THERMODYNAMICS OPEN

ENDED LAB REPORT

Submitted to: Sir Farhan Javed

SUBMITTED BY: WARIAH (2020-CH-46)

HUSNA JAVED (2020CH10), SABA JAVED (2020CH16), SARA SHAFIQ (2020CH2), MEHERBANO IQBAL
(2020CH44)
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Table of Contents
Abstract: ...................................................................................................................................................... 2
Objective: ..................................................................................................................................................... 2
Apparatus: ................................................................................................................................................... 2
History: ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
Theory: ......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Procedure: ................................................................................................................................................... 6
Precaution:................................................................................................................................................... 9
Discussion: ................................................................................................................................................... 9
Conclusion: ................................................................................................................................................ 10
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Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

Abstract:
This experiment is designed to find Mechanical equivalent of heat. Heat and work done are
interchangeable forms of energy and the constant that relates both is called mechanical equivalent
of heat “J”. To find this quantitative relationship, this experiment incorporates the method of
converting electrical energy to heat. It is found that the work done in the form of electrical energy
gets completely converted to heat and there exists a direct relationship between them. The constant
J, also known as Joule’s constant, is found to be 4.14 J/cal with an error of 0.9%.

Objective:
To calculate “J” the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

Apparatus:
 Calorimeter cup
 Ammeter and Voltmeter
 DC Power Supply
 Thermometer
 Lead wires
 Immersion Heater
 Stirrer
 Stopwatch

History:
Till the early 18th century, caloric theory of heat was widely accepted by the scientists which stated
that heat consists of a hypothetical substance that flows from hotter bodies to colder bodies, thus
creating a warming effect. It was believed that the caloric resided in the objects and when they
were cut or grounded or subjected to any division, caloric was released. Or in other words, heat
was generated. This theory became questionable when in 1798, Count Rumford observed that
boring cast iron cannons produced great amounts of seemingly inexhaustible heat which he
described as heat generated due to friction.

He noticed that heat continued to evolve even when the boring equipment became dull and lost its
efficiency. It no longer bored into the iron. This meant that limitless heat could be produced from
boring just because of motion. His finding negated the caloric theory. He then stated that only if
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heat were a form of motion would explain the phenomena that he had witnessed. He went on to
publish his findings in a scientific paper and from there started a revolution in 19th century
thermodynamics as the former theories related to heat became dubious.

His works inspired James Prescott Joule in 1840s. In 1843, he proposed the idea that heat and work
are equivalent in the leading British physics journal. He performed different experiments carefully
measuring amount of work getting converted into heat. One of his experiments, the paddle-wheel
experiment was a game-changer and gave accurate results for the mechanical equivalent of heat.
He used falling weights attached to strings which passed over pulleys to drive a paddle-wheel. A
cylinder containing water or mercury was attached with the paddle-wheel. In order to measure
mechanical equivalent of heat, he calculated the work done by the product of the weight and the
distance of fall. The heat was calculated by the temperature rise of the water or mercury. The ratio
of work and heat, thus, gave the mechanical equivalent of heat.

Joule performed various other experiments as well in which he calculated J by converting electrical
or chemical energies to heat, but his paddle-wheel experiment gained the most popularity. To be
specific, Joule assessed the amount of mechanical work required to raise the temperature of one
pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit and obtained a constant figure of 778.24 foot pound force
(4.1550 J/cal). Later, it was realized that this constant was actually the specific heat of water
dependent on temperature. Its value varied between 4.17 and 4.22 J/g. ℃ according to temperature
change. The unit was changed to Celsius because after the adoption of SI system, the unit calorie
became obsolete.

Theory:
Heat is a type of energy, and energy, like mechanical and electrical energy, is defined as the ability
to perform work. Energy can be transferred from one form to another. Mechanical or electrical
energy can be converted to heat energy and vice versa, implying that the units of these two types
of energy must be related. Heat energy is measured in calories, kilocalories, and BTU, while
mechanical and electrical energy is measured in ergs, joules, and foot pounds. The mechanical
equivalent of heat is a constant that describes the relationship between these quantities. Formerly,
the procedure of conversion of mechanical energy to heat energy was incorporated to determine
the constant. Now, the mechanical equivalent of heat has been precisely calculated by converting
electrical energy to heat energy. The determined values are as follows:
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1 BTU = 78 ft-lb

1 calorie = 4.186 joules

1 kcal = 4186 joules

According to first law of thermodynamics, work done in a circuit is directly proportional to the
amount of heat generated. Therefore,

W = J/Q

Where J is a constant of proportionality called Mechanical Equivalent of Heat or Joule’s Constant.

To find J,

J = W/Q

When an electric current flows through a resistive substance, electrical energy gets converted to
heat. In SI system, this electrical energy is measured in joule (J). The heat is often measured in
calorie. The conversion factor that relates these two quantities, as stated above, is the Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat and is found to be,

1 cal (calorie) = 4.186 Joules

Or

J= 4.186 J/cal

In this experiment, we will re-determine the value of J. This experiment will apply electrical
method and J will be determined. The experiment will include a setup of a calorimeter filled with
water and a small electric heater placed in it. When the electric supply is turned on, charge flows
through the resistive heater and the heat energy is generated in the immersed heater. The voltage
V and current I through the heater for a certain time t will be measured to determine Work done.
First, the heater's electrical power dissipation will be calculated using the following formula:

Power (watts) = Voltage (volts) x current (amperes)

Then, the quantity of electrical energy input into the calorimeter can be estimated if current is
allowed to flow for a certain time (seconds), since:

Energy (joules) = Power (watts) x Time (seconds)

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Because this electrical energy is transformed to heat energy, the equivalent amount of calories may
be calculated by measuring the rise in temperature of the water in the calorimeter over the time
interval and applying the Q = m.C.ΔT equation. The mechanical equivalent of heat can be
estimated once the quantity of electrical joules has been known.

Q = m.C.ΔT

Where, Q (J) is the heat generated, C is the specific heat of cup and water and ΔT (℃) is the change
in temperature.

The heat capacity of cup and water is the sum of specific heat of water and the specific heat of
cup.

C= mcCc + mwCw

Where mc and mw are the masses of cup and water respectively and Cc and Cw are specific heats
of cup and water. Cw = 1 cal/℃

The goals of this experiment are to investigate the energy equivalence of mechanical work and
heat energy, to define electrical work and apply it in a simple application, to investigate the
relationships between heat energy, change in heat content, mass, and temperature change, and to
determine the mechanical equivalent of the heat constant.
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Diagram:

Figure 1: Mechanical Equivalent of Heat Apparatus

Procedure:
1. Find the least counts of voltmeter, ammeter, and thermometer and check for zero errors.
2. Note down the room temperature with the help of thermometer and record the specific heat
of the calorimeter.
3. Measure the mass of empty calorimeter as mc.
4. Now fill 2/3rd of cup with water and maintain the temperature of water till 10oC by adding
some of the ice cubes in it.
5. Measure the mass of calorimeter cup and water and note down the reading as M.
6. Calculate the mass of water mw as:

𝑚𝑤 = 𝑀 − 𝑚𝑐

7. Immerse the heater in cold water.

8. Now after arranging the circuit and completing ammeter and voltmeter settings, turn on the
power supply. Adjust voltage to about 3V and note the initial temperature inside the cup.
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9. Stir the water to distribute the heat evenly and record voltmeter and ammeter readings.
10. Make sure that the voltage remains unchanged till the final temperature.
11. Note the final temperature of water and write down the readings in tables.
12. Turn off the power supply and do calculations.
13. Repeat the procedure and take 9-10 readings for 2 min time interval each.

Observations:

Sr. no. Time Temperature Voltage Current Mean Mean

(min) (C) (V) (I) Voltage Current
1 0 33 2 1 2 1
2 2 33.5 2 1 2 1
3 4 34 2 1 2 1
4 6 34 2 1 2 1
5 8 34.5 2 1 2 1
6 10 35 2 1 2 1
7 12 36 2 1 2 1
8 14 36.5 2 1 2 1
9 16 37 2 1 2 1

1. Least count of thermometer=5OC

2. Least count of ammeter= 0.1 A
3. Least count of voltmeter= 0.5 V
4. Mass of calorimeter with stirrer= mc = 28.5g
5. Mass of calorimeter with stirrer and water = M = 128.5 g
6. Mass of water= mw = M-mc = 128.5-28.5 = 100 g
7. Initial temperature of water= T1= 33OC
8. Final temperature of water= T2= 37OC
9. Time for which current is passed= 16*60= 960 s
10. Specific heat of water = Cw= 1 cal/g oC
11. Specific heat of calorimeter=Cc = 0.1 cal/ g oC
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Calculations:

Calculating work:

𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼𝑇

𝑊 = 2 × 1 × 960

𝑊𝐽 = 1920 𝐽

Calculating Heat:

𝑄 = (𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑐 + 𝑚𝑤 𝐶𝑤 )∆𝑇

𝑄 = (100 × 1 + 28.5 × 0.1)

𝑄 = 102.85 𝑐𝑎𝑙

Calculating experimental J:

𝑉𝐼𝑇
𝐽=
(𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑐 + 𝑚𝑤 𝐶𝑤 )(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

2 × 1 × 960
𝐽=
(28.5 × 0.1 + 100 × 1)(37 − 33)

𝐽
𝐽 = 4.14
𝑐𝑎𝑙

Standard Mechanical equivalent of heat = 4.18 J/cal

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = [ ] × 100
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑

4.18 − 4.14
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
4.18

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 0.9 %
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Calculating Experimental Specific Heat of Water:

Standard Value of J= 4.18 J/cal

1 𝑉𝐼𝑇
𝐶𝑤 = { − 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑐 }
𝑚𝑤 𝐽 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)

1 2 × 1 × 960
𝐶𝑤 = { − (28.5 × 0.1)}
100 4.18(37 − 33)

𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝐶𝑤 = 1.1
𝑔°𝐶

𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 − 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑

1 − 1.1
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
1

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 11%

Precaution:
 Deal carefully with electrical component.
 Do not turn on current supply before heater is completely immersed in water.
 Wear lab coats and gloves for personal safety.

Discussion:
1. Technical faults may have caused the voltmeter to deliver an incorrect reading, increasing
the percentage error.
2. Parallax is defined as "the apparent displacement of an item caused by a shift in the
observer's point of view." A temperature value inaccuracy could have been caused by
parallax, which is a frequent human error while taking readings.
3. Improper procedure: It's possible that not turning off the voltmeter after 60 seconds caused
the water to overheat, resulting in an incorrect temperature reading.
4. There could have been a problem with the weight balance settings, or a zero error might be
present.
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Conclusion:
The experimental value of J is quite close to the standard value which shows the accuracy of the
experiment. The whole experiment was designed to show that the conservation of energy principle
holds good in all circumstances. This law states that one form of energy can be completely
converted to another form of energy. The results show that the electrical energy provided to water
is being completely converted to heat and the mechanical equivalent of heat turned out to be 4.14
J/Cal. As we increase W in the form of electrical energy, the heat production will linearly rise.