide is mounted horizontally, preheated, and ignited. A flame-
spread index is based on the burn distance. Higher numbers indicate greater resistance to
flame spread and therefore greater safety.
The Upholstered Furniture Action Council (UFAC) has issued voluntary standards for
upholstered furniture. Ignition propensity is either Class I (the safer category) where no ignition
(b)
occurred in the fabric classification test and char lengths are less than 1.75 inches or Class II
Figure UFAC label: face (a) and back (b)
where fabric ignited in the fabric classification test. A hangtag indicates the flammability rating
21.8 Source: American Home Furnishing
Alliance. (Figure 21.8).
Interior textiles are also regulated by several federal departments and agencies. Samples
tested include pieces of fabric, mockups of the upholstery and padding, and full-scale tests
that use a real piece of upholstered furniture. The Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare sets fire-safety standards for health care facilities. Many states have upgraded their
fire codes to include California’s standards to limit fires related to upholstered furniture. This
includes the incorporation of a fire block layer in upholstered furniture and mattresses to
minimize their flammability.
The flammability of window treatments is assessed by several methods. However, all
regulate the length of time allowed for self-extinguishment of the flame and afterglow and

554 chapter twenty-one

identify the maximum allowable length or area of fabric that may burn or char during the test.
Samples tested include pieces of fabric. Window treatments that cover more than 10% of
the wall area may be considered an interior finish. The flammability requirements most often
cited for window-treatment fabrics are those of the cities of Boston and New York, the state
of California, and the commonwealth of Massachusetts. Wall coverings are rated for flamma-
bility, durability, and stain resistance.
Two NFPA tests (701 Small-Scale Test and 702 Large-Scale Test) assess the flamma-
bility of curtains, draperies, upholstery, and wall coverings. In these procedures, the sample
is ignited. The afterflame and length of char for both warp and filling directions are measured.
The length of afterflame cannot exceed 2 seconds. In the large-scale test, dripping is also
assessed. In the small-scale test, length of permissible char depends on fabric weight; in the
large-scale test, it cannot exceed 10 inches, or 35 inches if the fabric is folded.
Interior textiles in airplanes and motor vehicles are regulated by the Federal Aviation
Administration and the Department of Transportation, respectively. All interior textiles must be
flame retardant, including seat cushions and backs, seat belts, and interior roof, side, and wall
panels. The standard extends to other items to augment the crashworthiness and emergency
evacuation equipment of airplanes.

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)

The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), administered by
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), applies to textile products that incor-
porate antibacterial or antimicrobial agents such as fiber additives or finishes. This act
requires that product labels provide information regarding content, EPA registration num-
bers, and safety precautions. Figure 21.9 shows the EPA Registration numbers for a box Figure EPA Registration numbers required for
21.9 the FIFRA label on a box of mothballs.
of mothballs.

Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act (CPSIA)

The Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act (CPSIA), also known as HR 4040,
of 2008 applies to manufacturers of children’s items. Textile products of interest include
apparel, shoes, home furnishings, bedding, and toys (Figure 21.10). The act is designed
to reduce children’s exposure to such toxic chemicals as lead and phthalates, which have
been prevalent in many children’s toys in the past. CPSIA requires testing of all consumer
goods that will be used by children, except those that are naturally free of these chem-
icals. Textiles are excluded from the testing requirement, except those that include silk
screen or transfer prints because some inks may contain lead. Plastic items made with Figure CPSIA information on the label for
polyvinyl chloride, such as baby bibs, must be tested. Certificates of conformance are 21.10 children’s underwear.
required.

Learning Activity 10
Select two standards from Table 21.1 or standard procedures for some interior textiles
to meet state or city building codes and identify products affected by the standards.
Describe how these regulations impact your safety. Explain why these standards are
necessary to ensure public and personal safety. Explain how flammability requirements
would impact your professional responsibilities.

legal and sustainability issues related to textiles 555

 Professional and Consumer Rights
and Responsibilities
Codes
Codes are systematic bodies of laws or regulations that enforce adequate standards of prac-
tice and uniformity of work. In the global textile complex, codes influence business practices
and international trade.
Another area where codes have a huge impact is in the area of interior design. Building
codes generally provide minimum levels of performance and ensure safety for people who
live, work, shop, or otherwise use these buildings. All too often codes are developed following
a tragedy that results in great loss of life, such as night club or hotel fires. Federal, state, and
local city or county codes for interiors often apply to such textile products as upholstery, wall
and floor coverings, and window-treatment fabrics. Frequently, codes deal with fire prevention
and control the flammability of textiles used in interiors.
Most fire-prevention regulations are based on occupancy classification (business, apart-
ment, industrial, retail, health care, educational, etc.); fuel-load classification (museum, office
building, retail shop, warehouse, mobile home, underground structure, etc.); occupancy load
(number of people); and type of occupancy (adults, children, elderly, or physically disabled).
Unfortunately, building codes from the various agencies and government groups are not uni-
form. For example, federal agencies have adopted the Unified Building Code (UBC) and all
standards and codes of the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI). However, county, city, and state codes often reflect situa-
tions unique to their locale, such as codes for high-rise apartment and office buildings.
The jurisdiction of codes depends on several factors. In general, federal codes are appli-
cable to federal buildings or those built with federal funds, such as hospitals. State codes
apply to state-owned buildings such as schools, state hospitals, and public buildings where
large crowds are common. Zoning ordinances often include city and county codes. If two
codes are applicable in a specific situation, the more stringent code prevails. Designers must
ensure that the textile products they select meet the specified code requirements. This may
mean that products be tested following the standard procedure specified in the code and that
adequate performance records be kept.
Interior designers need to know that some finishes and fabrication methods interfere with
inherently flame-retardant fiber characteristics. All products, including those made from inher-

Codes are systematic bodies of laws or ently flame-retardant fibers, should be tested to ensure that they meet code requirements.

regulations that enforce adequate standards For example, the toxicity rule for the state of New York requires that companies register their

of practice and uniformity of work. products with the state if they wish to sell in New York. This rule has fire–gas toxicity ratings
for carpets and for curtains, draperies, and wall coverings.

Tort
Torts address behaviors that interfere with personal rights. Torts generally are categorized as
either negligence or intentional torts. Negligence torts include substandard performance with
regard to legal and regulatory requirements and contracts. Acceptable levels of performance
are described as professional standards of care and usually are identified in professional
codes of ethics. An example of substandard performance could include a product manager’s
failure to verify that a fabric meets appropriate flame-retardance requirements.

556 chapter twenty-one

 Learning Activity 11
Work in groups of three. Does your college/university have a code of conduct regarding
writing papers, taking exams, or using computer resources? If yes, discuss the code(s).
How does the code influence your behavior? Do you know of circumstances where
students violated the code? How does your college/university handle such violations?
How does that violation impact you and your education or the perceived quality of
your diploma? Will violations of that nature impact career options available to the guilty
party? In your assessment, was the penalty appropriate or too severe? Explain your
response. Has anyone asked you to help them violate such a code? If not, think about
how you would reply? Would you be held accountable for your actions if that person
were found guilty of violating the code of conduct? How would you explain your action
to a parent or friend?

Intentional torts are wrongful acts performed in a deliberate fashion and may include
deliberate misrepresentation and strict liability. For example, deliberate misrepresentation
would include knowingly labeling a rayon/polyester crash as all-linen crash. Strict liability gen-
erally applies to the physical harm caused to a user or consumer if a product is defective and Torts address behaviors that interfere with
unreasonably dangerous. Strict liability, which holds people liable even in circumstances in personal rights.
which they were not negligent, applies to manufacturers, suppliers, retailers, and others.

Consumer Recourse
When consumers purchase products, they enter into an implied contract with the seller. They
expect the product to perform and to meet their needs. But, sometimes, products do not
meet the consumer’s expectations. Reasons for textile failure include improper care labels,
improper dyeing or finishing, and improper use by consumers.
Problems with care labels are a great concern to both consumers and businesses. When
care-label instructions are followed and the result is disastrous, consumers expect to be com-
pensated for their loss. Many stores take returns of this nature; however, some do not. In
these cases, the consumer can complain to the manufacturer or the FTC, since incorrect care

Learning Activity 12
Work in groups of two. You are a designer or product developer for a firm. Identify
the product or design category for the firm. Describe the safety requirements the firm
expects you to follow in doing your job. Why do such expectations exist? If you select
products or materials that do not meet minimum flammability requirements, what might
happen to consumers? To your firm? To your professional career? Explain how negli-
gence torts would apply in this situation.

Learning Activity 13
You work for a company that produces fashion goods at a moderate price point. A
portion of the new line includes items made from a polyester/rayon crash fabric. (These
could be accessory pillows or slacks/jackets.) The marketing division wants to promote
these items as linen. Define intentional torts. Explain how you would work with market-
ing to avoid this kind of false representation. How would the false representation poten-
tially impact consumers’ satisfaction with the products and their brand loyalty?

legal and sustainability issues related to textiles 557

 labels are prohibited by the Care Label Regulation. Other reasons for product failure include
poor design, improper selection of dyes or finishes, inappropriate combination of materials in
a product, improper fabric processing, or poor fabric selection for an end use. In all cases,
manufacturers should be informed of the problem either by direct notification or by returning
the item to the place of purchase. The address of the regional office of the FTC is available
online. Consumers can contact the FTC and provide the manufacturer’s name or RN/WPL
number to get the manufacturer’s contact information. Unfortunately, complaining about a
textile product can be a time-consuming process with minimal return for the time invested.
Textile and apparel professionals usually take a stronger position when products result in
consumer complaints. Frequently, the professional is responsible for dealing with the unhappy
consumer or for some production process. In either case, the professional’s responsibility
is to identify the source of the problem and suggest a solution that will satisfy both the con-
sumer and the company.

Sustainability Issues
Sustainability describes practices and policies that reduce environmental pollution, do
not exploit people or natural resources in meeting the lifestyle needs of the present, and do

Sustainability describes practices and not compromise the future. Sustainability has broad-reaching implications. It encompasses

policies that reduce environmental human rights, human welfare and safety, paying a living wage, energy and materials use, pro-

pollution, do not exploit people or natural duction, consumption, water use and quality, air quality, disposal, and recycling. It addresses

resources in meeting the lifestyle needs of both current practices and future implications. Ideally, materials and products are made from

the present, and do not compromise the recyclable materials and renewable resources and do not pollute the environment at any

future. stage of production or processing. Materials are biodegradable. Workers and animals are
treated with dignity and respect.
Sustainability involves many dimensions. Some experts identify six Rs of sustainability:
rethink, reuse, recycle, repair, reduce, and refuse. The basic premise of each concept is rel-
atively straight forward. Rethink traditional ways of doing things. Reuse items or products
before acquiring new ones. Recycle items rather than buying new items. Repair things that
are damaged or broken instead of discarding them and buying new ones. Reduce purchases
or consumption of raw materials in making new products. And, refuse to purchase items that
are not necessary.
These concepts apply to consumers, producers, retailers, service providers, and others.
Some changes demanded by a sustainability focus are relatively simple; others demand sig-
nificant research and expense. Some changes save money and improve profit. Others require

14 Learning Activity
Consider a recent textile product failure you have experienced. Describe the failure and
determine if the failure was because of something you did or something not resolved
or recognized in product development, material production, labeling, or construction.
(For example, an item that shrinks excessively when cleaned following the care-label
instructions may have been improperly finished.) Describe how you would get recourse
from the retailer and/or producer. Have you ever returned something because of prod-
uct failure? Were you satisfied with your interaction with the retailer or producer? Why
or why not?

558 chapter twenty-one

 Learning Activity 15
In your own words, define sustainability. Consider your daily schedule. How can you
change your behavior so that it is more sustainable? What changes have you made in
the past year to be more sustainable? What are the direct costs of that change to you in
terms of time, money, or choice? Do you have additional sustainable changes planned?
If so, what are they and why do you consider them sustainable? What are the benefits
of these changes? How could your sustainability practices be improved?

expensive modifications of facilities and retraining of employees. In the past, business and
producers did not always understand that changing practices could be positive and focused
on the initial expense of change. Sometimes, federal laws and regulations provide the incen-
tive for change to occur.
The Environmental Protection Agency

Laws and Regulations (EPA) enforces and regulates air, water,

and noise pollution and waste disposal.
In the United States, two federal agencies protect the environment and create safe work- The Occupational Safety and Health
ing conditions. The EPA enforces and regulates air, water, and noise pollution and waste Administration (OSHA) develops and
disposal. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) develops and enforces standards for safety and
enforces standards for safety and educational training programs for workers. Individual states educational training programs for workers.
and many countries have environmental and worker safety standards.
Many significant laws and regulations have been passed since the establishment of the
EPA in the United States. The EPA is the authority responsible for establishing restrictions
and enforcing policy related to them. Unfortunately, some corporations and special interest
groups want to reduce the impact of these environmental laws and regulations claiming that
they are not needed. However, history shows that change of this magnitude requires govern-
ment intervention. Many countries have similar or more stringent laws and regulations protect-
ing the environment.
The Pollution Prevention Act (1990) addresses waste minimization. The six Rs of
sustainability are included. Efforts focus on source reduction, rethinking processes, environ-
mentally sound recycling, treatment of toxic chemicals, and disposal of waste materials in reg-
istered toxic-dump landfills. Source reduction minimizes waste by substituting less-hazardous
or less-harmful materials when possible and emphasizes product reformulation, reusing
chemicals, process modification, improved cleaning standards and practices, and environ-
mentally sound, closed-loop recycling. Companies must maintain a toxic-release inventory to
help improve practices from both cost and environmental perspectives.
The Clean Air Act (1970) focuses on air quality and addresses acid rain, toxic air emis-
sions, and ozone. Acid rain occurs when water droplets in the air combine with air pollutants
such as sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxides. Stack emissions are minimized by limiting fly ash
from coal-burning units, sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxide (by-products of burning fuels that
contribute to acid rain), and fume emissions from processes.
The Clean Water Act (1972) addresses the toxic contamination of ground or surface
water. Modifications to the handling of wastewater ensure that discharge meets or exceeds
standards. Unfortunately, this usually applies only to sewage and some street run-off in cit-
ies and towns. Exemptions such as agricultural lands, forests, lawns, and parks and recre-
ational areas outside of water treatment areas mean that water quality remains substandard
in many areas.

legal and sustainability issues related to textiles 559


Figure Surface-water systems include
21.11 streams and lakes. When water
quality is good, a wide variety of
plants and animals live in and near
the water.
A high BOD or COD indicates such a large
amount of contamination that fish and
other aquatic life might die.
(a)
(b)
Figure A wastewater treatment facility:
21.12 processing facility (a) and holding
pond (b).
560 chapter twenty-one
Many communities have revised their water-treatment facilities over the past decade to
meet water-quality standards. A water-treatment facility receives wastewater and pro-
cesses it to meet defined water-quality standards. Wastewater comes from many sources
including manufacturing facilities, athletic complexes, schools, parks, medical facilities, lawns,
homes, or offices. Surface-water systems are frequently contaminated with chemicals, soil,
dirt, and other materials including that from the plants and animals that live in or near the
water. The contaminants in the water are broken down, usually by microorganisms found in
the natural environment. But, when the contaminants in the water, whether from nature or
human activity, become excessive, water-quality problems develop. While there are many
measures of water quality, two general ones will be discussed here. Biological oxygen
demand (BOD) describes the amount of oxygen necessary for the decomposition of organic
wastes in the water. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) describes the amount of oxygen
necessary to reduce a soluble organic compound to carbon dioxide and water. A high BOD
or COD indicates such a large amount of contamination that fish and other aquatic life might
die. Wastewater is treated to speed up natural purification processes and to reduce contam-
inants that might interfere with these natural processes. Good-quality water supports abun-
dant plant and animal life (Figure 21.11).
Treating wastewater requires several steps. In preliminary treatment, large debris such as
wood and sand is physically removed by screening or slowing the water to allow the heavy
materials to settle out. In primary settling, the water spends several quiet hours in large tanks,
where most of the suspended solids (raw sludge) settle to the bottom. Bottom scrapers
remove the sludge while skimmers collect oil and grease from the surface. Microorganisms
in oxygen-rich trickling filters or activated sludge tanks accelerate the natural decay of waste.
About 4 to 12 hours later, in final clarification, the microorganisms are removed from the
wastewater by settling or straining (Figure 21.12).
Air and water quality varies widely around the world. Many of the developing countries
where textiles are processed have some of the poorest quality air and water on the planet.
For example, in China, approximately one-third of the industrial waste water and 90% of the
household sewage receives no treatment before being dumped into surface-water systems.
Approximately 80% of China’s cities have no sewage-treatment facilities and no plans to
develop them. Nearly 60% of China’s ground water is polluted. The situation in Bangledesh
is similar. A significant percentage of the population suffers from arsenic poisoning from the
leather tanneries in the country. Of course, developing countries are not the only areas with
air- and water-quality problems. For example, many rivers, lakes, and streams in the United
States and other developed countries do not meet the minimum criteria for water quality.
Water quality also relates to diverting water for irrigation. Probably the most notorious sit-
uation occurred with the rivers that fed the Aral Sea, once the fourth largest lake in the world.
In the 1960s, the then-Soviet Union started diverting the water to irrigate land to raise rice,
melons, grains, and cotton. The goal was to make the Soviet Union (Uzbekistan) one of the
world’s leading exporters of cotton. The shrinking of the lake has been referred to as one of
16 Learning Activity
Go online to your community’s municipal Web site to determine how wastewater in
your community is handled. Who is responsible for treating the wastewater? What are
the minimum standards for water quality in your community? How do those standards
compare with minimum standards set by the EPA?
the worst environmental disasters of all time. The tiny bit of the lake that remains is incredibly
salty and heavily contaminated. The negative impact on the people and communities that
lived around the lake has been profound.
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976) (RCRA) regulates solid- and Environmental concerns include air and
hazardous-waste disposal from generation to final disposal, including transportation, treat- water quality, pollution prevention, and
ment, and storage of hazardous materials. The EPA determines the wastes that pose a resource recovery.
human health or environmental hazard from cradle-to-grave or production-to-disposal.
In the European Union (EU), a comprehensive piece of legislation, Registration, Evaluation,
Authorization, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), became effective in 2007 and has had
significant impact on all parts of the global market including the global textile complex. REACH
affects every industry importing or producing chemicals in the EU. REACH protects the envi-
ronment and human health. Companies must prove that chemicals are environmentally safe
and provide safety information for users and, in some cases, consumers.
REACH incorporates several components for every chemical used. Registration occurs
before manufacturing or importing chemicals. Required information for each chemical includes
risk management and a safety report. Evaluation determines if the information is complete, if
more information or testing is needed, and if restrictions or authorization requirements should
be imposed. Authorization is required for chemicals deemed to be of very high concern
because of their human health or environmental risk. Some chemicals are restricted because
they pose an unacceptable risk. Evaluation, record keeping, and communication are essential
components of REACH. Companies need to know the chemical history of each chemical
produced or imported.
Within the United States, the EPA issues permissible exposure levels for hundreds of
chemicals that are known to be or are likely to be human carcinogens. OSHA sets standards
for air quality in the workplace, including standards for hazardous chemicals. Some chemicals
are so hazardous that they are banned from use in the United States. Other hazardous chem-
icals identified by the EPA and OSHA define exposure limits for workers. The exposure limits
include a permissible exposure limit (PEL), a short-term exposure limit (STEL), and an action
level (AL).

Product Demand and Corporate Responsibility

Consumers influence the market by demanding certain products, including sustainable
ones. A green, eco, environmentally friendly, recycled, or sustainable product is farmed,
processed, and manufactured with minimal environmental impact with regard to energy,
resource, and raw material usage. Green brands are ones that consumers associate with
environmental conservation and sustainable business practices. Green products are popular
with today’s consumer. However, some companies claim that they produce green products

Learning Activity 17
Work in groups of four. Consult local newspapers or social media to identify an air or
water quality issue in your state or community. Identify the issue and gather information
about it. Divide the group into two subgroups where one group focuses on the need
for the air- or water-quality standard and the other group refutes the need for such a
standard. How will the resolution of this issue at the community or state level impact the
quality of your environment?

legal and sustainability issues related to textiles 561


A green product is farmed, processed, and
manufactured with minimal environmental
impact with regard to energy, resource,
and raw-material usage. Consumers
associate green brands with environmental
conservation and sustainable business
practices. Greenwashing describes
product claims regarding sustainable
production that cannot be verified.
Certification will verify the sustainability of
products before purchase.
without making significant changes in their practices. Greenwashing describes product claims
regarding sustainable production that cannot be verified. Many green products are evalu-
ated by recognized certification organizations to verify sustainability claims (Table 21.2 and
Figure 21.13). Certifications can be used to verify the sustainability of products before pur-
chase. While several certification options exist, the more common ones are The Oeko Tex
Standard 100, The Global Textile Standard, and the Higg Index.
Consumer practices also influence the sustainability of products. Purchase, use, care,
and disposal of products all factor into a product’s sustainability. For example, the decision
to use disposable diapers has an enormous impact. A conservative estimate is that each
baby will use 5,000 diapers within the first 30 months, with an annual total of 19 billion
diapers in the United States alone. Many babies in the United States wear only disposables
from birth through toilet training. Reusable fabric diapers are relatively inexpensive to pur-
chase and are cleaned and reused many, many time. But, these diapers require special
handling when soiled and use significant amounts of water and laundry additives in cleaning.
Disposable diapers are easy to use, convenient, and readily available. But, they are expen-
sive and consume large quantities of resources that are neither reclaimed nor recycled. They
also make up at least 2% of landfill material. Plus, improper disposal contaminates ground
water with fecal material. Making as simple a sustainability decision as to what kind of dia-
per to use requires assessment of many facts and assumptions about the resources used
throughout the life of the diapers. This same kind of fact finding is needed for almost every
product.

Table 21.2 Sustainability and Related Certification Organizations and Standards

Name Description Impact

Oeko-Tex Standard 100 and
Standard 1000
Global Organic Textile
Standards (GOTS)
Bluesign
Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)
Social Performance Indicators
SMART (The Institute for Market
Transformation to Sustainability)
Cradle-to-Cradle Certificate
Independent European certification standard for acceptable Widespread changes in production and
limits for extract pH, heavy-metal content, colorfastness, materials. Product certification.
carcinogenic and sensitizing dyes, pesticides, emissions of
volatile substances, and other environmental or user hazards.
Focus on raw materials, intermediate, and end product.
Standards developed by an international group of certification Provide for two labels: organic or made
bodies to certify from field to final product. with X% organic. Product certification.
A practice-oriented standard that implements resources related to Includes all textile processes.
environment, health, and safety for products.
International organization that focuses on suppliers, products and Employees and communities.
services, and reports on workplace and human rights.
Rating system that examines multiple dimensions of environmental, Includes textiles, interiors, and apparel
social, and economic benefits over the supply chain; business products.
benefits; and life-cycle analysis.
Ecological certificate for product materials, focuses on Applicable to textiles and textile products.
environmental and human health, recyclability or compostability; Includes designing for disassembly and
includes approved ingredient category; adopts eco-effective reuse.
strategies to use only healthy materials and design; modeled after
natural systems.

Higgs Index Measures product sustainability across the supply chain. Apparel and footwear producers.

LEED (Leadership in Energy &
Environmental Design)
A green building certification system that recognizes best in class Certifies buildings and interiors.
building strategies and practices. Different levels of certification
(certified, silver, gold, and platinum) and categories (building
design and construction, interior design and construction,
building operations and maintenance, neighborhood
development, and homes).

562 chapter twenty-one

 Learning Activity 18
Some sustainability experts state that every decision and activity has a sustainability
impact. Select one decision you make on a regular basis and discuss the sustainability
impact of that decision. (Your decision could be as simple as deciding what toothpaste
to buy).

Identifying the ramifications of the production, packaging, distribution, use, care, and
disposal of textile products is a complex and multidimensional problem. Many assumptions
made by consumers are far too simplistic. For example, assuming that all natural fibers are
better for the environment as compared with any synthetic fiber ignores issues related to
land use, current farming or harvesting practices, genetically modified seeds, fiber-processing
needs, finishing and dyeing practices, use and care of the product by consumers, and dis-
posal or recycling of the product once the consumer is finished with it.
Let’s look at cotton. For every pound of cotton harvested in the United States, it is esti-
mated that farmers use approximately 1/3 pound of synthetic fertilizer. The cotton crop uses Figure The LEED certification system
approximately 25% of the pesticides used in the United States in 1 year. Worldwide, cotton 21.13 recognizes best in class building
uses about 2.4% of the arable land and 16% of the pesticides. Much of the cotton is genet- strategies and practices.
ically modified (GM) to include the gene of a bacteria (Bacillus Thuringiensis or Bt) that kills
insects that damage cotton. The company that produces Bt cotton claims that no pesticide
application is needed and that insects that eat a bit of the plant die within a few hours. Other
claims include lower costs and higher yields. Unfortunately, Bt cotton seeds are very expen-
sive and insects are beginning to develop resistance to this GM crop.
Life-cycle analysis examines the way the production, use, care, and disposal of a
product affects the environment and the people involved with the product. The assessment
Life-cycle analysis examines the way the
include everything from the raw materials through the treatment of waste generated during
production, use, care, and disposal of a
production and processing as well as impacts from consumer use, cleaning, and disposal or
product affects the environment and the
recycling of the product. Human rights assessment within production facilities, animal welfare,
people involved with the product.
and cultural impacts also factor in the assessment.

Learning Activity 19
Using the serviceability concepts and the knowledge gained throughout this course,
debate the advantages and disadvantages from a consumer’s perspective on the sus-
tainability of an organic cotton T-shirt versus a polyester T-shirt made from recycled
beverage bottles. Go back to your response to Review Question 5 in Chapter 2. Did
your response change? If yes, how and why?

Learning Activity 20
Work in groups of three. Select a textile product you are wearing or have with you.
Based on the knowledge of textiles you have acquired this term and that from other
classes, develop a life-cycle assessment of that product. Identify a likely scenario
describing what will happen with the product when you no longer own it. How has your
assumptions about sustainable textile products changed as you acquire knowledge
about the production of textiles?

legal and sustainability issues related to textiles 563

 Another important concept related to product assessment is the cradle-to-cradle concept.
This concept moves beyond sustainability and environmental awareness and blends design

The cradle-to-cradle concept examines the concepts with science. Cradle-to-cradle is an environmentally intelligent design framework

overall impact of the production, use, care, that examines the overall impact of the production, use, care, disposal, and recycle potential of

disposal, and recycle potential of products products from economic, industrial, and social perspectives. The goal is innovative, high-qual-

from economic, industrial, and social ity products with economic value and positive ecological impact. Products are connected to

perspectives. one another. The end or grave of one product becomes the beginning or cradle of a new prod-
uct. Textiles never become waste, but nutrients used in the production of new textiles.
But, how do the concepts of sustainability, life-cycle analysis, and cradle-to-cradle com-
bine with professional roles and responsibilities and business practices? This is especially
challenging when trying to find a balance between the rapid change inherent in the fash-
ion world of apparel and interiors and the concepts related to sustainability. Some design-
ers like Stella McCartney and some companies like Patagonia incorporate these concepts
as the foundation of their business. Corporate responsibility identifies meeting sustainability
demands as a driving force in doing business.
Sustainable companies include retailers with private labels and design firms. These
businesses work with suppliers to reduce use of environmentally harmful materials and pro-
cesses, to decrease energy use, to improve workers’ rights and wages, to improve commu-
nities in which production facilities are located, to reduce negative impacts on human health,
to improve working conditions, to reduce use of packaging materials, to reduce use of raw
materials, to replace hazardous and toxic chemicals with safer ones, and to improve recy-
cling of materials. Corporations require that suppliers meet their standards. Engineers visit
textile facilities to ensure that standard practices related to the work environment, handling
and use of chemicals, wastewater treatment, and recycling programs meet expectations.
Corporations take responsibility for ensuring that suppliers meet social, cultural, health, envi-
ronmental, and labor standards. The International Labor Organization (ILO) has developed
core labor standards and requires compliance with the laws of the country in which a facility
operates. Unfortunately, companies with an emphasis on sustainability face stiff competition
from companies who ignore these issues and the related expenses. While scrutiny of the sup-
ply chain is making it more difficult to hide abuses of workers and the environment, financial
incentives continue to drive many business decisions.

Efforts within the Global Textile Complex

In the past, the textile complex discharged great quantities of water contaminated with dyes,
finishing chemicals, cleaning compounds, wax and lanolin removed from natural fibers, and
compounds used to produce manufactured and synthetic fibers into rivers, streams, and lakes.
Estimates are that 85% of the water used in producing textiles was used in dyeing and finish-
ing. Emissions into the air included excess heat, fly ash, carbon dioxide, formaldehyde, and
sulfurous and nitrous compounds that contributed to acid rain. Excess packaging, discarded

21 Learning Activity
Search online for companies or designers who are known for their sustainable fashions.
Identify the things they do that are sustainable. How have they been able to find a bal-
ance between fashion and sustainability? How do they apply the six Rs of sustainability
to their work or production?

564 chapter twenty-one

cardboard and paper goods, empty metal drums, and hazardous and toxic c
­ hemicals were
deposited in landfills. Other problems included high-intensity noise in spinning and weaving
rooms and dust and airborne debris in opening and spinning areas. The processing of textiles
from raw materials into finished products used large amounts of water and energy.
Drycleaners released quantities of perc into the environment because of careless han-
dling and minimal efforts at cleaning, recovering, and recycling the solvent. Consumers used
washers and dryers that consumed large quantities of water and energy. Detergents and
other cleaning aids were formulated based on cleaning power, rather than on efficiency and
minimal environmental impact. However, the situation is improving in many areas. Fiber pro-
ducers, dyers and finishers have modified processes, substituted less-hazardous chemicals,
and implemented processing changes to improve sustainability. Government mandates have
changed how consumer products are cleaned, improved air and water quality, and reduced
use of energy and other resources.
The global textile complex has reduced the amount of waste generated in textile pro-
cessing by significant percentages by changing methods and materials so that a facility gen-
erates less waste. The six Rs of sustainability are being widely applied across the global textile
complex! Changes in fiber production include better record keeping to identify and reduce
waste. Rethinking processes have replaced hazardous chemicals with less hazardous ones.
Solvents are recycled.
Changes in dyeing and finishing are significant. Energy and water usage has decreased
and water quality discharged from production facilities has improved. Ultrasonic systems,
enzymes, foam finishing, and nanotechnology in finishing reduce costs, improve product per-
formance, enhance sustainability, and decrease environmental impact.
Jet-dyeing machines use less water. Continuous dyeing, which used huge quantities of
water, dyes, and chemicals, has been partially replaced with beck dyeing, which uses smaller
quantities of these materials. New waterless dyeing facilities are available.
Low-impact dyes and pigments are widely used. New sulfur dyes eliminate sulfide
wastes, metal-free dyes replace metal-complex dyes, direct dyes use less salt, acid and mor-
dant dyes use iron rather than chromium, reactive dyes have greater use efficiencies, and
more disperse dyes work in water-based systems. Current reactive dyes use a tiny fraction
of the salt compared to earlier reactive dyes. Pigment inks are often water-based rather than
solvent-based; most are formaldehyde free. The metal content of pigment inks has decreased
substantially. Digital printing is a sustainable process since it wastes nothing: no fabric is
printed except what is used in products and virtually no solvent is used.
Processing of wastewater from fiber processing, dyeing, and finishing removes salts,
dyes or pigments, other organic compounds, heavy metals, and finishing chemicals. Carbon
adsorption removes organic compounds, color, and chlorine; ultrafiltration reduces turbid-
ity; reverse osmosis and electrodialysis remove dissolved solids; oxidation and ozonation
remove color; and demineralization removes salts. With membrane technology, latex from
carpet manufacturing, salt from dyeing, and sizing materials from weaving and finishing can
be recovered and recycled.
Two chemicals of concern for workers and environmental quality are formaldehyde and
perc. Use of formaldehyde, a possible carcinogen used in some durable-press treatments,
leather finishing, and dyeing applications, is greatly reduced in dyeing and finishing. Today, most
textiles are formaldehyde free. Regulations at federal and state levels restrict the use and dis-
posal of perc with detailed record-keeping requirements. Changes in dry cleaning practices and
dry-to-dry units have substantially decreased workplace and environmental problems with perc.

legal and sustainability issues related to textiles 565

 Reducing noise and dust levels in fiber- and yarn-processing areas and in weaving rooms
improve working conditions. Sustainability is improved. Using less toxic and less hazardous
chemicals and limiting human exposure when the use of alternative chemicals is not feasible
improves worker health. Safety devices incorporated into equipment at the design stage or
added to older equipment minimizes risk in the workplace.
A significant quantity of the chemicals used in producing manufactured and synthetic
fibers are recycled. For example, membrane filtration systems allow for the recovery and reuse
of sizing from warp yarns. Not only does this process reuse a chemical, but it also minimizes
the processing needed to purify water discharge from the plant. In the manufacture of lyocell,
the solvent is recycled and reused numerous times.
Materials that protect textiles during shipping are recycled. Fabric rolls are wrapped in
reusable polyethylene wrap. Use of recycled or recyclable tubes and wraps for fabric and
finished products has become commonplace. On-site facilities aid in recycling cardboard,
paper, aluminum, scrap iron, wood pallets, ink waste, and fiber waste.
Many firms use sustainable packaging for consumer goods. This includes minimizing use
of materials, use of recycled materials (hangtags, plastic wraps, and cardboard), and use
of quickly degradable materials. Decreasing the amount and number of types of packaging
materials for consumer products reduces the costs of materials and labor for packaging and
the weight of packaged goods. Consumers have less packaging to dispose of. For example,
shirts once packaged with six straight pins, tissue paper, cardboard flat and collar stands,
and plastic bags are now packaged with only one plastic bag and two straight pins.
By focusing on improving the quality of fabrics, doing things right the first time also means
less use of stripping agents to remove color and less redyeing of fabrics that were not dyed
correctly the first time. Thus, a better quality of goods is produced with less waste.
Indoor air quality has improved. Indoor air pollution develops from many sources that may
emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including textile products. Carpeting, carpet padding,
fabrics used in interiors and apparel, latex backcoatings, finishes, and dyes on textiles contrib-
uted to the problem. Buildings with poor ventilation and indoor air pollution may have sick build-
ing syndrome, in which occupants experience a variety of health problems. Textile manufacturers
have changed production materials and methods to significantly reduce problems with VOCs.
Multiple chemical sensitivity can be a chronic problem for some people because of car-
pet and installation materials (glues, pads, etc.), fabric finishes, dyes, components in inks
used on printed textiles, and cleaning compounds. Solutions reducing VOCs also address
this problem. In addition, some products incorporate no bleaches, finishes, or dyes.

22 Learning Activity
Select two chapters from this book and list five ways that the global textile complex has
improved the sustainability of the production, use, or care of textiles and textile products.

23 Learning Activity
Download the Find My Factory App for your smart device. The database includes more
than 30,000 factories. Select a textile product with a tag identifying the factory where it
was made. These are usually sewn in an inside seam. Scan the tag with the identifica-
tion number to identify the factory where the item was made. The database include a
physical address, contact names, product categories manufactured in that facility, the
number of employees, and additional information.

566 chapter twenty-one

Disposal and Recycling
Sustainability issues include what is done with textiles after the initial user is done with them.
All too often textiles are disposed in the trash. Disposal is the process of throwing away or Disposal is the process of throwing away
getting rid of something. Recycling is the process of making something new from something or getting rid of something. Recycling is the
that has been used before. In recycling, items or materials are put through or passed through process of making something new from
a cycle of use again. Recycling is increasing with awareness and changes in technology. something that has been used before.
Unfortunately, commercial and municipal recycling facilities often refuse textiles because
of the number of generic fibers present, the small quantities of materials in each item, and
the difficulties of shredding these items. Textiles tangle shredders and cause malfunctions or
excess wear.
Normally easily biodegradable items such as newsprint, natural fiber textiles, and grass
do not degrade in landfills. Most communities require recycling of newspaper, junk mail, cans,
glass bottles, plastic materials, and yard/garden waste so that landfill space is reserved for
hazardous materials. At present, textile products are not included in the list of products that
must be recycled.
However, many consumers recycle apparel and interior textiles by donating items to
organizations. Member firms of the Council for Textile Recycling divert more than 90% of the
2.5 billion pounds of postconsumer textile product waste from landfills to used clothing deal-
ers, exporters, rag graders, and various parts of the global textile complex for use in recycled
products.
Revising production methods to limit the variety of fiber types present in such products
as carpeting facilitates their recycling when discarded. Recycling nylon 6, made from a single
monomer, is a simpler process than that required for recycling other fibers that are copoly-
mers. Polyester fibers are made by recycling plastic beverage bottles (Figure 21.14). Other
recycled synthetic fibers are used in fiberfill, carpeting, sleeping bags, hazard fences, apparel, Figure A T-shirt made from recycled
and other textile products. Most fiberglass insulation used in buildings and homes is 30% 21.14 polyester fibers.
to 40% recycled glass. Recycling synthetic fibers decreases the use of landfill space, saves
petroleum for other uses, uses less energy, and eliminates harmful air emissions.
For example, denim scrap is recycled into apparel, yarn, pencils, paper, paper money,
stationery, sludge for compost to improve garden soil, denim fabric of 50% reprocessed and
50% new fiber, and handwoven rugs (Figure 21.15). Textile waste fiber is used in nonwoven
products for furniture, wiping cloths, coating substrates, filters, geotextiles, floor coverings,
car interiors, floor mats, mattresses, and shoulder pads. Waste cotton fiber is recycled and
used in apparel, interior textiles, and technical products such as mop yarns and in other mate-
rials for the absorbent trade. Figure 21.16 shows numerous options for postconsumer recy- Figure Recycling denim: Pencils made from
cled textiles. 21.15 scraps and a rag rug.

Learning Activity 24
Examine Figure 21.16. What do you do with textile items you no longer want? Where
do your discards fit in the figure? How many textile items do you typically discard in a
year? Assume that everyone in your class has a similar discard rate. How many items
would be discarded in a year? Imagine that number for the population of a city, state,
or country. How does recycling of textiles impact you? Have you ever visited a consign-
ment or used clothing store? Why or why not? How do these kinds of retailers fit in with
the concept of sustainability?

legal and sustainability issues related to textiles 567

 postconsumer textile waste

Re-Use Sold in Donate

Pass on to a charity to
friends and shop charity
family

sold to rag sorters

Direct discard to
Open Incineration
similar Wipers
Recycling (Energy creation) landfill
reuse

Clothing Diamonds: Mechanical Chemical Fiber PET

Exports Vintage and Breakdown: Plastic products
collectible Enzymatic
markets New Thermal
Shoddy & Glycolyse
open- Weft yarns for denim
Mungo Methanolyse
spun Fancy yarns
Cleaning yarns Towels
cloths Furnishing and
for furniture, Non-fabric: upholstery fabrics
automotive, Waddings Textile wall coverings
Stuffing Fabric:
industrial Linings Blankets
applications Thermal insulators Filling yarns for shoes
Acoustic insulators Barrier fabrics
Carpet underlay Carpet underlay key
Packaging materials Automotive carpets
Blankets
Non-woven/tufted carpet Conveyor belts First cycle:
Roofing materials Outerwear
Geotextiles Second cycle:

Figure Recycling options for postconsumer textile products.

21.16 Source: Courtesy of Jana Hawley.

25 Learning Activity
Consider how you dispose of everyday waste. Do you recycle? Do you recycle when
you are away from home? Are there recycling containers near your classroom? In
public areas in your community? If not, what can you do to improve recycling and
sustainability?

terms
key terms
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) Clean Water Act Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act
Care Labeling Regulation Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) (CPSIA)
Care-labeling requirements Codes Cradle-to-cradle
Certification programs Consumer Product Safety Commission Disposal
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) (CPSC) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Clean Air Act

568 chapter twenty-one

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Occupational Safety and Health Textile Fiber Products Identification Act
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) Administration (OSHA) (TFPIA)
Federal Trade Commission (FTC) Perc Torts
Fire block Pollution Prevention Act Trade name
Flammable Fabrics Act Pure silk or pure dye silk Trademark
Formaldehyde REACH Upholstered Furniture Action Council
Fur Products Labeling Act (FPLA) Recycling (UFAC)
Generic name Resource Conservation and Warranties
Green or eco products Recovery Act Water treatment facility
Licensing RN number Wool Products Labeling Act
Life-cycle analysis Sustainability WPL number

questions
review questions
1. What information is required by law to be on sewn-in
labels? What information is required to be presented to
consumers at the point of purchase?
2. Why are there laws that require consumers to be informed
about the fiber content and care of textile products?
3. What rights do consumers have if they are dissatisfied with
the performance or serviceability of a textile product?
4. What are the legal responsibilities of manufacturers,
producers, and their employees regarding textile products?
5. What laws or regulations deals with issues of safety?
8. What additional requirements might interior textiles be
required to meet depending on building codes?
9. Explain how life-cycle analysis and cradle-to-cradle relate
to sustainability. Should you be concerned about these
factors?
10. What are the requirements for a textile product to be
marketed as a green product?
11. Explain how water quality is assessed and why those
assessments are important to textile producers and
consumers.

6. Compare these pairs of terms and explain how they apply
to textile products and the circumstances under which they
might be legally required:
a. Warranty and guarantee
b. Licensing agreement and certification
c. Trademark and trade name
7. Consider your daily activities, methods of transportation,
and types of buildings you occupy at one time or another
during the day. How do building codes affect your health
and safety?
12. Identify the key elements of five laws related to
environmental quality. Identify the implications for textile
production and cleaning.
13. How has the global textile complex improved sustainability
in terms of production, distribution, and disposal of textiles
or related materials?
14. Describe how recycling can be beneficial to consumer of
today and tomorrow.

legal and sustainability issues related to textiles 569

 Case Study
Sustainability*
In 1900, the world population was about
1.9 billion. Each person consumed about
5 pounds of textiles. Textiles were natural
materials that were treasured, handed
down, repaired, repurposed, and essentially
used up. Today, the population exceeds
7 billion with an average consumption of
more than 20 pounds per year. Most items
are purchased, worn and cleaned a few
times, and discarded. A rising middle class
in many parts of the world are expected
to increase consumption of all goods,
including textiles. Many experts believe that
today’s lifestyle is supported by borrowing
from the future. Approximately 35 years
ago, the world moved beyond its ability to
support its population sustainably. Organic
fibers cannot meet the demand nor provide
the serviceability expected by today’s
consumers. Recycling synthetic fibers will not
meet the demand. Landfills are filling up. The
majority of water and energy use consumed
by textiles is in the home during the cleaning
process. The driving business assumption
is that success is selling more, but that view
probably won’t last. Less will be more and a
cradle-to-cradle view will be essential.
Discussion Questions
1. Calculate how many more tons of textiles
are consumed each year by today’s
larger population with greater demand for
textile products. How much (calculated
as a percent) has textile consumption
increased within approximately only 115
to 120 years?
2. Explain why organic fibers and recycling
synthetic fibers will not meet the demand.
3. Explain this statement: “If we use 20%
less water and energy to dye a ton of
fabric this year, the planet is no better off
than if the improved technology is used to
dye 1.5 tons next year.”
4. Identify four ways that you can reduce
your use of water and energy in cleaning
textiles.
5. Identify four ways that you can do more
with less in terms of textiles. Repeat the
process with other resources like energy
and food.

*Bide, M. (2013, July/August). Sustainability: A big picture. AATCC Review, 13(4), 36–40.

readings
suggested readings
Ben-Shabat, H. (2007). Green is the new black. Textiles, 34(4),
17–18.
Fletcher, K., & Grose, L. (2012). Fashion and Sustainability: Design
for Change. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd.
Bide, M. (2013, July/August). Sustainability: A big picture. AATCC Gale, M. E., Shin, J., & Bide, M. (2000). Textiles and the
Review, 13(4), 36–40. environment from AATCC. Textile Chemist and Colorist and
Braungart, M. (2006). Cradle to cradle. Textiles, 33(1), 8–11. American Dyestuff Reporter, 32(1), 28–31.

Environmental stewardship. (2001, February). America’s Textiles Harmon, S. K., & Kennon, K. E. (2014). The Codes Guidebook for
International, 10, 31–33. Interiors, 6th ed. New York: Wiley.

Esty, D. C., & Winston, A. S. (2006). Green to Gold: How Smart
Companies Use Environmental Strategy to Innovate, Create,
Value, and Build Competitive Advantage. New Haven, NJ: Yale
University Press.
Fletcher, K. (2008). Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design
Journey. London: Earthscan.
Hayes, L. L. (2011, July/August). Synthetic textile innovations:
Polyester fiber-to-fiber recycling for the advancement of
sustainability. AATCC Review, 11(4), 37–41.
Hethorn, J., & Ulasewicz, C. (2008). Sustainable Fashion: Why
Now? New York: Fairchild Books.

570 chapter twenty-one

Leonard, C. (2007). What dye would you like to go with your
organic cotton? AATCC Review, 7(05), 28.
Lewis, P. (2009). Better safe than sorry? The Crafts Report,
35(395), 42–43.
Lloyd, J. (2007). REACH: Threat or opportunity? Textiles, 34(3),
14–16.
Maxwell, D. (2007). On the road to sustainability. Textiles, 34(4),
10–12.
McCoy, M. (2008). Converging pathways. Chemical and
Engineering News, 86(33), 47–56.
McDonough, W., & Braungart, M. (2002). Cradle to Cradle:
Remaking the Way We Make Things. New York: North Point
Press.
Musante, G. B. (2013, March/April). A matter of fiber veracity.
AATCC Review, 13(2), 28–35.
Musante, G. B. (2015, January/February). Sustainability: Essential
to performance. AATCC Review, 15(1), 36–43.
Musante, G. B. (2013, November/December). The greening of the
textile supply chain. AATCC Review, 13(6), 24–30.
Pelc, C. (2014, July/August). The life of a fiber. AATCC Review,
14(4), 32–37.
Thiry, M. C. (2008). Ecological edict. AATCC Review, 8(1), 24–29.
Thiry, M. C. (2007). If the environment is important. AATCC Review,
7(5), 20–28.
Thiry, M. C. (2006). Thirsty industry. AATCC Review, 6(7), 21–24.
Thiry, M. C. (2012, March/April). Writ in water. AATCC Review,
12(2), 22–28.
Wang, Y. (Ed.). (2006). Recycling in Textiles. Cambridge, England:
Woodhead.
legal and sustainability issues related to textiles 571
 Zhu Difeng/Fotolia

Monet/Fotolia Kadmy/Fotolia
Career Exploration

Chap te r O b j ect i v es
• To identify skills and knowledge needed for a career in the global textile complex.
• To describe the ways that textile knowledge is critical for professionals in the global
textile complex.
• To recognize the need to communicate textiles information quickly and accurately to
other professionals and consumers.
• To discuss the diverse career options requiring a knowledge of textiles.

22
 No matter the career within the global textile complex, knowledge and appropriate commu-
nication of textile science concepts is critical for success. Unlike previous generations, many
college graduates today will likely change specific jobs, positions, and employers relatively
frequently, on average every three to five years. The following discussion provides examples of
various careers and application to textile science information. General terms and sample job
titles are used, since each company, firm, or agency may be organized differently.

Critical Career Preparation

Knowledge and application of textile
science information is critical for all
professionals (and consumers) in the global
textile complex.
Essential abilities for most positions in the global textile complex include appropriate
application of content knowledge, analysis of diverse information, and computer skills.
In addition to aptitude in technical knowledge and skills, employers increasingly seek
employees with problem solving and critical thinking skills, creative thinking, organiza-
tional and time management abilities, and leadership potential. With increased global-
ization and consolidation in the industry, aspiring professionals need intercultural and
cross-cultural competence. Furthermore, an understanding of sustainability throughout
the apparel supply chain is crucial to many careers in the textiles global complex. The
specific textiles knowledge necessary will depend, in part, on the portion of the supply
chain in which the firm is focused (Figure 22.1). For example, the handling and market-
ing of a fabric being sold to a manufacturer differs from that of a fabric being sold to an
individual consumer. However, the basic knowledge and application of textile science
information is critical for all professionals (and consumers).
Each section in this chapter includes a general discussion of skills and knowledge,
position titles, and sample responsibilities. Although this chapter explores many career
possibilities, it is not complete. The goal is to demonstrate the range of positions available
and to explain how a knowledge of textiles will help in obtaining a position and future
career advancement. Because it becomes dated so quickly and varies regionally, salary
information is not included. Furthermore, within individual companies, entry-level positions
with similar pay and responsibilities may be labeled quite differently. For example, trainee
(i.e., management trainee), assistant (i.e., visual merchandising assistant), and associate
(i.e., associate designer) may all be at the entry-level position, but have different titles.
Generally within the global textile complex, there exists a range of positions from entry
to mid- to upper-level careers. In many cases, the difference between entry and mid-
level has to do with the number of projects one person manages or supervises and the

Chemical Fiber Textile Industry: Mills, Soft Goods Textile Distribution & Dispersal
Industry Industry Converters, Vertically Industries End Uses Systems
Integrated Firms
Fertilizer, Pesticides, Natural Fibers Textile Interiors Wholesalers and
Feed Additives Components: Processes:
Retailers:
Yarns, Fabrics, Product
Brick-and-Mortar
Raw Materials: Products Development,
Manufactured Stores, Mail Order,
Chemicals, Catalysts, Design, Apparel
Regenerated Fibers Processes: Kiosk, Direct,
Polymers Sourcing,
Carding, Spinning, Home Shopping
Merchandising,
Fabricating, Networks, Pop-Up,
Finishing Chemicals, Marketing
Synthetic Fibers Finishing Technical E-commerce
Dyes, Pigments

Figure The supply chain for the global textile complex.

22.1

574 chapter twenty-two

level of independence under which decisions are made. With very few exceptions, the
­position describes responsibilities within a team. Other team members have different titles
and responsibilities. Frequent interactions with team members enables each person to
accomplish the responsibilities individually and within their team while fulfilling the goals of
the organization in which they work.

Career Opportunities
The following sections describe careers in the global textile complex. It is important to
remember that throughout the product life cycle from manufacturing and production to
retailing and marketing to the disposal of textiles, there are possible career opportuni-
ties. Relevant books and Web sites also provide information about positions and careers,
including requirements, responsibilities, performance expectations, and salary and bene-
fits information.

Product Development
Product development specialists work with the building blocks of all goods: the raw mate-
rials. As such, they must have extensive product knowledge. Developing new fibers, fabrics,
and finishes, especially high-performance goods, provides manufacturers a competitive edge
in the market. Product development is a major activity both in manufacturing and in vertically
integrated retail firms (in which the supply chain is owned by that company). Prototypes Prototypes are original product samples
(original product samples) are developed in a time-consuming process that may involve large and are evaluated by combining
numbers of people. Prototypes are evaluated by combining performance testing with performance testing with product testing.
product testing.
In performance or textile testing, materials are tested in a specialized laboratory
for essential aspects of performance such as tensile strength, abrasion resistance,
washability, and comfort (Figure 22.2). Lab testing uses standard test methods and

Learning Activity 1
Work in groups of three or four. Identify a job or leadership position you have held.
Describe the skills and knowledge that you used in the position. Explain two things
that you learned about working with people in that position that will apply in most team
situations.

Learning Activity 2
Many professional positions require teamwork. Consider one or more occasions when
you have worked as a team member as part of a class project, as an employee, or on
an athletic or other competitive team. Explain how the team worked, who led the team,
and the dependence of the team on each member’s performance. Were all team mem-
bers equally effective in contributing to the team’s effort? What characteristics do you
find desirable in team members? Do you exhibit that behavior when you are on a team?
If not, how can you modify your behavior to be a more contributing member of a team?
How can you use this information in developing a strong resume?

career exploration 575


(a)
(b)
Figure Laboratory testing equipment and
22.2 standards: launderometer (a) for
testing colorfastness to washing
and (b) standards for evaluating
colorfastness.
Figure Trend boards and sample fabrics help
22.3 product developers create goods.
Product development involves analyzing
trends in color and style, taking the
garment from the rough sketch to the
consumer, defining fit, and determining
product costs.
576 chapter twenty-two
specialized testing equipment so that results are reliable, precise, and accurate. In
product or field testing, identical products are used by consumers to assess how the
product performs and how they react to it. A field or prototype test manager or ana-
lyst manages testing, including recruiting subjects to participate in the test, verifying
that the prototype(s) being tested are complete and correct, identifying the extent and
dimensions of the test, developing the questionnaires or survey instruments, analyzing
the data, and reporting the results. The analyst is often one member of the design or
product development team and guides them as prototypes are refined based on field
tests. Testing may occur several times as the prototype is modified based on analy-
ses of cost, consumer reaction, and performance. Fabrics are tested and performance
specifications are used for material selection. Testing and quality-assurance evaluations
are often done in the country where the product is purchased. Positions with similar
responsibilities may be described as manager of product integrity, product comparisons
analyst, and manager of material testing.
Quality assurance specialists evaluate materials and products for adherence to
company specifications and standards. A merchandise evaluation engineer evaluates prod-
uct performance based on company standards and customer expectations. The engineer
also evaluates competitors’ products to ensure that the company’s products are competi-
tive in performance and price. Engineers work with suppliers to ensure that product-quality
expectations are understood. Jaycee, a quality-assurance assistant, manages a component
of product testing for a large department store chain. Her job includes supervising testing of
materials, product components, and products.
“I spend a lot of time looking at numbers and talking to product development team mem-
bers about materials. My lab data helps us make good products and produce repeat
customers. We always have to keep the bottom line in mind. When our sourcing special-
ists find new suppliers, it can be a challenge until we learn how to work together. Solving
problems and making a difference is what I like about my job.”
Product development involves analyzing trends in color and style, taking the gar-
ment from the rough sketch to the consumer, defining fit, and determining product costs.
Forecasting colors and trends is a significant factor in product development and design
of fashion merchandise (Figure 22.3). Trend forecasters increasingly rely on Web sites,
social media, blogs, and mobile media to track trends and share their findings with cli-
ents. Color and trend forecasting is big business and influences a wide range of behaviors
and consumer goods including apparel, interiors, cosmetics, cars, magazines, accesso-
ries, athletic gear, and sporting goods (Figure 22.4). Forecasters and analysts may work
for independent consultant companies who sell the service to designers and retailers or
they may be part of a creative or product development team in the corporate headquar-
ters of a design or retail company.
3 Learning Activity
Consider a recent textile-related purchase that you have made. Detail the job titles and
responsibilities that likely went into creating the product purchased. Considering these
job titles and responsibilities, what knowledge, skills, and attitudes do you have that
would qualify you for these positions?
 In many companies, product development teams consist of one or more p
­ roduct
development managers, merchandisers, technical designers, and fit specialists.
Dependent upon the company, some product development teams also include fabric
specialists, researchers, or development specialists. These individuals require expertise
in textile science. They research and develop fabrics and trims for specific end uses and
that meet quality and performance requirements. They act as liaisons with merchandising,
production, and design. Fabric managers often travel to suppliers as needed. A recent
position advertisement for a luxury department store stated that their Product Group
develops, designs, produces, and sources for 50-plus private store labels. In addition to
attention to detail and conscientiousness, specific responsibilities included managing the
Figure Trend forecasting involves research
product creation process from design to production, establishing strong working rela-
22.4 to best predict the colors, silhouettes,
tionships with cross-functional teams to ensure product success, and ensuring the and styles that consumers will find
product team is meeting the development calendar with accuracy and efficiency. Charlie appealing in the future.
is a product manager for a diverse corporation that includes hardgoods and softgoods in
their product line. He

“manages products in the sporting goods and tools area and work with branded
­p roducts—our own private label. I manage the process between buyer and
­manufacturer—facilitating lab dips, price, product specs, and materials. I am more of
an expert on the merchandise than the buyer or the production people. The buyers buy.
They hold the check and know how much to buy and when to buy. I make sure they buy
the best product available. If we go directly to the factory, we have more control over the
specs, color, and changes we want in the product. I’m good at what I do. I increase our
margin quite a bit. I watch trends and keep an eye on what is happening in Europe and
Asia. I love traveling and my job lets me do that.”

Product development does not cease once the product is on the market. Follow-up
studies assess consumer acceptance of the product. Modifications help companies remain
competitive.

Production
Production deals with manufacturing the textile or the textile product. There are posi-
tions at all levels of the production distribution chain wherever product development and
production occur. There is a great demand for production managers who enjoy traveling
and working internationally. Position titles include production managers or production
supervisors. These positions require a combination of people skills and knowledge of
the materials with which the facility works, as well as how the equipment works with or
processes the materials. Problem-solving and critical-thinking skills are frequently applied
so that the products and materials meet specifications, cost requirements, and ship-
ping deadlines. Responsibilities include managing work flow and assessing and revis-
ing production processes, equipment, or procedures. Production managers must work
with the manufacturing and purchasing personnel on materials and production planning
issues. Production managers ensure efficient, appropriate, and safe working conditions.
According to David, an assistant product manager for a wholesale trade company based
in Los Angeles,

“my work is squarely between development and production. Once a line is designed,
those details are entered into what is called a bill of materials. That information is then
sent to the plant. I review production output and ensure all materials produce fall within

career exploration 577


There are positions at all levels of
the production distribution chain
wherever product development and
production occur.
(a)
(b)
Figure Designers make decisions regarding
22.5 silhouette (a) and fabric (b).
Two common career paths for design are
creative and technical.
578 chapter twenty-two
our quality standards. Any problems that occur at the plant are my responsibility to make
sure goods are produced on time and on budget.”
Design
Designers research fashion trends and understand current style. They create the concept,
idea, or design for a product or select the components for a room setting. They are innova-
tors who work in a high-stress, fast-paced industry. They need to have a strong knowledge
of design, materials, and product development processes. Designers need to understand the
sewability of materials and fabrics. Designers work at all levels and may work with such com-
ponents as yarns, fabrics, or patterns for prints, or apparel items, interior textile items, rooms,
or other settings.
Two common career paths for design are creative and technical. Creative designers
focus on specific product types, price points, and target markets. They forecast trends, cre-
ate colorways, develop line concepts, and coordinate product lines. Decisions regarding sil-
houette, fabric, and finishing are design decisions (Figure 22.5). Designers identify what will
sell, what will satisfy the consumer, what is within the company’s mission and scope, and
what is within the target market’s price range. The use of computers in design is common,
and designers need experience working with systems and software appropriate to their spe-
cialization in securing a position or advancing within a firm. Beginning positions in design
include design assistant or assistant designer.
Samuel is a bridal gown designer.
“Silk has always been an absolute passion of mine! It is a natural choice for wedding
gowns. My delicate, ornate gowns are featured in bridal publications and upscale bridal
boutiques throughout North America. I do one theme collection a year. We produce the
finest quality dress with perfect fit using top-of-the-line fabrics, beadings, and embroider-
ies. Trunk shows are the key tool for bringing in new business. For a trunk show, I am in
a salon for three days. I work with the customer to find the dress for her dream wedding.
I use only silk from Italy, Korea, and China—organza, taffeta, georgette, duchess satin,
charmeuse, and chiffon. The lace is from France. I have solid relationships with a number
of distributors overseas. My broker in Taiwan translates all order information and design
specifications to the design teams in the three Chinese factories we use. There is a lot
of back and forth as design details get worked out. I travel to the factories at least once
a year. The only colors I use are white and off-white, but getting colors to match can be
quite an undertaking. Figuring out price is another undertaking. I pay the staff, me, mar-
keting and website design consultants, factory costs, fabric costs, customs fees, broker
fees, shipping costs, and miscellaneous expenses. I design the gowns and figure out the
cost per gown and the cost of running the business. I use those numbers to determine
what to charge the store. In the couture wedding industry, we have built a reputation
based on quality.”
Technical designers step in at different stages in design and product development.
They need to understand the performance of the textiles with which they work and select
the appropriate materials to produce the expectations of the finished product (Figure 22.6).
Tech designers determine material and product specifications and oversee execution. They
need experience with product data management. Technical designers ensure that designs
meet the appropriate laws, regulations, and codes. They interpret the designer’s inten-
tions and analyze construction methods for performance, quality, and cost. They analyze
lab dips, strike-offs, and product test results. They develop specifications and standards
for samples and production and work with suppliers to see that components, materials,
and products meet specifications and perform at the prescribed level (Figure 22.7). They
­manage product development from adoption to production. Technical designers use their
textiles knowledge to assess the quality of contract purchases and identify possible sources
of problems in production. For example, solving the problems related to seam puckering in a
tightly woven fabric may involve examining the size of the sewing thread, stitch type, thread
tension, and handling of materials to determine the cause and resolve it. Tech designers
work with creativity teams, buyers, and sourcing specialists to ensure that design concepts
are executed on time and at cost. Some tech designers function as development managers
or color nalysts.
Pat is a patternmaker/technical designer and a member of a product development team
Figure Selecting appropriate materials is
for a company that produces outwear.
22.6 part of the responsibility of technical
“Working with the designer to create the pattern is the best and the worst part of my job. designers.
Sometimes we are on the same page about the design and sometimes we aren’t. I create
the pattern using CAD and have to interpret the designer’s rough sketches. Sometimes
I make the profile too skinny and sometimes too poufy. I supervise the sewers who make
the garments, correct my patterns based on the designer’s comments, and work with
the designer and technical designers in fitting garments on models. Once the team is
happy with the profile and fit, I make production patterns for all appropriate sizes.”

Most design work means problem solving and satisfying the company’s target market
while making a profit. Design positions may be found in product-development areas in man-
ufacturing firms and retail businesses. Knitwear design is a rapidly growing area and requires
an even greater understanding of materials and their performance. This is especially important
in terms of pattern making, since elasticity and elongation vary with the type of knit and fiber
content.
Design positions are also available in the entertainment field, but they are difficult to
obtain. Designers create the set or stage. A designer may spend several years as an assis-
tant. Stylist is the term used to describe the person who works with a photographer to take
images of textile products for catalogs, promotional materials, advertisements, and Web sites.
Stylists also work in television, film, and commercial advertising shoots to convey the appro-
priate image.
Print or textile designers develop prints and structural design fabrics for both woven and
knit fabrics for apparel and interiors. An understanding of trends, fiber content and fabric
structure, production processes, and graphic design are essential in this area. Creativity and
good visual acuity are critical. CAD systems are used to create the design, modify it, develop
colorways, and create patterns to complete assortments. Textile designers most often use (a)
digital printing to proof their designs.
Tim is a textile designer for a mass merchandiser.

“I create production prints that can be produced with minimal revisions and reworking of
prototypes or samples and that fit within pricing parameters of a product category. I man-
age the print evaluation process and approve final prints. Creating manufacture-ready
CAD files for product development packages and providing guidance to designers, prod-
uct development, and suppliers is a big part of my job. My boss expects me to keep
current on new printing processes and technologies so that we maintain a competitive
edge. I help ensure brand integrity and brand quality across product categories. I work
with fabric teams to ensure that prints and materials are a good match. I also often help
designers create product presentations for management. I really like the design part of
my job. I spend a lot of time listening to people talk about prints and colors. The hardest (b)
thing for me was understanding business strategies, but now I see how that all works Figure Technical design: (a) workroom and
together. I love doing what I’m doing!” 22.7 (b) pattern pieces.

career exploration 579


Figure Naturally dyed silk.
22.8
Interior designers may work for a design
firm, as part of an architectural firm, or with a
retailer who specializes in furniture, carpeting,
or interior components such as lighting,
kitchen/bath, or window/wall coverings.
Figure Some interior designers work for
22.9 retailers who specialize in furniture
and floor coverings.
580 chapter twenty-two
The artist or craftsperson creates one-of-a-kind items (Figure 22.8). Most artists special-
ize in one medium or type of object such as weaving large tapestries for public buildings or
office spaces. Another artist may specialize in creating wearable art, using such techniques
as weaving, screen printing, and quilting. The artist must select appropriate materials and be
sufficiently adept to produce the piece. Becoming a self-employed artist requires tremendous
effort, talent, and discipline.
Interior designers may work for a design firm, as part of an architectural firm, or with
a retailer who specializes in furniture, carpeting, or interior components such as lighting,
kitchen/bath, or window/wall coverings (Figure 22.9). Support teams often include customer
service coordinators, interior designers, and project managers. Contract interior designers
meet with architects, conduct on-site visits to ensure correct installation of carpet and wall
coverings and verify that installation is on schedule, coordinate with suppliers and contractors
to facilitate shipping and installation, visit showrooms, design interiors, and educate clients
and architects.
Sourcing
Materials and production sourcing deals with identifying the supplier for the materials or
services needed. Sourcing specialists need to understand textiles, textile products, produc-
tion, marketing, performance and quality evaluation, and products or services. The ability to
write and understand product and service specifications is critical. Sourcing specialists must
have good communication skills in English and other languages, intercultural competence,
and an openness to global perspectives as international travel is an expectation for these
positions.
Sourcing specialists offer logistical support and ensure that suppliers meet company
standards. Sourcing production involves contractor selection and management of products
throughout production (Figure 22.10). Fabric and trim buyers find producers who can meet
fabric and trim requirements and negotiate color, cost, and logistics. Sourcing specialists may
be responsible for follow-up to ensure that the contract will be met, that items are shipped
on time, and that shipping occurs as contracted. As such, sourcing specialists need strong
analytical and decision-making skills. They are detail oriented and have good problem-solving
skills. Some position titles include product preparation analyst, supplier performance supervi-
sor, and operations specialist.
With offshore production, sourcing specialists must be familiar with import/export
requirements and regulations. Trade specialists, trade advisors, or customs brokers work with
customs officials to minimize problems or to solve them as they develop. A sourcing agent
is a specialist who works in a specific country and is an essential individual for international
full-package sourcing. The agent deals with all aspects of sourcing offshore, including materi-
als sourcing, production, and import/export issues. Some companies use domestic sourcing
firms to place their product with contractors. Other firms do direct sourcing—­placing their
4 Learning Activity
Examine swatches #48 and 49. What textile science knowledge would both creative
and technical designers need to know while using these fabrics? What types of infor-
mation, if any, would be specific to creative or technical designers?
products without using agents. A retailer’s production manager would investigate companies
who produce items similar to what is needed, evaluate countries, factories, and agents, and
analyze their ability to meet production deadlines. The sourcing specialist usually ­recommends
one or more companies with whom the firm should negotiate for sample runs or contract
terms. Sourcing specialists are often concerned with fulfilling a company’s corporate social
responsibility, ensuring the company is operating in a positive relationship to the society in
which it operates.
Michelle is a knit production assistant sourcing manager for a retailer who produces
­private label merchandise.

“I help develop and execute our sourcing plan for all knit categories. I work with my
Figure Sourcing involves contractor selection.
supervisor to identify new suppliers so that our sourcing needs are met. This includes
22.10
prelim costs, social compliance, factory assessment, logistics, and delivery/financial
details. I’m part of a cross-functional team with development where we take things from
concept to line adoption. One of our biggest issues is sourcing fabric. We work together
to achieve a good product mix. Part of our job is to negotiate prices and determine strat-
egies for replenishment for products that are selling through. We work hard at estab-
lishing and maintaining good relationships with our suppliers. You really have to have a
diplomat’s mindset to do this job. There is a lot of networking and negotiation involved.
Materials and production sourcing deals
I like to travel and experience new things, which is really good for this job. It is demand-
ing, but I like the analytical and problem-solving parts of the job. I’m amazed at how with identifying the supplier for the
much I have to rely on my old textbooks. I can’t remember everything and they really materials or services needed. The ability to
help me do my job!” write and understand product and service
specifications is critical, as is an openness
to global perspectives as international travel
Merchandising is an expectation for these positions.
Merchandisers are expected to predict styles and trends, understand the needs of their target
market, anticipate customer demand, ensure that merchandise is in stock, understand data,
take risks, and make sound decisions quickly. Merchandisers plan lines and make the final
decision on items to be included in a line based on budget, price point, and other factors.
However, many positions in merchandising exist beyond the retail setting. There are buy-
ing positions in companies throughout the global textile complex. For example, yarn compa-
nies buy fiber. Weavers and knitters buy yarn. Converters, dyers, and finishers buy dyes and
chemicals to finish fabrics. Sewing facilities buy fabric, trim, thread, support materials, zippers,
buttons, and wood and metal for furniture frames—all items used in producing the finished
item, whether it is apparel or an interiors product. Product coordinators track components,
deadlines, and activities so that the finished product is available on schedule. Merchandising
specialists represent manufacturers in retail stores and ensure good product placement
and appealing visual merchandising of their products (Figure 22.11). Multichannel market-
ing includes mail order, kiosk, direct, home shopping networks, pop-up, and e-commerce.
Just as with other merchandising positions, these relate to buying or developing merchandise Figure Presenting goods in a pleasing
to be presented to the consumer. Production of Web sites and product presentation are 22.11 and interesting way promotes the
purchasing of goods and is central to
merchandising careers.
Learning Activity 5
Create a list of the intercultural and interpersonal skills that you feel would be valuable
while traveling internationally. Share this list with a classmate and determine the top five
skills that the two of you feel are necessary. Share results with other teams in the class.
Do you all agree? If not, what other skills did they include? Did their comments make
you want to revise your list?

career exploration 581


Many positions in merchandising exist
beyond the retail setting. There are
buying positions in companies throughout
the global textile complex from dealing
with the raw material to diverse retailing
channels including brick and mortar and
e-commerce.
582 chapter twenty-two
other important positions where knowledge of textile terminology is essential since accurate
­product descriptions and clear images inform the consumer. Some merchandisers focus on
the Internet environment to ensure that email, texts, social media, and online presence of their
companies reach and appeal to the consumer.
Managers work at different levels: departments, divisions, stores, or regions. Their goals
are to maximize sales and profit for the company and ensure customer satisfaction with the
merchandise and shopping experience. Store managers direct merchandising, operational,
and human resource functions within a single store. They ensure store security; assist in
recruiting, training, and hiring store employees; and work with local political, educational, and
law enforcement officials and agencies. They deal with dissatisfied customers and employees
and resolve conflicts.
Allocator or planner is usually an entry-level position for buyers. Allocators manage
­purchase orders from the initial contract through the life cycle of the product, including replen-
ishment or reorders and consolidation of nonselling merchandise to other stores or sales ven-
ues. They manage store inventory levels based on store size, season, and sales. They review
sales data to ensure that stock levels meet sales trends. They work with spreadsheets and
analyze data. Allocators decide which store receives which merchandise and work to get the
right merchandise in the store at the best time to ensure sales. They track sales, promote
merchandise within the store, keep track of inventory, and work with staff to help them know
the merchandise. In direct marketing, the nonstore retailer sells merchandise such as
cosmetics, interior decorating items, kitchen supplies, and some apparel directly to the con-
sumer through in-home parties and telephone sales.
Store managers are responsible for meeting sales goals and ensuring that staff are trained
to sell. They must have an in-depth knowledge of all aspects of their merchandise. They
implement business and selling strategies from the corporate office, including visual direc-
tives for maximizing sales. They support special events such as collection previews and client
events. They are expected to maintain a floor presence to assist customers, build rapport
with customers and staff, and monitor interactions between staff and customers. They are
expected to quickly resolve any issues that develop. Store managers monitor store expenses
and maintain budgets while identifying ways to reduce costs. They build and maintain good
communications within the store, between the store and the mall office, with the corporate
office, and with other stores.
Merchandise managers analyze product trends and sales and use that information to
develop sales strategies. They review financial goals and redefine product assortments based on
their analyses. They work with creative teams so that new products are added or current prod-
ucts are redesigned to meet projected needs. They conduct competitive analyses and search
out trend inspiration by searching other stores and evaluating product assortments, quality, pric-
ing merchandising strategies, and business opportunities. They are often members of cross-­
functional teams representing merchandising, design/product development, and production.
Buyers work with vendors and the distribution center to ensure timely delivery of mer-
chandise. They manage and project markdowns, analyze sales performance, understand the
target market by individual stores, can plan margins and open to buy, and communicate reg-
ularly with stores and vendors. Strong math skills, knowledge of the merchandise, and good
communication and decision-making skills are essential job skills.
Other positions related to merchandising include managing loss prevention. These indi-
viduals implement policies and programs to reduce store shortage related to shoplifting, theft,
and damage.
 Visual merchandisers deal with how the merchandise is presented to the customer.
They need to know how textiles drape and interact with store lighting to attract customers.
Visual merchandisers or visual coordinators implement visual merchandising strategies and
guidelines for stores. Often this includes training associates to dress mannequins or forms,
light merchandise effectively, and install fixtures. Visual merchandising may also include sig-
nage, sounds, scents, and the overall ambience of a physical or virtual retail space. Developing
a consistent visual brand with a variety of merchandise throughout the year requires creative
thinking and problem solving. Visual merchandisers have to seek out product information to
develop appropriate presentations. Visual merchandisers often direct in-store marketing and
update this on a regular basis, sometimes weekly. They often work with computer-simulated
stores to create the setting and develop a guide so that stores can implement it. They work
with cross-functional teams from concept to in-store placement of merchandise. Visual mer-
chandising involves attention to detail, a good eye for color, positive interactions with team
members, and travel. Communicating successful visual merchandising strategies to supervi-
sors is a difficult, but essential part of the job.
Ellen is a sales supervisor for a women’s specialty store.
“My job is busy! I guide my staff to meet their personal goals so that the store meets its
sales goals. I work with my associates to develop their selling skills and provide customer
service to ensure sales. We build clientele and use individual client books. Associates con-
tact clients when merchandise that meets their needs arrives in the store. When problems
develop with merchandise or between associates and clients, I resolve the complaint quickly
and ensure that the client is satisfied with the solution. It is important that we maintain repeat
clientele and that they come to us for their fashion needs. We provide an alterations service
and ship articles—part of my after-hours supervision. I help the store manager with risk man-
agement (theft), security, and inventory management. I train associates and help them meet
our grooming and image requirements. Keeping the selling area neat, organized, and well
stocked is another one of my jobs. I also help implement and maintain merchandising visual
directives from the main office. I help with receiving and shipping, including the paperwork—
my least favorite part of the job. Finally, I check work schedules for hours and attendance. My
days are full and busy, but never boring!”

Marketing
Marketing positions in areas as diverse as advertising, marketing research, journal-
Figure Marketing efforts surround us
ism, and display require people with an understanding of what motivates consumers to 22.12 in physical shopping as well as
buy (Figure  22.12). Marketing specialists develop the presentation of the product and e-commerce environments.

Learning Activity 6
Go to several brick and mortar stores that sell textile-related products, preferably includ-
ing large corporate-run companies as well as a locally owned outlets. How are the
merchandising strategies similar and how are they different? Which strategies do you
consider successful? What textiles related information is conveyed through the visual
merchandising of the products at these stores? Now go to the e-commerce sites for
the stores that you visited. Is the product presentation consistent with what you wit-
nessed within the store environment? Is the textiles related information more clearly
conveyed in the store or online? Explain your response.

career exploration 583


Marketing positions in areas as diverse
as advertising, marketing research,
journalism, and display require people
with an understanding of what motivates
consumers to buy.
Figure Yarn shops address many of the needs
22.13 within the fiber arts community.
584 chapter twenty-two
create its image. These professionals must understand their target market fully so that they
can help the consumer become aware of their product, recognize its usefulness or desirabil-
ity, and purchase the product. Managing Web sites and development of materials for e-com-
merce sites involves product promotion, public relations, understanding brand image, and the
ability to communicate a brand image.
Knowledge of a product’s special features or design aspects will assist in marketing it.
Textile knowledge may help market products by promoting performance and product qual-
ity. Other firms focus on product serviceability and highlight their product testing programs
and performance ratings. Still other firms focus on the high-fashion aspects of their products.
Marketing professionals often have to combine trends from higher end, designer markets with
product knowledge to create goods appropriate and saleable to consumers in diverse prod-
uct categories. .A knowledge of textiles provides an understanding of the product and an
expanded vocabulary useful in marketing the product.
Producers of textile products use sales reps to market the product line to retailers.
Often this presentation takes place in a company showroom located at headquarters or in
a merchandise center where similar merchandise lines are grouped together. Showroom
managers and staff explain the company’s line to retail buyers, apparel designers, or interior
designers. Sales reps must be self-starters and enjoy traveling. Sales reps may represent
several companies, product lines, or product types that complement each other. For exam-
ple, one sales rep may carry a women’s dress line, a coordinates line aimed at the same
target market, and jewelry that could be worn with either of these two lines. Another rep
may represent three companies: upholstered furniture, accent rugs, and household acces-
sories. Fabric reps specialize in selling fabric to producers, interior or apparel design firms,
or consumer fabric stores. Rep positions are seldom starting positions and are often paid on
commission.
Fashion and event coordinators or managers promote fashion shows, trunk shows, and
other fashion events for retailers, malls, designers, apparel marts or centers, or the entertain-
ment industry. Some also are freelance entrepreneurs.
Entrepreneurs
Entrepreneurship is the starting of a new business venture. Entrepreneurs identify a need
within the community or develop a creative approach that would fit a niche and differen-
tiate a new small business from other similar businesses in the community (Figure 22.13).
Entrepreneurs are creative thinkers. They should do a feasibility analysis and business plan
and identify how their business is innovative and creative. They need to develop a competitive
business strategy and analyze current and future needs. Entrepreneurs and small-business
owners often handle every part of running a business: identifying the target market and prod-
uct mix, sourcing materials and supplies, promoting and selling the merchandise or service,
hiring staff, dealing with financial arrangements and budgets, and maintaining the store or
facilities. Entrepreneurs in the global textile complex may include owners of apparel stores,
interior design firms, as well as individuals with their own businesses in styling, event manage-
ment, and those with careers in social media. There also exist opportunities for entrepreneurs
within the local fiber movement, from sheep growers who market their fiber to local artists
and hobbyists; owners of yarn, quilt, and knitting shops; fiber artists, and vendors who attend
events such as fiber and quilting festivals and fairs.
 Amanda is an entrepreneur and owner of a consignment business in a college commu-
nity. Having worked as an employee for other small specialty stores, she was frustrated when Entrepreneurs identify a need within the
her suppliers required large purchases of goods. Amanda created a store that specializes in community or develop a creative approach
buying excess inventory from small independent stores and then re-ticketing and selling them that would fit a niche and differentiate a
in her brick and mortar outlet. According to Amanda, new small business from other similar
businesses in the community.
“this business is a huge service to the small business owners as there was nothing wrong
with their merchandise, but in small towns, there is a limited customer base. It is also a
service to this community, particularly for treasure hunters wanting a unique product at
a good price. This business always keeps me on my toes as we get completely random
assortments so it is difficult to merchandise and promote, but I would not do anything
differently with my career.”

Government
Governments are some of the world’s largest consumers of textile products and employ
many people with knowledge of textiles. Purchasing officers locate producers of specific
textile products and verify that items meet government requirements and performance by
testing and examining samples (Figure 22.14). The performance of these items is evaluated
by textile-testing engineers using specific test methods and standards. Because of the large
number of textile items purchased, sourcing specialists are in demand. Customs officials
and inspectors ensure that all imported goods meet the appropriate requirements in terms
of authenticity and labeling requirements, and are free from insects and disease organisms.
For example, wool from certain countries may be checked for anthrax, a highly contagious
disease in sheep. Counterfeit items are confiscated and destroyed. Government employ-
ees may develop, enforce, or interpret standards, laws, and regulations and work within the
global textile complex and for business so that current guidelines and standards are met.
Research and development positions in government research facilities focus on textile prod-
ucts such as military uniforms, apparel for adverse weather conditions, spacesuits, interiors
Figure Microscopy is essential in identifying
for space vehicles and submarines, and suits that offer protection from biological and chem-
22.14 natural fibers.
ical warfare.

Other Career Areas

The careers in this section either require further education or are more limited in terms of the
number of positions available.
Fashion writers and editors work for publishers who provide written information about the
fashion industry. Fashion writers develop the written materials while editors coordinate written
works and verify that content, style, and format is appropriate for the audience. While fashion
writers and editors have tremendous impact on fashion of apparel and interiors, there are
relatively few of these positions available. Most writers and editors are employed by fashion
and general-interest magazines, trade publications, and a few newspapers. There are also

Learning Activity 7
Have you ever considered becoming an entrepreneur? What skills, knowledge, and atti-
tudes are critical for entrepreneurship?

career exploration 585


Figure A museum professional cleaning a
22.15 textile within the storage environment.
586 chapter twenty-two
freelance writers and editors. With the ease of Web site development, there also exist oppor-
tunities for fashion writing through blogs and social media.
Education positions can be formal, such as university/college or secondary school edu-
cator, or informal, such as an instructor in a quilting shop. In the formal setting, an advanced
degree or periodic additional coursework may be necessary. Many colleges and universi-
ties require a Ph.D. College and university faculty members teach specific classes related
to their area of specialization and often do research, engage in scholarship, create artistic
works, or judge design competitions. A secondary teacher may be involved in several areas,
including family and child development, food and nutrition, at-risk programs, and sex edu-
cation. Secondary teachers may have additional responsibilities including advising a student
group or club.
In the informal setting, professionals have a wide variety of possible job descriptions.
Some positions involve educating other employees of the company so that they better
understand the consumer. For example, some consumer education specialists may help
engineers understand problems consumers have with automatic washers and dryers. Trade
associations and businesses employ people with a background in education and textiles to
develop educational and instructional materials on the proper use of a specific machine, or
produce teaching aids. These materials are often included in an online presence, through
Web sites, blogs, and social media. Specialists may teach workshops to consumers or sales
representatives and deal with consumers who have questions about the use of the product
or complaints about a product. Many fiber related businesses, such as knitting and quilting
shops, host workshops and hands-on training sessions, which build a stronger customer
base and encourage purchases. An understanding of textiles is essential for these positions.
Some universities maintain extension specialists who develop educational materials
related to wide-ranging current concerns, including cleaning apparel soiled with pesticides,
disposing of outdated cleaning aids, recycling textiles in an environmentally safe manner,
or storing textile heirlooms. They answer consumer questions on an amazing array of top-
ics, assess special needs in their geographic areas, and develop programs and materials
to meet these needs. Extension professionals develop and present educational materials to
diverse and specific audiences including pesticide applicators, day care workers, or 4-H club
members.
Professionals in the museum field need an in-depth knowledge of textiles and produc-
tion and evolution of design, since dating an item and determining its cultural significance are
based on these specific details (Figure 22.15). Curators are responsible for selecting items
to be added to the collection and presenting the artifacts to the public to build knowledge and
appreciation. Collection managers are responsible for maintaining the collection in good
condition. In museums with thousands of objects, this is a challenging position. The conser-
vator performs hands-on cleaning, restoration, and repair and prepares objects for storage.
Conservation requires an in-depth knowledge of the objects, how they were made, the
materials and components in the objects, and how these materials age and react with envi-
ronmental factors such as light, dust, and stains. Most positions require a graduate degree.
Summary
Many exciting and challenging professional positions are possible within the global t­extile
complex. The variety and diversity of positions make it possible for anyone, regardless of
individual interests, strengths, working habits, or geographic preferences, to find a p
­ osition.
 All professional positions require a continual updating of information. The responsibility
of finding information and keeping current is one that all professionals recognize. Many of the
books used in classes are excellent resources for a professional library. To keep current, make
a habit of regularly reading professional journals and publications related to your area. Many
professions have organizations so that members can meet others with similar interests on a
regular basis and update their knowledge. In addition, workshops or short courses are offered
through colleges/universities, professional organizations, or private concerns. The Internet
provides a limitless source of potential information regarding companies, career paths, posi-
tion descriptions, and so on. It also provides an excellent opportunity to stay up-to-date with
trends, both fashion and textiles oriented, to make oneself as knowledgeable as possible.

Learning Activity 8
Identify two positions that look interesting to you. Describe the responsibilities of those
positions and the knowledge and skills they require. Assess your strengths, skills, and
knowledge related to these positions. Develop an action plan that will help you gain the
knowledge and skills needed for at least one of these positions.

Learning Activity 9
Talk to students who have had internships in an area of interest to you. What kinds of
experiences did they have? What did they learn about their field while involved in the
internship? What did they learn about themselves while interning with a company? How
can you use that information to improve your opportunities?

terms
key terms
Artist
Collection manager
Conservation
Design
Direct marketing
Entrepreneur
Product development
Product testing
Production
Consumer education specialist Extension specialist Prototype
Creative designer Marketing Quality assurance specialist
Cross functional team Merchandising Sourcing
Curator Nonstore retailer Technical designer
Customs official Performance testing Visual merchandiser

questions
review questions
1. Talk to a professional in your area of interest to determine
the relationship of textiles knowledge to that career and to
identify the responsibilities of the job.
3. What efforts can you take on a regular basis to update
your textiles knowledge as required in your future job or
career?
2. Based on your current career goal, how will you use your 4. List the skills required in most positions described in this
knowledge of textiles in performing the expected job chapter.
responsibilities?

career exploration 587

 5. Identify the characteristics needed to work on a team.
Which of the careers described in this chapter require the
ability to work in a team?
6. Investigate several job search Web sites and identify
the types of job for which you would be qualified upon
graduation. List the skills and experiences you have
and the ones you need to acquire to qualify for these
positions.
7. Investigate several companies that you would like to work
for upon graduation. What is the target market for these
companies? What textiles related serviceability concepts
would be most appealing for these consumers?

questions
section review questions
1. Explain how understanding textile serviceability relates to
required product labels.



d.
e.
f.
Design
Merchandising
Marketing
2. For each of these career areas, identify three aspects of
textiles that would relate to job responsibilities: g. Entrepreneurship
a. Sourcing 3. Explain why care of textile products; legal, sustainability,
b. Product development and careers are included in a book on textiles.
c. Production

Case Study
The Resume*
Job opportunities exist regardless of the
overall economic outlook. A resume is an
influential way to secure interviews that can
develop into job offers. Human resource
managers may receive 50 or more resumes
for each open position, spending less than
one minute appraising each resume. This
means that your resume needs to convey the
value you will bring to a potential employer
quickly and clearly. Resumes should be
tailored for each position and explain how
your skills can help the company. You need
to match your skills and experience with
a company’s goals and objectives and by
researching a company and determine what
they need and what you can bring to the job.
A resume should incorporate four basic
elements: an objective that defines your expertise
and skills and demonstrates how you might
fit with a company; a summary statement
describing a few key skills and accomplishments;
a key word list of relevant skills and
competencies; and a list of your achievements
using action verbs rather than a list of job titles.
Be careful about what you include. Make sure
it is error-free. Try reading it aloud to catch any
mistakes. Seek assistance from your campus
career center, career days, e-job fairs, open
houses, and from previous employers to ensure
your resume presents you in the best light.
Many corporations today accept applicants
through on-line, proprietary systems. It is
imperative that you follow the instructions
for entering information and uploading any
documents. The wise potential employee will
also ensure their social media profiles are
appropriate and professional!
Discussion Questions
1. Explain how you would research a company.
Why is it necessary to research a company?
2. What are the sources of information
available to you for researching
companies and identifying available
positions?
3. Identify experiences that you could include
on a resume. Based on those experiences,
what would be the best way to describe
those experiences in terms of skills and
competencies that would convince an
employer to invite you for an interview?
4. What kinds of action verbs would best
describe your skills and competencies?
5. Why is a separate resume needed for
each type of position?
6. Consider your online presence. Is it
appropriate and professional?
7. Develop a resume for use for a potential
part-time position or internship you are
interested in obtaining.

*Fasano, A. (2014). Building a Winning Resume: Engineer Your Own Success. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and Marasco, C. A. (2009). Make your resume work
for you. Chemical and Engineering News, 87(8), 71–72.

588 chapter twenty-two

readings
suggested readings
Albloushy, H., Frazier, B., & Yun, Z-S. (2012). What employers
want: Soft skills required for entry level fashion designers. ITAA
Proceedings, 69, 1–2.
Anonymous. (2014). Ferguson’s Careers in Focus: Fashion and
Apparel, 4th ed. New York: Ferguson.
Azoulay, J. F. (2004). Global sourcing, global trade. AATCC Review,
4(11), 34–37.
Bolles, R. N. (2014). What Color Is Your Parachute? A Practical
Manual for Job-Hunters and Career Changers. Berkeley, CA:
Ten Speed Press.
Bubonia, J. (2013). The evolution of visual merchandising and the
impact of three key new trends. AATCC Review, 13(1), 44–50.
Eckman, A. L. (2004). Mastering the supply chain. AATCC Review,
4(5), 33–36.
Fasano, A. (2014). Building a Winning Resume: Engineer Your Own
Success. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Granger, M. M. (2015). The Fashion Industry and Its Careers: An
Introduction. New York: Fairchild Books.
Hodges, N. N., Wachravesringkan, T., Yurchisin, J., Hegland, J.,
Karpova, E., Marcketti, S., & Yan, R. N. (2015). Developing
curriculum to foster students’ entrepreneurial knowledge and
small business skills from a global perspective. Family and
Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 43(4), 313–327.
Hurst, J. L., Thye, A., & Wise, C. L. (2014). Internships: The key
to career preparation, professional development, and career
advancement. Journal of Family & Consumer Sciences,
106(2), 58–62.
Mustante, G. (2013). Coloring outside the lines. AATCC Review,
13(1), 28–33.
Paulins, V.A., & Hillery, J. L. (2015). Careers! Professional
Development for Retailing and Apparel Merchandising. New
York: Fairchild Books.
Paulins, V. A., & Hillery, J. L. (2016). Guide to Fashion Career
Planning: Job Search, Resumes, and Strategies for Success.
New York: Fairchild Books.
Rasband, J. (2011). FCS careers: Turning a passion for design
and image into a profession. Journal of Family & Consumer
Sciences, 103(3), 52–53.
U.S. Department of Labor. (2015). Occupational Outlook
Handbook. Washington, DC: Bureau of Labor Statistics.
career exploration 589
 Appendix A

Fiber Names in Other Languages

English Chinese French German Italian Korean Japanese Spanish

acetate cusuan xianwei acetate/acétate Acetate faser acetato * sakusan acetato

acrylic qingun acrylique Acryl acrilico * akuriru acrilico
nachgestellf
cotton mian coton/ Baumwolle cotone myun momen algodón
cottonade
linen yama lin/linge Leinen tela di lino ma asa or asa/ lino/lilo de lino
amanuno
nylon nilong nylon Nylon nàilon * nairon nilón
olefin Xitinglei xianwei oléfine — olefine * ourehin olefina
polyester dilun * Polyester poliestere * poriesuteru poliestero
ramie zhuma * Rahmen telaio mo shi ramii rame
rayon Nianjiao xianwei rayonne Reyon, ràion * reyon rayón
Kunstseide
silk sangcansi soie Seide seta kyun kina seda
wool yangmao laine Wolle lana mo keito lana

*English term used

590
 Appendix B

Fibers Not Produced in the United States

Anidex—A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of
at least 50% by weight of one or more esters of a monohydric alcohol and acrylic acid (CH2—CH—COOH).*
Azlon—A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is composed of any regenerated naturally occurring
proteins.*
Elastoester—A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is composed of at least 50% by weight
­aliphatic polyether and at least 35% by weight polyester.*
Lastrile—A type of rubber fiber that is made from a diene and at least 10% but no more than 50% by weight of
acrylonitrile.
Nytril—A manufactured fiber containing at least 85% of a long-chain polymer of vinylidene dinitrile (—CH2C(CN)2—), in
which the vinylidene dinitrile content is no less than every other unit in the polymer chain.*
Rayon—A manufactured fiber composed of regenerated cellulose, as well as manufactured fibers composed of
­regenerated cellulose in which substituents have replaced not more than 15% of the hydrogens of the hydroxyl groups.*
Saran—A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at
least 80% by weight of vinylidene chloride units (—CH2CCl2—).*
Sulfar—A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is a long-chain synthetic polysulfide in which at
least 85% of the sulfide (—S—) linkages are attached directly to two aromatic rings.*
Triacetate—A type of acetate in which not less than 92% of the hydroxyl groups are acetylated.
Vinal—A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at
least 50% by weight of vinyl alcohol units (—CH2—CHOH—) and in which the total of the vinyl alcohol units and any one
or more of the various acetal units is at least 85% by weight of the fiber.*
Vinyon—A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of
at least 85% by weight of vinyl chloride units (—CH2—CHCl—).*

*Federal Trade Commission definition.

591
 Appendix C

Selected Trade Names

Fibers
Acetate
Celanese, Celstar, MicroSafe by Celanese Acetate
Chromspun, Estron by Voridian Company

Acrylic
AKSA by AKSA Group
BioFresh, CFF fibrillated fiber, Conductrol, Creslan, Creslite, MicroSupreme, WeatherBloc by
Sterling Fibers, Inc.
Acrilan, Bounce-Back, Duraspun, Evolutia, Ginny, Pil-Trol, The Smart Yarns, Wear-Dated by
Solutia Inc.

Aramid
Kevlar, Nomex by DuPont
Teijinconex, Twaron by Teijin Aramid

Cotton
FoxFibre by Natural Cotton Colours Inc.

Flax
CRAiLAR Flax by CRAilAR Technologies

Lyocell
Tencel by Lenzing Fibers Corp.

Nylon
Anso (and all related names), Caprolan, Dry Step, Hydrofil, Royalbrite, Shimmereen, Silky
Touch, Trilene, Ultra Micro Touch, Ultra Touch, Zefsport, Zeftron (and all related names) by
Honeywell International
Antron (and all related names), Cordura, DSDN, DuPontXTI, Fiberloc, MicroSupplex,
­Natrelle BCF, SolarMax, Stainmaster (and all related names), Supplex, TACTEL, Tactesse by
INVISTA Inc.
DyeNAMIX, Ultron (and all related names), Wear Dated (and all related names) by Solutia Inc.
Enka by Polyamide Industrial Fibers, Inc.
Meryl (and all related names) by Nylstar, Inc.
Nilit Softex by Nilit Ltd.
Nylon 6ix by Beaulieu of America, Inc.
Stay Gard by Berkley, Inc.
Wellon, Wellstrand by Wellman, Inc.

592
Olefin
Amco, American, Bondtie, Floterope, Ultraline by Samson Rope Technologies
Angelhair by Wayn-Tex, Inc.
Biobarrier, Tekton, Typar. Typelle by Reemay, Inc.
Crowleon by Crowe Rope Industries, Inc.
Crown Fiber, Polystar, Trustite, Tyrite by Nexel Synthetics
Duran by Drake Extrusion
Dyeneema by DSM High Performance Fibers
E-B Meshr by Ensign-Bickford Industries
Elustra, Herculon, HY-Color (and all HY- related names), Soft 71 by FiberVisions Incorporated
Essera, Impressa, Innova, Marqesa, Trace by American Fibers & Yarn Co.
Marquesa Lana, Patlon III by Shaw Industries Permacolor Fibers
Mirafi by TenCate Geosynthetics
Polyloom by TC Thiolon
Poly Tying, Polylasting by Blue Mountain Industries, Inc.
Polypro 6 by Columbian Rope Company
Prolan by Rỗnile Inc.
Spectra 1000 (and all related Spectra fibers) by Honeywell International
Salus, Telar by Filament Fiber Technology, Incorporated (FFT)
Tyvec by DuPont Performance Materials
Welltite by Wellington

Others
Basofil (melamine by Basofil Fibers LLC)
PBI (PBI by PBI Performance Products Inc.)
Cordelan (vinal/vinyon by Kohjin)
Diofort (sulfar by Diolen Industrial Fibers)
Ingeo (PLA by NatureWorks LLC)
Kanecaron, Protex (modacrylic by Kaneka Corp.)
Leavil (vinyon by Montefibres, SpA.)
Lurex (metal coating by DuPont)
Milkofil (azlon or milk protein fiber by Filati Maclodio)
Miraflex, Beta, Fiberglas, Advantex, WindStrandJ (glass by Owens-Corning Fiberglass Corp.)
Panex 35, Pyron (carbon by Zoltek Corp.)
Panox, Sigrafil (carbon by SGL Carbon Group)
Rexe (polyether ester by Teijin)
Ryton (sulfar by Phillips Fibers Co.)
S-1 HM, S-2 Glass (glass by AGY)
SEF (modacrylic by Solutia Inc.)
Toraya (carbon by Toray Industries)
Tefaire, Teflon (fluoropolymer by Toray Fluorofibers [America] Inc.)
Torcon (sulfar by Toray Industries Inc.)
Treviron (vinyon by Teijin Ltd.)
Zylon (PBO by Toyobo)

appendix c 593
 Polyester
Accepta, Avora FR, Avora Plus, Celbond, ESP, Imbue, Loftguard, Loftguard Xtra, Microlux,
Microtherm, Polyguard (and all related names), Serelle, Serene, Stretch-aire by KoSa
A.C.E., Barricuaut, Beltec, DSP, HardCut, Pentic, Substraight by Honeywell International
Colorbrite, Dacron, Delcron, Hydrotec, Steripur by DAK Americas, LLC
ColorGuard by Marin Color-Fi, Inc.
Comforel, Coolmax by INVISTA Inc.
Comfortrel (and all related names), Filwell (and all related names), Fortrel (and all related names),
Fortrel Ecospun, Holofiber, Microdenier Sensura, Sensura, Spunnaire, Ultura by Wellman, Inc.
Diolen by Diolen Industrial Fibers Inc.
Mylar by DuPont Teijin Films
Orel by DuPont Filaments
QualiFlo, Reemay, UltrFlo by Reemay, Inc.
Retrieve by Marglen Industries
Tairilin by Nan Ya Plastics Corp., America

Rayon
Bemberg by Bemberg SpA.
Lenzing Modal, Lenzing Modal Color, Modal, Modal Micro, Lenzing Viscose by Lenzing Fibers
Corp.

Spandex
Glospan by Radici Spandex Corporation
Dorlastan by Dorlastan Fibers LLC
Lycra by INVISTA Inc.

Wool
Australian Merino Wool promoted by Australian Wool Innovation
MAPP (Merino Advanced Performance Program) promoted by New Zealand wool
Sportwool

Fabrics
Coated
Eclipse™ by ASF Group/Clark Textiles
Sympatex by Sympatex Technologies GmbH

Composite
Darlexx®, Darlexx Superskin by Shawmut Mills
Hydroflex by Consoltex
Hydroweave by AquaTex
Stomatex by Stomatex Ltd.
Xalt by Burlington Performance Fabrics

Fiberfill
Thermolite by INVISTA Inc.
Thinsulate by 3M

Imitation Leathers/Suedes
Belleseime, Supersuede by Kanebo Company
Hydrasuede by InSport

594 appendix c
Ultraleather by Ultrafabrics LLC
Ultrasuede by Toray Industries, Inc.

Laminate
Climate Technology® by Sympatex

Other
Dry Inside Performance Cotton by Antex and Nanotex
Green Line by Antex
Saran Wrap by S. C. Johnson & Sons (film)
Vellux by WestPoint Home (supported scrim structure)

Poromeric
Breathe-Tex by BreatheTex Corp.
Entrant®, Entrant Hi-Resist®, Entrant Thermo® by Toray Industries, Inc.
eVent by BHA Technologies
Gore-Tex® (and related names) by W. L. Gore & Assoc.

Spunbonded
Typar by Reemay, Inc.
Tyvek by DuPont Performance Materials

Warp Knit
Velcro by Velcro USA Inc.

Weft or Filling Knit

Artic Fleece, Chinella by Menra Mills
GreenSpun by Green-Spun Textured Knits
OuterBounds by Tullahoma Industries
Polartec (and all related names) by Malden Mills

Woven Fabric
Cordura® by INVISTA Inc.
Genuine Fake™ by Sommers Plastics

Finishes
Abrasion Resistant
ToughTek by Harrison Technologies

Absorbent
Visa by Milliken

Antimicrobial
Sanitized by Sanitized A.G.
SmartSilver by NanoHorisons
Ultra Fresh Silpure by Thomsom Research Associates

Antipilliing
Siroflash by The Woolmark Company

Combinations
Cocona (moisture management, odor management, and UV protection) by TrapTek
Minerale (moisture management, odor resistance, and UV protection) by Cocona, Inc.
VisaEndurance (moisture management and odor control) by Milliken

appendix c 595
 Durable Press
Si-Ro-Set by The Woolmark Company

Enzyme Wash
Biopolish by Novo Nordisk

Moisture Management
Capilene® by Patagonia
Dry Inside Performance Cotton by Antex and Nanotex
Eclipse™ by ASF Group/Clark Textiles
Triphibian by Insport

Shrinkage Control
London Shrunk by W. T. Johnson & Sons Ltd.
Sanitizedt by Sanforized A.G.
Superwash wool by The Wool Bureau, Inc.
Total Easy Care by The Woolmark Company (washable wool)

Soil-Resistant
StainSmart Visa by Milliken
Wear-Dated by Solutia Inc.

Light Reflective
KTTEX by King Tech

Temperature Management
Outlast® by Outlast Technologies LLC

Water-Resistant
3XDRY, EcoRepel® by Schoeller Textil
Scotchgard™ by 3M
Storm Denim by Cotton Incorporated
Teflon by DuPont

596 appendix c
 Appendix D

A Map of the World 

Norway Finland Estonia

Greenland Czech Republic Sweden Latvia
(Denmark) Austria Lithuania
Germany Slovakia
United States Bosnia and Herzegonia
(Alaska) Netherlands Hungary
Belgium Russia
Belarus
United Montenegro
Kingdom Serbia
Canada
Romania
Ireland Poland Moldova
Belgium Ukraine
Slovenia Macedonia Kazakhstan
Switzerland Bulgaria Mongolia
Andorra France Italy Azerbaijan
North Korea
Monaco Armenia Uzbekistan Krygyzstan
Portugal Spain
Croatia Greece Turkey Turkmenistan Tajikistan
United States Nepal China Japan
Albania Syria
Tunisia Lebanon Bhutan
Iraq
Afganistan
Iran Afghanistan
Jordan Bangladesh
Israel South Korea
Algeria Bahrain Myanmar
Morocco Libya Egypt Pakistan
Mexico Qatar Vietnam
The Bahamas Western Sahara United Arab Emirates
Haiti India Taiwan
Cuba Dominican Republic Saudi Arabia
Puerto Rico Mauritania Mali Eritrea Oman
Belize Niger Laos
Jamaica Senegal Philippines
Chad Yemen Thailand
Guatemala The Gambia Burkina Sudan Cambodia
Guineabissau Faso
El Salvador
Guyana Guinea Nigeria Djibouti
Honduras Venezuela South Sudan Ethiopia Brunel
Suriname Central African Malaysia
Nicaragua Sierra Leone Somalia
Columbia French Guiana
Costa Rica Liberia Cameroon Republic
Panama Ghana Uganda
Ivory Coast Kenya Singapore
Togo Democratic
Republic New Guinea
Ecuador Republic
Brazil Benin of the
of the
Congo
Peru Equatorial Guinea Congo Tanzania Indonesia
Gabon
Malawi
Republic of the
Congo Mozambique
Angola Zambia
Bolivia
Zimbabwe Madagascar
Nambia
Botswana
Chile Australia
Paraguay

South Africa
Uruguay
Argentina
New Zealand

United States
(Hawaii) Falkland Islands (U.K.)

597
 Appendix E

Standard Care Terminology*

1. Washing, Machine Methods
a.
Machine wash—A process by which soil may be removed from products or speci-
mens through the use of water, detergent or soap, agitation, and a machine designed
for this purpose. When no temperature is given, for example, warm or cold, hot water
up to 145°F (63°C) can be regularly used.
b.
Hot—Initial water temperature ranging from 112°F to 145°F (45°C to 63°C).
c.
Warm—Initial water temperature ranging from 87°F to 111°F (31°C to 44°C).
d.
Cold—Initial water temperature up to 86°F (30°C).
e.
Do not have it commercially laundered—Do not employ a laundry that uses special
formulations, sour rinses, extremely large loads, or extremely high temperatures or
that otherwise is employed for commercial, industrial, or institutional use. Employ laun-
dering methods designed for residential use or use in a self-service establishment.
f.
Small load—Smaller than normal washing load.
g.
Delicate cycle or gentle cycle—Slow agitation and reduced time.
h.
Durable-press cycle or permanent-press cycle—Cool-down rinse or cold rinse before
reduced spinning.
i.
Separately—Alone.
j.
With like colors—With colors of similar hue and intensity.
k.
Wash inside out—Turn product inside out to protect face of fabric.
l.
Warm rinse—Initial water temperature setting 90°F to 110°F (32°C to 43°C).
m.
Cold rinse—Initial water temperature setting same as cold water tap up to 85°F
(29°C).
n.
Rinse thoroughly—Rinse several times to remove detergent, soap, and bleach.
o.
No spin or do not spin—Remove material [at] start of final spin cycle.
p.
No wring or do not wring—Do not use roller wringer, or wring by hand.
2. Washing, Hand Methods
a. Hand wash—A process by which soil may be manually removed from products
through the use of water, detergent or soap, and gentle squeezing action. When no
temperature is given, for example, warm or cold, hot water up to 150°F (66°C) can
be regularly used.
b Warm—Initial water temperature 90°F to 110°F (32°C to 43°C) (hand comfortable).
c. Cold—Initial water temperature same as cold water tap up to 85°F (29°C).
d. Separately—Alone.
e. With like colors—With colors of similar hue and intensity.
f. No wring or twist—Handle to avoid wrinkles and distortion.
g. Rinse thoroughly—Rinse several times to remove detergent, soap, and bleach.
h. Damp wipe only—Clean surface with damp cloth or sponge.
3. Drying, All Methods
a. Tumble dry—Use machine dryer. When no temperature setting is given, machine-dry-
ing at a hot setting may be regularly used.
b. Medium—Set dryer at medium heat.
c. Low—Set dryer at low heat.
d. Durable press or permanent press—Set dryer at permanent-press setting.
e. No heat—Set dryer to operate without heat.
f. Remove promptly—When items are dry, remove immediately to prevent wrinkling.
g. Drip-dry—Hang dripping wet with or without hand shaping and smoothing.

598
 h.
Line dry—Hang damp from line or bar in or out of doors.
i.
Line dry in shade—Dry away from sun.
j.
Line dry away from heat—Dry away from heat.
k.
Dry flat—Lay out horizontally for drying.
l.
Block to dry—Reshape to original dimensions while drying.
m.
Smooth by hand—By hand, while wet, remove wrinkles, straighten seams and
facings.
4. Ironing and Pressing
a. Iron—Ironing is needed. When no temperature is given, iron at the highest tempera-
ture setting may be regularly used.
b. Warm iron—Medium temperature setting.
c. Cool iron—Lowest temperature setting.
d. Do not iron—Item not to be smoothed or finished with an iron.
e. Iron wrong side only—Article turned inside out for ironing or pressing.
f. No steam or do not steam—Steam in any form not to be used.
g. Steam only—Steam without contact pressure.
h. Steam press or steam iron—Use iron at steam setting.
i. Iron damp—Articles to be ironed should feel moist.
j. Use press cloth—Use a dry or a damp cloth between iron and fabric.
5. Bleaching
a. Bleach when needed—All bleaches may be used when necessary.
b. No bleach or do not bleach—No bleaches may be used.
c. Only nonchlorine bleach, when needed—Only the bleach specified may be used
when necessary. Chlorine bleach may not be used.
6. Washing or Dry-Cleaning
a. Wash or dry-clean, any normal method—Can be machine-washed in hot water, can
be machine-dried at a high setting, can be ironed at a hot setting, can be bleached
with all commercially available bleaches, and can be dry-cleaned with all commer-
cially available solvents.
7. Dry-Cleaning, All Procedures
a. Dry-clean—A process by which soil may be removed from products or specimens in
a machine that uses any common organic solvent (for example, petroleum, perchlo-
roethylene, fluorocarbon) located in any commercial establishment. The process may
include moisture addition to solvent up to 75% relative humidity, hot tumble drying up
to 160°F (71°C), and restoration by steam-press or steam-air finishing.
b. Professionally dry-clean—Use the dry-cleaning process, but modified to ensure
optimal results either by a dry-cleaning attendant or through the use of a dry-clean-
ing machine that permits such modifications or both. Such modifications or special
warnings must be included in the care instruction.
c. Petroleum, fluorocarbon, or perchloroethylene—Employ solvent(s) specified to dry-
clean the item.
d. Short cycle—Reduced or minimum cleaning time, depending on the solvent used.
e. Minimum extraction—Least possible extraction time.
f. Reduced moisture or low moisture—Decreased relative humidity.
g. No tumble or do not tumble—Do not tumble dry.
h. Tumble warm—Tumble dry up to 120°F (49°C).
i. Tumble cool—Tumble dry at room temperature.
j. Cabinet-dry warm—Cabinet-dry up to 120°F (49°C).
k. Cabinet-dry cool—Cabinet-dry at room temperature.
l. Steam only—Employ no contact pressure when steaming.
m. No steam or do not steam—Do not steam in pressing, finishing, steam cabinets, or
wands.
8. Leather and Suede Cleaning
a. Leather clean—Have cleaned only by a professional cleaner who uses special
leather- or suede-care methods.

Source: Web site of Federal Trade Commission (July 23, 2015). http://www.ftc.gov/node/119451,
16 CFR Part 423, Appendix A.

appendix e 599
 Appendix F

A Guide to Stain Removal*

Precautions
• Items labeled dry clean only should be taken to the dry cleaners as soon after staining as
possible so that special spot removal chemicals are used to help remove the stain. Dry
cleaners are not successful at removing all stains.
• Items made of natural or synthetic rubber or vinyl are damaged by most dry-cleaning solvents.
• Items of olefin are damaged by perc (perchloroethylene).
• Items with some kinds of sequins, beading, and metallic components are damaged by
dry-cleaning solvents.
• Items of leather, suede, or fur should be taken to a dry cleaner for professional treatment.

General Procedures for Removing Stains from

Washable Fabrics
• Blot excess liquid with a clean white towel (paper or fabric) or other white fabric. Colored
fabric may leave a stain.
• Wait until mud has dried, and wax has cooled. Remove by gently scraping or chipping the
residue with a dull knife or spatula. Brush or shake off small particles.
• Avoid rubbing stained areas with fabric or paper towels that leave lint.
• Avoid rubbing a stain with bar soap. It may set the stain.
• Heavily stained and soiled items should be washed separately.
• Avoid heat, hot water, or ironing for protein (milk, blood, or egg) or unknown stains since
heat can set stains.
• Check for stains before laundering items. Pretreat as needed (see Pretreating Section).
Before machine drying, check stained items to ensure that the stain has been removed.

Spot Treating Stains

Spot treating keeps the stain confined to a small area.
Supplies needed:
Absorbent fabric, paper toweling or sponges (white or neutral color; nonlinting)
Dry-cleaning solvent, spot remover, or spray pretreatment.
• Place the white fabric or towel on the working surface to avoid stain transfer to the counter
or table top.
• Place the stained area of the item face down on the white fabric or towel.
• Dampen another piece of white fabric with the solvent.
• Pat the stain from the back with the dampened price of white fabric. Start at the outside
edge and work toward the center of the stain. This keeps the stain from spreading.
• As the white fabric picks up the stain, refold it so that only clean areas come in contact
with the stain and fabric.

600
• Repeat until all evidence of the stain is gone.
• Launder to remove all of the solvent.

Pretreating Stains before Washing

Supplies needed:
Absorbent fabric, paper toweling or sponges (white or neutral color; nonlinting)
Detergent (heavy-duty liquids work best)
Bleach (hydrogen peroxide, powder color-safe bleach, liquid chlorine bleach)
Pretreatment compounds (aerosol sprays, pump-type sprays, sticks, pens, gels)
Odor-reducing or odor-absorbing materials (activated charcoal, spray compounds, baking
soda, or calcium carbonate)
Stain-removal chemicals (rubbing or isopropyl alcohol, ammonia or ammonium hydroxide, color
remover or sodium hydrosulfite, enzyme presoak, lemon juice (citric acid) and salt, acetone (found
in some nail polish removers), rust removers (hydrofluoric or oxalic acid), white vinegar)

Stain Removal Safety Precautions

• Store these chemicals out of reach of children or pets. Store them away from food.
• Read and follow all label directions.
• Use in a well-ventilated room.
• Never combine hydrofluoric or oxalic acid with powder or liquid bleach of any kind.
• Do not use solvents near an open flame or electrical outlet.
• Seal containers immediately after use.
• Never mix any of these compounds together since some combinations form toxic fumes.

Stain Removal
Stain Type Examples Process

Protein Milk products, baby food, blood, cheese,
mud, pudding, egg, urine, feces, vomit,
school paste, white glue
Tannin Red wine, beer, fruit, coffee, cologne, felt-tip
watercolor pens, carbonated drinks, tea,
vegetable and fruit juice, washable ink
Oil-based Cooking oil or fat, margarine or butter,
hand or body lotion, car or hair oil, car
door grease, salad dressing, sunscreen,
mayonnaise, body oil
Dye Berry or flower stains, color bleed from
washing, grass, ink, powder drink mix,
mustard, tempera paint
Combination I Permanent ink, eye makeup, candle wax,
crayon, tar, furniture polish, livestock
paint, pine resin, shoe polish
Combination II Calomine lotion, tomato or barbecue sauce,
chocolate, face cosmetics, gravy, hair
spray
Soak in cold water for 15 to 30 minutes. Wash in warm or cold water, rinse, and
inspect. If stain remains, soak for 30 more minutes, rewash. If not removed after
this wash, bleach.
Use detergent, not bar soap, and hot water. Set-in tannin stains may require
bleaching.
Pretreat with a heavy-duty liquid detergent or pretreatment compound. Work into
the oily stain and wash using warm or hot water depending on the care label
instructions. Use the amount of detergent recommended for a regular load, rinse,
and inspect before machine drying. Repeat if the stain remains.
These are difficult to remove. Pretreat with heavy-duty laundry detergent, rinse
thoroughly. Soak in a dilute solution of color-safe bleach. If the stain remains,
check if the fabric can be bleached with a liquid chlorine. If it can, soak for
15 minutes in a dilute solution of liquid chlorine bleach. If the stain is not removed
at this point, it is permanent.
Sponge with dry cleaning solvent, then rub with heavy-duty liquid detergent. Use
color-safe bleach, wash in warm water, and rinse. Check for stain removal before
machine drying. If stain remains, repeat process before machine drying. Use
liquid chlorine bleach for tough dye stains if fabrics are safe for this bleach.
Rub heavy-duty liquid detergent into stain before washing. Use color-safe bleach,
wash in warm water, and rinse. Check for stain removal before machine drying. If
stain remains, repeat process before machine drying. Use liquid chlorine bleach
for tough dye stains if fabrics are safe for this bleach.

(continued)

appendix f 601
Stain Removal (continued)
Stain Type Examples Process

Chewing gum Use ice to harden the gum. Crack or scrape off excess. Use pretreatment
compound. Rub with heavy-duty liquid detergent. Rinse. Repeat, if necessary.
Wash.
Deodorant Apply liquid detergent, wash in warm water.

Fingernail Do not use nail polish remover on acetate. Take to a dry cleaner and identify
polish the stain. For other common apparel fibers, use nail polish remover and spot
treatment method (check to ensure dyes are colorfast to nail polish remover).
Lead pencil Use art gum eraser to lift off excess, but avoid hard rubbing. For delicate fabrics,
use spot treatment method. For more durable fabrics, use pretreatment
compounds and heavy-duty liquid detergent. Rinse and wash.
Mildew Shake or brush item outdoors. Pretreat dark stains with heavy-duty liquid detergent.
Wash with heavy-duty liquid detergent. Bleach as safe for fabric.
Odor Treat with odor absorbing spray.

Paint, latex Treat while wet. Soak in cold water, wash in cold water with heavy-duty detergent.
Dried paint is almost impossible to remove.
Paint, Treat while wet. Use thinner recommended for paint. Spot treat paint until it is soft
oil-based and can be flushed away in heavy-duty detergent wash.
Perspiration Use liquid detergent or soak in warm water with presoak 15 to 30 minutes. Wash.

Rust The only treatments effective are either oxalic acid crystals or hydrofluoric acid
(extremely toxic and can damage the finish on washers).
Smoke, soot Shake off excess outdoors. Wash in machine using heavy-duty liquid detergent, one
cup of water conditioner, and 0.5 cup color-safe bleach. Hang to dry or dry flat.
Check for odor of smoke. Repeat as necessary. Multiple washes may be needed.
Urine Rinse in cold water and wash.

Water spots Wash. For dry clean only items, water spots may not be removed.

For Unknown Stains

• Use odor, location, and color to help identify the stain.
• Use the least destructive method first and gradually move to higher risk methods: cold
water, warm water and spot treatment, liquid detergent and warm or hot water, color-safe
bleach, and finally liquid chlorine bleach.

Ineffective Remedies
Remedy Potential Problem

Dishwasher detergent Intended for very hot water, highly alkaline, contains bleach. May fade colors and
damage some fibers or finishes.
Ironing candle wax between paper towels Ironing will drive stain deeper into fibers.
Milk on washable ink Does not work and adds protein stain.
Salt to make dyes fast Ineffective, unless large quantities are used with every wash and rinse.
Shampoo Laundry detergents are as effective and less expensive. Some compounds in
shampoo may stain fabric and are more difficult to rinse out.
White vinegar The acid in vinegar may weaken cellulosic fibers and silk and cause color change.

*Adapted from Stone, J. Quick ‘n Easy Stain Removal, Cooperative Extension Service, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011.

602 appendix f
 glossary
Abaca—a leaf fiber obtained from a member of the
banana tree family.
Abrasion resistance—the ability of a fiber to
withstand everyday rubbing or abrasion.
Abrasion-resistant finish—a process that improves
the abrasion resistance of fabrics; used for linings and
pocket facings, hosiery, and knits.
Abrasive wash—a finish that abrades a small portion of
the fabric’s surface to soften its hand to produce a slightly
worn look in the finished product.
Absorbency—the percentage of moisture a bone-dry
fiber will absorb from the air under standard conditions of
temperature and moisture; it is also known as moisture
regain.
Absorbent compound cleaning—(See Absorbent
powder cleaning.)
Absorbent finish—(See Water-absorbent finish).
Absorbent powder cleaning—a cleaning technique
for furnishings in which an aerosol is worked into the textile,
and the soil is removed by vacuuming.
Acetate—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming
substance is cellulose acetate.
Acetone test—a solubility test used to identify acetate.
Acid dyes—a dye class used primarily with natural
protein fibers and nylon.
Acrylic—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming
substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of
at least 85% by weight acrylonitrile units.
Additive finish—a finish that adds a chemical
compound to improve some performance or aesthetic
characteristic of a fabric.
Add-on—the amount of finish or dye added to a fabric
based on its original dry weight, usually given as a
percentage.
Aerosol cleaning—(See Dry-foam cleaning.)
Aesthetic finish—a finish that alters the way a fabric
looks or feels.
Aesthetics—the appearance or attractiveness of a textile
product.
Aging resistance—resistance to deleterious changes
over time.
Air-impermeable finish—(See Porosity-control finish.)
Air-jet loom—a type of loom in which the filling yarn is
inserted in the shed with a puff or jet of air.
Air-jet spinning—a process of producing a spun yarn
by using carefully controlled, rapidly moving jets of air.
Ajouré—an embroidery technique in which open areas
are created within a figure or pattern; a type of fabric with
that design element.
Alcohol—one of the ingredients of a liquid detergent;
dissolves some ingredients of the detergent, assists in stain
removal, and acts as an antifreeze during shipping in colder
climates.
Alençon (ah-lehn-sahn’)—needlepoint lace with a
hexagonal mesh.
Allergenic potential—the ability to cause physical
reactions such as skin redness.
Alpaca—the fiber produced by the South American
alpaca.
Aluminum coating—is a very thin layer of aluminum
metal designed to minimize heat flow through a fabric or
to add a metallic sparkle to the product. (See also Surface
coating.)
Ammoniating finish—a finish that increases the
absorbency of cotton and some other cellulosic fibers; often
used in conjunction with durable-press finishes to minimize
their negative effects.
Amorphous—a random or disorganized arrangement of
molecular chains within a fiber.
Angora—the hair fiber produced by the Angora rabbit.
Animal products—a general term for leather, suede,
or fur.
Antibacterial compounds—ingredient found in some
detergents to kill bacteria or retard its growth.
Antibacterial finish or fiber—(See Antimicrobial
finish or fiber.)
Anti-bleeding agent—an ingredient in a pigment
paste that keeps the edges of a print sharp and clear;
eliminates the halo effect in prints.
Antifading agents—ingredients that minimize color
bleed in the wash; present in some detergents to help
fabrics maintain their original color.
Antifume-fading finish—finish that minimizes
the effect of atmospheric fumes on sensitive dye-fiber
combinations.
Antimicrobial fiber modification or finish—finish
or fiber modification that inhibits the growth of microbes or
destroys microbes on textiles.
Antimicrobial finish or fiber—finish or fiber
modification that inhibits the growth of microbes or
destroys microbes on textiles.
Antipesticide protective finish—minimizes fabric
wicking or absorption of pesticides and protects the wearer
from exposure.
Antique satin—a reversible satin-weave fabric with
satin floats on the technical face and surface slubs on
the technical back created by using slub-filling yarns. It is
usually used with the technical back as the fashion side for
drapery fabrics and often made of a blend of fibers.
Antiredeposition agent—a compound used in
detergents to keep soil suspended and prevent it from being
deposited back on the fabric, which would cause a uniform
grayish soiling.
Antiseptic finish—(See Antimicrobial finish.)
Antislip finish—minimizes yarn slippage in fabrics;
especially important in low-count, smooth filament-yarn
fabrics or sheer, open knits.
Antistatic fibers—fibers that have been modified to
reduce static buildup.  Bast fiber—fiber removed from the stem of a plant.
Antistatic finish—adds a compound to a fabric’s
surface to absorb moisture, conduct electricity, or neutralize
the buildup of static charges.
Anti-yellow or yellowing finish—prevents the
formation of a yellow discolorant on textile products
in storage or in transit due to the interaction of plastic
additives, nitrogen oxides, heat, and humidity.
Apparel—clothing, fashion accessories, and other items
worn on the body made from textiles.
Appearance retention—how a product maintains its
original appearance during use, care, and storage.
Applied design—appearance aspects related to luster,
drape, texture, hand, or design that are added to the fabric
after it has been produced.
Appliqué—a relatively inexpensive decoration surface
embellishment that adds visual interest and texture.
Arachne—a fabric made by warp-knit yarns through a
fiberweb.
Araknit—a knit-through fiberweb fabric used as a coating
substrate.
Aramid—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming
substance is a long-chain synthetic polyamide in which at
least 85% of the amide linkages are attached directly to two
aromatic rings.
Artist—a creative person who creates new one-of-a-kind
objects.
Auxochrome—the portion of a dye molecule that makes
the dye soluble and bonds the dye to the fiber, may slightly
alter the color produced by the dye.
Average twist—the most commonly used amount of
twist, in the range of 20 to 30 tpi for yarns.
Azlon—a fiber made from regenerated protein.
Azoic dyes—a class of solubility-cycle dyes used
primarily with cotton and some polyesters.
Backfilling machine—a variation of a padding
machine that adds finish to only one side of a fabric.
Bacteriostatic—(See Antimicrobial finish.)
Balanced plain weave—a plain weave in which the
ratio of warp yarns to filling yarns is approximately 1:1.
Balance—the ratio of warp to filling yarns or describes
twist in spun yarns when a loop will not curl or twist back
on itself.
Bamboo—a bast fiber made from the stem of the bamboo;
a type or rayon made from regenerated bamboo pulp.
Bark cloth—a momie weave spun yarn fabric used
primarily for window treatment and light-duty upholstery
where the irregular interlacing pattern creates a rough
barklike texture; also nonwoven tapa cloth made from the
inner bark of mulberry and other trees.
Basalt—a filament fiber used in technical products spun
from basalt, a natural material derived from volcanic rocks.
Basket weave—a type of plain weave in which two
or more adjacent warp yarns are controlled by the same
harness and in which two or more filling yarns are inserted
in the same shed.
Batch dyeing—dyeing a relatively small amount of fabric
as a unit at one time in one machine or piece of equipment.
Batch processing—handling a relatively small amount
of fabric as a unit at one time in one machine or piece of
equipment.
603
Batik (buh’-te¯k)—a hand process of one or more steps
in which wax is applied in a design to the fabric to prevent
dye take-up and create a design.
Batiste—an opaque, lightweight, spun-yarn plain-weave
fabric with a smooth surface. When made of cotton or
cotton/polyester, the yarns are usually combed. It can be
made of all wool, silk, or rayon.
Battenberg lace—a hand-produced lace fabric made
with narrow fabric tapes connected with fine yarn stitches
or brides.
Batting—a loose assemblage of new fibers used in textile
products as lining and support layers.
BCF yarn—(See Bulk-continuous-filament yarn.)
Beam dyeing—yarn dyeing with the yarn wound on
warp beams.
Beating up—the step of pushing the filling yarn into
place by the reed during weaving.
Bedford cord—a heavy, warp-faced, unbalanced pique-
weave fabric with wide warp cords created by extra filling
yarns floating across the back to give a raised effect; also
made by using a basket-weave feature.
Beetling—a finish for linen or linen-like fabrics in which
the yarns are flattened to create a fabric that looks more
regular and tighter.
Bengaline—a lustrous, durable warp-faced fabric with
heavy filling cords completely covered by the warp.
Bezold (be¯’-zo¯ld) effect—the situation when two or
more colors merge into one new color, as when small-scale
prints or yarn-dyed fabrics are viewed from a distance.
Bicomponent fiber—fibers made of two polymers that
are chemically different, physically different, or both.
Bicomponent-bigeneric fiber—bicomponent fibers
whose two polymers are from two different generic classes.
Binder staple—a semidull, crimped fiber with a very
low melting point so that it bonds with other fibers when
exposed to heat above its melting point.
Binder—the ply of a fancy yarn that holds the effect ply
in place.
Biofilm—an aggregate of microorganisms that adhere
to textile surfaces and may create problems with odor and
mold, mildew, or fungus growth.
Biological oxygen demand (BOD)—the amount
of oxygen in the water necessary for the decomposition of
organic wastes.
Bio-polishing—a cellulase enzyme treatment for cotton
and other cellulosic fabrics to produce a softer hand and
fewer problems with linting and surface fuzzing.
Bio-scouring—a finish in which the fabric is treated
with cellulase enzyme to produce a smooth texture and
remove fiber ends.
Bird’s eye—a dobby fabric with an all-over small
diamond-shaped filling-float design with a small dot in the
center of each diamond.
Bleach—a chemical that destroys the color compounds
on fabrics; used to eliminate fabric stains or yellowing.
Bleeding—a problem that occurs when dye leaves the
fiber when it gets wet, as in laundering. Dyes that bleed
may be absorbed by and stain other fibers.
Blend—a fabric that consists of two or more generically
different fiber types in an intimate mixture within yarns.
Blended-filament yarn—a yarn of unlike filaments of
different deniers or generic types blended together.
Block printing—a means of printing a fabric with a
relief carved block so that only areas protruding from the
block transfer dye paste to the fabric.
Bluing—a low grade blue dye that is designed to mask
yellow or gray and make whites appear whiter.
Bobbin lace—lace made on a pillow with the pattern
held in place by pins and created using small bobbins of
yarn; includes Cluny, a coarse, strong lace; Duchesse,
604 glossary
with a fine net ground with raised patterns; Maltese, with
the Maltese cross in the pattern; Mechlin, with a small
hexagonal mesh and very fine yarns; Torchon, a rugged lace
with very simple patterns; Valenciennes, with a diamond-
shaped mesh; and Chantilly, with a double ground with a
filling of flowers, baskets, or vases.
BOD—(See Biological oxygen demand.)
Boiled wool—a heavily fulled wool jersey.
Boil-off—cleaning of cotton fabrics during routine or
preparation finishes; the process to remove sericin from
silk fabric and create a lively supple hand; or the removal of
wax resist from batik.
Bonding—means of producing a thick fabric from two
thinner fabrics by use of an adhesive; also a means of
producing a fabric from fibers with heat.
Bonnet method—(See Wet cleaning.)
Bottom-weight fabrics—fabrics that weigh at least
6 oz/yd2 or 200 gsm; used for pants, trousers, skirts, and
outerwear.
Bouclé (boo-klay’)—a woven or knit fabric with bouclé
yarns where the loops of the novelty yarns create a mock-
pile surface.
Bouclé yarn—(See Loop yarn.)
Bourette—(See silk noil).
Bow—a type of off-grain fabric where the filling yarn is
not straight in the center between the selvages.
Braid—a method of producing fabric by diagonal
interlacing yarns; any fabric made by this method.
Braided yarn—a yarn made by braiding three or more
fine yarns together to create one larger yarn.
Bright fibers—fibers with their original luster, without
delusterant.
Brightener—(See Fluorescent whitening agent.)
Broadcloth—a close plain-weave fabric with a soft, firm
hand made of cotton or rayon or blended with polyester
with a fine rib in the filling direction, caused by slightly
larger filling yarns, lower-twist filling yarns, or a higher
warp-yarn count. High-quality broadcloth is made with plied
warp and filling yarns. It may be mercerized. The term also
refers to a plain- or twill-weave lustrous wool or wool-blend
fabric that is highly napped and then pressed flat.
Brocade—a jacquard-woven fabric with a pattern that is
created with different-colored yarns or with patterns in twill
or satin weaves on a ground of plain, twill, or satin weave,
available in a variety of fiber types and qualities.
Brocatelle (brohk’-uh-tel)—similar to brocade, but
the pattern is raised and often padded with stuffer yarns
(the pattern is warp-faced and the ground is filling-faced);
may be a double cloth used in furnishings.
Brushed tricot—tricot that has been finished by pulling
fibers up from ground yarns to create a fibrous texture on
the fabric’s surface.
Brushing—a finishing step that removes fiber ends from
a fabric’s surface; common with cut pile fabrics.
Buckram—a heavy, very stiff spun-yarn fabric converted
from cheesecloth gray goods with adhesives and fillers;
used as an interlining to stiffen pinch-pleated window-
treatment fabrics.
Builders—compounds used in detergents to augment the
cleaning power of the surfactant by sequestering hardness
minerals and adjusting the pH of the solution to a more
alkaline level.
Bulk yarn—a yarn that has been processed to have
greater covering power or apparent volume as compared
with a conventional yarn.
Bulk-continuous-filament (BCF) yarn—made of
textured or crimped filament fibers.
Bulked yarn—(See Textured yarn.)
Bulky yarn—a yarn formed from inherently bulky fibers.
(See also Textured yarn).
Bull’s-eye piqué—similar to bird’s-eye piqué but on a
larger-scale, with crosswise rather than lengthwise cords;
used for apparel and interior textiles.
Bunting—(See Cheesecloth.)
Burlap—a coarse, heavy, loosely woven plain-weave
fabric, often made of single irregular yarns of jute, used in
its natural color for carpet backing, bagging, and furniture
webbing, also dyed and printed for interior uses.
Burned-out—an applied design for fiber-blend fabric
where one fiber is dissolved in a selected area to create a
pattern.
Butcher cloth—a coarse-rayon or rayon-blend fabric
in a variety of weights. A Federal Trade Commission ruling
prohibits the use of the word linen for this type of fabric.
CAD—computer aided design.
Calendering—a common finishing technique in which
fabric is passed between cylinders to achieve a specific
effect. See specific types of calendering: embossed fabric,
friction, moiré, Schreiner, and simple.
Calico—a print cloth of cotton or cotton blend with a
small busy pattern.
Cambric—a fine, firm, starched, balanced plain-weave
fabric with a slight luster on one side; difficult to distinguish
from percale.
CAM—computer aided manufacturing.
Camel hair—the fiber produced by the Bactrian camel.
Canvas—a heavy, firm, strong fabric made of cotton or
acrylic and used for awnings, slipcovers, and boat covers,
produced in many grades and qualities with a soft or firm
hand in plain or basket weave.
Carbon—a fiber made of at least 96% pure carbon.
Carbonated cleaning method—(See Wet cleaning.)
Carbonizing—a treatment for wool in which acid
removes cellulosic matter and prepares the fiber for
dyeing.
Carded yarn—a slightly irregular spun yarn with short-
staple fibers and protruding fiber ends; refers to cotton or
cotton blend yarns.
Carding—one step in yarn spinning. Staple fibers are
drawn together in a somewhat parallel arrangement to form
a very weak rope of fibers called carded sliver.
Care Labeling Regulation—a federal regulation that
defines care-label information, location, and terminology for
textile products.
Care-labeling requirements—criteria regarding
terminology or symbols on labels of textile products
describing appropriate care or cleaning of the item.
Care—the treatment required to maintain a textile
product’s original appearance.
Cashgora—a fiber resulting from the breeding of feral
cashmere goats with angora goats.
Cashmere—the hair fiber produced by the cashmere
goat.
Catalyst—an ingredient in a pigment paste that helps
bond the pigment to the fiber.
Cationic dyes—a dye class used primarily with acrylic
fibers.
Caustic treatment—a finishing step for some
polyester fabrics to produce a more natural hand and
comfortable fabric.
Cavalry twill—fabric with a pronounced steep double
twill line in which two diagonal wales are spaced very close
together and separated by a little space from the next pair
of diagonal wales.
Ceramic—a fiber composed of metal oxide, metal
carbide, metal nitride, or other mixtures.
Certification programs—agreements between fiber
and fabric producers regarding product performance and
trade names or trademarks.
Challis (shal’-ee)—a lightweight, spun-yarn, balanced
plain-weave fabric with a soft finish.
Chambray (sham’-bray)—a plain-weave fabric,
usually of 100% cotton or rayon, or blended with polyester,
usually with white yarns in the filling direction and yarn-
dyed yarns in the warp direction. Iridescent chambray is
made with one color in the warp and a second color in the
filling;can also be made with stripes.
Chantilly lace—a bobbin lace with a double ground and
a pattern of flowers, baskets, or vases.
Character—a dimension of cotton fiber quality that
refers to such fiber aspects as maturity, smoothness and
uniformity of fibers within the bale, fiber fineness, strength,
and convolutions.
Cheesecloth—a lightweight, sheer plain-woven fabric
with a very soft texture and a very low count, natural-
colored, bleached, or dyed. If dyed, it may be called bunting
and used for flags or banners.
Chemical adhesive—a compound used to bond fibers
together in fiberwebs.
Chemical finish—a general term describing additive
finishes where a chemical or chemical compound is bonded
to the textiles to enhance performance for specific end
uses.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)—the amount of
oxygen necessary to reduce a soluble organic compound to
carbon dioxide and water.
Chemical reactivity—the type of chemical reaction to
which individual fibers are susceptible.
Chemical wash—a finish in which the fiber surface
is modified in some way by a chemical; often used as a
means of softening fabric hand, increasing comfort, or
modifying fabric appearance.
Chenille yarn—a fringed yarn made by producing a leno
fabric, cutting it into narrow strips, and blooming open the
yarn fringes to create a fuzzy yarn.
Chiffon (shi-fahn’)—a sheer, very lightweight,
balanced plain-weave fabric using fine-crepe twist yarns
of approximately the same size and twist both in warp and
in filling.
China silk—a soft, lightweight, opaque plain-weave
fabric made from fine-filament yarns and used for apparel.
Chino (chee’-no¯)—a steep-twill fabric with a slight
sheen, made in a bottom-weight fabric of cotton or cotton/
polyester. Commonly, it is made of combed two-ply yarns
and vat-dyed in khaki.
Chintz—a medium-weight to heavyweight plain-weave,
spun-yarn fabric finished with a glaze, piece-dyed or
printed, often referred to as glazed chintz.
Chromophore—the colored portion of a dye molecule.
Circular knitting machine or circular
machine—a knitting machine that knits a fabric tube.
Circular loom—a type of loom in which the warp yarns
form a full circle to weave tubular fabric.
Ciré finish—a process in which a thermoplastic fabric
is calendered with one roll hot enough to slightly melt and
flatten the fiber surfaces.
Clean Air Act—the federal law that focuses on air
quality.
Clean Water Act—the federal law that focuses on
surface-water and groundwater quality.
Cleaned wool—(See Scoured wool.)
Cleaning—the process of removing soil from fabric; also
a step in preparing fabrics for additional finishing steps.
Cleaning—the process of removing soil from fabric; also
a step in preparing fabrics for additional finishing steps.
Clipped spot—a fabric in which design is created with
an additional yarn that interlaces with the ground fabric
in spots and floats along the technical back of the fabric;
floats are removed by shearing.
glossary 605
Clipped-dot fabric—an extra-yarn fabric made with
extra filling yarns inserted so that they interlace with some
warp yarns and float across some filling yarns, part of the
float may be cut away in finishing, leaving a fringe to add
fabric texture.
CLO or clo—a measure of the insulation efficiency of
textiles.
Cloque (klo¯-kay’) fabric—a general term used to
refer to any fabric with a puckered or blistered effect.
Cloth—(See Fabric.)
Cluny or Cluny lace—a coarse, strong bobbin lace.
Coated fabric—a multiplex fabric with a thin plastic film
combined with a woven, knit, or fiberweb fabric.
COD—(See Chemical oxygen demand.)
Code of Federal Regulations—the document
published each work day in which changes in federal laws
and regulations are announced.
Codes—systematic bodies of laws or regulations that
often focus on safety or health areas.
Cohesiveness—the ability of fibers to cling together,
which is especially important in yarn spinning.
Coir—fiber obtained from the fibrous mass between the
outer shell and the husk of the coconut.
Collection managers—individuals who are
responsible for maintaining the collection in good condition.
Color drift—variance from the original color match that
may occur during production.
Color matching—the process of achieving acceptable
tolerances between a color standard and a lab dip.
Color match—the situation when a color standard and a
lab dip are within acceptable tolerances.
Color measurement—the process of assigning
numerical values to a color to assist in color matching and
shade sorting.
Color problems—any aspect that creates difficulty
for consumers, producers, or manufacturers due to dyes,
pigments, or techniques used in coloring the fabric. See
specific color problems: bleeding, frosting, fume fading,
migration.
Color scavenger—a tendency of nylon to pick up color
from soil or dyes that bleed when fabrics are wet.
Color standard—a large sample of fabric or digital
information that represents the desired color.
Color theory—a complex phenomenon combining
the physics of light, the chemistry of colored objects, the
biology of the eye, the behavioral sciences in terms of what
colors mean to society or the individual, and the aesthetics
of appreciating what one sees.
Colorant—a general term describing materials that are
used to add color to a fabric.
Coloration—any dyeing or printing process used to add
color with dyes or pigments to a textile.
Colorfastness—a colorant that does not shift hue, fade,
or migrate when exposed to certain conditions.
Color-transfer inhibitors—an ingredient present in
some detergents or other laundry additives to prevent any
dye that bleeds in the wash from redepositing on lighter-
colored products.
Colorway—various color options available in one fabric.
Combed yarn—a uniform spun yarn with long-staple
fibers and few protruding fiber ends; refers to cotton or
cotton blend yarns.
Combination—a fabric of two or more generically
different fiber types in which ply yarns consist of strands of
each generic type.
Combing—an additional step in the production of
smooth, fine, uniform spun yarns made of long-staple
fibers.
Comfort stretch—the ability of a fiber or fabric to
elongate slightly as the body moves and to recover a
significant portion of that elongation when the stretching
force is removed.
Comfort—the way a textile product affects heat, air, and
moisture transfer and the way the body interacts with the
textile product.
Composite fabric—a fabric that combines several
primary and/or secondary structures such as fiberweb and
film, yarn and base fabric, or two layers of fabric.
Composite yarn—a yarn regular in appearance
along its length made with both staple- and filament-fiber
components.
Compound needle—a type of needle used in warp
knitting.
Compressibility—resistance to crushing.
Compressional resiliency—the ability of a fabric or
pile to return to its original thickness after compression.
(See Loft.)
Compressive shrinkage process—finishing that
removes stress from weaving and earlier finishing.
Conservation—special handling, storage, cleaning, and
display techniques used for textiles that are valued for their
age, history, or type. 
Consumer education specialists—professionals
who work with engineers to help them understand problems
consumers may be having.
Consumer Product Safety Commission—the
federal agency responsible for ensuring the safety of
products used by consumers.
Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act
(CPSIA)—the federal law designed to remove lead and
phthalate compounds from items used or worn by children
under 12 years of age.
Continuous dyeing—a process in which large pieces
of fabric are colored in ranges with separate compartments
for wetting-out, dyeing, after-treatment, washing, and
rinsing.
Continuous processing—working with long pieces of
fabric that move in and out of solution.
Conventional cotton—cotton grown and processed by
regular mainstream practices.
Conventional spinning—(See Ring spinning.)
Converted goods—(See Finished goods).
Converters—firms that finish fabrics.
Convolutions—ribbonlike twists along a cotton fiber.
Copolymer—a polymer composed of more than one
type of mer.
Cord—two or more ply yarns held together by twist or
some other means.
Cordonnet or reembroidered lace—a type of lace
in which heavier yarns emphasize certain elements in the
design.
Cords—another term for the ridges in piqué.
Corduroy—a filling-yarn pile fabric where the pile is
created by long-filling floats that are cut and brushed in
finishing, the ground weave may be a plain or a twill weave.
Core-spun yarn—a yarn made with a central sheath of
fibers completely covered by other fibers spun around it.
Corkscrew yarn—(See Spiral yarn.)
Cornhusks—(See Maize.)
Coronizing—a finish specific to fiberglass to assist in
yarn and fabric production and printing.
Cortex—the main part of wool fibers; it contains two cell
types.
Cost—the amount paid to acquire, use, maintain, and
dispose of a product.
Cottonize—the process of cutting ramie, linen, hemp,
and other fibers into shorter fibers to facilitate blending with
cotton or processing on equipment designed for cotton.
Cotton—several fibers belonging to the genus Gossypium
used to produce commercial and craft textile products.
Count—yarns per inch in warp and filling directions in
woven fabrics.
Course—the yarn’s path in a filling-knit fabric as it
moves across the fabric.
Covered yarn—a central ply that is completely wrapped
by another ply.
Covert—a tightly woven fabric first made in England
to meet a demand for a fabric that would not catch on
brambles or branches during fox hunts from a two-ply
yarn, one cotton and one wool with a mottled appearance.
Cotton covert is a twill and always mottled. It may be made
with ply yarns, one ply white and the other colored, of the
same weight as denim, and used primarily for work pants,
overalls, and service coats. Wool covert made from woolen
or worsted yarns may be mottled or solid color of suit or
coat weight and slightly napped or have a clear finish. The
mottled effect is obtained by using two different-colored
plies or by blending different-colored fibers.
Cover—the ability to occupy space for concealment or
protection.
Crabbing—a process used to set wool fabrics.
Cradle-to-cradle—an environmentally intelligent
design framework that examines the overall impact of the
production, use, care, disposal, and recycle potential of
products from economic, industrial, and social perspectives.
Crash—a medium-weight to heavyweight plain-weave
fabric made from slub or irregular yarns to create an
irregular surface.
Crease-retention finish—(See Durable press.)
Creative designer—the individual who focuses on
specific product types, price points, and target markets and
forecast trends, create colorways, develop line concepts,
and coordinate product lines.
Creep—delayed or gradual recovery from elongation or
strain.
Crepe (kra¯p)—any fabric with a puckered, crinkled,
or grainy surface; can be made with crepe yarns, a crepe
weave, or such finishes as embossed or plissé; fabric
examples include chiffon, crepe-back satin, georgette, and
crepe de Chine. (For more information, see these fabric
names.)
Crepe de chine (kra¯p-duh-sheen)—a lightweight,
opaque, plain-weave, filament-yarn fabric with a medium
luster. Silk crepe de chine usually is made with crepe yarns.
Crepe twist—a yarn with extremely high twist and great
liveliness.
Crepe weave—(See Momie weave.)
Crepe yarn—a yarn with crepe or very high twist.
Crepe-back satin or Satin-back crepe—a
reversible satin-weave fabric in which the filling yarns have
a crepe twist, the technical face has satin floats, and the
technical back resembles crepe.
Crepeing—a compacting finishing process that softens
fabric hand.
Cretonne (kreh’-tahn)—a plain-weave fabric similar
to chintz, but with a dull finish and a large-scale floral
design.
Crimp—a 2D or 3D aspect in which fibers or yarns twist
or bend back and forth or around their axis.
Crinoline (krihn’-uh-lihn)—a stiff, spun-yarn, plain-
weave fabric similar to cheesecloth, used in book bindings,
hats, and stiffening for apparel.
Crocheted lace—lace done by hand with a crochet
hook.
Crocking—a color problem in which abrasion transfers
color to the abradant.
Cross dyeing—a special method of dyeing fiber blends
in which each fiber type is dyed a different color.
Cross links—temporary or permanent bonds that
connect adjacent molecular chains.
606 glossary
Cross-dyeable fibers—fibers with dye-accepting
chemicals in their molecular structure
Cross-functional teams—a group of people with
distinct job titles and responsibilities who work together to
achieve a common goal.
Crushed velvet—a warp-pile fabric in which the pile
yarns are crushed in a random pattern by mechanically
twisting the fabric when it is wet.
Crystalline—molecular chains that are parallel to each
other in a fiber or in regions within a fiber.
Curators—the individuals who are responsible for
selecting items to be added to the collection and presenting
the artifacts to the public to build knowledge and
appreciation.
Curl yarn—(See Loop yarn.)
Customs officials—the individuals who ensure that all
imported goods meet the appropriate requirements in terms
of authenticity and labeling requirements, and are free from
insects and disease organisms.
Cuticle—a waxlike film covering the outermost layer of a
cotton fiber.
Cut—needles per inch in knitting machines; another term
for gauge.
Damask (dam’-ask)—a reversible, flat jacquard-
woven fabric with a satin weave in both the pattern and
the ground of one color or two. In two-color damasks, the
color reverses on the opposite side. It is used in apparel and
interior textiles.
Darned lace—lace that has a chain stitch outlining the
design on a mesh background. The needle carries another
yarn around the yarns in the mesh. The mesh is square in
filet lace and rectangular in antique lace.
Dead time—time that a machine is not operating
because of changing settings on the equipment so that
another fabric can be processed.
Decating—a process that produces a smooth, wrinkle-
free surface on wool fabrics. It is also known as decatizing.
Decitex (dek’-ah-teks) or dtex (de¯’-teks)—
identifier of yarn or fiber size, equal to 10 tex.
Decortication—a process used to remove ramie or any
bast fiber from the plant stem.
Defects—flaws in fabrics that are assigned a point value
based on their length or size.
Degree of polymerization—the number of small
molecules (monomers) connected to form a polymer.
Degumming—a finishing step for silk that removes the
sericin.
Deluster—a fiber with dull luster resulting from the
incorporation of a white pigment within the fiber.
Denier (den’-yehr)—yarn or manufactured fiber size
and is defined as weight in grams for 9,000 meters of fiber
or yarn.
Denier per filament (dpf)—a way of describing fiber
size; calculated by dividing the yarn size in denier by the
number of filaments.
Denim—a cotton or cotton/polyester blend, twill-
weave, yarn-dyed fabric, usually with colored warp and
white filling; often a left-hand twill with a blue (indigo)
warp and white filling for use in apparel in a variety of
weights.
Density—the weight in grams per cubic centimeter of
an object.
Dents—the spaces within the reed that help to establish
warp-yarn density in the woven fabric.
Design—the process of creating a concept, idea, or
design for a product or selecting the components for a
room setting.
Desizing—the physical or biological process in which
warp sizing is removed after weaving.
Detergency—the chemical action of a soap or detergent
in removing soil from a textile.
Detergent—a chemical compound specially formulated
to remove soil or other material from textiles.
Developed dyes—a dye class used primarily with
cellulosics. (See also Direct dyes.)
Devoré—(See Burned-out.)
Differential printing—a screen-printing process on
carpets.
Digital printing—the adaptation of paper ink-jet
methods to textile printing.
Dimensional stability—the ability to retain a given
size and shape through use and care; also refers to a
finish that minimizes fabric shrinkage or growth in use or
during care.
Dimity (dim’-ih-te¯)—a sheer, lightweight fabric with
warp cords created by using heavier-warp yarns at a
regular distance, grouping warp yarns together, or using
a basket variation with two or more warp yarns woven
as one, may be printed or piece-dyed, and of combed-
cotton yarns. Barred dimity has heavier or double yarns
periodically in both the warp and the filling.
Dip dyeing—a dyeing process for fur where the entire
skin is dipped in dye.
Direct dyes—a class of dye used primarily with
cellulosics. (See also Developed dyes.)
Direct marketing—the nonstore retailer that sells
merchandise directly to the consumer through in-home
parties and telephone sales.
Direct printing—a process in which the color is applied
to its final location as a paste or powder.
Direct spinning—a yarn-spinning process that
eliminates the roving step.
Direct-roller printing—a process in which a pattern is
engraved on rollers. The roller picks up a colored paste and
transfers the paste to the fabric as it passes under the roller.
One roller is used for each color in the pattern.
Discharge printing—a process in which color is
removed from piece-dyed fabric in specific locations.
Disinfectants—compounds used in cleaning to kill
microorganisms.
Disperse dyes—a dye class used primarily with
manufactured and synthetic fibers.
Disposal—the process of throwing away or getting rid of
something.
Dobby loom—a loom with a punched-tape attachment
or microcomputer control used to control warp-yarn
position and create dobby-weave fabrics.
Dobby weave—a small-figured woven-in design in
which fewer than 25 different warp-yarn arrangements are
required to create one design repeat.
Dope dyeing—(See Mass pigmentation.)
Dope—raw materials dissolved in liquid chemicals and
made into thick solutions that are extruded as fibers.
Dotted swiss—a sheer, lightweight or medium-weight
plain-weave fabric with small dots created at regular
intervals with extra yarns, through either a swivel or
clip-spot weave; look-alike fabrics are made by flocking,
printing, or using an expanded-foam print.
Double cloth—a fabric made by weaving two fabrics
with five sets of yarns: two sets of warp, two sets of filling,
and one set that connects the two fabrics.
Double weave—a fabric made by weaving two fabrics
with four sets of yarns (two sets of warp and two sets
of filling yarns) on the same loom. The two fabrics are
connected by periodically reversing the positions of the two
fabrics from top to bottom; also known as pocket cloth or
pocket weave.
Double-faced fabric—made with three sets of yarns:
two warp and one filling, or two filling and one warp.
Double-filling knit—a filling knit fabric made on a
machine with two sets of needles in two needle beds.
Double-knit jersey—a fabric made on a rib-gait
double-knitting machine where both sides look like the
technical face of a single jersey.
Double-knit—a general term used to refer to any filling-
knit fabric made on two-needle beds.
Double-latch needle—a needle used to make purl
knit fabric.
Double-width loom—a loom that weaves two widths
of fabric side by side.
Doup attachment—the device used on looms to create
the leno weave, in which warp yarns cross over each other
to create an open, stable woven structure.
Down—the undercoating of waterfowl; the fine, bulky
underfeathers.
Drape—the manner in which a fabric falls or hangs over
a 3D form.
Drawing—a fiber-finishing step in which a manufactured
fiber is elongated after spinning to alter the molecular
arrangement within the fiber, increasing crystallinity
and orientation and resulting in a change in specific
performance properties.
Drawing—a fiber-finishing step in which a
manufactured fiber is elongated after spinning to alter
the molecular arrangement within the fiber, increasing
crystallinity and orientation and resulting in a change
in specific performance properties; a step in spun yarn
formation where the parallelism of the fibers is increased,
several carded or combed slivers are combined into a
drawn sliver, and where blending contributes to greater
yarn uniformity.
Dressing the loom—(See Warping the loom.)
Dressing—the process of tanning fur.
Drill—a strong, medium-weight to heavyweight,
warp-faced, twill-weave fabric. It is usually a left-handed
twill and piece-dyed.
Dry cleaning—a fabric-cleaning process that uses an
organic solvent rather than water.
Dry print—fabric printed with a powder.
Dry spinning—a fiber-forming process in which a
solution of polymer dissolved in a solvent is extruded; the
fiber coagulates as the solvent evaporates.
Dryer—a piece of household equipment used to remove
water from fabric; an ingredient in a pigment paste that
speeds the drying of slow-drying inks to prevent staining
problems in later production stages.
Dry-foam cleaning—a cleaning technique for
furnishings. A foam is worked into the textile, and the soiled
foam is removed by vacuuming.
Drying—the process of removing liquid water or other
solvent from a textile so that it feels dry to the touch.
Dry-laid fiberweb or nonwoven—a layer of
oriented or random fibers laid down by carding or air
layering.
Dtex—(See Decitex.)
Duchesse (du¯-shes’)—a bobbin lace with a fine net
ground and raised pattern.
Duck—a strong, heavy plain- or basket-weave fabric
available in a variety of weights and qualities, similar to
canvas.
Dupioni silk—a naturally thick and thin silk resulting
from two caterpillars having formed one cocoon.
Duplex printing—a printing process in which both sides
of the fabric are printed.
Durability—how a product withstands use or the length
of time the product is considered suitable for the use for
which it was purchased.
Durable finish—a finish that lasts for the life of the
product, but the performance diminishes with time.
glossary 607
Durable press—a finish that maintains a fabric’s
smooth, flat, unwrinkled appearance during use, care, and
storage.
Duvetyn (doov’-eh-te¯n)—a woven suede imitation
that is lighter weight and drapeable. It has a soft, velvetlike
surface made by napping, shearing, and brushing.
Dye process—the method of applying colorant to a
textile.
Dyeability—the fiber’s receptivity to coloration by dyes
or its dye affinity.
Dye—an organic compound with high color strength
capable of forming a bond of some type with fibers.
Dyeing—the process of combining a fiber with a dye and
achieving a bond of some type.
Dye-transfer inhibitors—compounds often found in
detergents that prevent any dye that bleeds in the wash
from redepositing on other fabrics.
Eco (e¯’-ko) products—(See Green products.)
Effect ply—the ply of a fancy yarn that creates visual or
tactile interest.
Egyptian cotton—(See Pima cotton.)
Elastane—another name for spandex, usually used
outside the United States.
Elasterell-p—a generic subclass of a stretch polyester.
Elastic recovery—the ability of fibers to recover from
strain.
Elasticity—the ability of a strained material to recover its
original size and shape immediately after removing stress.
Elastoester—a manufactured fiber in which the
fiber-forming substance is composed of at least 50% by
weight of aliphatic polyether and at least 35% by weight of
polyester.
Elastomer—a natural or synthetic polymer that, at room
temperature, can be stretched repeatedly to at least twice
its original length and that, after removal of the tensile load,
will immediately and forcibly return to approximately its
original length.
Electrical conductivity—the ability to transfer
electrical charges.
Electrostatic printing—a type of printing with a dye
powder.
Elongation—the ability of a fiber to be stretched,
extended, or lengthened.
Embossed fabric—a fabric with a design applied with
heated engraved calenders such as print cloths embossed
to imitate seersucker, crepe, or other structural-design
fabrics.
Embossed—a finish in which a localized surface glazing
of thermoplastic fibers is achieved or a 3D effect is created
to imitate a more elaborate fabric structure.
Embroidered or embroidered fabric—an applied
design fabric created by stitching flat surface yarns to a
fabric in a pattern.
Embroidery or embroidered—an applied design
fabric created by stitching flat surface yarns to a fabric in
a pattern.
Embroidery thread—a yarn intended for stitching
designs or patterns on the surface of a textile.
Emerizing—a surface-abrasion finish applied to alter a
fabric’s appearance, hand, and drape.
Emulsion spinning—a fiber-extrusion method in which
polymerization and extrusion occur simultaneously.
End use—application or function for which a textile is
designed or for which it is ultimately used.
Entrepreneur—individuals who start a new business
by identifying a need within the community or developing
a creative approach that would fit a niche and differentiate
a new small business from other similar businesses in the
community.
Environmental concerns—the impact on the
environment of the production, use, care, and disposal of
textiles and textile products.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)—the
federal agency responsible for issues related to the quality
of the natural environment.
Enzymatic presoaks—a laundry additive designed to
remove certain stains using biological action.
Enzyme wash—a fabric finish that uses cellulase
enzyme to remove surface fuzz from cellulosic fabrics.
Enzyme—a biological chemical compound that reduces
complex organic compounds to simpler compounds.
Etched—(See Burned-out.)
Even-sided twill—a type of twill weave where the
fabric’s technical face is formed by equal amounts of warp
and filling yarns.
Exhaust dyeing—(See Batch dyeing.)
Expanded film—a film with tiny air cells incorporated
into the solution.
Expanded foam—a permanent surface texture or
pattern created by printing compounds that expand with
finishing on a fabric’s surface.
Extension specialists—federal employees who
develop educational materials related to wide-ranging
current concerns.
Extra-yarn weave—fabric made with extra yarns of a
different color or type from the ground yarns that are used
to create a pattern in the fabric.
Extrusion—the process of forcing the dope or spinning
solution or melt through the openings in a spinneret to form
a fiber.
Eyelash—another name for clipped spot or clipped dot
fabrics.
Eyelet or eyelet embroidery—a type of embroidered
fabric with a thread pattern around and connecting small
holes in the fabric.
Fabric count—(See Count.)
Fabric crimp—bends caused by distortion of yarns in
a fabric.
Fabric density—(See Count.)
Fabric density—the number of stitches per unit
measure in a specific direction for knit fabrics.
Fabric grading—the process of inspecting fabrics and
assigning grade or quality levels based on the number, size,
and kinds of defects present.
Fabric inspection—the process of examining a fabric
for irregularities, defects, flaws, or other appearance
problems.
Fabric mass—(See Fabric weight.)
Fabric mercerization—a method of treating fabric
with sodium hydroxide under tension or without (slack)
tension.
Fabric quality—a fabric’s freedom from defects,
uniform structure and appearance related to the fabric type,
and performance during production and in consumer use.
Fabric quality is graded by totaling defect points within a
piece of fabric.
Fabric softener—another term for Hand builder; a
compound used in finishing and cleaning to improve fabric
hand.
Fabric weight—fabric mass or how much a fabric
weighs for a given area or length of fabric; described as oz/
yd2 or g/m2(gsm); also identified in yards/pound or meters
per kilogram.
Fabric—a planar substance constructed from solutions,
fibers, yarns, fabrics, or any combination.
Fabrication—the method used to produce a fabric.
Face weight—the mass or weight of the tuft yarns used
in a carpet or pile fabric.
Fading—loss of color due to changes in the dye molecule.
Faille (pronounced file)—a medium-weight to
heavyweight, unbalanced plain-weave fabric with a light
luster and filament yarns and warp-faced, flat ribs created
by using heavier filling yarns.
Fake fur—(See Sliver-pile knit.)
False-twist process—a method of texturing filament
yarns by twisting the yarn, heat-setting it, and untwisting it.
Fancy fabric—a fabric that differs in appearance,
pattern, or structure from plain fabrics.
Fancy twill—twill weave where interlacings create more
interesting textures and patterns in upholstery, window
treatments, wall coverings, and apparel.
Fancy weave—any weaving method, other than plain,
twill, or satin weave, used to create a fabric with a surface
texture or pattern resulting from the interlacing pattern.
Fancy yarn—a yarn with an irregular or unusual
appearance as compared with simple basic yarns.
Fasciated yarn—a yarn made with a filament grouping
of fibers wrapped with staple fibers.
Fashioning—the process of adding or dropping stitches
during knitting to shape garment parts. (See also Full
fashioning.)
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)—the federal law that
requires that products containing insecticides, fungicides,
and rodenticides provide label information regarding
content and safety precautions.
Federal Trade Commission (FTC)—the federal
agency that enforces interstate and international trade
regulations.
Felt—a fiberweb fabric of at least 70% wool made by
interlocking the scales of the wool fibers through the use of
heat, moisture, and agitation.
Feltability—the ability of fibers to mat together.
Felting—a method of producing a fabric directly from
wool fibers by interlocking the fibers’ scales.
Fiber additives—compounds added to manufactured
fiber dope to improve appearance or performance.
Fiber blend—an intimate mixture of two or more generic
fiber types in the yarns of a fabric.
Fiber crimp—waves, bends, twists, coils, or curls along
the length of the fiber.
Fiber density—fiber weight or mass per unit volume.
Fiber dyeing—the addition of color, generally as dyes, to
textiles while they are in fiber form; adding pigment to fiber
solutions before fibers are extruded.
Fiber modification—changes in the parent
manufactured fiber to improve performance relative to a
specific end use.
Fiber spinning—the process of producing a
manufactured fiber from a solution.
Fiber—any substance, natural or manufactured, with a
high length-to-width ratio and with suitable characteristics
for being processed into a fabric.
Fiberfill—a lofty, weak structure of fibers designed to be
incorporated as the center layer in a quilted fabric.
Fiber-reinforced materials—a composite material
combining a fibrous component with a polymer resin, metal,
or ceramic matrix.
Fiberweb or fiberweb structure—a fabric made
directly from fibers.  Flax—the bast fiber (often called linen) produced by the
Fibroin—the protein of silk fibers.
Filament or filament fiber—fibers that are extremely
long (length measured in miles or kilometers) or yarns
made of these fibers.
Filament tow—an intermediate stage in the production
of staple manufactured fibers when manufactured fibers are
produced in large bundles in filament length and crimped
prior to cutting or breaking into staple fibers.
608 glossary
Filament yarn—a yarn made from filament fibers;
includes smooth or bulky types.
Filament yarn—a yarn made from filament fibers;
smooth or bulky types are possible.
Filament—fibers that are extremely long (length
measured in miles or kilometers) or yarns made of
these fibers.
Fill power—(See Loft capacity.)
Filler—(See Fiberfill.)
Filling knitting or Weft knitting—a process in which
one yarn or yarn set is carried back and forth or around and
under needles to form a fabric.
Filling sateen—a spun-yarn satin-weave fabric in which
filling yarns form the fabric’s technical face.
Filling-faced twill—a type of twill weave in which the
majority of the fabric’s technical face is formed by filling
yarns.
Filling-pile fabric—a fabric in which the pile is created
by extra filling yarns.
Filling—the yarns perpendicular to the selvage that
interlace with warp yarns in a woven fabric.
Film—a textile made directly from a polymer solution in a
dense, firm sheet form.
Finish—any process used to convert unfinished gray
goods into a completed fabric.
Finished goods—fabrics that have completed the
production process and are ready to be made into apparel
or furnishings.
Fire resistant—(See Flame resistant, fire resistant is not
the preferred industry term.)
Fire retardance—(See Flame retardant, fire retardance
is not the preferred industry term.)
Fire-block seating—a layer of flame-retardant
material between the upholstery and the padding of
furniture to minimize flame spread.
Flame resistant—the property of a fabric whereby
burning is prevented, terminated, or inhibited following
application of an ignition source.
Flame retardant—the resistance to combustion of a
material when tested under specific conditions.
Flame-resistant (FR) fiber or finish—any fiber
modification or finish that is designed to reduce the
flammability of a textile.
Flame-retardant finish—a finish that makes a
fabric resistant to combustion when tested under specific
conditions.
Flammability—the characteristics of a fabric that
pertain to its relative ease of ignition and ability to sustain
combustion.
Flammable Fabrics Act—a federal act that prohibits
the marketing of dangerously flammable textile products.
Flannel—a lightweight to heavyweight plain- or twill-
weave fabric with a napped surface.
Flannelette—a lightweight to medium-weight plain-
weave cotton or cotton-blend fabric lightly napped on
one side.
Flatbed machine—a knitting machine that makes a flat
width of fabric.
Flat-screen printing—a resist printing method. For
each color, a flat screen is treated so that print paste passes
through openings to create a design on the fabric.
flax plant.
Fleece—a type of weft-insertion knit fabric.
Flexibility—the ability of a fiber to bend repeatedly
without breaking.
Float stitch or Miss stitch—a type of knit stitch in
which yarn lengths float past but do not interloop with the
previous stitch; used to create a more stable structure or a
pattern in the fabric.
Float—the portion of a yarn on the surface or back of
fabric formed when a yarn in one direction, such as warp,
crosses over more than one yarn at a time in the other
direction, such as filling.
Flocked fabric—a textile with an imitation surface pile
made by adhering very short fibers to the fabric surface
with adhesive.
Flocking—the bonding of very short surface fibers onto a
fabric to produce an imitation-pile appearance.
Fluorescent brighteners—(See Fluorescent dyes.) 
Fluorescent dyes or fluorescent brighteners—a
dye class used primarily to create or maintain white fibers
and found in some laundry detergents.
Fluorescent whitening or brightening agent—a
compound used to mask the natural color of fibers,
yellowing from aging, or other colors resulting from soil.
Fluoropolymer—a manufactured fiber containing
at least 95% of a long-chain polymer synthesized from
aliphatic fluorocarbon polymers.
Foam coating—a back coating of acrylic foam on
lightweight drapery fabrics to block air flow, minimize heat
transfer, and finish the back side of the fabric.
Foam finishing—processes in which the finishing
chemical is suspended in a foam.
Foam printing—a type of printing in which the colorant
is suspended in foam prior to application.
Foam—a mixture of air and liquid used in the application
of finishes, dyes, or pigments; a textile product in which a
high percentage of air is mixed with the polymer to form a
bulky, lofty material.
Foam-flame process—a method that uses foam
partially melted by heat to adhere two layers of fabric
together to create a laminate.
Foil printing—a printing process in which a special
adhesive is screen-printed onto fabric, an aluminum-
coated polyester film is pressed onto the fabric, and the foil
adheres only to areas with the adhesive.
Formaldehyde—a restricted hazardous chemical that is
used in finishing and dyeing textiles.
Foulard (foo’-lahrd)—a soft, lightweight, filament-yarn
twill-weave fabric woven in a twill weave and piece-dyed
or printed.
French terry—a weft-insertion filling knit where the
fabric remains flat.
Friction calendering—a type of calendering in which
one cylinder rotates more quickly than the other, shining
or polishing the fabric surface; used to produce polished
cotton with or without a resin.
Friezé (fre¯’-zay or fre¯z)—a strong, durable, heavy-
warp-yarn pile fabric where the pile is made by the over-
wire method to create a closed-loop pile.
Frosting—a problem with color retention related to a
dye’s inability to penetrate deeply in the fiber. Abrasion
removes the colored portion and reveals the uncolored
portion. It also refers to a chemical or abrasive finish that
deliberately produces this whitish cast on fabrics.
Full fashioning—the process of shaping knit garments
during the knitting process by adding or decreasing
stitches. (See also Fashioning.)
Full-grain leather—leather that is full-thickness; no
splits have been removed from the leather.  
Fulling—a finish of woven or knitted wool fabrics that
produces a tighter, more compact fabric by a carefully
controlled felting process.
Fume or pollution fading—a color-retention problem
where the color alters when exposed to gases, fumes, or
other atmospheric pollutants.
Fume-fading-resistant finish—a finish designed to
minimize the effect of atmospheric pollutants on dyes.
Functional finish—(See Special-purpose finish.)
Fur cleaning—a specialized process of removing
soil from fur so that the hide does not lose its color or
suppleness and the hair is not damaged.
Fur Products Labeling Act—the federal law
that regulates the labeling of fur products to protect the
consumer from unscrupulous trade practices.
Fur—any animal skin or hide to which the hair is attached
and that has been processed to protect the hide from rotting.
Furlike fabrics—fabric finished by curling, shearing,
sculpturing, or printing to resemble different kinds of real fur
Furrier cleaning method—(See Fur cleaning.)  and length.
Fusible nonwoven—a type of fiberweb with a
chemical adhesive on its technical back.
g/m2—a measure of fabric mass in grams per square meter.
Gabardine (gaberdine)—a tightly woven, medium-
weight to heavyweight, steep- or regular-angle twill-weave
fabric with a pronounced wale of wool, a wool blend,
synthetic fibers that resemble wool, 100%texturized
polyester, or a cotton/polyester blend.
Gait or Gaiting—the arrangement of needles in a double-
knitting machine. (See also Interlock Gaiting and Rib Gaiting.)
Garment-dyed or dyeing—(See Product-dyed.)   general term used to describe any unfinished woven or
Garnetted—a term for shredding wool yarns or fabrics to
produce wool fibers for recycling.
Gauge (ga¯j)—needles per inch in the machines used in
making knits or tufted fabrics.
Gauge (ga¯j)—needles per inch in the machines used
in making knits or tufted fabrics; the distance in inches or
centimeters between tufting needles.
Gauze (gawz)—is a sheer, lightweight, low-count plain-
or leno-weave balanced fabric made of spun yarns, often
cotton or rayon or a blend of these fibers. Indian gauze has
a crinkled look and is available in a variety of fabric weights.
Gel dyeing—color added to the acrylic fiber while it is in
the soft gel stage.
Gel spinning—a spinning method in which the dissolved
polyethylene polymer forms a viscous gel in the solvent,
followed by extrusion through the spinneret, solvent
extraction, and fiber drawing.
Generic group—fibers with similar chemical
composition.
Generic name—the family of manufactured or synthetic
fibers that have similar chemical composition.
Genetically modified (GM) cotton—also referred to
as bioengineered or bio tech; cotton traits from one species
are transferred to another to improve performance and
reduce pesticide use.
Georgette—a sheer, lightweight plain-weave or momie-
weave fabric made with fine-crepe yarns, livelier and less
lustrous than chiffon.
Gin—a mechanical device used to separate cotton fibers
from the seeds.
Gingham—a yarn-dyed plain-weave fabric that is
available in a variety of weights and qualities; balanced or
unbalanced and of combed or carded yarns. If two colors
of yarn are used, the fabric is called check or checked
gingham. If three or more colors are used, the fabric is
referred to as plaid gingham.
Glass transition temperature (Tg)—the
temperature at which amorphous regions of fibers are
easily distorted. It is used in heatsetting fabrics.
Glass—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming
substance is glass.
Glazed chintz—(See Chintz).
Glazed or glazed surface—a fabric that has been
treated with a friction calender to polish the surface.
Glazing—a melting and flattening of the cross section
of heat-sensitive fibers or yarns resulting from exposure to
high temperatures.
glossary 609
Globalization—companies purchasing from and/or
selling to multiple sites in the world.
Gore-Tex®—a trade name for a poromeric multiplex
fabric combining fluoropolymer film with fabric to produce
a water-impermeable but comfortable fabric; produced by
W. L. Gore & Associates.
Grade—based on the color of cotton fiber and the
absence of dirt, leaf matter, seed particles, motes or dead
fibers, and tangles of fiber neps.
Grading wool—judging a wool fleece for its fineness
Graft polymer—a type of copolymer; another type of
mer is attached to the backbone polymer chain.
Grain-sueded (or nubuck) leather—leather that
has been napped on the grain side of the skin or hide.
Grain—the natural surface characteristic of leather and
is related to the species of animal; for woven fabrics, the
geometric relationship of warp to filling yarns.
Granite cloth—a wool momie-weave fabric; any
momie-weave fabric.
Granite weave—(See Momie weave.)
Gray goods or Grey goods or Greige goods—a
knitted fabric.
Grease wool—(See Raw wool.)
Green brands—retail brands that consumers associate
with environmental conservation and sustainable business
practices.
Green chemistry—modifications made to chemical use
in the global textile complex to decrease use of chemicals,
to replace hazardous chemicals with less hazardous
chemicals, to use safer solvents, to prevent pollution, and to
maximize efficient use of chemicals.
Green cotton—cotton fabric that has been washed with
mild natural-based soap, but it has not been bleached or
treated with other chemicals, except possibly natural dyes.
Green products—products that are farmed, processed,
and manufactured with minimal environmental impact with
regard to energy, resource, and raw material usage.   changing the direction of the twill wale from right to left and
Greenwashing—product claims regarding sustainable
production that cannot be verified.
Grin-through—defect that occurs when some
elastomeric fibers break and the broken ends or loops of
broken fibers appear on the fabric’s surface. In pile and
tufted fabrics, it describes where the base structure shows
through the pile surface.
Gripper loom—(See Projectile loom.)
Grosgrain (grow’-grain)—a tightly woven, firm warp-
faced fabric with heavy, round filling ribs created by a high
warp count and coarse filling yarns as narrow ribbon or a
full-width fabric.
Ground ply—the ply of a fancy yarn that forms the
foundation for the effect ply.
gsm—an abbreviation for grams per square meter; a
measure of fabric mass commonly used in the global textile
complex.
Guanaco—the fiber produced by the South American
guanaco.
Habutai—a soft, lightweight silk fabric, heavier than
China silk.
Hairiness—excessive fiber ends on a yarn’s surface
that may create problems in fabrication or in consumer use
because they are more sensitive to abrasion and pilling.
Halo effect—the undesirable slight area of color that
surrounds some prints.
Halogenation—a finish for wool that partially dissolves
fiber scales in order to produce a washable fabric.
Hand builders—compounds that soften a fabric’s
hand.
Handkerchief linen—similar in luster and count to
batiste, but it is linen or linenlike, with greater body.
Handling—the physical form of the fabric in terms of
length and width during finishing.
Handmade lace—several types of lace where one
piece of lace is made by one person at a time.
Hand—the way a fiber feels to the sense of touch.
Hard twist—a high amount of yarn twist in the range
of 30 to 40 tpi, that produces a harsher fabric hand; also
known as voile twist.
Harness—the part of the loom that forms the weave by
controlling the up or down position of warp yarns.
Heat conductivity—the ability to conduct heat away
from the body.
Heat retention—the ability of a fiber to retain heat or
to insulate.
Heat sensitive fiber—a fiber that has the ability to
soften, melt, or shrink when subjected to hear. (See also
Thermoplastic.)
Heat sensitivity—the ability to soften, melt, or shrink
when subjected to heat. (See Thermoplastic.)
Heat setting—the process of producing fiber, yarn, or
fabric stability through the use of heat.
Heat-transfer printing—a process of adding color to
fabric by using heat to cause a pattern printed on paper to
transfer to the fabric.
Heavyweight fabrics—also known as bottom-weight
or suiting-weight goods because they are used for apparel
bottoms such as pants, skirts and for suiting with weights
exceeding more than 6.0 oz/yd2 (200 g/m2); durable, stiff
fabrics used for outerwear, work apparel, upholstery,
draperies, bedspreads, and technical products.
Heddle—a rigid wire in the loom through which a warp
yarn is threaded and held in place in a harness.
Hemp—a bast fiber produced by Cannabis sativa.
Henequen—a smooth, straight, yellow leaf fiber similar
to sisal.
Herringbone—a broken twill-weave fabric created by
back again creating a chevron pattern of stripes that may
or may not be equally prominent, available in a variety of
weights, patterns, and fiber types.
Hessian—(See Burlap).
Hibiscus—a bast fiber removed from the Hibiscus
ficulneus plant.
High-bulk yarn—a bulk yarn with little or no stretch.
High-performance fibers—fibers possessing
unique characteristics, such as high strength, high-impact
resistance, resistance to chemicals, heat, and flame; often
used for technical products.
High-tenacity fibers—fibers that have been modified
in the spinning process to increase fiber strength.
High-wet-modulus rayon or HWM rayon—a
modification of rayon with better performance
characteristics.
Hollow or multicellular fibers—fibers that contain
air space in their interiors.
Home fashions—(See Interior textiles.)
Homespun—a coarse plain-weave fabric with a
handwoven look.
Homopolymer—a polymer composed of a single type
of mer.
Honan (ho¯’-nahn)—originally of Chinese silk, now
made of any filament fiber, similar to pongee with slub
yarns in both warp and filling.
Hopsacking—a coarse, loose-suiting, or bottom-weight
basket-weave fabric often made of low-grade cotton.
Hot-melt lamination—a method of combining outer
fabric, adhesive, and liner fabric into a composite fabric
with the use of heat and pressure.
Hot-water extraction—a cleaning technique for
furnishings in which a hot water-detergent solution is
injected into the textile and the soiled solution is removed
by vacuuming.
Houndstooth—a medium-weight to heavyweight, yarn-
dyed twill-weave fabric in which the interlacing and color
pattern create a unique pointed-check or houndstooth shape.
Huck or Huck-a-back—a medium-weight to
heavyweight fabric made on a dobby loom to create a
honeycomb or bird’s-eye pattern, often the filling yarns are
more loosely twisted to increase fabric absorbency.
Hydroentangled web—a layer of fibers in which
jets of water are forced through the web after extrusion to
entangle the fibers.
Hydrogen bonds—attractions between positive
hydrogen atoms of one molecule and negative oxygen or
nitrogen atoms in another molecule.
Hydrophilic—fibers with high moisture absorbency or
regain.
Hygroscopic—fibers with high moisture absorbency or
regain and the ability to remain dry to the touch.
Ikat—a resist printing method; yarns are treated to resist
dye in certain areas, dyed, and woven into a fabric.
Immersion process—a process for creating durable-
press items in which the finished item is immersed in a
finishing agent mixed with appropriate additives to control
for hand and performance, pressed, and cured.
Industrial textiles—(See technical textiles)
Ink—another term for pigment paste.
Ink-jet printing—another name for digital printing.
Insect- and moth-control finish—chemical
compound that reduces a fabric’s attraction to insects,
including moths.
Insertion warp knits—(See Warp or weft insertion.)
Inspection—the finishing step in which fabric quality is
assessed.
Intarsia—a type of filling-knit fabric in which yarns that
appear on the surface of the fabric are discontinuous; a knit
counterpart to a true tapestry weave.
Intelligent or interactive textiles—(See Smart
textiles.)
Interior furnishings—(See Interior textiles.)
Interior textiles—textiles and textile products used in
the home and other building interiors for functions such as
absorbency or to add comfort and visual interest.
Interlacing—the point at which a yarn changes its
position from one side of the fabric to the other.
Interlock gaiting—a double-needle-bed arrangement
where the needles in one bed are directly opposite needles
in the other bed; used to produce interlock and other
double-knits.
Interlock—a firm double-filling knit. The two needle
beds knit two interlocked 1—1 rib fabrics; both sides of the
fabric look like the face side of jersey.
International Labor Organization (ILO)—an
organization that has developed core labor standards and
requires compliance with the laws of the country in which a
facility operates.
Intrinsic Insulation Value—(See CLO.)
Jacquard double-knit—a patterned filling knit fabric
made on a double-knitting machine.
Jacquard jersey—a jersey knit with a pattern that uses
a combination of knit, tuck, or miss stitches.
Jacquard loom—a loom with warp yarns individually
controlled by punched cards or a microcomputer used to
create jacquard fabrics.
Jacquard tapestry—a complicated structure
consisting of two or more sets of warp and two or more
610 glossary
sets of filling interlaced so that the face warp is never
woven into the back and the back filling does not show on
the face.
Jacquard weave—refers to large-figured designs that
require more than 25 different arrangements of the warp
yarns to complete one repeat design.
Jean—a warp-faced twill of carded yarns, lighter weight
than drill, with finer yarns but a higher warp-yarn count.
Jersey—single-filling-knit fabric with no distinct rib of
any fiber content; can be knit flat or circular.
Jet dyeing—a process in which the fabric is in a
continuous loop when dyed.
Jet printing—the application of color to fabric by
spraying dye through tiny nozzles to create the pattern.
Jig dyeing—is a process for dyeing fabric in open-width
form.
Jute—a bast fiber used to produce burlap and other
technical fabrics.
Kapok—the fiber removed from the seeds of the Java
kapok or silk cotton tree.
Kemp—the heaviest and coarsest of all hair fibers, are
often quite short, and don’t display dye colors very well.
Kenaf—a bast fiber removed from the kenaf plant.
Keratin—the protein found in animal fibers.
Kersey—a very heavy, thick, boardy wool coating fabric
that has been so heavily fulled and felted that it is difficult
to see the twill weave. Kersey, heavier than melton, may be
either a single or a double cloth.
Kier boiling—(See Scouring.)
Knit lace—a handmade lace made by using a variety of
knit stitches to create the pattern.
Knit stitch—the basic stitch that forms the majority of
knit fabrics.
Knit yarns—narrow fabric yarns made by knitting.
Knit-deknit process—a filament yarn texturing
process in which a yarn is knit into a fabric, heat-set, and
unknit.
Knitted or knit terrycloth—a filling-knit fabric with
a loop pile.
Knit-through fabric or Sew-knit fabric—several
types of composite fabric made by knitting a fine yarn
through a thin fiberweb or by knitting fibers or yarns to lock
laid yarns in place.
Knitting—a fabrication process in which needles are
used to form a series of interlocking loops from one or more
yarns or from one or more sets of yarns.
Knop yarn—(See Knot yarn.)
Knot, Spot, Nub, or Knop yarn—a fancy yarn
where the effect ply is twisted many times around the
ground ply in the same place.
Lab dip—a sample that is sent to the creative team to
determine when a color match has been achieved.
Labeling requirements—information required by law
or regulation that must be available to the consumer at the
point of purchase.
Lace—an openwork fabric with yarns that are twisted
around each other to form complex patterns or figures
hand or machine-made by a variety of fabrication
methods, including weaving, knitting, crocheting, and
knotting.
Lacoste—a double-knit fabric made with a combination
of knit and tuck stitches to create a meshlike appearance. It
is often 100% cotton or a cotton/polyester blend.
Lamb’s wool—wool removed from animals less than
seven months old.
Laminates or laminated fabric—a composite fabric
created by adhering two layers of fabrics with a thin foam.
Lastol—a generic subclass of an elastic olefin.
Lastrile—a synthetic rubber in which the fiber-forming
substance is a copolymer of acrylonitrile and a diene
composed of not more than 50% but at least 10% by
weight of acrylonitrile units.
Latch needle—a type of needle used in knitting fabrics
from coarse yarns.
Lawn—a fine, opaque, lightweight plain-weave fabric
usually made of combed-cotton or cotton-blend yarns. The
fabric may be bleached, dyed, or printed.
Laying—the process of making rope by twisting or
braiding.
Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design
(LEED)—a green building certification system that
recognizes best in class building strategies and practices
with different levels of certification and categories.
Leaf fiber—fiber removed from the leaves of a plant.
Leather cleaning—a specialized process of removing
soil from treated animal hides so that color and suppleness
are not lost.
Leather—a textile material processed from the skins or
hides of mammals, birds, reptiles, or fish so that it does
not rot.
Leavers lace—a type of machine-made lace in which
bobbins move back and forth and around warp yarns to
create the fabric’s open pattern.
LEED—(See Leadership in Energy & Environmental
Design.)
Leno (le¯’-no¯) or leno weave—any leno-weave
fabric in which two warp yarns are crossed over each
other and held in place by a filling yarn, requires a doup
attachment on the loom.
Level—a colorant that is uniform throughout the fabric or
product.
Licensing—the situation in which one company legally
uses another company’s trademarks and expertise to make,
use, and/or sell a product. 
Life cycle impact or life cycle analysis—
examines the way the production, use, care, and disposal of
a product affects the environment and the people involved
with the product.
Light resistance—a finish or fiber modification to
minimize the degradative effects of sunlight on fiber or dye.
Light-reflecting finishes—incorporate fluorescent
dyes or small glass retroreflective spheres or prisms to
enhance fabric visibility in low-light conditions.
Light-stabilizing finishes—incorporate light-
stabilizing or ultraviolet-absorbing compounds to minimize
damage from light exposure.
Lightweight or top-weight fabrics—fabrics
that weigh less than 4.0 oz/yd2 (less than 135 g/m2) and
softer and more comfortable next to the skin and have
better drape; used for shirts, blouses, dresses, apparel
linings, bedsheets, curtains, sheer draperies, substrates for
technical products, and backing fabrics for wall coverings
and bonded and quilted fabrics.
Line—long, combed, and better-quality flax fibers.
Linen—(See Flax.)
Lining twill—an opaque, lightweight warp-faced twill of
filament yarns; may be printed.
Linters—very short cotton fibers that remain attached to
the cotton seed after ginning.
Lint—usable cotton fibers removed in the ginning process.
It also refers to fiber debris that creates pills on fabrics or
accumulates in dryer lint traps.
Liquid-barrier finish—topical finish that protects
fabrics from liquids penetrating through them.
Liquor ratio—the weight of water or other solvent as
compared with the weight of fabric in a solution.
Lisle (pronounced lyle)—a high-quality jersey made
of fine two-ply combed-cotton yarns.
Llama—the fiber produced by the South American llama.
Loft capacity—the volume of air one cubic ounce of
down will fill.
Loft—the ability to spring back to original thickness after
being compressed. (See Compressional resiliency.)
London shrunk—a relaxation finishing process for wool
fabrics.
Loom state—yarn dyed fabrics before finishing.
Loom—the machine used to make woven fabrics.
Loop drying—technique for drying some fabrics without
tension.
Loop yarn, curl yarn, or bouclé yarn—a fancy
yarn where the effect ply forms closed loops at regular
intervals along the length of the yarn.
Loop—(See Stitch.)
Looping machine—joins knit garment parts in a way
that the join is hidden.
Low twist or low-twist yarn—a very small amount
of twist used in filament yarns that keeps fibers together in
processing and fabrication.
Low-elongation fibers—fibers used in blends with
weaker fibers to increase fabric strength and abrasion
resistance.
Low-pilling fibers—fibers engineered to have a lower
flex life, thus decreasing pill formation.
Lumen—a hollow central canal through which nutrients
travel as a cotton fiber develops in the plant.
Luster finish—a fabric treatment that changes the light
reflectance characteristics of the fabric.
Luster—the way light is reflected from the fiber or fabric
surface.
Lyocell (li¯’-o¯-sel)—a manufactured fiber composed of
solvent-spun cellulose.
Macrofiber—fibers with a denier greater than 1.0.
Madras (mad’-ras) gingham or Madras
shirting—a lightweight to medium-weight dobby-weave
fabric in which the pattern is usually confined to vertical
stripes; a lightweight plain weave gingham colored with
dyes that bleed.
Maize or cornhusks—cellulosic material often
used in accent rugs because of their resistance to dry
heat and soil.
Malimo—a textile made by laying down warp or filling
(or both) yarns that are held in place by knit-through warp
yarns, may include a fiberweb base.
Maliwatt—a fabric made by warp-knit yarns through a
fiberweb.
Maltese lace—a bobbin lace made with a Maltese cross
in the pattern.
Man-made fibers—(See Manufactured fibers.)
Manufactured fiber—fibers made from chemical
compounds produced in manufacturing facilities. The
material’s original form is not recognizable as a fiber.
Manufactured regenerated fibers—fibers that are
produced in fiber form from naturally occurring polymers.
Marketing—the division of a company that promotes
products to consumers, develops the presentation of the
product, and create its image.
Marquisette (mahr-kui-zet’)—a sheer, lightweight
leno-weave fabric, usually made of filament yarns.
Mass coloration—(See Solution dyeing.)
Mass pigmentation—(See Solution dyeing.)
Matelassé (mat-luh-sa¯’)—a double-cloth fabric
woven to create a 3D texture with a puckered or almost
quilted look. Matelassés are made on jacquard or dobby
looms, often with crepe yarns or coarse cotton yarns. When
finished, the shrinkage of the crepe yarn or the coarse
cotton yarn creates the puckered appearance; used in
apparel as well as in furnishings.
glossary 611
Material performance testing—the process of
subjecting fabric or other textile components to standard
laboratory tests to determine results.
Material—(See Fabric.)
Mechlin—a bobbin lace made with a small hexagonal
mesh and very fine yarns.
Medium-weight fabrics—the most widely used group
of woven fabrics with weight ranging from 4.0 to 6.0 oz/yd2
(135 to 200 g/m2) medium-sized yarns and a medium count
and carded or combed yarns; used to produce many interior
items, such as wall and window-treatment fabrics, bed and
table linens, and some upholstery fabrics.
Medulla—an airy, honeycombed core present in some
wool fibers.
Melamine—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-
forming substance is a synthetic polymer composed of at
least 50% by weight of a cross-linked melamine polymer.
Melt spinning—the process of producing fibers by
melting polymer chips and extruding the melt (the molten
polymer) in fiber form. Coagulation occurs by cooling.
Melt-blown fiberweb—a nonwoven textile made by
extruding the polymer into a high-velocity air stream that
breaks the fiber into short pieces that are held together by
thermal bonding and fiber interlacing.
Melton—a heavyweight plain- or twill-weave coating
fabric made from wool, lighter than kersey and has a
smooth surface that is napped and then closely sheared,
may be either a single or a double cloth.
Melt—the molten polymer before it is extruded in
fiber form.
Mercerization—a finish in which sodium hydroxide is
used to increase cotton’s absorbency, luster, and strength.
(See also Slack mercerization and Tension mercerization.)
Merchandisers—the individuals who predict styles
and trends, understand the needs of their target market,
anticipate customer demand, ensure that merchandise
is in stock, understand data, take risks, and make sound
decisions quickly.
Merino—a sheep breed that produces superior-quality
wool.
Mesh—a warp knit fabric with open spaces framed by
tightly knit areas.
Metallic coating—a surface application of a thin layer
of metal, usually aluminum, primarily to minimize heat
transfer through the fabric or to add a metallic luster to the
fabric.
Metallic fibers—manufactured fibers composed of
metal, plastic-coated metal, metal-coated plastic, or a core
completely covered by metal.
Metallic yarn—a yarn made with at least one metal
monofilament fiber.
Metamerism (meh-tam’-uhr-izm)—the situation
that occurs when two items match in color under one light
source, but not under another light source.
Metered-addition process—a durable-press
process in which finished goods are sprayed with a
controlled amount of the finishing agent mixed with
additives that control hand and performance, tumbled to
distribute the finish evenly, pressed, and cured.
Microdenier—(See Microfiber.)
Microencapsulated finishes—a water-soluble
material in a tiny capsule form, which may contain
fragrance, insect repellents, disinfectants, cleaning agents,
or other materials, is bonded to a textile.
Microfiber or microdenier—a fiber of less than 1.0
denier per filament.
Micro-porous fabric—(See Poromeric fabric.)
Migration—a color problem in which the dye shifts from
the area where it was applied to adjacent areas of the same
fabric or a fabric in close proximity.
Milanese machine—a warp knitting machine that uses
two sets of yarns, one needle bed, and one guide bar to knit
milanese fabrics.
Milanese warp knit—a type of knit fabric made on a
Milanese machine; not common.
Mildew control—a finish that inhibits the growth of
mold or mildew.
Mildew resistance—is resistance to the growth of
mold, mildew, or fungus.
Milkweed—a seed fiber from the Asclepias incarnate
and A. syrica plants.
Mill-finished—a fabric finished by the same company
that produced the fabric, a type of vertical integration within
the textile industry.
Minimum or Minimum yardage—the shortest
length of fabric a textile firm will produce or sell to
another firm.
Miss stitch—(See Float stitch.)
Mixed-denier filament bundling—fibers of several
denier sizes combined in one yarn.
Mixture—a fiber blend where yarns of one generic type
are present in one fabric area (i.e., the warp) and yarns of
another generic type are present in another fabric area (i.e.,
the filling).
Modacrylic—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-
forming substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer
composed of less than 85% but at least 35% by weight
acrylonitrile units except when the polymer qualifies as
rubber.
Mohair—the hair fiber produced by the Angora goat.
Moiré (mwah-ra¯’) calendering—a finish that
produces a watermarked or wood-grain texture on rib or
unbalanced plain-weave fabrics like taffeta.
Moiré, moiré fabric, or moiré pattern—a
wood-grain or watermarked pattern produced on some
unbalanced plain-weave fabrics by finishing.
Moisture management finishes—remove sweat
from the skin’s surface and help cool the body.
Moisture regain—(See Absorbency.)
Moisture transport—a measure of the speed with
which perspiration is drawn from the skin’s surface to the
fabric’s surface.
Moisture vapor transport rate (MVTR)—a way to
quantify how quickly moisture vapor moves from the side of
the fabric next to the body to the fabric’s exterior side.
Mold control—(See Mildew control.)
Momie weave—a class of weaves with no wale or other
distinct weave effect, resulting from an irregular interlacing
pattern.
Momme or Momie or Mommie (mum’me)—a
standard way to describe the weight of silk fabrics and is
abbreviated mm; one momme weighs 3.75 grams.
Monk’s cloth—a heavyweight, coarse, loosely woven
basket-weave fabric usually in a 2 — 2 or 4 4 arrangement
made of softly spun two-ply yarns in oatmeal color.
Monofilament yarn—a filament yarn consisting of a
single fiber.
Mordant dyes—a class of dyes that require the use of a
metal salt (mordant) to bond with the fiber.
Moss crepe—a momie weave fabric combined with
crepe-twist yarns.
Moth resistance—a finish in which the wool fabric is
treated to be unpalatable or harmful to insects; resistance
to insect damage.
Multicellular fibers—fibers with a modified cross
section that encloses air cells within the fiber.
Multihead embroidery—a type of embroidery where
one machine creates several identical embroidered designs
or emblems simultaneously.
Multiphase looms—(See Multiple-shed looms.)
Multiphase weaving—(See Multiple-shed weaving.)
Multiple-shed looms or multiphase looms—looms
with more than one shed is formed at a time.
Multiple-shed weaving—making fabric with a type of
loom in which the filling yarn is inserted in a series of sheds
that form as the filling yarn moves across the fabric; also
known as multiphase weaving.
Multiplex fabric—a fabric that combine fibers, yarns,
fabrics, or a combination of these into one fabric; another
term for a composite fabric.
Multiprocess wet cleaning—(See Professional wet
cleaning.)
Multiwidth loom—looms with additional warp beams
that allow two or more widths of fabric to be woven side by
side; used to produce many basic fabrics.
Muslin—a firm, medium-weight to heavyweight plain-
weave cotton fabric made in a variety of qualities.
Nanofiber—a fiber with a cross section measuring less
than 1,000 nm (nanometers).
Nanotechnology—the understanding, manipulation,
and control of matter such that the physical, chemical, and
biological properties (from individual atoms) can be engineered,
synthesized, or altered to develop improved materials.
Nap—fiber ends on the fabric’s surface due to finishing.
Napped tricot—(See Brushed tricot.)
Napping twist—a small amount of twist used to
produce lofty spun yarns for fabrics that will be napped.
Napping—a finish in which fiber ends are brushed to the
surface to produce a softer hand.
Narrow fabric—any fabric up to 12 inches wide.
Natural bicomponent fiber—contains two types of
cortex cells; wool fiber is an example.
Natural dyes—a dye class of complex colorants
produced by plants and other natural sources used primarily
with natural fibers.
Natural fibers—are grown or developed in nature in
recognizable fiber form.
Natural protein fiber—a fiber of animal or insect origin.
Naturally colored cotton—cotton grown in colors of
brown, tan, yellow, green, rust, and so on.
Needle punching or needling—a nonwoven textile
made by passing barbed needles through a web of fibers to
entangle them.
Needlepoint lace—a type of lace that includes
Alençon, which has a hexagonal mesh, and rosepoint and
Venetian point, which have an irregular mesh.
Needling—(See Needle punching.)
Neoprene—a composite fabric combining a film of
polychloroprene with a woven, knitted, or fiberweb fabric.
Nep—a small knot of entangled fibers that may be
immature or dead and create problems in dyeing; tangles of
cotton fiber that decreases fiber quality.
Neps—tangles of cotton fiber that decreases fiber quality.
Net—a general term used to refer to any open-
construction fabric, whether it is created by weaving,
knitting, knotting, or other methods.
Netlike structure—all fabric structures formed by
extruding one or more polymers as film that is embossed and
partially slit or by extruding a network of ligaments or strands.
Nettle fiber—also known as aloo or allo removed from
the plant stem of the Himalayan giant nettle plant (Giradinia
diversifolia); also fiber from the stinging nettle (Urtica
cannabina L.) plant stem.
Network yarn—a yarn made from fibers that are
connected at points along their length.
Ninon (nee’-nohn)—a sheer, slightly crisp, lightweight
plain-weave fabric made of filament yarns where the
warp yarns are grouped in pairs, but ninon is not a basket-
weave fabric.
612 glossary
Nodes—irregular crosswise markings present in many
bast fibers.
Nonreinforced film—(See Plain film.)
Nonstore retailer—(See Direct marketing.)
Nonwoven—a general term for fabrics directly made
from fibers.
Novelty yarn—another term for a fancy yarn.
Novoloid—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-
forming substance contains at least 35% by weight of
cross-linked novolac.
Nub yarn—(See Knot yarn.)
Nubuck leather—(See Grain sueded leather.)
Nylon—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming
substance is any long-chain synthetic polyamide in which
less than 85% of the amide linkages are attached directly to
two aromatic rings.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA)—the federal agency that enforces laws and
regulations that ensure safety in the workplace.
Off-grain print—a fabric defect in which the print
pattern does not line up with the fabric grain.
Off-grain—a fabric in which the warp and filling yarns do
not cross each other at a 90-degree angle.
Off-shade—when one fabric or portion of a product does
not precisely match the color of another fabric or portion of
a product.
Olefin—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming
substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed
of at least 85% by weight of ethylene, propylene, or other
olefin units except amorphous (noncrystalline) polyolefins
qualifying as rubber.
Oleophilic—fibers that have a high affinity or attraction
for oil.
Oleophilic—refers to fibers that have a high affinity or
attraction for oil.
Opacifier—an ingredient in a pigment past that produces
good covering power and is used to control luster in the
print; an ingredient in liquid detergents to produce a rich,
creaming appearance.
Open-end rotor spinning—a spun yarn process that
eliminates roving and twisting.
Opening—an initial step in the production of spun yarns
that loosens fibers from bale form and cleans and blends
the fibers.
Open-width finishing—holding the fabric out to its full
width during finishing.
Optical brighteners—chemical compounds used to
produce a white appearance.
Optical brightening or whitening agent—(See
Fluorescent whitening agent.)
Organdy—a transparent, crisp, lightweight plain-weave
fabric made of cotton-spun yarns that has been parchmentized
or treated with acid to create the crisp, wiry hand.
Organic cotton—cotton produced following state
fiber-certification standards on land where organic farming
practices have been used for at least 3 years.
Organza—a transparent, crisp, lightweight plain-weave
fabric made of filament yarns.
Orientation—refers to the alignment of the fiber’s
polymers with its longitudinal axis.
Osnaburg (osnaberg)—a coarse, bottom-weight,
low-count cotton fabric characterized by uneven yarns that
include bits of plant debris.
Ottoman—a firm, plain-weave, unbalanced fabric with
large and small ribs made by adjacent filling yarns of
different sizes that are completely covered by the warp.
Outing flannel—a medium-weight, napped, plain- or
twill-weave spun-yarn fabric, may be napped on one or
both sides; heavier and stiffer than flannelette.
Out-of-register—a problem with some printed fabrics
where the edges of a print do not match as the designer
intended.
Overprinting—applying a print to a dyed fabric.
Over-wire method—one technique used to create pile
fabrics such as friezé.
Oxford chambray—an oxford cloth made with yarn-
dyed warp yarns and white, or sometimes yarn-dyed, filling
yarns.
Oxford cloth—a lightweight to medium-weight fabric
with a 2 —
 1 half-basket weave.
Oz/yd2—a measure of fabric mass in ounces per square
yard.
Ozonation—treating fabrics with ozone to remove color
for fashion looks.
Package dyeing—yarn dyeing with the yarns wrapped
on cones or packages; a process for dyeing yarn cones or
other textiles in which the dye bath is forced through the
textile.  
Pad dyeing—a process for dyeing fabric in open-width
form where dye is forced into the fiber by nip or squeeze
rollers.
Padding machine—fabric passes through a solution,
under a guide roll, and between two padding rolls to evenly
distribute a liquid finish across the fabric.
Palm fiber—a miscellaneous cellulosic fiber.
Panné velvet—a warp-pile fabric in which the pile yarns
are pressed flat in the same direction.
Parchmentizing—an acid finish for cotton fabrics
that produces a thinner fabric with a crisper hand than the
original fabric; it is used to produce organdy.
Parent fiber—the simplest form of a manufactured fiber
that has not been modified in any way.
Pashmina—an Indian word for cashmere.
PBI—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming
substance is a long-chain aromatic polymer having recurring
imidazole groups as an integral part of the polymer chain.
PBO—(See Polyphenylene benzobisoxazole.)
Peau de soie—a heavyweight warp-faced satin fabric
of silk or manufactured fiber, usually made on an eight
harness loom; usually with a fine filling rib because of the
very high warp count and interlacing pattern and a dull
finish; often has satin floats on both sides of the fabric;
used for formal apparel and wedding dresses.
PEI—(See Polyimide.)
Percale—a balanced, plain-weave, medium-weight
piece-dyed or printed fabric finished from better-quality
print cloths.
Performance testing—the process of subjecting
a textile to selected procedures and measuring how the
textile reacts.
Performance—the manner in which a textile, textile
component, or textile product responds when something
is done to it or when it is exposed to some mechanical or
environmental element that might adversely affect it.
Perfume—a compound added to some detergents to
mask an unattractive odor with one that is more pleasant.
Permanent finish—a finish whose effectiveness will
not diminish with time or use.
Peroxide bleach—a type of bleach used in finishing
some textiles.
Phase-change finish—a chemical compound that
changes physical state (solid or liquid) as it absorbs or
loses heat.
PI—(See Polyimide.)
Picking—the step in weaving in which the filling yarn is
inserted in the shed.
Pick-up—the amount of liquid or chemical a fabric
absorbs during finishing.
Piece dyeing—describes adding color to a textile when
it is in fabric form; the industry preferred term. (See also
Cross dyeing and Union dyeing.)
Pigment dyes—another term for pigments; a mixture
used for unusual color effects where pigment and dye are
combined on a product.
Pigment paste—several ingredients combined to print
designs on fabric.
Pigment—a colorant that is insoluble and must be
attached to the fiber with the use of a binding agent.; the
ingredient in a pigment paste that adds color.   focuses on waste minimization.
Pile jersey—a filling knit made with two sets of yarns,
in which one set forms the base structure and the other set
forms the pile.
Pile weave—a 3D structure made by weaving an extra
set of warp or filling yarns with the ground yarns so that
loops or cut-yarn ends create a pile.
Pilling—is the formation of tiny balls of fiber ends and lint
on the surface of the fabric.
Pilling-resistant finish—any finish designed to
minimize the formation of pills on a fabric.
Pilling—the formation of tiny balls of fiber ends and lint
on the surface of the fabric.
Pima cotton—a type of extra-long-staple cotton.
Piña—a leaf fiber obtained from the pineapple plant.
Pinsonic quilting—the production of a composite fabric
by using ultra-high-frequency sound to heat-seal face fabric,
fiberfill, and backing fabric together in localized areas.
Pinwale piqué—a six-warp wale with two consecutive
filling yarns floating across the back of the odd-numbered
wales and then woven in the face of the even-numbered
wales. The next two consecutive filling yarns alternate
with the first two by floating across the back of the even-
numbered wales.
Piqué (pee-kay’)—a fabric made on a dobby or
jacquard loom with carded or combed yarns in a variety of
patterns with or without filling cords; usually with three or
more sets of yarns.
PLA—a renewable fiber made from fermented cornstarch
or other plant starch and melt-spun.
Plain film—a polymer in sheet form with no supporting
layer.
Plain tricot—(See Tricot.)
Plain weave—the simplest weave structure in which
two sets of yarns at right angles to each other pass
alternately over and under each other to form the maximum
number of interlacings.
Plasma treatment—use of highly ionized gas to
change the surface nature of textiles with thin, inexpensive
functional coatings.
Plastic coating—the surface application of a thin film
to a fabric for increased luster and water repellency or to
minimize yarn slippage.
Plasticize finish—a very thin layer of polymer added to
a dyed fabric to create a shiny synthetic surface.
Pleated fabric—a special type of embossed fabric in
which pleats are formed during finishing and heat-set into
the fabric.
Pleating calender—a special type of embossing
calender that produces 3D pleats in the fabric.
Plissé (plih-sa¯’)—a fabric usually finished from cotton-
print cloth by printing on a caustic-soda (sodium hydroxide)
paste that shrinks the fabric and creates a 3D effect. The
stripe that is printed is usually darker in piece-dyed goods
because the sodium hydroxide increases the dye absorbency.
Plush—a woven warp-pile fabric with a deep pile.
Ply yarn—two or more strands of fibers held together by
twist or some other mechanism.
Plying—the process of combining two or more singles
into a yarn.
glossary 613
Pocket cloth—(See Double weave.)
Pocket fabric—(See Double weave.)
Pocket weave—(See Double weave.)
Point paper notation—a method used to diagram and
design warp knit fabrics.
Point paper—a type of paper used to diagram warp.
Polished cotton—a balanced, medium-weight plain-
weave fabric that has been given a glazed-calender finish.
Pollution fading—(See Fume fading).
Pollution Prevention Act—the federal law that
Polyamide—a generic term for polymers containing an
amide group; a term used for nylon in some countries.
Polyester—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming
substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of
at least 85% by weight of an ester of a substituted aromatic
carboxylic acid, including but not restricted to substituted
terephthalate units or substituted hydroxybenzoate units.
Polyethylene—a type of olefin made from polymerizing
ethylene.
Polyimide (also known as PI or PEI)—a high
performance fiber made from polyetherimide.
Polymer—a very large molecule made by connecting
many small molecules, or monomers, together.
Polymerization—is the process of connecting many
small molecules (monomers) to produce one very large
molecule, called a polymer.
Polyphenylene benzobisoxazole (also
known as PBO)—a high performance fiber made of
polyphenylene benzobisoxazole.
Polypropylene—a type of olefin made from
polymerizing propylene.
Polytetrafluoroethylene—the polymer found in
fluoropolymer fibers.
Pongee (pahn-jee’)—a medium-weight, balanced
plain-weave fabric with a fine regular warp and an irregular
filling; originally from tussah or wild silk, now a fabric that
has fine warp yarns and irregular filling yarns.
Poplin—a medium-weight to heavyweight, unbalanced,
plain-weave spun-yarn fabric that is usually piece-dyed
with filling yarns coarser than warp yarns with a more
pronounced rib than broadcloth.
Poromeric fabric—a composite textile that
incorporates a thin film that is microporous in nature.
Porosity-control finish—a finish that minimizes
airflow through a fabric.
Postcured process—a durable-press process in
which the fabric is saturated with the cross-linking solution,
cut and sewn into a product, and cured.
Powder cleaning—using dry, absorbent powders that
combine detergent and solvent and are applied to the textile
in dry form, worked in, and removed by vacuuming.
Power net—a raschel-warp knit in which an inlaid
spandex fiber or yarn produces high elongation and
elasticity.
Power stretch—the ability of a fiber or fabric to exhibit
high retractive forces that mold, support, or shape the body.
Precured process—a durable-press process in which
the fabric is saturated with the cross-linking solution, cured,
cut, and sewn into a product.
Preparation—a series of steps to get yarns ready for
weaving or dyeing or fabrics ready for dyeing, printing, or
finishing.
Pressing—a finishing process used with wool or wool
blends in which the fabric is placed between metal plates
that steam and press it.
Pretreatment—a variety of chemicals that make it
easier to remove stains during cleaning.
Print cloth—a general term used to describe unfinished,
medium-weight, balanced plain-weave cotton or cotton-
blend fabrics; can be finished as percale, embossed cotton,
plissé, chintz, cretonne, or polished cotton.
Printing—the localized application of color to the surface
of the fabric or yarn. (See also Direct printing, Resist
printing, Roller printing, and Screen printing.)
Processing aids—compounds found in detergents to
enhance use and reduce separation of ingredients.
Producer colored or coloring—(See Solution dyeing.)
Product development—the design and engineering
of a product so that it has the desired serviceability
characteristics, appeals to the target market, can be made
within an acceptable time frame for a reasonable cost, and
can be sold at a profit.
Product dyeing—the process of adding color to the
textile after it has been cut and sewn into the final product.
Product quality—(See Quality.)
Product testing—a type of testing where consumers
use textile products and evaluate product performance.
Production—the process of manufacturing the textile or
the textile product.
Professional wet cleaning—a commercial
alternative to dry cleaning that uses carefully controlled
wet processes to clean textiles that cannot be machine-
washed.
Progressive shrinkage—shrinkage that occurs
through several care cycles.
Projectile loom or Gripper loom—a type of loom
in which the filling yarn is inserted in the shed with a small
metal projectile or gripper.
Proofing—the printing of strike-offs or samples to check
the pattern, color, and design.
Prototype—an original sample product used to assess
fit, design, construction, and production decisions.
Puckered surface—on nylon and polyester fabrics
created by printing with a chemical that causes the fibers to
shrink slightly when dry.
Pure silk and Pure dye silk—100% silk fabrics that
do not contain any metallic weighting compounds or where
the metallic weighting compounds are within the minimums
set by the 1932 federal silk regulation.
Purl gaiting—a special type of needle arrangement for
knitting machines that make purl knits.
Purl knit—filling knit fabric made on a special type of
double-knitting machine that can produce plain jersey knits,
rib knits, and purl knits.
Purl stitch or Reverse stitch—a stitch that looks the
same on both sides of the fabric.
Qiviut—the fine underwool fiber obtained from the musk ox.
Quality assurance—the division of a company that
evaluates materials and products for adherence to company
specifications and standards.
Quality performance standards—a predetermined
level of performance that textiles are expected to meet.
Quality—the sum total of product characteristics,
including appearance, appropriateness for the end use,
performance and interactions of materials in the product,
consistency among identical products, and freedom from
defects in construction or materials.
Quilted fabric—a composite fabric consisting of a
face or fashion fabric, a layer of fiberfill or batting, and a
backing fabric; the three layers may be connected with heat
(pinsonic quilting) or thread (regular quilting).
Race to the bottom—companies and countries
compete with each other by cutting wages and living
standards for workers; production of goods is moved to
places that have the lowest wages and production costs.
Ramie—a fiber removed from a perennial shrub grown in
hot, humid climates.
Rapier loom—a type of loom in which the filling yarn
is inserted in the shed using a rigid or flexible rod or steel
tape.
Raschel (rah-shel ) knit—a general term for
patterned warp-knit fabric made with coarser yarns than
other warp-knit fabrics.
Raschel lace—a type of lace made using warp knitting.
Ratiné yarn—a fancy yarn where the effect ply is
twisted in a spiral arrangement around the ground ply, with
an occasional longer loop.
Raw silk—silk that has not been processed to remove
the sericin.
Raw wool—wool as it is removed from the animal with
soil, suint, and other impurities present.
Rayon—a manufactured fiber composed of regenerated
cellulose in which substituents have replaced not more than
15% of the hydrogens of the hydroxyl groups.
REACH—(Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and
Restriction of Chemicals) a comprehensive chemical law
related to environmental quality and human health that
applies to the European Union.
Reactive dyes—a dye class used primarily with natural
fibers and rayon.
Reclining twill—a shallow twill with a wale angle of 35
degrees or less.
Recycled wool—wool that has been processed into
fabrics, garnetted, and processed into another fabric.
Recycling—the process of making something new from
something that has been used before.
Reducer—(See Thinner.)
Reed—the part of the loom through which warp yarns are
threaded and that is used to push filling yarns into place
after they have been inserted in the shed.
Reel dyeing—a type of package dyeing.
Reeling—the process of removing silk fibers from several
cocoons and winding them onto a reel.
Reembroidered lace—(See Cordonnet lace.)
Regular twill—a twill with a wale angle of approximately
45 degrees.
Relaxation shrinkage—loss of dimensions resulting
from tensions introduced during fabric production or
finishing.
Renewable finish—a finish that can be replaced
by consumers, dry cleaners, or other firms when its
effectiveness has been decreased or destroyed.
Repairing—a finishing step in which minor flaws in
fabrics are corrected.
Rep—another term for an unbalanced plain weave.
Resiliency—is the ability to return to original shape after
bending, twisting, compressing, or a combination of these
deformations.
Resin—a general term describing the organic chemical
compounds in durable press and crease resistant finishes
applied to cellulosic fibers.
Resist methods—a general term referring to several
methods of resist dyeing. (See also Batik, Ikat, and Tie-Dye.)
Resist printing—a coloration process in which a portion
of the yarn or fabric is treated so dyes will not be absorbed
during dyeing; it includes screen printing, ikat, and batik.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act—the
federal law that regulates solid and hazardous materials
from their generation to final disposal.
Retarder—an ingredient in a pigment paste that slows
the drying rate and keeps screens functional.
Retting—the process of bacterial rotting or decomposing
the pectin in plant stems in order to remove bast fibers.
Reverse stitch—(See Purl stitch.)
Reworking—inspecting fabric and repeating steps in
finishing that were done incorrectly to achieve appropriate
performance.  Schappe—silk yarns and fabrics derived from waste silk.
614 glossary
Rib gaiting—a double-needle-bed arrangement where
needles in one bed are directly opposite the spaces in the other
bed. It is used to produce rib knits and other double-knits.
Rib—a ridge formed in the fabric when the balance is
something other than 1:1 or when the size of one yarn set is
significantly greater than the size of the other yarn set in the
fabric; for knits, a double-knit structures when one stitch is
made on one bed and the next stitch is made on the other bed.
Rigidity—(See Stiffness.)
Ring spinning—a process for producing spun yarns. A
series of operations removes fibers from a bale, removes
debris, makes the fibers parallel, draws them into a fine
strand, and adds twist to hold them together.
Ripstop nylon or ripstop taffeta—a filament-yarn
fabric with slightly larger warp and filling yarns appearing at
regular intervals that create a grid within the fabric.
RN number—the manufacturer’s identification number
assigned to the firm, as allowed for in the Textile Fiber
Products Identification Act.
Roller printing—the application of color in localized
areas through the use of engraved rollers.
Rope finishing—allowing the fabric to roll and fold in on
itself and form a tube or rope during finishing.
Rope—a heavy thick cord at least 2.5 cm or 1 inch or
more in diameter consisting of strands of fiber, leather, or
wire that are twisted or braided together.
Rosepoint—a type of needlepoint lace with an irregular
mesh.
Rotary brush method—(See Wet cleaning.)
Rotary-screen printing—a resist printing method.
A cylindrical screen is treated so that print paste passes
through openings to create a design on the fabric. One
screen is used for each color in the pattern.
Rot-proof finish—a finish that improves the longevity
of fabrics used outdoors.
Roving—a step in the production of some spun yarns.
The drawn sliver is reduced in size, fibers are made more
parallel, and a small amount of twist is inserted.
Rubber—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming
substance is comprised of natural or synthetic rubber.
Run—a quantity of fabric receiving the same processing
at the same time; for knits, the collapse of a wale.
Rush—a miscellaneous cellulosic fiber.
Safety—the ability of a textile or textile product to protect
the body from harm.
Sailcloth—a bottom-weight, half-basket-weave (2 — 1),
unbalanced fabric of spun- or textured-filament yarns that
can be piece-dyed or printed.
Sand crepe—a momie-weave fabric with a repeat
pattern of 16 warp and 16 filling yarns that produce a
sanded or frosted appearance.
Sanding—(See Emerizing.)
Saran—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming
substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of
at least 80% by weight of vinylidene chloride units.
Sateen—a strong, lustrous, medium-weight to
heavyweight, spun-yarn satin-weave fabric that is either
warp-faced or filling-faced; warp-faced spun-yarn fabric
with a satin weave may be called cotton satin.
Satin ribbon—ribbon with a lustrous satin face on both
sides of the ribbon.
Satin weave—a weave in which each warp or filling
yarn floats across four or more filling or warp yarns with a
progression of interlacings by two to the right or to the left.
Satin—a strong, lustrous, medium-weight to heavyweight,
filament-yarn satin-weave fabric.
Scales—a horny, nonfibrous layer on the exterior of wool
fibers.
Schiffli embroidery—the application of decorative
thread on the fabric’s surface to achieve a pattern, as in
eyelet embroidery.
Schreiner calendering—an applied finish that etches
hundreds of fine lines on a fabric’s surface to increase
cover, as in tricot, or to add a subtle luster, as in sateen.
Scouring—a finishing step in which soil, excess
chemicals, or fiber coatings such as natural waxes or oils
are removed.
Screen printing—a process during which application
of color to a fabric’s surface is controlled by a specially
prepared screen so that dye or pigment paste penetrates
the screen in selected areas only; includes rotary and
flatbed screen printing.
Scroop—the natural rustle made when two layers of silk
fabric are rubbed together.
Sea grass—a miscellaneous cellulosic fiber.
Sea Island cotton—(See Pima cotton.)
Seaweed fiber—a fiber regenerated from seaweed
(Ascophyllum nodosom).
Seed fiber—fiber removed from a plant’s seed pod.
Seersucker—a lightweight to heavyweight slack-
tension-weave fabric made in a variety of interlacing
patterns with vertical crinkled or puckered stripes made by
two sets of warp yarns: one set at normal weaving tension,
the other set at a much looser, slack tension.
Self-twist spinning—an alternative method of spinning
yarn from S- and Z-twist roving that can be used with
staple- and filament-fiber strands.
Selvage—the self-edge of the fabric where filling yarns
end or turn to go through another shed.
Sennit—a hand-made braid using basketry, fibrous inner
bark, or related materials.
Serge—a general term used to refer to wool or wool-like
twill-weave fabrics with a flat right-hand wale.
Sericin—the water-soluble protective gum that surrounds
silk when extruded by a caterpillar.
Sericulture—the production of cultivated silk.
Serviceability—the measure of a textile product’s ability
to meet consumers’ needs.
Sewing thread—a yarn specifically designed for
stitching together fabrics or other materials.
Sew-knit fabric—(See Knit-through fabric.)
Shade sorting—a manufacturer’s grouping of fabrics by
color so that all fabrics of one color match.
Shagbark—usually a gingham with an occasional
warp yarn under slack tension that create a single loop at
intervals, giving the fabric a unique surface appearance.
Shahtoosh—an illegal fiber harvested from slaughtered
Tibetan chiru antelopes, an animal on the endangered
species list.
Shampooing—(See Wet cleaning.)
Shantung—a rough-textured, plain-weave filament-
warp-yarn and irregular-spun filling-yarn fabric that is
heavier than pongee.
Shape memory fibers—fibers with the capacity to
change shape in a predefined way.
Shape-retention finish—any finish that controls
wrinkling or creasing with heat or resin; includes crease-
retention and durable-press finishes.
Sharkskin—a wool or wool-like left-handed twill made
with alternating warp and filling yarns of two different
colors and having a smooth, flat appearance. Occasionally
a plain-weave or basket-weave fabric is also called
sharkskin.
Shearing—cutting away protruding fiber or yarn ends
to achieve a level pile, surface nap, or sculptured effect on
fabric.
Shearling—a fur product made from the skins of young
sheep.
Shedding—the step in weaving during which the
harnesses are raised or lowered.
Shed—the space that is formed between warp yarns
when at least one harness is raised and at least one
harness is lowered during weaving.
Shifting resistance—a characteristic of fiberfill,
batting, and wadding in which the fibers do not move or
shift with use.
Shin gosen (shin’ go¯sen)—an ultrafine fiber, often
polyester, with modified cross section and occasional fiber
irregularities; produced in Japan.
Shoddy—wool from old apparel and rags that are
cleaned, sorted, and shredded.
Shrinkage control—finishes that minimize fabric tension
during finishing to reduce shrinkage during use by consumers.
Shrinkage resistance—is the ability of a textile to
retain its original dimensions during cleaning.
Shrinkage—reduction in size of a textile product.
Shuttle embroidery—a technique that produces an
all-over embroidered pattern on a fabric; similar to schiffli
embroidery but a more advanced process.
Shuttle—the part of some looms that is used to carry
filling yarns through the shed.
Silence cloth—a white double-faced fabric used under
table linens to minimize noise during dining.
Silk boil-off—(See Boil-off.)
Silk noil—the shorter waste fibers, often spun into silk
noil fabric, that is fairly matte, and useful for more casual
garments; also known as bourette.
Silk-in-the-gum—(See Raw silk.)
Silk—the fiber produced by several varieties of
caterpillars, including Bombyx mori, Antheraea mylitta, and
Antheraea pernyi.
Simple calendering—a mechanical finish where the
fabric is passed between two rollers or calenders to remove
wrinkles; the simplest calendering process often precedes
printing.
Simple yarn—a yarn alike in all its parts.
Simplex machine—similar to the tricot machine but uses
two needle bars and two guide bars to create a simplex knit.
Simplex—a type of warp knit fabric made on a simplex
machine; not common.
Singeing—a finish that burns fiber ends from the fabric
to produce a smooth surface.
Single yarn—one strand of fibers held together by some
mechanism.
Single-figured jersey—a type of jacquard jersey.
Single-filling knit—the simplest filling knit; it is made
using one set of needles.
Single-jersey fabric—(See Jersey.)
Sisal—a leaf fiber produced in Africa, Central America,
and the West Indies.
Sizing—a starch, resin, or gelatinous substance added
to warp yarns in preparing them for weaving and fabrics
to increase body and abrasion resistance; the process of
adding sizing compounds to yarns before weaving; the
process of adding body to clean fabric. (See also Slashing.)
Sizing—a starch, resin, or gelatinous substance added
to warp yarns in preparing them for weaving and fabrics
to increase body and abrasion resistance; the process of
adding sizing compounds to yarns before weaving; the
process of adding body to clean fabric. (See also Slashing.)
Skein dyeing—yarn dyeing with the yarn in loose
bundles called skeins.
Skew—an off-grain problem where the filling yarns
interlace with warp yarns at an angle less than or greater
than 90 degrees.
Skew—an off-grain problem where the filling yarns
interlace with warp yarns at an angle less than or greater
than 90 degrees.
glossary 615
Skye (sky)—the process of exposing fabric or yarn to air
to oxidize the leuco or soluble colorless form of certain dyes
to the pigment or nonsoluble colored form.
Slack mercerization—a treatment of cotton fabric
with sodium hydroxide to increase absorbency; especially
important as a preparation step in dyeing.
Slack-tension weave—a weave in which two warp
beams are used with one beam at regular loom tension and
the other beam at a lower tension for weaving seersucker
and terrycloth.
Slashing—(See Sizing.)
Slippage—a tendency in some woven fabrics of warp
yarns to slide or slip over filling yarns or vice versa and
leave open areas in the fabric, most often in fabrics of low
density or smooth filament yarns.
Sliver—a very weak rope of fibers produced in
intermediate steps in the production of spun yarns.
Sliver-pile knit—a filling-knit fabric in which the pile is
created by using fibers from a sliver.
Slub effects—true slub yarns and yarns that incorporate
small tufts of fiber to create an appearance similar to a true
slub yarn.
Slub yarn—a single thick-and-thin fancy yarn made
by varying the amount of twist in areas or by varying the
quantity of fiber in areas.
Smart textiles or smart fabrics—textiles that sense
and react to the environment or stimuli of an electrical,
chemical, thermal, mechanical, magnetic, or other nature.
Smooth-filament yarn—a yarn of filament fibers that
have not been crimped or textured.
Snarl yarn—(See Spike yarn.)
Soap—a cleaning compound made from sodium or
potassium salts of fatty acids.
Soft goods—products constructed of textiles and other
flexible materials including apparel, interior textiles, and
technical textiles.
Softener—a compound used to remove hardness ions from
water (water softener); a compound used improve the hand of
fabric (fabric softener); an ingredient in a pigment paste that
helps the fabric maintain a flexible hand after printing.
Soil—contaminants on fabric, yarn, or fiber.
Soil-release finish—a chemical surface coating on
fabrics to improve soil removal during cleaning.
Soil-release polymer—a chemical present in some
detergents that bonds with soil and releases the soil in the
wash.
Solution dyed or dyeing—the addition of colored
pigments to polymer solutions prior to fiber extrusion; it is
also called mass pigmentation.
Solution dyeing—the addition of colored pigments to
polymer solutions prior to fiber extrusion; also known as
mass pigmentation.
Solvent finishing—processes in which the finishing
chemical is dissolved in a liquid other than water.
Solvent—a liquid that dissolves other materials; it
includes water- and dry-cleaning solvents.  Stencil printing—a hand process of adding color to a
Sort or Sorting—the process of grouping textiles
of similar characteristics to avoid creating problems in
cleaning or to allow similar treatments.
Sorting wool—dividing a fleece into different-quality
fibers.
Sourcing—the business of identifying, locating, and
investigating firms to provide raw materials, intermediate
components, and services to enable a firm to supply goods
to the market.
Spacer fabric—a 3D technical fabric made by several
methods: weaving, knitting, and nonwoven.
Spandex—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-
forming substance is a long-chain synthetic polymer
consisting of at least 85% of a segmented polyurethane.
Special-purpose finish—all finishes that improve
fabric performance or minimize fabric problems.
Specific gravity—is the ratio of the mass of the fiber to
an equal volume of water at 4 C.
Spider silk—the silk from spiders of the Nephila and
Araneus families known for exceptional strength, elasticity,
and biodegradability.
Spike yarn or Snarl yarn—a fancy yarn in which the
effect ply forms alternating open loops along both sides of
the yarn.
Spinneret—the thimblelike nozzle through which the
solution is extruded to form a fiber.
Spinning solution or dope—(See Dope.)
Spinning—the process of producing a yarn from staple
fibers; the production of a fiber by extruding a solution
through tiny holes in a spinneret.
Spiral yarn or Corkscrew yarn—a fancy yarn in
which two plies that differ in size, texture, type, or color are
twisted together.
Split leather—one of the inner layers of leather removed
from a thick hide; usually finished as suede.
Split-fiber method—an inexpensive method used to
produce tape yarns from olefin film.
Spot yarn—(See Knot yarn.)
Spring-beard needle—a type of needle used in
knitting fabrics from fine yarns.
Spun dyed—(See Solution dyed.)
Spun yarn—a continuous strand of staple fibers held
together by some mechanism.
Spun-bonded—a process of producing a fabric (spun-
bonded web) directly from fibers by adhering melt-spun
fibers together before cooling.
Spun-laced—a process of producing a nonwoven fabric
(spun lace) directly from fibers by using water to entangle
staple fibers and create a pattern in the fabric.
Spunmelt—a fiberweb process that combines spun-
bonded and melt-blown technology to create fiberweb fabrics.
Stabilization—any finish that is designed to minimize
shrinkage or growth of fabric during care.
Stainless steel—a type of metallic fiber.
Stain-release finish—(See Soil-release finish.)
Staple fiber—is any natural or manufactured fiber
produced in or cut to a short length measured in inches or
centimeters.
Starch or Starching—a process of adding a sizing
material to a fabric to add weight or body.
Starching—a process of adding a sizing material to a
fabric to add weight or body.
Steam cleaning—(See Hot water extraction.)
Steam drying—using steam to refresh fabrics, remove
wrinkles, and soften, deodorize, and sanitize fabric.
Steam washing—using steam to boost cleaning,
improve detergent action, and remove soil.
Steep twill—a twill with a wale angle of approximately
63 degrees.
fabric by using a form to control where the color strikes the
fabric.
Stiffness—is the resistance to bending or creasing of a
fabric.
Stitch or Loop—the basic unit of construction in a
knitted fabric.
Stitch-bonded fabric—a multiplex fabric in which
fine lengthwise yarns in a warp knit are chain-stitched to
interlock the fiberweb base structure or inlaid yarns.
Stitched yarns—narrow ribbon-like fabrics with one or
more rows of stitched thread forming the basic structure of
the yarn.
Stock dyeing—a fiber-dyeing process in which loose
fibers are colored.
Stockinette (stockinet)—a coarse-yarn, single-filling,
heavy-knit jersey fabric.
Storage—conditions when the textile or textile product is
not being used, worn, or cleaned.
Strength—is the ability to resist stress and is expressed
as tensile strength (pounds per square inch) or as tenacity
(grams per denier). Breaking tenacity is the number of
grams of force to break a fiber.
Stretch yarn—a yarn with high degrees of potential
elastic stretch and yarn curl.
Stretching—is the process of pulling a fiber so that
the molecular chains rotate and slide until they become
oriented and form crystals within the fiber to enhance
certain fiber properties.
Striations—the lengthwise lines present on several
manufactured fibers, such as rayon.
Strike-off—a print sample used to check the pattern,
color, and design.
Structural design—fabrics in which the design is
an integral part of the fabric and develops as the fabric is
made.
Stuffer box—a method used to add crimp and texture to
filament yarns.
S-twist—a direction of yarn twist that conforms to the
slope direction of the central portion of the letter S.
Stylist—the person who works with a photographer to
take images of textile products for catalogs, promotional
materials, advertisements, and websites.
Subtractive finish—a finish that removes some portion
of the fabric through either a mechanical or a chemical
process to enhance the fabric’s appearance.
Suede (pronounced swa¯d)—a leather that has been
brushed or napped to pull fibrils to the surface and create a
softer surface and a more matte luster.   that color is desired.
Suede cloth—a plain- or twill-weave or knitted fabric
that is napped and sheared on one or both sides to
resemble suede leather.
Suedelike fabric—needlepunched fabric made of
microdenier fibers combined with a resin coating and
nonfibrous polyurethane.   as it is made.
Sueding—(See Emerizing.)
Suiting-weight fabric—a general term for
heavyweight fabrics of any fiber type or fabric construction.
Sulfar—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming
substance is a long-chain synthetic polysulfide in which at
least 85% of the sulfide linkages are attached directly to
two aromatic rings.
Sulfur dyes—a class of solubility-cycle dyes used
primarily with cotton.
Sunlight resistance—(See Light resistance.)
Sunprotective finish—(See Ultraviolet-absorbent
finish.)
Supima cotton—(See Pima cotton.)
Supported film—a composite fabric that combines a
fiberweb or nonwoven, woven, or knitted fabric with a film
for greater durability.
Supported-scrim structure—a composite fabric
consisting of foam bonded to a yarn structure scrim; fibers may
be flocked on the surface to simulate a pile or suede fabric.
Surah (soor’-ahe¯)—(See Foulard).
Surface coating—a finish, usually metallic or plastic
in nature, applied to the face of the fabric; a polyamide
solution applied to wool fabrics to minimize felting
shrinkage.
Surface design—another term for an aesthetic finish
applied to the surface of the textile.
Surfactants—sulfonate organic compounds used in
detergents to assist in soil removal.  Tex system—a direct yarn-numbering system, also
Sustainability—describes practices and policies that
reduce environmental pollution, do not exploit people or
616 glossary
natural resources in meeting the lifestyle needs of the
present, and do not compromise the future.
Swivel-dot fabric—an extra-yarn weave made with a
tiny shuttle that wraps extra yarns around some selected
warp yarns to create a spot in the fabric.
Synthetic dyes—complex colorants usually derived
from hydrocarbons.
Synthetic fibers—fibers produced from synthetic
polymers made from basic raw materials.
Synthetic leather—a variety of fabrications or finishes
that produce a surface that resembles leather in appearance
or texture; some may be brushed to resemble suede.
Taffeta (taf’-et-uh)—a general term that refers to any
plain-weave filament-yarn fabric with a fine, smooth, crisp
hand. Unbalanced taffeta has a fine rib made by heavier filling
yarns and more warp yarns. Faille taffeta has a crosswise
rib made by using many more warp yarns than filling yarns.
Moiré taffetas have an embossed watermark design. Balanced
taffetas have warp and filling yarns of the same size.
Take-up—the step in weaving when the woven fabric is
wound on the cloth beam and warp yarn is let off the warp
beam so that more fabric can be woven.
Tanning—a finishing step in the production of leather to
prevent rotting of the hide or skin.
Tapa cloth—a hand-produced fiberweb fabric made
from the inner bark of selected trees.
Tape yarn—an inexpensive yarn produced from extruded
polymer film by extrusion or the split-fiber method.
Tapestry (tap’-ehs-tree)—a firm, heavy, stiff
jacquard-weave fabric made with several warp- and filling-
yarn sets; also a fabric made by hand in which the filling
yarns are discontinuous and used only in the areas where
Technical back—the inner side or underside of the
fabric as it is made.
Technical designers—individuals who determine
material and product specifications and oversee execution.
Technical face—the outer or upper side of the fabric
Technical face—the outer or upper side of the fabric
as it is made.
Technical textiles—a broad range of materials that are
widely used in special applications of a technical nature and
that are generally not considered apparel or furnishings.
Temporary finish—a finish that is removed during the
first care cycle or that has a very short life span.
Tenacity—describes the strength of a fiber; it is usually
referred to as breaking tenacity, which describes the force
at which the fiber ruptures or breaks.
Tender or Tender goods—very weak fabrics that
have been exposed to some environmental factor or
incorrect processing. (See also Tendering.)
Tendering—the weakening of fibers due to exposure to
degradants or a deleterious interaction between fiber and
dye or finish.
Tensile strength—(See Strength.)
Tension mercerization—the treating of cotton yarn,
thread, or fabric with sodium hydroxide while under tension.
Tentering—a finishing step in which the fabric is
stretched out to full width and is often combined with
other finishing steps like heat-setting. If poorly done, it
contributes to bow and skew.
Terrycloth (terry)—a slack-tension, warp-yarn pile
fabric with loops on one or both sides of the fabric, may
have a jacquard pattern and be made with plied yarns for
durability; also made as a weft- or filling-knit.
used to express fiber size; yarn or fiber size is the weight in
grams of 1,000 meters of yarn.
Textile complex—the international mix of related
industries that provide soft goods for the world’s population.
Textile Fiber Products Identification Act—the
federal law that regulates use of fiber names in labeling
textile products to protect consumers from unscrupulous
trade practices.
Textile—a general term used to refer to any flexible
material that is composed of thin films of polymers or of
fibers, yarns, or fabrics or anything made from films, fibers,
yarns, or fabrics.
Textured yarn—another term for a textured-bulk-
filament yarn; a yarn with notably greater apparent volume
than a similar conventional yarn.
Textured-bulk-filament yarn—a uniformly bulky
filament yarn in which the bulk is added by crimping or
texturizing the filament fibers; also known as textured bulk yarn.
Texture—describes the nature of a fabric’s surface as
perceived by sight or touch.
Texturing—the process of adding bulk to yarns or
modifying fabric surfaces.
The U.S. Controlled Substance Act—federal law
that does not distinguish between hemp and marijuana, and
growing either is illegal, impacting the production and sale
of hemp fibers.
Thermal cloth—woven or knit fabric with pockets or
other 3D structures (like waffle weave) to trap body heat
and insulate the body.
Thermal conductivity—the capacity of a material to
conduct heat through it.
Thermal finish—(See Phase-change finish.)
Thermoplastic or thermoplastic fiber—a fiber’s
sensitivity to heat; fibers that melt or glaze at relatively low
temperature.
Thermosol process—a method of dyeing synthetic
fibers with disperse dyes by padding and by applying dry
heat to set the dye.
Thick-and-thin fibers—fibers that vary in diameter
throughout their length so that in some areas they are
thinner and in other areas they are thicker.
Thickener—an ingredient in a pigment paste used
to produce dark shades and reduce migration from the
application area.
Thinner—an ingredient in a pigment paste to thin pastes
that are too thick to use.
Throwing—the process of twisting silk filaments into a
yarn or to the process of twisting and texturing synthetic-
fiber-filament yarns.
Ticking—a general term used for fabrics of any weave
used for mattress covers, slipcovers, upholstery, and apparel.
Tie-dye—a resist-dyeing process. Portions of the fabric
or yarn are tied to prevent dye absorption in those areas.
Tip-dyeing—a process where the tips of the fur and
guard hairs are brushed with dye.
Tissue gingham—a lightweight, yarn-dyed plain-weave
fabric.
Top dyeing—a type of fiber dyeing where wool tops are
dyed.
Top grain—the outermost layer of leather and includes
the grain features of the hide or skin; the highest quality of
leather removed from a thick hide.
Top—a precursor of a worsted yarn.
Topical finish—(See Additive finish.)
Torchon (tor’-shohn) lace—a rugged bobbin lace
with very simple patterns.
Torts—behaviors that interfere with personal rights, such
as substandard professional performance or deliberate
wrongful acts.
Tow—short flax fiber; a large assembly of filament fibers
to facilitate handling and processing during the production
of manufactured staple fibers.
Tow-to-top system—a process of converting filament
fibers to staple fibers by cutting or break stretching.
Tow-to-yarn system—a process of converting
filament fibers to staple fibers by break stretching,
drawing the fibers, adding twist, and winding the yarn
on a bobbin.
tpi—turns per inch; a measure of twist in yarns.
tpm—turns per meter; a measure of twist in yarns.
Traceback—information that allows consumers the
ability to trace their purchases back to the specific ranch
where the sheep were raised.
Trade name—a word, symbol, device, or combination
used to designate the product of a particular company.
Trademark—a word, symbol, device, or combination
used to designate the product of a particular company.
Transition cotton—cotton produced on land
where organic farming is practiced but where the
three-year minimum for certified organic cotton has
not been met.
Translucence—is the ability of a textile to allow light to
pass through it.
Triacetate—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-
forming substance is cellulose acetate in which not less
than 92% of the hydroxyl groups are acetylated.
Triaxial looms—looms that weave three sets of yarns,
usually identical in size and twist, at 60-degree angles to
each other.
Triaxial—a fabric made with three sets of yarns
interlaced at 60-degree angles to each other.
Tricot machine—a warp-knitting machine used to
produce tricot warp knits.
Tricot—a warp-knit fabric made with filament yarns with
one or more bars with fine, vertical wales on the technical
face and horizontal ribs on the technical back.
Trilobal shape—a three-sided fiber cross-sectional
shape that is designed to imitate silk.
True double cloth—another way of distinguishing the
double cloth fabric from the double cloth weave.
True tapestry—a patterned, unbalanced plain-weave
fabric with a discontinuous filling.
Tube or Tubular finishing—(See Rope finishing.)
Tuck stitch—a type of knit stitch in which the previous
stitch is not cleared from the needle that creates a pucker
in the fabric and is used in creating patterns.
Tuft density—the number of yarn tufts per inch.
Tufted fabric—an imitation pile fabric made by stitching
yarns through an existing textile.
Tufting—a method of producing an imitation-pile surface
by stitching yarns to the surface of an existing fabric; it is
used to produce carpeting and upholstery.
Tulle (pronounced tool)—a mesh tricot fabric used
as a support fabric or as an overlay in apparel.
Turns per inch (tpi)—a measure of yarn twist (English
system).
Turns per meter (tpm)—a measure of yarn twist
(metric system).
Tussah silk—a type of wild silk.
Tweed—a general term for wool or wool-like fabrics
made of tweed, flock or flake novelty yarns in plain, twill, or
twill-variation weaves.
Twill flannel—one of several wool or wool-like fabrics
made in a twill weave.
Twill weave—a weave in which each warp or filling
yarn floats across two or more filling or warp yarns with a
progression of interlacings by one to the right or to the left,
forming a distinct wale.
Twist setting—a yarn-finishing process used to help
make permanent the very high twist in crepe yarns.
Twister—the machine that creates a ply yarn from single
yarns.
glossary 617
Twistless spinning—a method of producing staple
fiber yarn that eliminates twist and uses starch or sizing to
lock fibers in place.
Twist-on-twist—using the same direction of twist in
plying two yarns into one yarn as in the production of each
individual ply.
Twist—the spiral arrangement of fibers around the yarn
axis.
Ultrafine denier or ultrafine fiber—a fiber of less
than 0.3 denier per filament.
Ultrasonic cleaning—a cleaning technique for
furnishings that uses high-frequency sound waves to clean
the textile
Ultrasonic quilt or quilting—a composite fabric
made by adhering three layers of thermoplastic fibers and
textiles together (backing, fiberfill, and face fabric); the
process of creating an ultrasonic quilt.
Ultraviolet absorbers—compounds in some
detergents to absorb or block ultraviolet light from
penetrating through textiles.
Ultraviolet protection factor (UPF)—a measure
of the ability of a textile to block damaging ultraviolet
radiation.
Ultraviolet-absorbent finish—a finish that absorbs
ultraviolet energy and protects the wearer. It includes optical
brighteners, many dyes, and other chemicals.
Unbalanced plain weave—a plain weave in which
the ratio of warp yarns to filling yarns is significantly greater
than 1:1; common types are 2:1, 3:1, and 1:2.
Union dyeing—dyeing a fabric made of two or more
fibers to one solid color.
Upholstered Furniture Action Council—an
industry group that issues voluntary standards for
upholstered furniture.
Vacuuming—a cleaning technique for furnishings in
which particulate soil is removed from the textile by suction.
Valenciennes (val-en-sehnz’)—a bobbin lace with a
diamond-shaped mesh.
van der Waals forces—are weak attractive forces
between adjacent molecules that increase in strength as
the molecules move closer together.
Vapor phase process—a type of durable-press finish
in which the finishing chemical is applied to the product in
vapor form in a closed chamber and cured in the chamber.
Vat dyes—a class of solubility-cycle dyes used primarily
with cotton and some polyester.
V-bed machine—a type of knitting machine used to
produce double-knits.
Velour—a general term used to describe some woven- or
knit-pile fabrics with dense, long, or deep pile.
Velvet—a warp-pile fabric most often made as a double
cloth with five sets of yarns. One pair of ground warp and filling
creates one side of the fabric and a second pair of ground warp
and filling creates the other side. A fifth set of yarns (pile warp)
interlaces between the two sets of ground fabrics. The woven
fabric is separated into two complete fabrics when the pile
warp is cut; usually a filament-yarn fabric.
Velveteen—a filling-pile fabric with a plain- or twill-
ground weave made with long floats that are cut in the
finishing process to form a short pile; usually a spun-yarn
fabric.
Venetian (veh-ne¯’-shuhn) point lace—a
needlepoint lace with an irregular mesh.
Vertically integrated retail firm or vertically
integrated firm—a firm in which the supply chain is
owned by that company.
Vicuña—the fiber produced by the South American
vicuña.
Vinal—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming
substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of
at least 50% by weight of vinyl alcohol units and in which
the total of the vinyl alcohol units and any one or more of
the various acetal units is at least 85% by weight of the
fiber.
Vinyon—a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming
substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of
at least 85% by weight of vinyl chloride units.
Virgin wool—wool that has never been processed into a
fabric before.
Viscose rayon—the most common type of rayon.
Visual merchandiser—individuals who deal with how
the merchandise is presented to the customer.
Viyella (vî-el’-uh)—a medium-weight twill-weave fabric
made of an intimate blend of 55% wool and 45% cotton.
Voile (pronounced voyl)—a sheer, lightweight, low-
count, plain-weave spun-yarn fabric in which the yarns
have a high, hard (voile) twist to give the fabric a crisp hand
and a lower count than lawn.
Voile twist—(See Hard twist.)
Vortex spinning—method that produces a yarn with
an outer layer of fibers wrapped around a center of parallel
fibers.
Wadding—a loose assemblage of waste fibers used in
textile products as lining and support layers.
Waffle cloth—a dobby-weave fabric in which the
interlacing pattern creates a 3D honeycomb.
Wale—the diagonal line developed by the interlacing
pattern of twills; the column of stitches made by one needle
in a knit fabric; ridges in a piqué
Warm water extraction—(See Hot water extraction.)
Warp beam—a metal or wood cylinder on which the
warp yarns are wound and is a critical part of the loom.
Warp knitting—a process in which yarn sets are
interlooped in essentially a lengthwise direction to form a
fabric.
Warp printing—a process of printing a pattern on warp
yarns before weaving.
Warp sateen—a spun-yarn satin-weave fabric in which
warp yarns form the technical face of the fabric.
Warp-and-weft insertion warp knit—a warp
knit in which yarns are laid in both the lengthwise and
crosswise direction as the fabric was being knit.
Warp-faced twill—a type of twill weave in which the
majority of the technical face of the fabric is formed by
warp yarns.
Warping the loom or Dressing the loom—the
process of inserting warp yarns through heddles and dents
in the appropriate order to create the fabric desired.
Warp-insertion warp knit—a warp knit in which a
yarn was laid in the lengthwise direction as the fabric was
being knit.
Warp-pile fabric—a woven fabric with pile created by
extra warp yarns.
Warp—the group of yarns threaded through the loom in a
woven fabric, parallel to the selvage.
Warranty—an implied or written indication that the
product is suitable for the purpose for which it was
marketed.
Washdown—color loss that occurs over time as a fabric
is laundered or cleaned.
Wash-off—rinsing soil, excess chemicals, contaminants,
or unused dye off the fabric; it is usually done with water.
Wastewater treatment—the procedures necessary to
return water to a potable and usable condition.
Water hardness—the type and amount of mineral
contaminants present in water.
Water hyacinth—a miscellaneous cellulosic fiber.
Water softeners—compounds used to sequester
minerals present in hard water.
Water temperature—temperature of water that
impacts cleaning additives and soil removal.
Water treatment—(See Wastewater treatment.)
Water volume—amount of water relative to the amount
of textiles in the wash.
Water—a common solvent used in fiber processing,
finishing, dyeing, and cleaning textiles.
Water-absorbent finish—a chemical added to a
fabric that will increase its ability to absorb moisture.
Water-bath finishing—finishing processes in which
the chemical is dissolved in water.
Water-jet loom—a type of loom in which the filling yarn
is inserted in the shed with a stream or jet of water.
Waterproof fabric—a coated or composite fabric that
water will not penetrate regardless of the amount of time it is in
contact with the fabric or the force with which it hits the fabric.
Water-repellent finish—minimizes the wettability of a
fabric; it may result in stain resistance as well.
Weaver’s cloth—a general term for balanced, plain-
weave cotton suitings.
Weaving—the process of producing a fabric by
interlacing two or more yarns at right angles using a loom.
Weft insertion—a single-filling-knit jersey in which a
second yarn is laid in a course or knit into the fabric to add
stability and that may be napped to create a fuzzy surface
on the technical back of the fabric.
Weft knitting—(See Filling knitting.)
Weft-insertion filling knit—(See Weft insertion.)
Weft-insertion jersey—(See Weft insertion.)
Weft-insertion warp knit—a warp knit in which a
yarn was laid in the crosswise direction as the fabric was
being knit.
Weighted silk—a silk fabric to which a metallic salt was
added (at an amount specified by federal law) to improve
hand, dye affinity, or drape.
618 glossary
Weighting—the treatment of silk (an applied finish)
with metallic salts to increase the fabric’s weight, hand,
and dye affinity; it may result in accelerated degradation
of the silk.
Wet cleaning—a cleaning technique for furnishings
in which a water-based detergent is worked into
the textile and the soiled solution is removed by
vacuuming.
Wet print—fabric printed with a thick liquid paste.
Wet process—a finish applied in liquid form.
Wet spinning—a fiber-forming process in which
the polymer is dissolved in a solvent and the solution is
extruded into a chemical bath.
Wet-adhesive method—a method that uses a
chemical adhesive to make laminates.
Wet-laid fiberweb or nonwoven—a nonwoven
fabric made-up of a layer of fibers made from a slurry of
fiber and water.
Whiteners or brighteners—(See Fluorescent
whitening agent.)
Wicker—a miscellaneous cellulosic fiber.
Wicking—is the ability of a fiber to transfer moisture
along its surface.
Wide-wale piqué—pique woven with 20 or more warp
yarns in the face of the wale with two warp yarns forming a
valley in between.
Wild silk—naturally grown staple silk that is
more irregular in texture and color compared to
cultivated silk.
Wilton rugs—woven figured pile rugs made on a
jacquard loom.
Winch dyeing—a process for dyeing a loose rope of
fabric without tension.
Winding—the process of transferring yarn from one
package to another.
Wool Products Labeling Act—the federal law
that protects the textile industry and consumers from the
undisclosed presence of fibers other than wool and that
informs consumers of the source of the wool fiber.
Woolen yarn—a slightly irregular bulky wool or wool-
like yarn that has not been combed; refers to wool or wool
blend yarns.
Wool—fiber from various animals including sheep, Angora
and cashmere goats, camel, alpaca, and llama.
Worsted yarn—a smooth, straight, and uniform wool
or wool-like yarn that has been processed to remove short
fibers and make the remaining fibers more parallel; refers
to wool or wool blend yarns.
Woven figures—another term for fancy weaves.
Woven-pile fabrics—3D structures made by weaving
an extra set of warp or filling yarns into the ground yarns to
make loops or cut ends on the surface.
WPL number—the manufacturer’s identification number
assigned to the firm, as allowed for in the Wool Products
Labeling Act.
Wrap-spun yarn—a yarn with a core of staple fibers
wrapped with filament fibers.
Wrinkle-resistant finish—a finish that keeps
wrinkling to a minimum.
Yak—the fiber produced by the Tibetan ox.
Yarn dyeing—a process of adding color, usually a dye,
to yarns.
Yarn number—the size of a yarn.
Yarn quality—sum total of the various factors that
contribute to yarn appearance and performance.
Yarn—an assemblage of fibers, filaments, or materials
twisted or laid together so as to form a continuous strand
that can be made into a textile fabric.
Zip—a run in a warp knit.
Z-twist—a direction of yarn twist that conforms to
the direction of the slope of the central portion of the
letter Z.
 index

Abaca, 83 Antiodor finish, 464 Beck dyeing, 492–493

Abrasion resistance, 43t, 46, 70, 454t Antipesticide protective finish, 468 Bedford cord, 293
Abrasion resistant finish, 455 Antique satin, 155, 301 Beetling, 437–438
Abrasive wash, 439 Antiredeposition agent, 520 Bengaline, 293, 294
Absorbency (moisture regain), 43t, 48–49 Antiseptic finish, 464 Beta Fiberglas, 209
Absorbent finish, 460 Antislip finish, 455 Bezold effect, 477
Absorbent powder cleaning, 537 Antisoil finish, 453 Bicomponent fiber, 132–133
Acetate, 152–156 Antistain finish, 453 Bicomponent-bigeneric, 132
versus rayon, 154, 155t Antistatic fiber, 130 Binder, 259
Acetone test, 157 Antistatic finish, 164, 461 Binder staple, 128
Acid, 51, 52t Antistatic spray, 522 Biofilm, 528
Acid dye, 81, 482, 490 Anti-yellow finish, 454t, 457 Biological oxygen demand (BOD), 418, 560
Acrylic, 191–196, 193t, 194t Anti-yellowing finish, 454t, 457 Biological-control finish, 462–465, 462t
Additive finish, 424 Apparel, 7, 138, 525–537 Bio-polishing, 413
Additive, 129–131, 521–523 Appearance retention, 21, 50–51, 70, 99–100, Bio-scouring, 413
Add-on, 467 112, 146, 150–151, 172–173, 181–182, Bird’s-eye or Bird’s eye piqué, 312, 314
Aerosol cleaning, 536–537 188, 194, 205 Bleach, 413–414
Aesthetic finish, 424, 426–441. See also Finish; Appearance retention finish, 453–457, 454t Bleaching, 413–414
Special-purpose finish Applied design, 424–426, 425t Bleeding, 504
Aesthetics, 21, 70, 77, 98, 111, 145, 149–150, Appliqué, 374, 375 Blend, 242
153, 170–171, 178–179, 187, 192, 205 Arachne, 388 Blend level, 243
Aging resistance, 43t, 51 Araknit, 388 Blended-filament yarn, 244
Air jet, 231 Aramid, 207–208, 208t, 592 Blending, 236, 238, 242–244
Air-impermeable finish, 460 Area-bond calendering, 369 Blending method, 244
Air-jet loom, 275 Artist, 103, 258, 374, 376, 474, 490, 495, Block print or bBock printing, 498
Air-jet spinning, 239 501, 580 Bluing, 522
Air-laid web, 368 Assortment, 20 Bobbin lace, 376
Ajouré, 435 Astrakhan cloth, 259 BOD, 418, 482, 560
Alcohol, 520 Atmospheric-fading protective finish, 455 Boiled wool, 437
Alençon, 376 Automotive tricot upholstery, 355 Boil-off, 440
Alginate fiber, 156 Auxochrome, 480 Boll, 65
Alkali, 51–52, 52t Average twist, 252 Bonded, 385
Allergenic potential, 43t, 49 Azlon, 156, 591 Bonding, 385
All fabric bleach, 521 Azoic dye, 482, 483t Bonnet method, 536
Allocator, 582 Bottom weight fabric, 281, 289
All-over parchmentizing, 430 Back coating, 454t, 455–456 Bouclé, 259
Alpaca, 107 Backfilling machine, 425 Bouclé yarn, 259
Aluminum coating, 455 Bacteriostatic finish, 464 Bourette, 110
Alum tanning, 392 Balance, 279–280 Bow, 279
Ammoniating finish, 415 Balanced plain weave, 286 Braid, 375
Amorphous, 41 Bamboo, 34–35, 82, 147 Braided yarn, 260
Angora, 105–106 Bark cloth, 317 Breaking elongation, 99, 112, 145, 150, 153,
Anidex, 202, 591 Basalt, 218 213, 217, 218
Animal products, 392–395 Basket weave, 285, 294 Breaking tenacity, 48, 70, 77, 145, 150, 153, 180
Anionic softener, 519 Bast fiber, 62t, 63, 75–82 Brides, 376, 377
Antibacterial compound, 520 Batch dyeing, 491–492, 491t Bright fiber, 45, 129
Antibacterial fiber, 131 Batch processing, 411 Brightener, 129, 414
Antibacterial finish, 464–465 Batik, 494, 494t Broadcloth, 292
Anti-bleeding agent, 479 Batiste, 287 Brocade, 315
Antifading agent, 520 Batten, 273–274 Brocatelle, 315–316
Anti-fume fading finish, 455 Battenberg lace, 376, 377 Broken twill, 300
Antiladder finish, 455 Batting, 372, 373, 388 Brushed tricot, 355
Antimicrobial fiber, 131 BCF yarn, 230 Brushing, 435
Antimicrobial fiber modification, 131 Beam dyeing, 488 Buckram, 287, 430
Antimicrobial finish, 464–465 Beating up, 274, 276 Builder, 519

619
Bulk filament, 244, 250 Chemical wash, 439 Compressional resiliency, 172–173
Bulk yarn, 230–231 Chenille yarn, 259–260, 383t Compressive shrinkage, 448
Bulk-continuous-filament (BCF) yarn, 230 Chiffon, 45, 287 Computer system, 228, 434, 496
Bulked yarn, 232 China silk, 287 Computer-aided design (CAD), 275, 312, 496, 579
Bulky yarn, 232, 232t Chino, 299 Computer-aided fabric evaluation (CAFE), 271
Bull’s-eye piqué, 314 Chintz, 288 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), 496
Bunting, 287 Chlorine bleach, 71, 99–100, 521–522 Confinement, 20
Burlap, 81, 290 Chrome tanning, 392 Conservation, Conservator, 537–538, 586
Burn test, fiber identification, 55–56 Chromophore, 480 Consumer education specialist, 586
Burned-out, 430 Circular knitting machine, 331 Consumer Product Safety Commission
Butcher cloth, 290 Circular loom, 276 (CPSC), 553
Buyer, 582 Ciré finish, 427 Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act
Clean Air Act (1970), 559 (CPSIA), 555
CAD, 275, 312, 496, 579 Clean Water Act (1972), 559 Consumer recourse, 557–558
CAFE, 271 Clean or Cleaned wool, 94 Contact poison, 463
CAM, 496 Cleaning, 412, 515–537 Continuous dyeing, 493
Calendering, 369, 379, 416 environmental impact, 523, 531 Continuous machine, 493
Calico, 288 Clearing, 338 Continuous processing, 411
Camel hair, 106 Clipped-dot design or Clipped dot fabric, 313 Conventional cotton, 73
Canvas, 295 Clipped-spot or Clipped spot weave, 313 Conventional spinning, 237–238
Caracul lambskin, 259 Cloth, 288–290, 295, 312, 316, 317, 318–320, Converted goods, 405
Carbon, 216 356, 367 Converter, 404
Carbonated cleaning method, 536 Coated fabric, 379–380 Convolution, 67–68
Carbonizing, 417 Coated film, 365 Copolymer, 192
Carded sliver, 235–236 Coating, 379 Cord, 256
Carded yarn, 236 COD, 418, 482, 560 Cordonnet lace,
Carded-combed yarn, 236–237, 237t Code of Federal Regulations, 373, 552 Corduroy, 376f, 377
Carded-yarn piqué, 314 Codes, 556 Core-spun yarn, 261
Carding, 235 Cohesiveness, 43t, 48 Corkscrew yarn, 259
Care, 21, 53, 59, 71, 78, 99–100, 112–113, Coir, 74–75 Cornhusk, 84
146, 150, 154, 173–174, 182, 189, 194, Cold storage, 463 Coronizing, 438
205, 377, 514. See also Specific fibers Collection manager, 586 Cortex, 94–95
Career, 575–586 Color, 68–69, 385, 474 Cost, 22
Care label, 514 Color drift, 478 Cotton, 64–74, 86, 144t
Care Labeling Regulation, 548 Color fastness or Colorfastness, 475 Cotton flannel, 437
Care-labeling requirements, 548 Color-grown cotton, 484 Cotton gin, 64–65
Care symbols, 514, 549f Color Index, 481 Cottonize or Cottonizing, 76
Care terminology, 598–599 Color matching or Color match, 478 Count, 279
Carpets and rugs, 316, 356, 553–554 Color measurement, 478 Country of origin, 94, 546–548
Carriages, 377 Color problem, 503–506t Courses and wales, 334
Casement cloth, 152, 353, 357t Color scavenger, 173 Cover, 43t, 45
Cashgora, 107 Color standard, 478 Covered yarn, 261
Cashmere, 106 Color theory, 476–478 Covert, 299
Catalyst, 186, 406, 479, 520, 521 Color-transfer inhibitor, 520f CPSC (Consumer Product Safety Commission),
Cationic dye, 482, 483t Colorant, 474, 479–482 553
Cationic softener, 521 Coloration, 415, 475 CPSIA (Consumer Product Safety Improvement
Caustic treatment, 433t, 440 Colorfastness, 475 Act), 555
Cavalry twill, 300 Color-safe bleach, 521 Crabbing, 417
Cellobiose, 64 Colorway, 496 Cradle to cradle, 53, 564
Cellulose, 142 Combed yarn, 236, 237t, 251, 263, 287–288 Cradle to Cradle Certificate, 562t
Cellulosic fiber, 63–64 Combed sliver, 236 Craft felt, 369, 374
Cellulosic regenerated fibers, 142–156 Combination, 242 Crash, 289
Ceramic fibers, 218 Combination dyeing, 491t, 492–493 Crease retention or Crease retention finish, 451
Certification program, 551 Combing, 236 Creative designer, 578
CFR (Code of Federal Regulations), 373, 552 Comfort, 21, 48–49, 70, 78, 98–99, 112, 146, Creel, 274, 409
Challis, 287 150, 153, 172, 180–181, 188, 193, 205 Creeling, 274, 409
Chambray, 287, 288, 295 Comfort stretch, 202 Creep, 43t, 51
Character of cotton fiber, 68 Comfort-related finish, 457–462 Crepe, 110
Cheesecloth, 287 Commercial laundering, 531 Crepe de chine, 37
Chemical additive, 463, 481 Compact spinning, 240 Crepe twist, 252
Chemical adhesive, 369, 388 Complex modification, 132–133 Crepe weave, 316
Chemical composition, 40–42, 69, 96–98, 111, Composite fabric, 378 Crepe yarn, 250
144, 149, 152, 170, 178, 186, 191, 204 Composite fiber, 132–133 Crepe-back satin, 301
Chemical finish, 446 Composite yarn, 255, 260–262 Crepeing, 432t, 437
Chemical oxygen demand (COD), 418, 482, 560 Compound needle, 334 Cretonne, 288
Chemical reactivity, 43t, 51 Compressibility, 43t, 50 Crimp, 40
Chemical resistance, 164, 217t Compression resiliency, 44t, 50 Crinoline, 287, 430

620 index
Crisp finish, 288 Double weave, 319 Dye process, 481
Crocheted lace, 377 Double-faced fabric, 319–320 Dye-transfer inhibitor, 520
Crocking, 504 Double-filling knit, 347
Cross dyeing, 489, 490 Double-knit, 347–351, 349t Eco product, 561–562
Cross-dyeable fibers, 130 Double-knit jersey, 348 Education, 586
Cross-functional team, 577 Double-latch needle, 333–334, 347, 350 Effect ply, 259
Cross-laid web, 368 Doup attachment, 317 Egyptian cotton, 67
Cross-link, 391 Down, 373 Elastane, 203
Cross-sectional shape, 39–40 Dpf (denier per filament), 38 Elasterell-p, 206
Crushed velvet, 323 Drape, 43t, 45 Elastic recovery, 43t, 51
Crystalline, 41–42 Drawing, 41 Elasticity, 43t, 51
Cupra rayon, 142–143, 145 Drawn silver, 236–237 Elastoester, 206
Cuprammonium process, 142 Draw-texturing, 231 Elastomer, 202
Curator, 586 Drill, 299 Elastomeric fiber, 202–206
Curl yarn, 232, 259 Drugs, 81, 381 Electrical conductivity, 43t, 49
Customs broker, 580 Dry cleaning, 531–533 Electron-beam sterilization, 465
Customs official, 101, 580, 585 Dry prints, 496 Electronic jacquard, 275, 315
Cut, 334 Dry spinning, 152t, 191 Electrospinning, 127
Cuticle, 40, 67, 95–96 Dry-foam cleaning, 536–537 Electrostatic printing, 502
Cystine linkage, 96–97 Dryer, 416, 521–522, 529–530 Elongation, 43t, 48
Drying, 415–416, 529–530 ELS (extra long staple) cotton, 67, 86
Damask, 315 Dry-laid fiberweb, 368 Embossed, 431
Dead time, 486 Dtex, 255 Embossed fabric, 428, 431, 432t
Decating, 417 Duck, 295 Embroidered fabrics, 434–435
Decitex (dtex), 255 Duplex print, 500 Embroidery, 378
Decortication, 79 Dupioni silk, 110 Embroidery thread, 257
Defect, 271 Durability, 21, 46, 70, 77–78, 98, 112, 145, 150, Emerizing, 432t, 438
Degree of polymerization, 41, 77, 128 153, 171, 179–180, 187, 192–193, 205 Emulsion spinning, 215
Degumming, 82, 412 Durable, 36 Ends, 272
Deluster, 129 Durable finish, 405 End use, 7
Delustering, 129 Durable press, 70, 182, 451 Entrepreneur, 584–585
Denier, 38–39 Durable-press silk, 452 Entrepreneurship, 584–585
Denier per filament (dpf), 38 Durable-press wool, 452 Environmental health and safety, 21, 52–53
Denim, 19, 298, 410–411, 420, 508 Duvetyn, 437 Environmental concerns, 21, 52–53. See also
Density (specific gravity), 43t, 49 Dyeability, 49 Specific fibers
Dents, 273 Dye-affinity, 130 Environmental issues, 102, 147, 441, 474
Design, 311, 385, 424–426, 578–580 Dyeing, Environmental laws and regulations, 559–561
Desizing, 412 batch, 491–492 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 555
Detergency, 516–517 beck, 492, 492f Enzymatic presoak, 522
Detergent, 516 color problems, 503–506t Enzyme, 407, 520
Developed direct dye, 474, 490, 493 combination, 492–493 Enzyme finishing, 407t
Devoré, 430 continuous, 493 Enzyme presoak, 83
Differential printing, 502 cross, 490 Enzyme wash, 438, 439, 596
Digital printing, 498–499 developments in, 474–485 EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), 555
Dimensional stability, 43t, 51 sustainability, 482–485 Etched, 430
Dimity, 295 fiber, 487–488 Even-sided twill, 298, 298f
Dip dyeing, 395 Exhaust dyeing, 491
garment, 490
Direct dye, 474, 482, 483t, 490, 493 Expanded film, 365
jet, 493
Direct marketing, 582 Expanded foam, 432t, 435
jig, 492, 492f
Direct printing, 498–500 Extension specialist, 586
Direct roller print, 499–500
methods, 491–495 Extra-long staple (ELS) cotton, 67, 86
Direct spinner machine, 241 package, 492 Extra-yarn weave, 311t, 312–313
Direct spinning, 240 pad, 492, 492f Extruded-net process, 374
Discharge print, 500, 501f piece, 489 Extrusion, 125
Disinfectant, 522 product, 490 Eyelash, 260
Disperse dye, 482, 483t, 502 reel, 492 Eyelet or Eyelet embroidery, 435
Disposal, 567 resist, 494–495
Distaff, 233 stage, 485–490 Fabric,
Dobby, 312 union, 490 defined, 7, 270
Dobby loom, 312 winch, 492, 492f grading, 271
Dobby weave, 312 yarn, 488–489 inspection, 416
Donegal tweed, 290 Dye, preparation, 410–413
Dope, 124 defined, 480 production steps, 408–413
Dope dyeing, 487 fiber, classification, 483t quality, 270–271
Dotted Swiss, 313 fluorescent, 481 weight, 281
Double cloth, 318–320 low-impact, 565 width, 280–281
Double cloth method, 322 process, 481 Fabric count, 279
index 621
Fabric crimp, 40 resistance to chemicals, 51–52 Foam finishing, 406, 407t
Fabric density, 279 resistance to light, 52 Foam printing, 496
Fabric dyeing, 489 Fiber reactive dye, 482 Foam technique, 379
Fabric grading, 271 Fiber spinning, 124–125 Foam-flame process, 387
Fabric inspection, 416 Fiberfill, 372–373 Foil printing, 502
Fabric mass, 281 Fiber-reinforced materials, 390–391 Forecasting, 18, 576
Fabric mercerization, 414 Fiberweb or Fiberweb structure, 367–373 Formaldehyde, 450, 565
Fabric quality, 270–271 Fibrillate or Fibrillation, 149–150, 230 Foulard, 298
Fabric softeners, 441 Fibrillated-net process, 374 FR (flame retardant), 466
Fabric weight, 281 Fibroin, 111 French terry, 344
Fabrication, 410 FIFRA (Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Friction calender, 427, 427t
Face weight, 384 Rodenticide Act), 555 Friezé, 323
Fading, 504 Filament, 37 Frosting, 504
Faille, 293 Filament fiber, 125 FTC (Federal Trade Commission), 554–555
Fake-fur, 344 Filament tow, 37, 125, 240–241 Full fashioning, 345–346
False-twist process, 231 Filament yarn, 125, 228–232, 250 Full-grain leather, 393
Fancy fabric, 258 Filature, 109 Fulling, 437
Fancy twill, 300 Filler, 133, 372–373 Fume or Pollution fading, 151–152, 506t
Fancy weave, 311–325 Filling, 278 Fume-fading-resistant finish, 454t, 455
Fancy yarn, 258 Filling knitting fabric, 337–350, 349t Fumigant, 463
Fasciated yarn, 262 Filling knitting machine, 349t, 350–351 Functional finish, 446
Fashioning, 345 Filling (or weft) knitting, 331–333, 337–350, 349t Fungicide, 463
Fashion editor, 585–586 versus warp knits, 332–333, 358t Fur, 394–395, 395t
Fashion writer, 585–586 Filling sateen, 302 Fur cleaning, 395, 533
Fastness, 112, 485, 490 Filling yarn, 272, 278 Fur fiber, 546
Feathers, 184, 373, 532 Filling-faced twill, 297 Fur (furrier) dry cleaning, 395, 533
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Filling-knit structure, 341 Fur Products Labeling Act (FPLA), 546
Act (FIFRA), 555 Filling-pile fabric, 321–322 Furlike fabric, 211–212, 323
Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 554–555 Fill power, 373 Fusible nonwoven, 372
Feeding, 338 Film, 364–365, 365t
Felt, 373–374 Finish,. See also Aesthetic finish; Special- Gabardine, 299
Feltability, 96 purpose finish Gait, 347
Felting, 96 defined, 7 Garment dip process, 451
Fiber, environmental concerns and Garment-dyed, 490
chart, 35t sustainability, 418 Garnetted, 94
defined, 7 Finished goods, 405 Gauge, 334, 384
diameter, 38 Finishing, 403–418 Gauze, 287–288
fabrics from, 367–374 Fire block or Fire block seating, 554 Gel dyeing, 129, 488
identification, 54–57, 55t Fire resistance, 207, 466 Gel spinning, 186
length, 54, 250–251 Fire retardance, 171t, 466 Generic group, 41
parts, 40 Flame retardant (FR), 466 Generic name, 122, 123t, 546
performance rating, 46t–47t Flame resistant, 130–131 Geotextile, 190
processing, 236 Flame-resistant fiber, 130–131 Georgette, 287
Flame-retardant finish, 466–468 Germicidal finish, 464
property charts, 54
Flammability, 43t, 49, 466, 554–555 Gin, 65
shape and size,
Flammability assessment, 554–555 Gingham, 288
Fiber additive, 129
Flammable Fabrics Act, 552–553, 552t Glass, 208–210
Fiber blend, 242–243
Flannel, 290, 436–437 Glass transition temperature, 448–449
Fiber crimp, 40
Flannelette, 288, 437 Glazed, 427, 427t
Fiber density, 372
Flatbed machine or Flatbed knitting machines, Glazed chintz, 288
Fiber dyeing, 488
338–339 Glazed surface, 427
Fiber length, 54, 250–251
Flat-bed screen printing, 501–502 Glazing, 163
Fiber modification, 126
Flax, 63, 76–78 Global Organic Textile Standards (GOTS), 53,
Fiber properties, 36, 43t–44t
Flax system, 236 562t
aesthetics, 45
Fleece, 344 Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) Social
appearance retention, 50–51 Performance Indicators, 562t
care, 53 Flexibility, 44t, 46
Float, 278, 295 Global textile complex, 10–12, 564–566
charts, 54 Globalization, 10–11
Float stitch, 340, 340f
chemical composition, 40–42 Glucose, 64
Flocked fabrics, 382, 383t
comfort and safety, 48–49 g/m2, 281
Flocking, 382, 382t, 434
cost, 54 Fluorescent brightener, 129, 460, 481, 483t Gore-tex, 216, 380f
crimp, 40 Fluorescent dye, 481, 483t GOTS (Global Organic Textile Standards), 53,
durability, 46–48 Fluorescent whitening agent, 520 562t
environmental concerns and Fluorocarbon, 458, 531 Government, 585
sustainability, 52–53 Fluoropolymer, 215–216 Grade, 68, 110
molecular arrangement, 40–42 Foam, 365–366, 366t Grading cotton, 68–69
physical structure, 37–40 Foam coating, 455–456 Grading wool, 93

622 index
Graft polymer, 192 Hot-melt lamination, 387 environmental concerns and
Grain, 278–279, 392 Hot-water extraction, 535 sustainability, 336–337
Grain-sueded leather, 394 Houndstooth, 298 quality, 335
Granite cloth, 316 Huck, 312 Knit stitch, 339
Granite weave, 316 Huck-a-back, 312, 312f Knit–deknit, 231–232, 232f
Gray (grey, greige) goods, 405 HWM rayon, 143–146 Knit or Knitted terrycloth, 343
Grease wool, 93 Hydroentangled web, 368, 368f Knit-through or Sew-through fabric, 388
Green brands, 561–562 Hydrogen bond, 42 Knitting, 329–358
Green cotton, 73 Hydrogen peroxide, 112, 413 Knitting machine, 331–339, 341, 345–357,
Green chemistry, 198 Hydrophilic, 44t, 48 349t, 354t
Green product, 561–562 Hydrophobic, 44t, 48–49 Knit mesh, 356
Greenwashing, 562 Hygroscopic, 44t, 48–49 Knitting needle, 333, 334f, 351–352
GRI (Global Reporting Initiative), 562t Knitting yarn, 260, 388
Grin-through, 205, 261, 320 Ikat, 494t, 495 Knit yarn, 260
Grosgrain, 293 ILO, 564 Knockover, 338, 338f
Ground ply, 259 Immersion process, 451, 452t Knop yarn, 259
gsm, 281 Indian madras, 288 Knot yarn, 259
Guanaco, 107 Indoor air quality, 566
Industrial textile, 7, 8, 9t Lab dip, 478
Habutai, 110, 287 Ink, 479 Labeling laws and regulations, 545–546, 548, 551
Hackling, 76 Ink-jet printing, 498–499 Labeling, mandatory and voluntary programs, 551
Hairiness, 263 Insect-and-moth control finish, 462–463, Lace, 356
Halo effect, 479 462t Lamb’s wool, 93
Halogenation, 449 Insect repellent finish, 463 Laminate, 385–387
Hand, 44t, 45 Insecticide, 463 Laminated fabric, 385–387
Hand builder, 433t, 440–441 Insertion-warp knit, 356–357, 358t Laminating process, 385–387, 386f
Hand finish, 431, 432t–433t Inspecting or Inspection, 54–55, 416 Lanolin, 93
Hand knitting, 337 Intarsia, 342 Lastol, 188
Hand washing, 83, 449 Intelligent textiles, 564 Lastrile, 203
Handkerchief linen, 465 Interactive textiles, 21, 583 Latch needle, 331, 333–334, 333f, 355
Handling, 411 Interior designer, 187, 556, 580, 584 Latent shrinkage potential, 241
Handmade lace, 376–377 Interior furnishings, 7, 8 Laundering, 525, 531
Hangtags, 546–547, 554 Interior textiles, 7, 8, 525–537 Lawn, 287, 287f
Hard shell, 458–459 Interlacing, 278, 283t Laws, textiles and, 287, 287f
Hard twist, 252 Interlock, 348–349 Laying, 256
Harness, 273 Interlock gaiting, 347 LCA (life cycle assessment), 563
Harris tweed, 290 International Labor Organization, 564 Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design
Heat, 49 Ironing, 173, 210, 450–451 (LEED), 562t
Heat conductivity, 44t, 49 Irradiation sterilization, 465 Leaf fiber, 63
Heat resistance, 163, 217t Iridescent taffeta, 292–293 Leather, 392–393, 395t
Heat retention, 44t, 49 Isotactic, 186 Leather cleaning, 533, 599
Heat sensitive fiber, 151, 163t Leather dry cleaning, 533
Heat sensitivity, 44t, 49, 163–164 Jacquard, 275, 283t Leatherlike fabric, 365t, 381
Heat setting, 166, 416, 448 Jacquard double-knit, 349 Leavers lace, 377
Heat-transfer printing, 502 Jacquard jersey, 342 LEED, 562t
Heavyweight fabric, 281 Jacquard loom, 315 Leno or Leno weave, 283t, 311t, 317–318
Heavyweight ribbed fabric, 293 Jacquard tapestry, 316 Level, 475
Heddle, 273 Jacquard weave, 315–316, 327 Licensing, 551
Hemp, 80–81 Jean, 299 Life cycle analysis, 563
Henequen, 83–84 Jersey, 341–342 Life cycle assessment, 563
Herringbone, 298 Jet dyeing, 491t, 493 Life cycle impact, 21
Hessian, 290 Jet printing, 498–499 Light resistance, 44t, 52
Hibiscus, 82 Jig dyeing, 492 Light-reflecting finish, 468
High performance fibers, 207–217 Jute, 81 Light-stabilizing finish, 456
High shrinkage, 241 Lightweight fabric, 281
High-bulk yarn, 241–242 Kapok, 75 Lightweight opaque fabric, 287
High-tenacity fiber, 128, 167 Kemp, 92 Lightweight ribbed fabric, 292
High-wet-modulus rayon, 143–146 Kenaf, 82 Lightweight sheer fabric, 286–293
Hollow or Multicellular fiber, 128, 166 Keratin, 96 Line, 77
Home solvent cleaning, 533 Kersey, 318 Linen, 76, 78
Home fashions or Home furnishings, 7, 8 Kevlar, 207–208 Lining twill, 298
Homespun, 289 Kier boil or Boiling, 412, 413 Lint, 65
Homopolymer, 192, 196t Knit fabric, Lint pills, 164
Honan, 289 characteristics, 334–336 Linters, 66
Hopsacking, 295 comparison with woven fabrics, 330–331, Liquid carbon dioxide, 485, 518
Horizontal-axis washing machine, 527–529 332t Liquid-barrier finish, 468
Hosiery, 27, 346–349 Liquor ratio, 492
index 623
Lisle, 342 Medulla, 94 Mothproof, 463
Llama, 107 Melamine, 217 Moth-resistant, 191
Local parchmentizing, 430, 430f Melanin, 94 Multicellular fiber, 128
Lock-knit tricot, 354 Melt, 124 Multihead embroidery, 434, 435
Loft, 44t, 50 Melt spinning, 164–165, 165f, 166f Multiphase loom, 276
Loft capacity, 373 Melt-blown fiberwebs, 369, 371t Multiphase weaving, 276
London shrunk, 448 Melton, 318 Multiple-shed loom, 276
Long-staple cotton, 66, 67 Membrane technology, 418, 565 Multiple-shed weaving, 276
Loom, Mercerization, 69, 414, 414f, 415f Multiplex fabric,
advancements, 275–277 Merchandise manager, 582 Multiprocess wet cleaning, 536
efficiency and versatility, 274 Merchandisers, 581–582 Multiwidth loom, 276
Loom-state goods, 405 Merchandising, 581–583 Museum work, 586, 586f
Loop drying, 448 Merino or Merino wool, 92–94 Muslin, 279, 288
Loop transfer stitch, 345 Mesh, 355
Loop yarn, 105 Metallic coating, 455 Nanofiber, 127, 127f
Looping machine or Looping knitting machine, Metallic fiber, 210–211 Nanoparticle, 446, 459
346 Metallic soap, 458 Nanosphere, 459
Loops, 259 Metallic yarn, 259 Nanotechnology, 407, 446
Lotus effect, 459 Metamerism, 477 Nanotube, 127, 167
Low twist, 252, 252t Metered-addition process, 451 Nanowhisker, 459
Low-count sheer fabric, 287–288 Microfiber or Microdenier fiber, 126–127 Nap, 435–437, 435f
Low-elongation fiber, 128, 167 Microencapsulated finish, 462t, 465, 465f Napped tricot, 355
Low-elongation modification, 134t Micrometer, 38 Napping, 436, 436f
Low-impact dye, 565 Micropore, 365 Napping twist, 252, 252t, 253f
Low-pilling fiber, 128 Microporous fabric, 380–381 Narrow fabrics, 286, 325–326, 325f
Low twist yarn, 252, 252t Microscopy, 56, 585f Narrow knitted fabric, 357, 358
Lumen, 67 Migration, 504 Natural bicomponent fiber,
Luster, 44t, 45, 55 Milanese machine or Milanese knitting machine, Natural cellulosic fibers, 61–87
Luster finish, 426–427, 427t 354t, 357 Natural dye, 480
Lyocell, 144t, 148–151 Milanese warp knit, 354t, 357 Natural fiber, 34–35, 35t
Mildew preventive finish, 463–464 versus manufactured fibers, 136, 136t
Machine knitting, 337–338 Mildew resistance, 44t, 51 Natural protein fiber, 89–118
Machine-pleating process, 433 Mildew-control finish, 463–464 identification, 115–116
Macrofiber, 126 Milk fiber, 156 Naturally colored cotton, 68, 68f
Madras or Madras gingham or Madras shirting, Milkweed, 35t, 62t, 75 Needle, 333–334
288, 312 Mill-finished fabric, 405 Needle punching, 369
Maize, 84 Milling, 404 Needlepoint lace, 376
Malimo, 388, 388f Minimum or Minimum yardage, 270 Needling, 369
Maliwatt, 388 Miraflex, 209 Neoprene, 203
Manager, 576–577, 581–584 Miss stitch or Missed stitch, 340, 341f Nep, 68, 263
Mandatory labels, 551 Mixed-denier filament bundling, 127 Net fabrics, 355
Man-made fibers, 34 Mixture, 242 Netlike structure, 374, 374f
Manufactured fiber, 35t, 37f, 122, 125t Modacrylic fiber, 211–212 Nettle or Nettle fiber, 82
consumption, 136 Modulus, 142 Network yarn, 230, 230f
defined, 122 Mohair, 104t, 105 Ninon, 287
environmental concerns and Moiré calendering, 416, 426f Nodes, 77
sustainability, 135 Moiré, Moiré fabric, or Moiré pattern, 427–428 Nomex, 207–208
generic names for, 122, 123t Moisture management, 457t Nonionic softener, 521
Moisture management finish, 457t, 459 Nonreinforced film, 365
manufacturing of, 122–124
Moisture regain, 43t, 48 Non-slip finish, 455
process of, 122–125
Moisture transport, 459 Nonstore retailer, 582
sustainability, 135
Moisture vapor transport rate (MVTR), 188 Nonwoven, 270, 367–371, 370t–371t
trade names for, 122 Mold-control or Mold control finish, 462t, Novelty yarn, 258–260, 258f
uses, 124t 463–464 Novoloid, 213
versus natural fibers, 35t, 136, 136t Molecular arrangement, 40–42, 42f, 69, 96–98, Nub yarn, 259
Manufactured regenerated fiber, 141–159 144, 149, 152–153, 170, 178, 186, Nubuck leather, 394
m-Aramid, 207–208 191–192, 204 Nylon, 168–177, 169t, 170t
Marketing, 583–584 Molecular structure, 111, 128–129, 134t Nytril, 123t, 591
Marquisette, 317, 317f Moleskin,
Mass coloration, 487 Momie weave, 316–317 Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Mass pigmentation, 129, 487–488 Momme, Momie, or Mommie, 110 (OSHA), 559
Matelassé, 319, 319f Monk’s cloth, 295 Odor, 55t, 463
Material, 566 Monofilament yarn, 229f, 230 Oeko-Tex Standards, 562t
Material performance testing, 514–515 Mordant dye, 482, 483t Off-grain fabrics, 279
Machine–made lace, 377 Moss crepe, 316 Off-grain print, 504
Medium-weight fabric, 281, 288, 288f Moth-control finish, 462–463 Off-shade, 506t
Medium-weight ribbed fabric, 292, 293f Moth resistance, 44t, 51

624 index
Oil tanning, 392 Pigment paste, 479 differential, 502
Olefin, 185–190, 187t, 190t Pile jersey, 342 digital (ink-jet), 498–499
Oleophilic, 44t, 48, 164 Pile texture, 385 direct, 498–500
On-grain fabric, 279 Pile weaves, 318, 320 direct–roller, 499–500, 500f
Opacifier, 479, 520 Pillar, 353, 356 discharge, 500, 501f
Open-end rotor spinning, 238–239 Pilling, 44t, 46, 164 duplex, 500, 500f
Opening, 235 Pilling–resistant finish, 456 electrostatic, 502
Open-width finishing, 411 Pima cotton, 67 environmental impact, 496
Optical brightener or Optical brightening agent, Piña, 83
flatbed screen, 501, 502f
413, 414 Pinsonic quilting, 389f
foam, 496
Optical whitener or Optical whitening agent, 520 Pinwale piqué, 314, 314f
foil, 502
Organdy, 287 Piqué, 283t, 311t, 313
heat-transfer, 502, 502f
Organic cotton, 72–73 Piqué weave, 313–314
Organic solvent, 149, 518 PLA (polylactic acid), 218 methods, 497t–498t, 498–503
Organza, 287 Plain film, 365 pigment, 479, 480
Orientation, 41 Plain jersey, 346, 348 roller, 499–500
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Plain tricot, 355 rotary screen, 501–502, 502f
Administration), 559 Plain weave, 282, 285–290, 286t, 291t screen, 501–502, 501f
Osnaburg, 290 Plasma treatment, 407, 407t stages, 485–490, 487t
Ottoman, 293 Plastic coating, 455 stencil, 503
Outing flannel, 288, 437 Plastic film, 365 sustainability of, 482–485
Out-of-register, 504, 505f Plasticize finish, 427 warp, 500, 500f
Overprinting, 496 Pleated fabric, 431 Processing aids, 520
Over-wire method, 323 Pleating calender, 431, 433 Producer-colored or Producer coloring, 487
Oxford chambray, 295 Plissé, 432t, 433–434 Product development, 17–28
Oxford cloth, 295 Plush, 323 defined, 18
Ozonation, 439 Ply yarn, 255, 256, 259 information sources, 26
Oz/yd2 254t Plying, 256 performance, 23–25
Pocket cloth or Pocket fabric, 319 quality, 25
Package dyeing, 488, 492 Pocket weave, 319 role of Textiles in, 18–21
Pad dyeing, 492, 492f Point-bond calendering, 369 serviceability, 21–22
Padding machine, 425 Point-paper, 352 Product dip process, 451
Paddle machine, 493 Point-paper notation, 352 Product testing, 575–576
Palm fiber, 84 Polished cotton, 288 Product-dyed or Product dyeing, 486, 490, 493f
Panné velvet, 323 Pollution fading, 151–152 Product manager, 412
Paper-pattern technique, 431, 432t Pollution Prevention Act, 559 Production, 65–66, 92–93, 109–110, 152, 177,
p-Aramid, 207t, 217t Polyamide, 169, 170, 365t 185–166, 203, 369–370, 577–578
Parchmentizing, 429, 429t Polyester, 177–185 Product quality, 25
Parent fiber, 126 Polyester fiberfill, 373 Professional wet cleaning, 534
Pashmina, 106 Polyethylene, 186 Progressive shrinkage, 447
PBI, 213, 213f Polyimide (PI or PEI), 217 Projectile loom, 276
PBO (polyphenylene benzobisoxazole), 217–218 Polymer, 7, 41, 129–131 Proofing, 499
PCE (percholorethylene), 189, 518 Polymerization, 41, 162f Protein fiber, 91
Peach skin, 438 Polyphenylene benzobisoxazole (PBO), 217–218 Prototype, 575
Peau de soie, 301 Polypropylene, 186 Puckered surface, 432t, 433
PEI (polyimide), 217 Polytetrafluoroethylene, 215, 380 Pulling, 338
Peracetic acid bleaching, 414 Pongee, 289 Pure dye silk, 110, 545
Perc (perchloroethylene, PCE), 189, 518 Poplin, 293 Pure silk, 110, 545
Percale, 279, 288, 288f Poromeric fabric, 380–381 Purl gaiting, 347
Performance, 23–25, 262–263, 441–442 Porosity-control finish, 460 Purl knit, 350–351
Performance fiber, 133–134 Postcured or Postcured process, 451, 451f Purl stitch, 341f
Performance testing, 25f, 575 Powder cleaner or Powder cleaning, 537
Perfume, 520 Power net, 356 Qiviut, 105
Permafresh finish, 464 Power stretch, 202 QSC (quick style change), 275, 331
Permanent Care Labeling Regulation, 548 Precured process, 451 Quality, 25
Permanent finish, 405 Prefiber dyeing, 487t Quality assurance, 335, 576
Permanent press, 451 Preparation, 408 Quality assurance specialists, 576
Permethrin, 463 Presoak, 522 Quality performance standards, 452
Peroxide bleach, 413–414 Pressing, 417 Quick Style Change (QSC), 275, 331
Phase-change finish, 457t, 461–462 Pretreatment, 522 Quilted fabric, 388–389, 389t
Phosphate, 519 Primary fiber bundle, 81
PI (polyimide), 217 Print cloth, 288, 405f Race to the bottom, 65
Picking, 274 Print designer, 499 Ramie, 78–80
Picks, 272 Printing, 495–503, 496t, 497t–498t
performance, 80t
Pickup, 406 block, 498 Random web, 368
Piece dyeing, 489 color problems, 503–506, 506t Ranges, 493
Pigments, 479–480 developments in, Rapier loom, 275
index 625
Raschel knit, 354t, 356, 356f, 357f Run, 335, 336f Shrinkage control, 447–449, 447t
Raschel lace, 377, 377f Running, 338 Shrinkage resistance, 51
Raschel-warp knit, 355–356 Rush, 35t, 62t, 84 Shuttles, 273
Ratiné yarn, 258f, 259, 260f Shuttle embroidery, 434
Raw silk, 109, 110 S-twist, 251, 251f Shuttleless loom, 273, 275, 276f
Raw wool, 93, 360 Safety, 21 Silence cloth, 320
Rayon, 123t, 142–148 Safety laws and regulations, 245, 543–571 Silicone, 458
versus acetate, 154 Safety-related finish, 466–468, 466t Silicone softener, 440–441
Rayon fiber, 145, 382 Sailcloth, 254t, 295 Silk, 108–115
RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Sand crepe, 316 Silk boil-off, 433t, 440
Act), 561 Sanding, 432t, 438 Silk Latte, 156, 157f
REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, Saran, 214, 591 Silk noils, 110
and Restriction of Chemicals), 561 Sateen, 302, 302f, 302t Silk Regulation, 545
Reactive dye, 482, 483t Satin, 283t, 301, 301f, 301t, 427t Silk waste, 110
Reclining twill, 297, 297f Satin ribbon, 320 Silk-in-the-gum, 109
Recycled wool, 93–94 Satin tricot, 355 Silkworm, 109f, 113–114
Recycling, 567–568 Satin weave, 300, 300f, 301f Silver nanoparticles, 465
Reducer, 479 Scales, 95 Simple calender, 405, 416
Reed, 273–274, 273f Schappe, 110 Simple yarn, 255–257, 256f
Reel dyeing, 492 Schiffli embroidery, 434 Simplex, 354t, 357
Reeling, 109 Schreiner calender or Schreiner calenderiing, Simplex machine or Simplex knitting machine, 357
Re-embroidered lace, 377 416, 427t, 428 Singeing, 411–412
Regenerated fiber, 156–157 Scoured wool, 93 Single, 109
Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Scouring, 412–413 Single-figured jersey, 342
Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), 561 Screen printing, 501–502, 502f Single-filling knit, 341, 342
Regular twill, 297f, 299 Scroop, 112 Single-jersey or Single jersey fabric, 341
Regulations, textiles and, 544–555 Scutching, 76 Single yarn, 255–256, 256f
Reinforced films, 365 Sea grass, 35t, 84, 84f Sisal, 35t, 62t, 63, 83–84
Relaxation shrinkage, 447, 447t, 449 Sea Island cotton, 67 Sizing, 409, 429t, 430
Renewable, 245 Seaweed fiber, 35t, 156–157 Skein dyeing, 487t, 488
Renewable finish, 405 Secondary cell wall, 67, 67f Skew, 279, 335, 416
Rep, 291t, 293 Seed fiber, 62t, 63, 64–74 Skye, 493
Repairing, 417 Seersucker, 324, 324f Slack mercerization, 415
Reseau, 376 Self-twist spinning, 240, 240f Slack-tension pile method, 323f, 324
Resiliency, 44t, 46t, 50, 91t Selvage, 278t, 280 Slack-tension weave, 324–325
Resin, 450 Sennit, 375 Slashing, 409
Resist methods, 494 Sequestered, 517 Slippage, 280f, 291
Resist print or Resist printing, 494 Serge, 298, 298f Slip resistant finish, 455
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Sericin, 109, 440 Sliver, 235
(RCRA), 561 Sericulture, 108, 109, 109f Sliver-pile knit, 344
Retarders, 479 Serviceability, 21–22, 42–54 Slot die technique, 379
Retting, 76 Sewing thread, 124t, 257 Slub effect, 259
Reverse osmosis, 208, 406, 418, 565 Sew-knit fabric, 388 Slub yarn, 259
Reverse spiral, 67, 67f Sewn products dyeing, 487t Smart fabric, 7–8
Reverse stitch, 341 Sew-through fabric, 388 Smart textile, 7–8
Reworking, 416–417 Shade sorting, 478 Smooth-filament yarn, 229, 250t
Rib, 292–293, 348 Shagbark, 324, 383t Snagging, 25f, 335–336
Ribbed fabric, 280f, 292f Shahtoosh, 106 Snarl yarn, 258f, 259
Rib-gait or Rib gaiting, 347, 351 Shampooing, 536 Soap, 516, 518–521
Rigidity, 44t, 55 Shantung, 291t, 293 Softener, 440–441
Ring spinning, 236, 237–240, 245 Shape memory fiber, 128, 134t Soft-filled sheeting, 405, 437
Rippling, 75 Shape-retention finish, 450, 451f Soft goods, 7
Ripstop nylon, 289 Shaping, 97–98, 345–346 Soft shell, 459
Ripstop nylon or Ripstop taffeta, 289 Sharkskin, 298 Soil, 515
RN number, 547 Shahtoosh, 106 Soil removal, 515–516
Roller printing, 499–500 Sheared fabric, 432t, 435 Soil-release finish, 453–455, 454t
Rope, 256, 257 Shearing, 93f, 435, 435f Soil-release polymer, 520
Rope finishing, 411 Shed, 273 Soil-repellent finish, 453
Rosepoint, Shedding, 274 Solubility, 157
Rotary brush method, 536 Sheer fabric, 286–288 Solubility test, fiber identification, 54, 56–57, 57t,
Rotary drum, 493 Shepherd’s check, 288 168
Rotary screen technique, 379 Shifting resistance, 372, 373t Solution dyeing, 129, 134t
Rotary-screen printing, 501, 502f Shin-gosen, 126, 179 Solution-dyeable fiber, 129, 130, 190t, 487
Rotofil yarn, 244 Shiners, 335, 335f Solution-dyed, 487
Rot-proof finish, 464 Shoddy or Shoddy wool, 94 Solution, fabrics from, 364–366
Roving, 235t, 237, 237f Short-staple cotton, 66 Solvent finishing, 406, 407t
Rubber, 202–203, 204t, 205t Shrinkage, 43t, 71, 184t, 447 Solvent, 57t, 517–518

626 index
Solvent spinning, 149 Structural design, 311, 424–426 standards and quality of life, 8–10
Sorting, 93, 525 Stuffer box, 231 technical, examples of, 9t
Sorting wool, 93 Stylist, 579 Textile complex, 10–12
Sorting laundry, 525 Subtractive finish, 424, 429 Textile designer, 499, 579
Sourcing, 580–581 Suede, 394, 394f, 395t, 437 Textile Fiber Products Identification Act (TFPIA),
Soya or Soy fiber, 156, 159 Suede cleaning, 394 546–548
SoySilk, 34, 156, 157f Suede cloth, 394 Texture, 44t, 45
Spacer fabric, 318, 344 Suedelike fabric, 381, 381t Texture finish, 431–441
Spandex, 203–206, 204t, 205t, 206t Sueding, 432t, 438 Textured yarn, 232, 232t
Special-purpose finish, 415, 445–471. See also Suint, 93 Textured-bulk yarn, 250–251, 250t
Aesthetic finish; Finish Suiting weight fabric, 281, 289 Textured-bulk-filament yarn, 250–251, 250t,
Special-use fiber, 201–222 Sulfar, 213–214, 217t 251f
Specific gravity, 43t–44t, 49, 91t, 111t Sulfur dye, 482, 483t Texturing, 231–232
Spider silk, 35t, 115 Sunlight resistance, 44t, 52 TFPIA (Textile Fiber Products Identification Act),
Spidroin, 115 Sunprotective finish, 460 546–548
Spike yarn, 259, 259f Supima cotton, 67 Thermal cloth, 354t, 356
Spinneret modification, 126–128 Supported film, 365 Thermal conductivity, 217
Spinneret, 109, 125 Supported-scrim structure, 390 Thermal retention, 46t, 49
Spinning, 35, 235t, 238 Surah, 298 Thermoplastic or Thermoplastic fibers, 151, 482
Spinning methods, 125, 125t Surface coating, 449, 454t, 455–456 Thermosol process, 491t, 493
Spinning solution, 124, 129–131 Surface contour, 40 Thick-and-thin fiber type, 128
Spiral yarn, 259 Surface design, 424 Thickener, 479
Split fiber method, 230 Surface-active agent, 458 Thinner, 479
Split leather, 393, 393f Surfactant, 519 Throwing, 109, 229
Spot yarn, 259, 259f Sustainability, 21, 52–53. See also Specific Thrown yarn, 109
Spray technique, 379 fibers, finishes, and processes Ticking, 552t
Spring-beard needle, 333, 333f, 354t Swivel weave, 313 Tie-dye, 494t, 495, 495f
Spun yarn, 232–234, 250, 250t, 251t Swivel-dot or Swivel dot fabric, 313 Tissue gingham, 287
Spun-bonded web, 368 Synthetic detergent, 518–521 Toile, 376
Spun-dyed, 487 Synthetic dyes, 480 Top, 237
Spun-lace web or Spun laced web, 368 Synthetic fiber, 35t, 161–199 Top dyeing, 487t, 488
Spun-laid web, 368 fiber modifications, 166–167 Top grain, 393
Spunmelt, 369 identification of, 168 Topical finish, 446
Spun silk, 110 manufacturing of, common processes Top-weight fabric, 281, 288
Spun yarn, 232–234, 250, 250t used in, 164–166 Torch sweaters, 466
Stabilization, 447–453 properties common to, 163–164, 163t Torts, 556–557
Stabilization finish, 447–453 Synthetic leather, 392–393 Tow, 77
Stainless steel, 210–211 Tow-to-top system, 234t, 240, 241
Stain release finish, 453–454 Taffeta, 288, 291t, 292–293 Tow-to-yarn spinning, 241
Stain removal, 600–602 Take-up, 274 tpi (turns per inch), 251
Stain-resistant finish, 454, 458 Tanning, 392 tpm (turns per meter), 251
Staple fiber, 37–38, 234–237 Tapa cloth, 367, 367f Traceback, 101
Staple silk, 109 Tape yarn, 230 Trade name, 122, 551
Starch, 522 Tapestry, 283t, 311t, 325 Trademark, 551
Starching, 430 Tapestry weave, 325 Transfer coating, 379
Static, 211 Tasar silk, 110 Transfer printing, 502
Static electricity, 164 Technical back, 286 Transition cotton, 73
Steam cleaning, 195, 535 Technical designer, 578–579 Translucence, 44t, 45
Steam drying, 530 Technical face, 286, 334, 340f Transparent finish, 429
Steep twill fabrics, 297 Technical textile, 8f Trash, 235
Stem fiber, 82 Temporary finish, 405 Triacetate, 152–154
Stencil printing, 503 Temperature regulation finish, 457t, 461–462 Triaxial or Triaxial loom, 276
Stereospecific polymerization, 186 Tenacity, 44t, 46, 48, 184 Tricot, 351
Stiffness (rigidity), 44t, 55 Tender or Tender goods, 504 Tricot knitting machine, 351, 353–355
Stitch-bonded fabric, 387–389 Tendering, 429 Tricot machine, 351, 353–355
Stitch, 334 Tensile strength, 44t, 46 Tricot warp knit, 351–353
Stitched yarn, 260, 260f Tension mercerization, 414 Tricot-net fabric, 355
Stock dyeing, 488 Tentering, 416, 416f Trilobal shape, 127
Stockinette or Stockinet, 342 Terrycloth, 323, 323f Tropical worsted suiting, 290
Stomach poison, 463 Tex, 38 True crepe, 289
Storage, 537–538 Tex system, 255 True double cloth, 318
Store manager, 583 Textile Fiber Products Identification Act (TFPIA), True moiré, 427, 427t
Strength, 46 546–548 True tapestry, 325
Stretch yarn, 232, 232t Textile, 7–8 Tube or Tubular finishing, 411
Stretching, 41, 42f conservation, 538 Tuck stitch, 339, 341
Striations, 143 defined, 7 Tuft density, 384
Strike-off, 499 new developments, 17–26 Tufted fabric or Tufted-pile fabric, 384–385, 385t

index 627
Tufting, 384–385, 385t Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 566 Wide wale piqué, 313
Tulle, 355–356 Voluntary label, 551 Wild silk, 110
Tumbler, 493 Vortex spinning, 240 Wilton rug, 316
Turns per inch (tpi), 251 Winch dyeing, 492, 492f
Turns per meter (tpm), 251 Wadding, 372, 373 Winding, 235t, 274
Tussah silk, 110 Waffle cloth, 312 Wool, 90
Tweed, 290 Wale, 295, 296 Wool check, 288
Tweed yarn, 258–259 Wales and courses, 335, 335f Wool fabric, routine finishing steps, 417
Twill flannel, 298 Warm water extraction, 535 Wool fiber, 95f, 104t
Twill weave, 295–300 Warp, 272 Wool Products Labeling Act (WPLA), 94,
Twist, 231, 251 Warp beam, 273–274 545–546
Twister, 165f, 256 Warp insertion, 357 Woolen system, 236
Twistless spinning, 240 Warp knitting, 332 Woolen yarn, 236
Twist-on-twist, 252, 253f versus filling knits, 358t Woolen-worsted yarn, 236
Twist setting, 252 Warp printing, 487t, 500 Worsted system, 236
Two-bar tricot, 357 Warp sateen, 302, 302t Worsted yarn, 236
Warp yarns, 272 Woven fabric, 272–278
UBC (Unified Building Code), 556 Warp-and weft-insertion fabric, 357 characteristics, 278–285
UFAC (Upholstered Furniture Action Council), Warp-faced twill, 298, 298f, 299t comparison with knit fabrics, 332t
554, 554f Warping or Warping the loom, 263 environmental concerns and
Ultrafine denier, 126 Warp-insertion warp knit, 357 sustainability, 277–278
Ultrafine fibers, 126 Warp-knitting or Warp-knitting machine, 352, naming and diagramming, 282–285
Ultrasonic cleaning, 537 354t properties, 282
Ultrasonic quilt or Ultrasonic quilting, 389 Warp-pile fabric, 322, 323f Woven figure, 311
Ultraviolet finish, 460, Warranty, 551 Woven-pile fabric, 320
Ultraviolet (UV) absorber, 520 Washdown, 479 WPLA (Wool Products Labeling Act), 94,
Ultraviolet (UV) inhibitor, 460 Washing, 438–439 545–546
Ultraviolet-absorbent finishes, 457, 460–461 Washing machine, 525–529 WPL number, 558
Ultraviolet protection factor (UPF), 460 Wash-off, 479 Wrap-spun yarn, 262
Unbalanced plain weave, 290–291, 291t Wastewater, 559–560 Wrinkle recovery, 243t, 335, 450
Unified Building Code (UBC), 556 Wastewater treatment, 434, 560f Wrinkle-free, 451
Union dyeing, 490 Water, 517–518 Wrinkle resistant, 451
UPF, 460 Water hardness, 517, 517f Wrinkle-resistant finish, 415, 416
Upholstered Furniture Action Council (UFAC), Water hyacinth, 84, 84f
554, 554f Water softener, 522 Yak, 104t, 108
Upholstery cleaning code, 534t Water temperature, 516f, 517, 526t Yarn dyeing, 488–489
Upland cotton, 66 Water treatment, 474, 524, 560 Yarn mercerization, 414
U.S. Controlled Substance Act, 81 Water volume, 518 Yarn number, 253–254
UV blocker, 460 Water-absorbent finish, 457t, 460 Yarn Quality, 262–263
Water-bath finishing, 406, 407t Yarn twist, 237–239
Vacuuming, 535 Water-jet loom, 276 Yarn, 7
Valenciennes, 376 Waterproof fabric, 457, 458t carded-combed, 236–237, 237t
Van der Waals force, 42 Water-repellent finish, 405–406, 457–459 classification, 249–263
Vapor-phase process, 451, 451f water-treatment facility, 560 defined, 7
Vat dye, 482, 483t Wax emulsion, 458
environmental impact of processing,
V-bed machine, 347, 347f Weave, 311t
244–245
Vegetable dye, 482, 483t Weaver’s cloth, 289
fabric from, 410–413
Vegetable tanning, 392 Weaving, 269–306
Velour, 323 Web, 367–368
fiber blend, 429t
Velvet, 322, 323f Weft, 272, 331 filament, 37
Velveteen, 321–323 Weft insertion, 344f, 357 hairiness, 239t, 263
Venetian point lace, 376 Weft-insertion filling knit, 344f, 337–351 high-bulk, 241–242
Vertical-axis washing machine, 528–529 Weft-insertion warp knit, 357 mercerization, 414
Vertically integrated retail firm or Vertically Weft knitting, 357–351 number, 253–254
integrated firm, 405, 575 Weft–insertion jersey, 344 performance, 262–263
Vicuña, 107 Weighted silk, 111 preparation, 409–410
Vinal, 215 Weighting, 111 processing, 244–245
Vinyon, 214–215 Wet cleaning, 536 quality, 262–263
Virgin acrylic, 191 Wet print, 496 regularity, 255
Virgin wool, 93, 94, 546 Wet process, 446 size, 253–255
Viscose rayon, 142–143 Wet spinning, 143 types, 255–262
Visual inspection, 54–55 Wet-adhesive method, 386 woolen-worsted, 236
Visual inspection, fiber identification, 54–55 Wet-laid fiberweb, 368
Visual merchandiser, 583 Whitener, 129 Zip, 354
VOCs (volatile organic compounds), 566 Whitening, 413–414 Z-twist, 251, 251f
Voile, 287 Wicker, 84, 84f
Voile-twist or Voile twist yarn, 252, 252t, 253f Wicking, 44t, 49

628 index