NTSE (STAGE-I & II)

CHEMISTRY
 PREFACE

Dear Student,

You find yourself at a very important junction in your life as you have to select a correct career
path for your future endeavors and also a suitable study material in this journey which can
keep you on the right track always. It is very important to enjoy this journey as it is long and can

be completed successfully only by making the most out of it.

Aptitude and inclination are clearly the deciding factors for any competitive examination.
Keeping this in view, content of this module has been prepared according to syllabus of
National Talent Search Examination (NTSE). The text of this module enables you to develop

thorough understanding of Principles and Concepts which is required to crack NTSE.

Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division

Every effort has been taken to make our study material error free, however any suggestion to
improve is welcome in this regard.
About NTSE :

National Talent Search Scheme is a flagship activity of the NCERT started in the year 1963. The
purpose of the scheme was to identify talented students and nurture their talent. Talent refers to the
potentiality that manifests itself in a high level of performance in one or more specialized areas.

The purpose of the scheme is to identify talented students and nurture them.This year NCERT will
conduct the National Talent Search Examination for students studying in Class X.

Stages :

There will be two stage selection process for award of scholarship Stage- I, selection will be done by
States/UTs through a written examination Students, who qualify Stage-I, will be eligible to appear for
Stage-II examination, conducted by NCERT. In order to be considered for merit, students from General
Category and Reserved Category (SC/ST/PH) required to qualify with score minimum 40% and
minimum 35% respectively in each MAT, SAT and LCT separately.

Scholarships :
On the basis of the examination conducted,1,000 scholarships will be awarded under the NTSE criteria
:-

 Rs. 1250 per month for Class 11th and 12th level
 Rs. 2000 per month for UG and PG level
 Amount for Phd to be fixed in accordance with UGC norms.

Reservation:
15% scholarships will be reserved for students belonging to the SC category, 7.5% scholarships for
students belonging to the ST category and 3% for Physically Challenged group of students .

How to Apply :
Students can enroll themselves for the examination through school only, application form can
be downloaded from NCERT website http://www.ncert.nic.in also The completed application
form should be signed by the Principal of the School & should be submitted to the Liaison
Officersl. Different states may have different last dates for submission, All queries related to
application form should be directed to the State Liaison Officers (LOs).No application should
be sent to NCERT directly.

Fees :
States and Union Territories may notify the fee required which will be paid for the Stage-I
examination Therefore, before submitting the application form, you may find out the fees
charged for Stage-I examination and also the mode of payment from the respective State
Liaison Officers (LOs) However, NCERT does not charge any fee for Stage-II examination
Paper Pattern:

Test Paper Pattern of NTSE Stage-1 & 2

Test No. of questions Max. Marks Time

MAT
(Mental Ability) 50 50 45 Min.
LCT
(Language Test) 50 50 45 Min.
SAT
(Scholastic Aptitude Test) 100 100 90 Min.
* No Negative Marking in Stage-1 but in stage-2 there will be 1/3 negative marking.

Syllabus :

There is no prescribed syllabus for the NTSE examination. However the standard of the items conforms to the
level of CBSE class 10th.

Results Announcement :
Results of the Stage-I examination will be announced by the respective State Governments/ Union Territories
Results of Stage-II examination will be announced by NCERT Indian Students Studying Abroad in class X can
appear directly for Stage-II NTS examination under conditions prescribed in the NTS brochure which is available
on the NCERT website.

Important Web Links :

Stage –I Examination : http:\\www.rajboard.nic.in

Stage-II Examination : http:\\www.ncert.nic.in

 DETAIL DESCRIPTION OF CONTENTS FOR VISTAAR-NTSE

1. MATTER
 Physical nature of matter , Characteristics of particles of matter , Diffusion, States of matter , Interconversion
of states of matter (Effect of temperature and pressure) , Evaporation , Fourth and Fifth states of matter,Pure
substances , Elements , Compounds , Mixtures, Solution, Concentration of solution (weight-weight and weight
volume ), Suspension, Colloidal Solution , Separation of components of a mixture (Evaporation, Centrifugation
, Separation by separating funnel, Sublimation , Chromatography (paper) , Simple distillation, Fractional
distillation) , Separation of components of air, Physical and chemical changes.

2. STRUCTURE OF ATOM
 Introduction, Dalton’s atomic theory, Fundamental particles of atom – Electron, Proton and Neutron (successive
discovery and characteristics) ; Atomic model : Thomson model, Rutherford’s gold foil experiment and conclusion,
Postulates of Neils Bohr (excluding mathematical interpretation); Bohr’s Model, Atomic structure, Types of
orbitals : s,p,d,f, Order of filling of electrons in orbitals, Electronic configuration of elements upto atomic number
1 – 30, Valence shell and valence electrons, Atomic number, Mass number, Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones,
Isoelectronic.

3. MOLE CONCEPT
 Atoms, Ions, Symbols, Laws of chemical combination - Law of conservation of mass , Law of constant proportion,
Law of multiple proportion, Law of reciprocal proportion, Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes, Avogadro’s
hypothesis , Atomic mass & gram atomic mass, Molecules (Molecules of elements, Molecules of compounds),
Ion, Chemical formula, Molecular mass and gram molecular mass, Formula unit mass, Mole concept, Methods
to calculate percentage composition of compounds, Concentration of Solutions (Strength in g/L, normality,
molarity, molality, formality, mole fraction). Stoichiometry and volumetric calculations, volumetric analysis, Theory
of indicators, Solubility.

4. CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

 General introduction of chemistry and chemical reactions, Characteristics of chemical reaction, Balanced and
unbalanced equations, Balancing of equations, Specialities of chemical equation, Limitations of chemical
equation and their rectification, Types of chemical equations - Combination, decomposition, displacement and
double displacement, Oxidation and reduction reactions, Effect of oxidation in our daily life - Combustion,
Respiration, Pollution, Corrosion and Rancidity, Flame, Combustion of a wax candle, Structure of candle flame,
Spherical flame, Fuels, Fire extinguisher.

5. PERIODIC TABLE & PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

 Introduction, Dobereiner’s Triads, Newlands law of octaves, Lother Meyer classification, Periodic Law,
Periodic Table, Merits & Demerits of Mendeleev periodic table, Modern periodic table & its merits and demerits,
Long form of periodic table, Characteristics of s, p, d, f block elements, Trends in different properties of elements
(Atomic volume, Melting & Boiling points, Atomic radius, Ionisation potential, Electronegativity, Electron affinity).

6. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

 Introduction of acids, Types of acids, Chemical properties of acids -reaction with metals, metal oxides, carbonates
and bicarbonates, Introduction of bases, Alkalies, Classification of bases, Chemical properties of bases,
Conducting nature of acids and bases, Role of water in ionisation of acids and bases, Dilution of acids and
bases, Indicators - Definition, Uses, Colour indicators - Litmus, Phenolphthalein, Methyl orange, Red cabbage
 juice, Turmeric juice, Neutralisation, pH, Applications of pH - in our digestive system, in tooth decay, in soil
treatment, in case of stings of ants and bees, Salts - Definition, Classification, Important salts - NaCl, Washing
soda - Introduction, Manufacturing, Washing soda - Properties, Uses, Baking soda - Introduction, Manufacturing,
Properties, Uses,Bleaching powder - Introduction, Manufacturing, Uses, Plaster of Paris- Introduction,
Manufacturing, properties and Uses, Hydrated salts.
7. CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
 Introduction of organic chemistry, vital force theory, Wohler's synthesis, Covalent bonding, Properties and
examples of covalent compounds, Allotropes of carbon definition, classification, Diamond - Introduction, Structure,
Properties, Uses, Graphite-Introduction, Structure, Properties, Fullerene - Properties, Uses, Versatile nature of
carbonclassification of organic compounds, Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, Closed chain compounds, Homologous
series, Nomenclature - Introduction, Alkanes, Nomenclature of Alkenes, Alkynes, Compounds containing
functional group. Isomerism, Methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties of alkanes, alkenes
and alkynes.Ethanol (some important terms, uses, harmful effects), Methanal : Methods of preparation, physical
and chemical properties, Acetone : Methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, Ethanoic acid-
Introduction, Uses, Tests, Soaps & Detergents - Introduction, Structure of soap, preparation of soap, limitations
of soap, Detergents - Structure, Preparation, comparison between soaps & detergents,Cleaning action of
soaps & detergents.

8. METALS AND NON-METALS

 Introduction of metals and non - metals, Position of metals and non - metals in the periodic table, Electronic
configuration of metals.Physical properties of metals, Physical properties of non -metals, Chemical properties
of metals, Reactivity series of metals, Chemical properties of non metals, octet rule, Ionic bond, Properties of
ionic compounds, Occurrence of metals, Minerals and ores, Types of ores, Introduction of metallurgy.Crushing
& grinding of ore, concentration of ore –Hydraulic washing, Froth flotation,Magnetic separation, Extraction of
metal from concentrated ore -Calcination, Roasting, Reduction of Metal oxide – By heating, Chemical reduction,
Electrolytic reduction, Refining of metals by liquation, distillation, Electrolytic Refining, Metallurgy of iron, Copper,
Aluminium, Important metal compounds NaOH, AgNO3 , AgBr, CuSO4.5H2O , Alum, Corrosion of metals, Alloys,
Amalgam

9. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
 Introduction, Classification of nuclei : On the basis of number of protons and neutrons and on the basis of
stability, Stability of nuclei with respect to proton-neutron ratio; magic numbers, Radioactivity, Groups displacement
law, Rate of radioactive decay, Characteristics of radioactive decay, Half life period, Average period, Isodiaphers,
Isosters, Nuclear isomers, Nuclear reactions, Applications of radioactivity and radioisotopes, Carbon dating,
Radioactive pollution.

10. COAL, PETROLEUM AND POLYMERS

 Natural Resources (Definition & Types), Fossil Fuels , Coal (Introduction, deposits, composition, formation,
destructive distillation, uses), Petroleum (Introduction, deposits, formation, fractional distillation of petroleum,
uses of petroleum products ),Natural gas , Conservation of fossil fuels, Polymers, Semi-synthetic and Synthetic
clothing materials, Advantages and Disadvant ages of synthetic fabrics, Plastics, Types of plastics, Rubber,
Freons.
 CHEMISTRY
NTSE (STAGE-I & II)

CONTENTS
S. NO. TOPICS PAGE NO.

1. Matter 1-22

2. Structure of atom 23-39

3. Mole concept 40-61

4. Chemical Reaction and Equation 62-77

5. Periodic Table 78-95

6. Acid Bases and Salt 96-110

7. Carbon and Its compounds 111-143

9. Metal & Non Metal 144-170

9. Nuclear Chemistry 171-182

10. Coal and Petroleum 183-193

11. ANSWER KEY 194-196

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material is strictly prohibited. This material belongs to only the enrolled student of RESONANCE.
Any sale/resale of this material is punishable under law.
 MATTER
INTRODUCTION
There are a large number of things around us which
we see and feel. For example, we can see a book in
front of us. A book occupies some space. The space
occupied by the book is called its volume. If we pick
up the book, we can also feel its weight. So, we
conclude that the book has some mass. We cannot
see the air around us, yet if we fill a balloon with air
and then weigh it carefully, we will find that not only
does air occupy space (bounded by the balloon), but
it also has mass.
Things like a book and air are examples of matter.
Other examples of matter are wood, cloth, paper, ice,
steel, water, oil etc. Further, that matter offers
resistance is borne out by the fact that we cannot
displace an object from one place to another without
applying some force. We have to apply force to pick
up a stone from the ground. Thus , matter can be
defined as follows -
Anything that occupies space, has mass and offers
resistance is called matter.
PHYSICAL NATURE OF MATTER
(a) Matter is Made up of Particles :
(i) Everything around us is made up of many tiny
pieces or particles.
(ii) Particles which make up the matter are constantly
moving.
(iii) Particles which make up matter are atoms or
molecules.
(i) Evidences for the presence of particles in matter :
Most of the evidences for the existence of particles in
matter and their motion come from the experiments
on diffusion and Brownian motion.
Evidence - 1
Dissolving a solid in a liquid : Take a beaker. Fill half
of it with water. Mark the level of water in the beaker.
Add some sugar to the water and dissolve it with the
help of a glass rod. You will see that the sugar has
disappeared, but there is no change in the level of
water.
Conclusion : This can be explained by assuming that
matter is not continuous, rather it is made up of
particles. Sugar contains a large number of separate
particles. These particles when dissolved in water
occupy the vacant spaces between the particles of
water. That is why, the water level in the beaker did
not rise. Had sugar been continuous, like a block of
wood, the water level in the beaker would have risen.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
Experiment to show that matter is made of particles
Evidence - 2
Movement of pollen grains in water : The best
evidence for the existence and movement of particles
in liquids was given by Robert Brown in 1827. Robert
Brown suspended extremely small pollen grains in
water. On looking through the microscope, it was
found that the pollen grains were moving rapidly
throughout water in a very irregular way (or zig-zag
way).
Conclusion : Water is made up of tiny particles which
are moving very fast (the water molecules themselves
are invisible under the microscope because they are
very, very small). The pollen grains move on the
surface of water because they are constantly being
hit by the fast moving particles of water. So, though
the water particles (or water molecules) are too small
to be seen, but their effect on the pollen grains can be
seen clearly. The random motion of visible particles
(pollen grains) caused by the much smaller invisible
particles of water is an example of Brownian motion
(after the name of the scientist Robert Brown who
first observed this phenomenon.)
Brownian motion : Zig-zag motion (in a very irregular
way) of particles is known as brownian motion.
Brownian motion can also be observed in gases.
Sometimes, when a beam of light enters in a room,
we can see tiny dust particles suspended in air which
are moving rapidly in a very random way. This is an
example of Brownian motion in gases. The tiny dust
particles move here and there because they are
constantly hit by the fast moving particles of air.
The existence of Brownian motion gives two
conclusions.
• Matter is made up of tiny particles.
• Particles of matter are constantly moving.
 Note :
Brownian motion increases on increasing the
temperature.
PAGE # 1
 (b) Characteristics of Particles of Matter :
The important characteristics of particles of matter
are the following :
(i) The particles of matter are very, very small.
(ii) The particles of matter have spaces between
them.
(iii) The particles of matter are constantly moving :
This property can be explained by diffusion.
(A) Diffusion :“Intermixing of particles of two different
types of matter on their own is called diffusion.” t is
the phenomenon in which the movement of
molecules or particles occur from their higher
concentration towards their lower concentration.
e.g. : When a perfume bottle is opened in one corner
of a room, its fragrance spreads in the whole room
quickly. This happens because the particles of
perfume move rapidly in all directions and mix with
the moving particles of air in the room.
(A) Experiment : We take a gas jar full of bromine
vapours and invert another gas jar containinig air over
it, then after some time, the red-brown vapours of
bromine spread out into the upper gas jar containing
air.
(B) Conclusion : In this way, the upper gas jar which
contains colourless air in it, also turns red-brown.
The mixing is due to the diffusion of bromine vapours
(or bromine gas) into air.
 Note :
 Note :
The particles of matter possess kinetic energy and
so are constantly moving. As the temperature rises,
particles move faster.
(iv) Particles of matter attract each other : There
are some forces of attraction between the particles of
matter which bind them together.
(A) Cohesive Force : The force of attraction between
the particles of same substances is called cohesive
force.
(B) Adhesive Force : The force of attraction between
the particles of different substances is called
adhesive force.
e.g. : If we take a piece of chalk, a cube of ice and an
iron nail and beat them with a hammer, chalk will
easily break into smaller pieces, but more force will
be required to break a cube of ice and iron nail will
not break.
Reason : The reason for this is, that the force of
attraction is quite weak in between the chalk particles,
but force of attraction in between the particles of ice
cube is a bit stronger, while force of attraction in
between the particles of iron is very-very strong.
RIGID AND FLUID
(i) Rigid : Rigid means unbending or inflexible. A solid
is a rigid form of matter so that it maintains its shape
when subjected to outside force.
(ii) Fluids : Fluids are the substances which have
tendency to flow. A liquid is a fluid form of matter
which occupies the space of the container. Liquids
have a well defined surface. A gas is a fluid form of
matter which fills the whole container in which it is
kept.
Liquids and gases are known as fluids.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

On the basis of physical states, all matter can be

classified into three groups:-
Diffusion of bromine vapour into air (a) Solids (b) Liquids (c) Gases
COMPARISON OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THREE STATES OF MATTER

Property Solid state Liquid state Gaseous state

Comparatively large
Interparticle spaces Very small spaces Very large spaces
spaces than solids
Interparticle forces Very strong Weak Very weak

Nature Very hard and rigid Fluid Highly fluid

Compressibility Negligible Very small Highly compressible.

Definite shape and Indefinite shape, but Indefinite shape as
Shape and volume
volume definite volume well as volume
Density High Less than solid state Very low density
Kinetic Comparatively high
Low Very high
energy than solids
Diffusion Negligible Slow Very fast

PAGE # 2
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Gases are Highly Compressible therefore :
(i) LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is used in our home
for cooking.
(ii) Oxygen cylinders supplied to hospitals contain
liquid oxygen.
(iii) These days C.N.G. (Compressed Natural Gas) is
used as fuel in vehicles.
 Note :
Gaseous particles move randomly at high speed and
hit each other and also walls of the container, so exert
pressure.
INTERCONVERSION OF STATES OF MATTER
The phenomenon of change of matter from one state
to another state and back to original state, by altering
the conditions of temperature and pressure, is called
interconversion of states of matter.
The various states of matter can be interchanged into
one another by altering the conditions of -
(a) Temperature (b) Pressure.
(a) Altering the Temperature of Matter :
(i) Interconversion of solid into liquid and vice versa :
Solids can be converted into liquids by heating them.
Similarly liquids can be cooled to form solids.
e.g. :ce at 00C changes into water at 00C, when heat
energy is supplied to it. The water at 0 0C changes
into ice at 00C on freezing.
Activity -
To study the change of state from ice to water.
Materials required -
A 100 cc beaker, a thermometer (Celsius), a glass
stirrer, a wire gauze, a tripod stand, a Bunsen burner,
an iron stand, ice cubes.
Method -
Half fill the beaker with ice cubes and place it over a
wire gauze and tripod stand. Suspend a Celsius
thermometer from the iron stand, such that its bulb is
touching the water level. Place a glass stirrer in the
ice.
Record the temperature of ice. You will find it is 00 C
(273 K). Now heat the beaker on a low bunsen flame
and continuously stir the contents of beaker. Record
the temperature five to six times, till all the ice melts.
You will observe that temperature throughout remains
00C (273 K), till all the ice melts.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
Change of state from ice to water
(A) Melting or Fusion: The process due to which a
solid changes into liquid state by absorbing heat
energy is called melting or fusion.
(B) Freezing or Solidification: The process due to
which a liquid changes into solid state by giving out
heat energy is called freezing or solidification.
(C) Melting Point: The constant temperature at which
a solid changes into liquid state by absorbing heat
energy at 1 atm pressure is called its melting point.
(D) Freezing Point: The constant temperature at which
a liquid changes into solid state by giving out heat
energy at 1 atm pressure is called freezing point.
 Note :
The numerical value of freezing point and melting
point is same.
Melting point of ice = Freezing point of water = 0ºC
(273.16 K).
Explanation: On increasing the temperature of solids,
the kinetic energy (K.E.) of particles increases. Due
to increase in K.E., the particles start vibrating with
greater speed. The energy supplied by heat
overcomes the force of attraction between the
particles. Then, the particles leave their fixed positions
and start moving freely and thus solid melts.
Latent Heat of Fusion : The amount of heat energy
that is required to change 1 kg of solid into liquid at
atmospheric pressure and at its melting point is
known as the latent heat of fusion. (In Greek Latent
means Hidden) Latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.34 ×
105 J/kg.
 Note :
Particles of water at 00C (273 K) have more energy as
compared to particles in ice at the same temperature.
(ii) Interconversion of liquid into gaseous state and
vice versa: Liquids can be converted into gases by
heating them. Similarly, gases can be converted into
liquids by cooling them.
e.g. : Water at 1 atm pressure changes into vapours
(steam) at 1000C by absorbing heat. Steam at 1000C
changes into water by giving out energy.
PAGE # 3
 Activity -
To study the change of state from water to steam.
Materials required -
A 100 cc beaker, a thermometer (Celsius), a glass
stirrer, a wire gauze, a tripod stand, a Bunsen burner,
an iron stand, tap water.
Method -
Half fill the beaker with water and place it over a wire
gauze and tripod stand. Suspend a Celsius
thermometer from the iron stand, such that its bulb is
touching the water level. Place a glass stirrer in the
water.
Record the temperature of water. Heat the beaker on
a low Bunsen flame and continuously stir the water
with glass stirrer. Go on recording the temperature till
water starts boiling. Allow the water to boil for few
minutes and record its temperature.
You will notice that temperature of water rises till it
starts boiling. The temperature of boiling water is 1000C
(373 K). If we continue heating the water it changes
into steam, but the temperature remains constant, i.e.,
1000C (373 K).
Change of state from water to steam
(A) Boiling or Vaporisation: The process due to which
a liquid changes into gaseous state by absorbing
heat energy is called boiling.
(B) Condensation or Liquefaction: The process due
to which a gas changes into liquid state by giving out
heat energy is called condensation.
(C) Boiling Point: The constant temperature at which
a liquid rapidly changes into gaseous state by
absorbing heat energy at atmospheric pressure is
called boiling point.
(D) Condensation Point:- The constant temperature
at which a gas changes into liquid state by giving out
heat energy at atmospheric pressure is called
condensation point.
 Note :
The numerical value of condensation point and
boiling point is same.
Condensation point of water vapour = Boiling point
of water = 100ºC (373.16 K).
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
Explanation : When heat is supplied to water, particles
start moving faster. At a certain temperature, a point
is reached when the particles have enough energy to
break the forces of attraction between the particles. At
this temperature the liquid starts changing into gas.
Latent heat of vaporisation: The amount of heat which
is required to convert 1 kg of the liquid (at its boiling
point) to vapour without any change in temperature.
Latent heat of vaporisation of water = 22.5 × 105 J/kg.
 Note :
Particles in steam, that is water vapour at 373 K have
more energy than water at the same temperature.
Because steam has absorbed extra energy in the
form of latent heat of vaporisation.
We can show the change of temperature with time in
the form of a temperature-time graph drawn by using
the readings obtained in the above experiment. Such
a temperature-time graph is shown in figure.
Temperature Time Graph
W e can understand the above graph by taking an
example of water.In this graph at point A, we have all
ice. As we heat it, the ice starts melting to form water
but the temperature of ice and water mixture does not
rise. It remains constant at 0°C during the melting of
ice. At point B, all the ice has melted to form water.
Thus, we have only water at point B. Now, on heating
beyond point B, the temperature of water (formed from
ice) starts rising as shown by the sloping line BC in
the graph. When the temperature of water reaches
its boiling point i.e; 100°C, water starts converting
into steam. But during the process of boiling, tem-
perature does not rise and thus constant tempera-
ture is observed (line CD). At point D all the water has
boiled to form steam. Thus, we have only steam at
point D. Now on heating beyond point D, the tem-
perature of steam rises as shown by the sloping line
DE.
(iii) Direct interconversion of solid into gaseous state
and vice versa: The changing of solid directly into
vapours on heating and of vapours directly into solid
on cooling is known as sublimation.
• The solid which undergoes sublimation to form
vapour is called ‘sublime’.
• The solid obtained by cooling the vapours of a solid
is called ‘sublimate’.
PAGE # 4
 e.g. : Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl), iodine, camphor,
naphthalene (moth balls) and anthracene.
Liquid
n Fr Me
atio ion ee ltin
t
oris sa zin g
a p en g W ater changes into vapours below 100 0C. The
V on d
C
Sublimation
Gas Solid
Sublimation
Interconversion of states of matter
Specific Heat
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of
heat which is required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of the substance by 1º C. Now, if we
measure the heat in “joules” and mass in “kilograms”,
then the definition of specific heat becomes.
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of
heat in joules required to raise the temperature of
1 kilogram of the substance by 1ºC.
The specific heat of a substance is usually
represented by the symbol C (Sometimes, however,
the specific heat of a substance is also represented
by the letter ‘S’). The specific heat of a substance
varies slightly with temperature. The change in the
specific heat of a substance with temperature is due
to the changes which occur in the structure and
organization of the molecules in a substance with
change in temperature.
Units of Specific Heat
The unit of specific heat depends on the units in which
“heat” and “mass” are measured. Now, the S.I. unit of
heat is “joule” and that of mass is “kilogram”, so, the
S.I. unit of specific heat is “joules per kilogram per
degree celcius”, which is written in short form as :
J/kg°C or J kg–1 °C–1.
The difference in various states of matter is due to
the different intermolecular spaces between their
particles. So when a gas is compressed the
intermolecular space between its particles decreases
and ultimately it will be converted into liquid.
Pressure and temperature determine the state of a
substance. So, high pressure and low temperature
can liquefy gases.
e.g. : Carbon dioxide (CO 2) is a gas under normal
conditions of temperature and pressure. It can be
liquefied by compressing it to a pressure 70 times
more than atmospheric pressure.
Solid CO2 is known as ‘Dry ice’. Solid CO2 is extremely
cold and used to ‘deep freeze’ food and to keep ice-
cream cold.
Unit of pressure :
Atmosphere (atm) is a unit for measuring pressure
exerted by a gas.
The S. unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa.)
1 atm = 1.01 × 105 Pa.
 Note :
When pressure is lowered the boiling point of liquid is
lowered. This helps in rapid change of liquid into gas.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
EVAPORATION
The phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapours
at any temperature below its boiling point is called
evaporation.
particles of matter are always moving and are never
at rest. At a given temperature in any gas, liquid or
solid, there are particles with different K.E.
In case of liquids, a small fraction of particles at the
surface, having higher K.E., is able to break the forces
of attraction of other particles and gets converted into
vapour.
 Note :
The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atm.
(a) Factors Affecting Evaporation:
(i) Temperature: With the increase in temperature the
rate of evaporation increases.
Rate of evaporation  T
Reason : On increasing temperature more number
of particles get enough K.E. to go into the vapour state.
(ii) Surface Area : Rate of evaporation  Surface area
Since evaporation is a surface phenomena, if the
surface area is increased, the rate of evaporation
increases. So, while putting clothes for drying up we
spread them out.
1
(iii) Humidity of Air : Rate of evaporation 
Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in air.
When humidity of air is low, the rate of evaporation is
high and water evaporates more readily. W hen
humidity of air is high, the rate of evaporation is low
and water evaporates very slowly.
(iv) Wind Speed : Rate of evaporation  Wind speed
With the increase in wind speed, the particles of water
vapour move away with the wind. So the amount of
water vapour decreases in the surroundings.
(v) Nature of substance : Substances with high
boiling points will evaporate slowly, while substances
with low boiling points will evaporate quickly.
Differences between evaporation and boiling
Evaporation Boiling
It is a surface
It is a bulk phenomenon.
phenomenon.
It occurs at all
It occurs at B.P. only.
temperatures below B.P.
The rate of evaporation The rate of boiling does
depends upon the surface not depend upon the
area of the liquid, humidity surface area, wind speed,
temperature & wind speed and humidity.
(b) Cooling Cause d by Evaporation:
The cooling caused by evaporation is based on the
fact that when a liquid evaporates, it draws (or takes)
the latent heat of vaporisation from ‘anything’ which
it touches.
For example :
• f we put a little of spirit, ether or petrol on the palm of
our hand then our hand feels very cold.
• Perspiration (or sweating) is our body’s method of
maintaining a constant temperature.
PAGE # 5
 (c) We Wear Cotton Clothes in Summer :
BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE (B.E.C.)
During summer, we perspire more because of the
mechanism of our body which keeps us cool. During
The B.E.C. is formed by cooling a gas of extremely
evaporation, the particles at the surface of liquid gain
low density, about one-hundred-thousandth the
energy from the surroundings or body surface.
The heat energy equal to latent heat of vaporisation, density of normal air, to super low temperature.
is absorbed from the body, leaving the body cool. Substance : A substance is a kind of matter that cannot
Cotton, being a good absorber of water helps in
be separated into other kinds of matter by any physical
absorbing the sweat.
process. For example, sugar dissolved in water can
(d) Water droplets on the outer surface of
a glass containing ice cold water : be separated from water by simply evaporating the
water but it cannot be broken into its components by
If we keep some ice cold water in a glass then we will
observe water droplets on the outer surface of glass any physical process so here sugar is a substance.
after sometime.
PURE SUBSTANCE
Reason : The water vapour present in air on coming
in contact with glass of cold water, loses energy. So
A homogeneous material which contains particles of
water vapour gets converted to liquid state, which we
only one kind and has a definite set of properties is
see as water droplets.
called a pure substance.
PLASMA Examples : Iron, silver, oxygen, sulphur, carbon dioxide
etc., are pure substances because each of them has
This state consists of super energetic and super
only one kind of particles.
excited particles. These particles are in the form of
ionised gases. (a) Characteristics of A Pure Substance :
For eg: Neon sign bulb and fluorescent tube
(i) A pure substance is homogeneous in nature.
Neon sign bulb – Neon gas
Fluorescent tube – Helium gas (ii) A pure substance has a definite set of properties.
W hen electrical energy flows through gas, it gets These properties are different from the properties of
ionised and hence plasma is created. other substances.
Plasma glows with a special colour depending on
nature of gas. Sun and the stars glow because of the (iii) The composition of a pure substance cannot be
presence of plasma. altered by any physical means.
Matter

Pure substances Mixtures

Only one type of particles More than one type of
are present ( no impurities) particles are present

Elements Compounds Homogeneous

mixtures
(true solutions)

• Eleven elements exist as gases at room

(b) Elements :
temperature. They are hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,
A pure substance, which cannot be subdivided into
fluorine, chlorine, helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon
two or more simpler substances by any physical or
and radon.
chemical means is called an element.
(i) Examples : Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, copper, • Remaining elements are solids at room
zinc, tin, lead, mercury, etc. are all elements as they temperature.
cannot be subdivided into simpler parts by any
(B) Elements can be classified as metals and
physical or chemical means. A substance made up
non-metals. There are 22 non-metals and the rest
of the atoms with same atomic number is called an
aremetals.
element.
• Amongst the metals, only mercury is a liquid metal.
(ii) Classification of elements : All other metals are solids.
(A) On the basis of physical states, all elements can • Amongst the 22 non-metals : 10 non-metals are
be classified into three groups:- solids. They are boron, carbon, silicon, phosphorus,
(1) Solids (2) Liquids (3) Gases sulphur, selenium, arsenic, tellurium, iodine and
astatine. 1 non-metal, bromine, is a liquid. Five non-
It has been found that : metals, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and
• Two elements exist as liquids at room temperature. chlorine are chemically active gases. Six non-metals,
They are mercury and bromine. helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon are
chemically inactive gases. These are also called
noble gases, inert gases or rare gases.

PAGE # 6
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 METALLOIDS :
Their properties are intermediate between the
There are a few elements which show some
properties of metals and non-metals. Metalloids are
properties of metals and other properties of non-
also sometimes called semi-metals. The important
metals. For example they look like metals but they
examples of metalloids are : Boron (B), Silicon (Si),
are brittle like non-metals. They are neither
Germanium (Ge), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb),
conductors of electricity like metals nor insulators like
Tellurium (Te) Polonium (Po) and Astatine (At).
non-metals, they are semiconductors. The elements
which show some properties of metals and some  Note :
other properties of non-metals are called metalloids. Hydrogen is the lightest element.

(C) Elements can be classified as normal elements and radioactive elements. The elements which do not give out
harmful radiations are called normal elements. Elements from atomic number 1 to atomic number 82 are normal
elements. The elements which give out harmful radiations are called radioactive elements. Elements from atomic
number 83 to atomic number 112 and 114, 116 and 118 are radioactive in nature.

PAGE # 7
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (c) Compounds :
A pure substance, which is composed of two or more
different elements, combined chemically in a definite
ratio by mass, such that it can be broken into elements
only by chemical means is called compound.
The two or more elements present in a compound
are called constituents or components of the
compound. For example, water is a compound of
hydrogen and oxygen, combined together in the ratio
of 1 : 8 by weight. W ater can be broken into its
constituents only by electro-chemical method, i.e., by
passing electric current through it.
TYPES OF COMPOUNDS
(A) On the basis of constitutent elements :
(i) Inorganic compounds
These compounds have been mostly obtained from
non-living sources such as rocks and minerals. A
few examples of inorganic compounds are : common
salt, marble, washing soda, baking soda, carbon
dioxide, ammonia, sulphuric acid etc.
(ii) Organic compounds
The word ‘organ’ relates to different organs of living
beings. Therefore, organic compounds are the
compounds which are obtained from living beings
i.e., plants and animals. It has been found that all the
organic compounds contain carbon as their essential
constituent. Therefore, the organic compounds are
quite often known as ‘carbon compounds’. A few
common examples of organic compounds are :
methane, ethane, propane (all constituents of cooking
gas), alcohol, acetic acid, sugar, proteins, oils, fats
etc.
(B) On the basis of their properties :
(i) Acids : Compounds which give hydronium ion in
aqueous solution for e.g. hydrochloric acid, sulphuric
acid, nitric acid, formic acid etc.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(ii) Bases : Compounds which give hydroxide ion in
aqueous solution for e.g.Sodium hydroxide,
Potassium hydroxide etc.
(iii) Salts : It is formed by the chemical reaction
between acids and bases for e.g. ammonium
chloride, zinc sulphate etc.
MIXTURES
Most of the materials around us are not pure
substances, but contain more than one substances,
elements or compounds. Such materials are called
mixtures.
(a) Definition :
W hen two or more substances (elements,
compounds or both) are mixed together in any
proportion, such that they do not undergo any
chemical change, but retain their individual
characteristics, the resulting product is called a
mixture.
(b) Types of Mixture :
(i) Homogeneous Mixture : A mixture in which different
constituents are mixed uniformly is called a
homogeneous mixture.
Examples : All solutions, such as solutions of
common salt, copper sulphate, sugar etc. are
examples of homogeneous mixtures. Similarly, alloys
such as brass, bronze etc. are homogeneous solid
solutions of metals and air is homogenous mixture
of gases.
(ii) Heterogeneous Mixture : A mixture in which
different constituents are not mixed uniformly is called
a heterogeneous mixture.
Examples : A mixture of sand and salt, iron powder
and sulphur powder, soil etc. are examples of
heterogeneous mixtures.
PAGE # 8

TRUE SOLUTIONS
A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
is called a solution. Usually we think of a solution as
a liquid that contains either a solid or a liquid or a gas
dissolved in it. However, this is not true. We can also
have a solid solution and gaseous solution as in the
case of alloys and air respectively.
(a) Components of a Solution :
The substances present in a homogeneous solution
are called components of the solution. A solution
basically has two components, i.e., a solvent and a
solute.
(i) Solvent : The component of a solution which is
present in large proportion is called solvent.
 Note :
Usually, a solvent is the LARGER component of the
solution.
For example : In the solution of copper sulphate in
water, water is the solvent. Similarly, in paints,
turpentine oil is the solvent.
(ii) Solute : The component of the solution which is
present in small proportion is called solute.
For example: In the solution of common salt in water,
the common salt is solute. Similarly, in carbonated
drinks (soda water), carbon dioxide gas is the solute.
 Note :
Usually, solute is the SMALLER component of the
solution.
(b) Characteristics of a True Solution :
(i) A true solution is always clear and transparent, i.e.,
light can easily pass through it without scattering.
(ii) The particles of a solute break down to almost
molecular size and their diameter is of the order of 1
nm (10–9 m) or less.
(iii) A true solution can completely pass through a
filter paper as particle size of solute is far smaller
than the size of pores of filter paper.
(iv) A true solution is homogeneous in nature.
(v) In a true solution, the particles of solute do not
settle down, provided temperature is constant.
(vi) From a true solution, the solute can easily be
recovered by evaporation or crystallisation.
(c) Types of Solution:
(A) On the basis of concentration :
(i) Saturated solution : A solution, which at a given
temperature dissolves as much solute as it is capable
of dissolving, is said to be a saturated solution.
(ii) Unsaturated solution : When the amount of solute
contained in a solution is less than the saturation level,
the solution is said to be an unsaturated solution.
(iii) Super saturated solution : A solution, which
contains more of the solute than required to make a
saturated solution, is called a super saturated solution.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(B) On the basis of solvent :
(i) Aqueous Solutions : The solutions obtained by
dissolving various substances in water are called
aqueous solutions.
The common examples are :
(i) Common salt dissolved in water.
(ii) Sugar dissolved in water.
(iii) Acetic acid disssolved in water etc.
(ii) Non-Aqueous Solutions : The solutions obtained
by dissolving the substances in liquids other than
water are called non-aqueous solutions. The
common non-aqueous solvents are alcohol, carbon
disulphide, carbon tetrachloride, acetone, benzene
etc. Examples of non-aqueous solutions are :
(i) Iodine dissolved in carbon tetrachloride.
(ii) Sulphur dissolved in carbon disulphide.
(iii) Sugar dissolved in alcohol etc.
(C) On the basis of physical state of solute and
solvent :
(i) Solid-Solid solutions : All alloys are solid solutions
of metals. Brass is a solid solution of approximately
30% of zinc and 70% of copper. In this solid solution,
copper (larger component) is solvent and zinc
(smaller component) is solute. Similarly, Bell Metal
is a solid solution of 80% of copper and 20% of tin, in
which copper is the solvent and tin is the solute.
(ii) Solid-Liquid solutions : Sugar solution is an
example, in which sugar is the solute and water is
the solvent. Similarly, common salt solution is an
example, in which common salt is the solute and
water is the solvent. In case of tincture of iodine,
iodine is the solute and ethyl alcohol is the solvent.
(iii) Liquid-Liquid solutions : In case of an alcoholic
drink, ethyl alcohol is solute and water is solvent.
Similarly, in case of vinegar, acetic acid is solute and
water is solvent.
(iv) Gas-Liquid solutions : In case of aerated drinks
(soda water), carbon dioxide is the solute and water
is the solvent.
(v) Gas-Gas solutions : Air is a homogeneous mixture
of two main gases, i.e., 78% of nitrogen and 21% of
oxygen. In this mixture, nitrogen is solvent and oxygen
is solute. Similarly, the petrol fed into the engines of
automobiles is a mixture of petrol vapour and air.
(d) Concentration of a Solution :
It is defined as the amount of solute present in a
given quantity of the solution. The most common
method for expressing the concentration of a solution
is called percentage method. The concentration of
solution refers to the percentage of solute present in
the solution. Furthermore, the percentage of solute
can be expressed in terms of :
(i) mass of the solute (ii) volume of the solute.
(i) Concentration of a solution in terms of mass
percentage of solute : If a solution is formed by
dissolving a solid solute in a liquid solvent then the
concentration of solution is expressed in terms of
mass percentage of solute and is defined as under :
The concentration of solution is the mass of the solute
in grams, which is present in 100 g of a solution.
PAGE # 9
 Note :
It is very important to keep in mind that the percentage
concentration of a solution refers to mass of solute in Sol. This solution contains a liquid solute (alcohol) mixed
100 g of solution and not 100 g of solvent, i.e., water.
The concentration of a solution in terms of mass
percentage of solute is calculated by the formula given
below :
Concentration of solution
Mass of solute (in grams)
=  100
Mass of solution (in grams)
Mass of solute (in grams)
 100
[Mass of solute  Mass of solvent ](in grams)
(ii) Concentration of a solution in terms of volume
percentage of solute : If a solution is formed by
dissolving a liquid solute in a liquid solvent, then the
concentration of the solution is expressed in terms of
volume percentage of solute. The concentration of a 4.
solution is the volume of the solute in milliliters, which
is present in 100 milliliters of a solution.
Sol. Concentration of solution =
 Note :
It is very important to keep in mind that the percentage
concentration of solution refers to volume of solute in
100 ml of solution and not 100 ml of solvent, i.e.,
water.
The concentration of a solution in terms of volume
percentage of the solute is calculated by the formula
given below :
Concentration of solution =
Volume of solute (in ml)
 100
Volume of solution (in ml)
Volume of solute (in ml)
=  100
[Volume of solute  Volume of solvent] (in ml)
 Note :
The concentration of a solution is a pure percentage
number and has NO UNITS.
(c) Examples :
1. What is the meaning of 15% solution of NaCl ?
Sol. 15% solution of NaCl is a solution 100 g of which
contains 15 g of NaCl and 85 g of water.
2. Calculate the amount of glucose required to prepare
250 g of 5% solution of glucose by mass.
Mass of solute
Sol. % of solute = × 100
Mass of solution
3. A solution contains 50 mL of alcohol mixed with 150
mL of water. Calculate concentration of this solution.
with a liquid solvent (water), so we have to calculate
the concentration of this solution in terms of volume
percentage of solute (alcohol). Now, we know that :
Volume of solute
Concentration of solution = × 100
Volume of solution
Here, Volume of solute (alcohol) = 50 mL
And. Volume of solvent (water) = 150 mL
So, Volume of solution = Volume of solute + Volume
of solvent
= 50 + 150 = 200 mL
Now, putting these values of ‘volume of solute’ and
‘volume of solution’ in the above formula we get :
50 50
Concentration of solution = × 100 =
200 2
= 25 percent (by volume)
Thus, the concentration of this alcohol solution is 25
percent.
How much water should be added to 16 ml acetone
to make its concentration 48% ?
Vol. of solute
× 100
Vol. of solution
16 16
× 100 = 48 x = × 100 = 33.33 ml
x 48
Volume of solvent =33.33 – 16 = 17.33 ml.
SUSPENSIONS
A heterogeneous mixture of insoluble particles of
solute, spread throughout a solvent, is called a
suspension. The particle size (diameter) in a
suspension is more than 10–5 cm. The particles have
a tendency to settle down at the bottom of the vessel
and can be filtered out, because their size is bigger
than the size of the pores of the filter paper.
(a) Examples :
(i) Muddy water, in which particles of sand and clay
are suspended in water.
(ii) Slaked lime suspension used for white-washing
has particles of slaked lime suspended in water.
(iii) Paints in which the particles of dyes are suspended
in turpentine oil.
(b) Characteristic s of Suspensions :
(i) The size of particles is more than 10 –5 cm in
diameter.
(ii) The particles of suspension can be separated
from solvent by the process of filtration.
(iii) The particles of suspension settle down, when
the suspension is kept undisturbed.

Mass of solute (iv) A suspension is heterogeneous in nature.

5 = × 100
250 (v) More scattering takes place in suspensions,
because of bigger size of particles.
5  250 125
Mass of solute = = = 12.5 g  Note :
100 10
The process of settling of suspended particles under
the action of gravity is called sedimentation.

PAGE # 10
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division

A heterogeneous solution in which the particle size is
in between 10–7 cm to 10–5 cm, such that the solute
particles neither dissolve nor settle down in a solvent
is called colloidal solution.
In a colloidal solution, relatively large suspended
particles are called dispersed phase and the solvent
in which the colloidal particles are suspended is
called continuous phase or dispersing medium.
(a) Examples of Colloidal Solutions :
Few examples of colloidal solutions are as follows :
• blood • Milk • Writing ink
• Jelly • Starch solution • Gum solution
• Tooth paste• Soap solution • Liquid detergents
• Mist and fog.
(b) Characteristics of Colloidal Solutions :
(i) The size of colloidal particles is in between 10 –7
cm to 10–5 cm.
(ii) The particles of a colloidal solution are visible
under a powerful microscope.
(iii) The particles of a colloidal solution do not settle
down with the passage of time.
(iv) The particles of a colloidal solution can easily
pass through filter paper.
(v) The colloidal solutions are heterogeneous in
nature.
(vi) Colloidal solutions are not transparent, but
translucent in nature.
(vii) The particles of a colloidal solution scatter light,
i.e., when strong beam of light is passed through the
colloidal solution, the path of beam becomes visible.
Scattering of Light (Tyndall Effect)
If a beam of light is passed through pure water or a
salt solution, the path of light is visible but when a
strong beam of light is passed through a colloidal
solution and viewed at right angles with the help of a
microscope, the path of light shows up a bright cone
of bluish light.
Tyndall effect shown by colloid in a beaker
This luminosity of path of beam is known as Tyndall
effect and the illuminated path is known as Tyndall
cone. (Tyndall being the name of the scientist who
studied this phenomenon first).
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
Tyndall effect is caused due to the scattering of light
by the colloidal particles. The true solutions do not
scatter light and hence do not show Tyndall effect.
Tyndall effect can be seen when a fine beam of light
enters in a room through a small hole. This happens
due to scattering of light particles of dust and smoke
in the air of the room.
Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes
through a dense forest. In the forest, fog contains tiny
droplets of water which act as particles of colloid
dispersed in air.
(viii) The particles of a colloidal solution are electrically
charged.
Electrophoresis
The collodial solutions contain either positively or
negatively charged particles and, therefore, when an
electric current is passed through them, the particles
move towards either of the oppositely charged
electrodes. Subsequently, they get discharged on the
electrodes and precipitate out. For example, when a
negatively charged As2S 3 solution is taken in a U-
tube into which Platinum electrodes, connected to a
source of E.M.F. are dipped, the colloidal particles
move towards the positive electrode .
The migration of colloidal particles under the influence
of an electric field is known as electrophoresis.
Electrophoresis showing migration of colloidal
particles
(c) Classification of Colloids :
The colloids are classified according to the state of
dispersed phase (solid, liquid or gas) and the state
of dispersing medium. A few common examples are
shown in the table :
 Note :
Colloidal solutions can be separated by the process
of CENTRIFUGATION.
PAGE # 11
 S.No. Property True solution Colloidal solution Suspension
1 Nature Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous
2 Particle size Diameter less than 1 nm Diameter between Diameter more than
(or 10Å) or 10-7 cm 1-100 nm (or 10-1000Å) or 100 nm (or 1000Å)
10 -7 to 10 -5 cm or 10-5 cm.
3 Filtrability Passes through an Passes through Do not pass through
ordinary filter paper ordinary filter paper filter paper or animal
as well as animal or but not through animal or vegetable
vegetable membranes or vegetable membranes membranes
4 Visibility Particles are completely Particles themselves are Particles visible to
invisible invisible but their presence can the naked eye or
be detected by ultramicroscope under a microscope
since they scatter light.
5 Diffusion Diffuse rapidly Diffuse slowly Do not diffuse
6 Tyndall effect Not shown Shown May be shown
7 Appearance of Clear and transparent Generally clear and transparent Opaque
solution

SEPARATION OF Solid-Solid Mixture Sublimable Solid

HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES
Common salt and Ammonium chloride
Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their ammonium chloride
respective components by simple physical methods
such as handpicking, sieving, filtration. Sand and iodine Iodine

Generally following physical properties are considered Common salt and iodine Iodine
in the separation of the constituents of a mixture.
Sodium sulphate and Benzoic acid
(i) Densities of the constituents of the mixture. benzoic acid
(ii) Melting points and boiling points of the constituents
Iron filings and naphthalene Naphthalene
of the mixture.
(iii) Property of volatility of one or more constituents of
(ii) Method :
the mixture.
• Place the mixture of common salt and ammonium
(iv) Solubility of the constituents of the mixture in
chloride in a china dish and heat it over a low Bunsen
different solvents.
flame.
(v) Ability of the constituents of the mixture to sublime.
• Place a clean glass funnel in an inverted position in
(vi) Ability of the constituents of the mixture to diffuse. the china dish and close the mouth of its stem with
 Note : cotton wool.
However, for separating homogeneous mixtures • The ammonium chloride in the mixture sublimes to
special techniques are employed depending upon form dense white fumes. These fumes condense on
the difference in one or more physical properties of the cooler sides of the funnel in the form of fine white
the constituents of the mixture. powder.
• When the mixture gives off no more white fumes, lift
TECHNIQUES USED FOR SEPARATING the funnel, scrap the fine white powder from its sides
THE COMPONENTS OF A MIXTURE on a piece of paper. This is pure ammonium chloride.
The residue left behind in the funnel is sodium
(A) Separation of mixture of two solids : chloride.
(a) By Sublimation:
The changing of solid directly into vapours on heating
and of vapours into directly solid on cooling is known
as sublimation.
(i) Separation of a mixture of common salt and
ammonium chloride :This method is used in the
separation of such solid-solid mixtures where one of
the components sublimes on heating. However, it is
useful only if the components of the mixture do not
react chemically on heating. The table shows the list
of mixtures which can be separated by the process
of sublimation.
Separation by sublimation

PAGE # 12
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Note :
To Separate a Mixture of Sugar and Sand
Dry ice (solid CO2), Naphthalene, Anthracene, Iodine
Sugar is soluble in water whereas sand is insoluble
etc. are sublimable solids.
in water. This difference in the solubilities of sugar
(b) By Using a Suitable Solvent and sand in water is used to separate them. This is
In some cases, one constituent of a mixture is soluble done as follows. The mixture of sugar and sand is
in a particular liquid solvent whereas the other taken in a beaker and water is added to it. The mixture
constituent is insoluble in it. This difference in the is stirred to dissolve the sugar . The sand remains
solubilities of the constituents of a mixture can be undissolved.
used to separate them. For example, sugar is soluble
in water whereas sand is insoluble in it, so a mixture
of sugar and sand can be separated by using water
as solvent. This will become more clear from the
following discussion.

Separation of sugar and sand mixture The sugar

solution containing sand is filtered by pouring over a
filter paper kept in a funnel. Sand remains as a residue
on the filter paper and sugar solution is obtained as
a filtrate in the beaker kept below the funnel. The sugar
solution is evaporated carefully to get the crystals of
sugar. In this way, a mixture of sugar and sand has
been separated by using water as the solvent.
(B) Separation of mixture of a solid and a liquid : (b) By Centrifugation
The method of separating finely suspended or
(a) By Evaporation : colloidal particles in a liquid, by whirling the liquid at
a very high speed is called centrifugation.
(i) Separation of coloured component (dye) from (i) Principle of centrifugation : It is based on the
blue ink : The process of evaporation is suitable for principle that when a very fine suspension or a
the separation of non-volatile soluble solid (dye) from colloidal solution is whirled rapidly, then the heavier
particles are forced towards the bottom of liquid and
its liquid solvent (water). the lighter stay at the top.
(ii) Method : (ii) Separation of cream from milk : The process of
centrifuging is employed in separating cream from
• Heat sand in an iron vessel by placing it over a tripod milk.This process is generally employed in separating
stand. This arrangement is called sand bath. colloidal solutions which easily pass through the filter
paper.
• Place a china dish on the sand bath. Pour about 5 cc
of the ink into the china dish.
• Heat gently evaporates water from the ink such that it
does not boil. In a few minutes the water evaporates
leaving behind dry blue ink. Method of evaporation is
spin
suitable for the following solid-liquid mixtures.

CENTRIFUGE

PAGE # 13
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Method : • Suspend this filter paper in a wide and tall cylinder as
• Pour full cream milk in the test tube with a pivot in shown in Figure. Gradually, pour water into the
your laboratory centrifuge. cylinder till the lower end of filter paper slightly dips in
the water. Cover the cylinder with a glass lid to prevent
• Shut the lid of the centrifuge and switch on the current.
any evaporation and leave the apparatus undisturbed
W hen the centrifuge starts working, the tube
containing milk swings out in the horizontal position for an hour. The water rises up the filter paper and
and whirls around its axis at a high speed. reaches the ink mark. This water then dissolves
• The centrifugal force (in the outward direction) pushes various constituents of the ink, gets adsorbed by the
the heavier particles outward, i.e., towards the bottom filter paper in different amounts. More the constituent
of the mixture. Thus, the heavier particles of the gets adsorbed, the lesser it moves upward and vice
proteins, carbohydrates, etc. are pushed towards the versa.
bottom of the tube, but the lighter particles of the fat
stay near the top of the tube and hence separate. • When the solvent (water) reaches near the top of filter
paper, the filter paper is removed from water and dried.
(iii) Applications of centrifugation :
On the filter paper will be seen a band of colours, of
• It is employed in milk dairies to separate cream from various constituents.
the milk.
• A filter paper with separated bands of various
• It is employed in diagnostic laboratories in testing constituents of a coloured substance is called
urine samples.
chromatogram.
• It is employed in blood banks to separate different
constituents of blood.
• It is used in drying machines to squeeze out water
from the wet clothes.
(c) By Chromatography :
The process of separation of different dissolved
constituents of a mixture by adsorbing them over an
appropriate adsorbent material is called
chromatography.
The adsorbent medium is generally magnesium
oxide, alumina or filter paper. The solvent generally
used for dissolving a mixture of two or more
constituents is water or alcohol.
The different constituents of a mixture get adsorbed
differently on the same adsorbent material, because (iii) Advantages :
they have different rates of movement. The rate of
movement of each adsorbed material depends upon : • It can be carried out with a very small amount of
material.
• The relative solubility of the constituents of mixture in
a given solvent. • The substances under investigation do not get wasted
in chromatographic separation.
• The relative affinity of the constituents of mixture for
the adsorbent medium. (iv) Applications :
If a filter paper is used as an adsorbent material for • It is used to separate colours from dye.
the separation of various constituents of a mixture, • It is used in the separation of amino acids.
then this method of separation of mixture is called • It is used in the separation of sugar from urine.
paper chromatography. • It is used in the separation of drugs from the samples
Paper chromatography is very useful in separating of blood.
various constituents of coloured solutes present in a
mixture of lime, ink, dyes etc. (C) Separation of mixture of two liquids :

 Note : (a) By Distillation:

Kroma means colour in Greek language and
Distillation is the process of heating a liquid to form
technique of chromatography was first applied for the
vapour and then cooling the vapour to get the back
separation of colours, so this name was given.
(i) Separation of coloured constituents present in a liquid.
mixture of ink and water. Distillation can be represented as :

(ii) Method : Heating

Liquid Vapour
• Take a filter paper 22 cm long, 5 cm broad and stick Cooling
its smaller end to a glass rod with the help of gum.  Note :
On the other end, measure a distance of 2 cm from
lower end and mark a small point. On this point pour The liquid obtained by condensing the vapour in the
one or two drop of the ink. process of distillation is called DISTILLATE .

PAGE # 14
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Simple distillation : Process of simple distillation is (A) Method :
used to recover both salt as well as water , from a • The process of fractional distillation is similar to the
salt-water mixture (or salt solution) and to separate process of distillation, except that a fractionating
of components of a mixture containing two miscible column is attached.
liquids that boil without decomposition and have
sufficient difference in their boiling points. • The design of a fractionating column is such that the
vapours of one liquid (with a higher boiling point) are
(i) Liebig condenser : Liebig condenser is a water
preferentially condensed as compared to the vapours
condenser. It is a long glass tube surrounded by a
of the other liquid (with lower boiling point).
wider glass tube (called water jacket) having an inlet
and outlet for water. During distillation, cold water from
tap is circulated through the outer tube of condenser.
This water takes away heat from the hot vapour
passing through the inner tube of condenser and
causes its condensation.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF FRACTIONATING COLUMNS

• Thus, the vapours of the liquid with low boiling point,
pass on to the Liebig’s condenser where they
condense. The liquid so formed is collected in
receiver.
• The thermometer shows a constant reading as long
as the vapour of one liquid are passing to Liebig’s
condenser. As soon as the temperature starts rising,
SIMPLE DISTILLATION the receiver is replaced by another receiver to collect
second liquid.
(ii) Fractional distillation : Separation of mixture of
two miscible liquids for which the difference in the
boiling points is less : In case of two liquids which
have very close boiling points, both the liquids tend to
distil over in different proportions. It means lesser
the boiling point of a liquid, more is the proportion of
it distilling over.
The above problem can be avoided by using a
fractionating column. It gives the effect of repeated
distillation by offering resistance to the passage of (b) By Separating Funnel :
vapour.
(i) Separation of a mixture of two immiscible liquids :
The process of separation of two miscible liquids by
The separation of two immiscible liquids is based
the process of distillation, making use of their on the difference in their densities. The apparatus
difference in boiling points, is called fractional used for separation is separating funnel. It is a long
distillation. glass tube provided with a tap at its bottom. The table
below shows different immiscible liquids which can
be separated by separating funnel.

Immiscible Heavier Lighter

Liquid-liquid Mixture Liquid Liquid

Benzene and water Water Benzene

Kerosene oil and water Water Kerosene oil

Turpentine oil and water Water Turpentine oil

Chloroform and water Chloroform Water

Mustard oil and water Water Mustard oil

 Note :
The process of fractional distillation is useful only, if (ii) Method :
the difference in the boiling points of the two miscible
• Close the tap of separating funnel and clamp it in a
liquids is less than 25ºC.
vertical position in an iron stand.

PAGE # 15
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
• Pour the immiscible liquid mixture (say benzene-water
mixture) in the separating funnel. Allow the mixture to
stand for half an hour or more.
• The immiscible components of the mixture, i.e.,
benzene and water separate out into two distinct
layers. The benzene forms the lighter layer on the top
and the water forms the heavier layer at the bottom.
• Place a conical flask or a beaker under the nozzle of
the separating funnel. Turn the tap gently so that the
water trickles in the flask or the beaker drop by drop.
Once the water is drained out, close the tap.
• Now place another conical flask or a beaker under
the nozzle of separating funnel. Open the tap to drain
out benzene.
Separation by separating funnel
(iii) Applications :
• This method is used for separating any two
immiscible liquids.
• This method is used in separation of slag (a waste
material) from the molten metals during their
extraction. For example, during the extraction of iron
from its ore, the molten iron and slag collect at the
base of blast furnace. The slag being less dense
floats up the surface of molten iron. They are drained
out from two different outlets.
SEPARATION OF GASES FROM AIR
In order to separate the major components of air, it is
first purified, then liquefied and finally fractionally
distilled. The steps involved in the process are as
follows -
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(a) Purification of Air :
(i) Air generally contains carbon dioxide gas, hydrogen
sulphide gas and sulphur dioxide gas as impurities.
In addition to it there are dust particles also .
(ii) First of all air is washed by passing it through
water, where the dust particles are removed.
(iii) The washed air is passed through dilute caustic
soda solution, where the gases like carbon dioxide,
sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide are removed.
(iv) The purified air, however, contains moisture. The
moist air is passed through pipes, maintained at a
temperature below – 20º C, where water vapour
present in it freezes and hence, air becomes dry.
(v) The air leaving the cooling pipes is free from all
impurities.
(b) Liquefaction of Air :
(i) The cool air, free from all impurities is compressed
to a pressure 200 times more than the atmospheric
pressure. The compression raises the temperature
of the air.
(ii) The hot compressed air is then passed through
cooling tank in which cold water enters from one end
and warm water leaves from the other end.
(iii) The compressed and cooled air is passed through
a spiral pipe, placed in a vacuum flask. The end of
spiral pipe is provided with a fine jet.
(iv) W hen compressed air suddenly escapes from
the jet, its pressure suddenly falls. Thus, its molecules
move wide apart. W hen the molecules move wide
apart, they need energy. This energy is taken by the
molecules from themselves and hence, their
temperature drops.
(v) The air so cooled, is now at a pressure equal to
that of atmosphere. This cooled air rises up and in
the process further cools the incoming compressed
air in spiral tube. The air is then sucked again by the
compression pump and the cycle is repeated. With
every cycle, the temperature of air drops, till it liquefies.
(c) Fractional Distillation of Air :
(i) The liquid air mainly consists of nitrogen and oxygen,
and is at a temperature of – 200º C.
(ii) The boiling point of liquid nitrogen is – 195º C and
that of liquid oxygen is – 183º C.
PAGE # 16
 (iii) The liquid is gradually warmed to – 195º C, when
nitrogen starts boiling off from the liquid air. The
nitrogen gas so formed, is compressed and filled in
steel cylinders.
(iv) The liquefied oxygen left behind, is also changed
to gas and then filled in compressed state in steel
cylinders.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
Some kind of change always takes place in the matter
when it is subjected to energy changes. Almost all
the changes (except nuclear changes) taking place
in the matter can be classified under two headings,
these are as follows -
(a) Physical Changes :
Definition : A change which alters some specific
physical property of the matter, like its state, texture,
magnetic or electrical conditions or its colour, without
causing any change in the composition of its
molecules, is called physical change, provided it gets
reversed, if the cause producing the change is
removed.
Following points need special consideration :
(i) No new or different product is formed : The
composition of molecules of the substance remains
unaltered.
SOME EXAMPLES INVOLVING PHYSICAL CHANGES :
Physical Change
1. Switching on an electric
bulb
2. Rubbing a permanent
magnet on a steel rod.
3. Action of heat on iodine
4. Dissolving of common
salt in water.
Some Common Examples of Physical Changes :
• Formation of dew.
• Evaporation of water.
• Crystallisation of sugar from its solution.
• Ringing of an electric bell.
• Breaking of a glass pane.
• Freezing of ice cream.
• A rock rolling down a hill.
• Bending of a glass tube by heating.
• Melting of wax.
• Sublimation of camphor.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Note :
Observation
The bulb glows and gives
out heat and light energy.
The steel rod gets magnetised.
If it is brought near iron nails,
they get attracted.
The brownish grey crystals of
iodine change to form violet
vapours. On cooling the vapours
condense on cooler parts of the
test tube to form crystals.
The white crystalline salt
disappears in water. However, the
water tastes exactly like common
salt. Moreover, common salt can
be recovered by evaporation.
Example : Ice melts to form water. In this example
only the appearance (state) of matter has changed
from solid to liquid. However, the composition of the
molecules of ice or water remains same, i.e., for every
1 g of hydrogen there is 8 g of oxygen required . Thus,
only a physical change has occurred.
(ii) The change is temporary and reversible : It
means the change can be reversed by altering the
causes which produce the change.
Example : The water formed from ice can be changed
back to ice by placing it in a freezing mixture (a mixture
of ice and common salt).
On altering the experimental conditions, the change
which gets reversed, is a physical change.
(iii) There is no net gain or loss of energy : The
amount of energy required to bring about a physical
change is generally equal to the amount of energy
required to reverse the change. Thus, there is no net
energy change involved.
Example : If 1 g of water at 100º C on changing into
steam at 100ºC needs 2260 J of heat energy, then 1
g of steam at 100º C on changing into water at 100º
C, gives out 2260 J of heat energy. Thus, the net energy
change is zero.
(iv) There is no change in the weight of substance :
During a physical change it is only the energy which
is added or removed. No matter is added during a
physical change. Similarly, no matter is removed
during a physical change. Therefore, mass of the
substance remains same.
Change in Physical Property
The physical appearance of
the bulb changes.
The steel rod acquires the
property of attracting pieces
of iron.
Change in state and colour.
Change of state.
(b) Chemical Change :
Definition : A change which alters the specific
properties of a material by bringing about a change
in its molecular composition, followed by a change in
state, is called a chemical change.
Following points need special consideration :
(i) A chemical change results in the formation of
one or more new products : The products formed
have different properties than the original substance.
Thus, the composition of the molecules of products
is different from the original substance.
PAGE # 17
 Example : Heating of sugar
When sugar is gently heated in a test tube, it melts. It
gradually changes to brown colour, giving a large
amount of steamy fumes. In the end a black mass is
left which consists of carbon. Thus, new substances,
viz. carbon and water (steam), are formed. In this
change, the arrangement between the molecules of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen breaks. The hydrogen
and oxygen atoms separate from carbon atoms and
join together to form water. The carbon atoms are set
free and are left as black residue.
and add to it the weight of carbon, then total weight
will be equal to the weight of sugar crystals. Thus,
strictly speaking, total weight of substances taking
part in a chemical change remains constant.
(iii) The chemical change is permanent and
irreversible : It means the change will not reverse by
altering the experimental conditions.
Example : The sugar, which has decomposed on
heating to form carbon and steam will not change to
sugar on cooling.

Sugar heat
 Carbon  Steam
(ii) The weight of the substance undergoing
chemical change usually changes :
Example : During the heating of sugar, the weight of
the black residue is far less than the actual weight of
the sugar. However, this is an apparent change in
weight. If we take the weight of steam into account
(iv) During chemical change energy is either
absorbed or given out : The various atoms in a
chemical compound are joined by attractive forces
commonly called bonds. The making or breaking of
the bonds always requires exchange of energy. Thus,
some amount of heat is either absorbed or given out
during a chemical change.

SOME EXAMPLES INVOLVING CHEMICAL CHANGES :

Chemical Change Observation Equation

1. Burning of magnesium When a magnesium ribbon is Magnesium + Oxygen

in air heated in a flame of Bunsen Magnesium oxide
burner, it catches fire and burns
with a dazzling white flame to form
white ash.

2. Rusting of iron When iron (silver grey) is left

exposed to moist air for a few Iron + Oxygen+ Water vapour
days, reddish brown powdery Rust
mass (rust) is found on its
surface

3. Burning of LPG When LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Butane (LPG) + Oxygen

Gas) is burnt, it burns with a pale Carbon dioxide + Water
blue flame and liberates colourless
gas carbon dioxide along with steam.

SOME COMMON EXAMPLES OF CHEMICAL CHANGES

:• Burning of wood or charcoal • Burning of candle • Digestion of food • Curdling of milk

• Formation of biogas (Gobar gas) • Burning of petrol or diesel

• Smoking of cigarette • Drying of paint • Rusting of iron

• Ripening of fruit •Clotting of blood • Fading of the colour of a dyed cloth

• Baking of cake • Photosynthesis • Formation of wine • Butter turning rancid

• Electrolysis of water into hydrogen and oxygen • Formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen

PAGE # 18
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (C) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

PAGE # 19
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 11. W hat sublimate will be obtained when a mixture of
EXERCISE-1 sand, sulphur, common salt and iodine is sublimed ?
(A) Sand (B) Iodine
P HYSI CA L NATU RE OF MATT ER , STAT ES OF (C) Sulphur (D) Common salt
MATT ER & TH EI R IN TE R CONVER SI ON 12. Purity of organic liquid can be checked by its
1. The quantity of matter present in an object is called its - characteristic -
(A) weight (B) volume (A) boiling point (B) volume
(C) mass (D) density (C) solubility in water (D) solubility in alcohol
2. Which of the following statements is/are correct ?
13. Which of the following statements is/are correct ?
(A) Interparticle spaces are maximum in the gaseous
(A) Intermolecular forces of attraction in solids are
state of a substance .
maximum.
(B) Particles which constitute gas follow a zig-zag
path. (B) Intermolecular forces of attraction in gases are
(C) Solid state is the most compact state of substance. minimum.
(D) All are correct (C) Intermolecular spaces in solids are minimum.
(D) All of the above
3. In sublimation process -
(A) solid changes into liquid. 14. A liquid disturbed by stirring comes to rest after
(B) liquid changes into vapour. sometime due to its property of -
(C) solid changes directly into vapour. (A) Compressibility (B) Diffusion
(D) None of these
(C) Viscosity (D) All of these
4. During evaporation of liquid -
15. W hich of the following statements regarding
(A) the temperature of the liquid falls.
melting point and freezing point of a substance is
(B) the temperature of the liquid rises.
(C) the temperature of the liquid remains unchanged. true ?
(D) all statements are wrong. (A) Melting point of a substance is more than its
5. When common salt is added is ice - freezing point.
(A) its melting point decreases. (B) Melting point of a substance is less than its freez-
(B) its melting point increases. ing point.
(C) its melting point does not change from 0ºC (C) Melting point and freezing point of a substance
(D) ice becomes harder.
are same numerically.
6. Which of the following statements is false ? (D) None of these.
(A) Melting and freezing point of a substance are the
same. 16. Which of the following conditions is most favourable
(B) Evaporation of liquid takes place only at its boiling for converting a gas into liquid ?
point. (A) High pressure, low temperature
(C) Pure water has no taste (B) Low pressure, low temperature
(D) Water allows sunlight to pass through it.
(C) Low pressure, high temperature
7. The water boils when : (D) High pressure, high temperature
(A) Saturated vapour pressure of water becomes
equal to the atmospheric pressure ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS, MIXTURES &
(B) Boiling point of water becomes more than SOLUT IONS
atmospheric pressure
(C) Saturated vapour pressure of water is less than 17. W hich of the following statement is not true about
atmospheric pressure colloidal solution ?
(D) Vapour pressure of water becomes more than (A) These are visible under powerful microscope.
atmospheric pressure (B) Their particles do not settle down with passage
8. The temperature remain same during melting, while of time.
all the ice changes into water due to the : (C) Their particles are electrically charged.
(A) latent heat of fusion. (D) These are homogeneous in nature.
(B) latent heat of vapourisation. 18. Some matter and their groups are given in column P
(C) latent heat of evaporation.
and Q respectively.
(D) latent heat of sublimation.
(P) (Q)
9. Fusion is the process of conversion of - a. Air i. Element
(A) liquid into gas. (B) solid into gas. b. O2 ii. Mixture
(C) solid into liquid. (D) liquid into solid. c. Copper sulphate iii. Base
d. Sodium hydroxide iv. Salt
10. A thermometer is inserted into a beaker filled with ice
at 0ºC. The beaker is heated slowly. The temperature The correct option is -
does not rise for some time. This is because - (A) a-ii, b-iv, c-i, d-iii (B) a-iv, b-iii, c-ii, d-i
(A) ice is very cold (C) a-i, b-ii, c-iii, d-iv (D) a-ii , b-i, c-iv, d-iii
(B) heat was used for changing ice at 0ºC to water at 19. Solubility of a gas in a liquid increases on -
0ºC (A) increasing temperature.
(C) the density of water is more than ice (B) decreasing pressure.
(D) the density of water is less than the ice (C) increasing pressure.
(D) increasing temperature and pressure.

PAGE # 20
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
20. Carbon tetra chloride and benzene are - 29. Carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The
(A) immiscible liquid (B) miscible liquid properties of carbon dioxide are -
(C) both ( and ) (D) None of these (A) similar to carbon (B) similar to oxygen
(C) totally different from both carbon and oxygen
21. A pure substance can only be -
(D) much similar to both carbon and oxygen
(A) a compound (B) an element
(C) an element or a compound 30. Separation of cream from milk is done by :
(D) a heterogeneous mixture (A) filtration (B) centrifugation method
22. Which of the following statements is not true about (C) evaporation (D) boiling
suspension ?
(A) The particles of suspension can be separated EXERCISE-2
from solvent by the process of filtration.
(B) W hen the suspension is kept undisturbed then NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS
the particles of suspension settle down.
(C) A suspension is homogeneous in nature. 1. Which one of the following is not a solution ?
(D) Scattering of particles take place in suspension. [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/07]
(A) HCl reagent (B) Brass
23. In which of the following, dispersed phase is a liquid (C) HCHO + water (D) Kerosene + water
and dispersion medium is a gas ? 2. Boiling point of water is – [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) Cloud (B) Smoke (A) 273K (B) 0K
(C) Gel (D) Soap bubble (C) 373K (D) 100K
3. The process by which a mixture of sodium chloride
SE PA RATI ON T ECHN IQUE S and ammonium chloride can be separated, is called–
[Raj. NTSE Stage-I/13]
24. Which of the following method is used for separation (A) sublimation (B) chromatography
of different components of petroleum? (C) evaporation (D) distillation
(A) Fractional distillation (B) Sublimation
4. Which of the following statement is true ?
(C) Chromatography (D) Simple distillation [Karnataka NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) Colloidal solutions do not show Tyndal effect.
25. Which of the following is a chemical change ?
(B) Colloidal solutions show Brownian movement.
(A) Melting of Wax (C) Colloidal solutions are homogeneous
(B) Dissolving sugar in water (D) Size of the colloidal particles is less than 1nm.
(C) Beating aluminium to make aluminium foil
(D) Burning of Coal 5. DHOKALA is a type of solution.
[Maharastra NTSE Stage-I/13]
26. The gas you use in kitchen is called liquefied (A) Solid-in-solid (B) Solid-in-gas
petroleum gas (LPG). In the cylinder, it exists as a (C) Solid-in-liquid (D) Gas-in-solid
liquid. When it comes out of the cylinder, it becomes 6. By which property are gases and liquids different from
a gas (process A), then it burns (process B). Choose solid ? [Rajasthan NTSE Stage-I/14]
the correct statement.
(A) Volume (B) Mass
(A) Process A is a chemical change.
(C) Conductivity (D) Fluidity
(B)Process B is a chemical change
(C) Both processes A and B are chemical changes. 7. The Brownian motion in colloidal solution is due to :
[Karnataka NTSE Stage-I/14]
(D) None of these processes is a chemical change.
(A) temperature fluctuation
27. Crystallization is considered better than evaporation (B) attraction or repulsion between charged colloidal
for obtaining pure crystal of sugar because on particles
(C) Bombardment of molecules of dispersion
heating-
medium on the colloidal particle
(A) Sugar sublimes. (D) None of the above
(B) Sugar particles will evaporate.
(C) Sugar particles will decompose. 8. Ice is floating on water in a beaker when ice completely
melts then level of water in beaker :
(D) Sugar particles will melt.
[Delhi_NTSE Stage-I/15]
28. The principle behind fractional distillation technique (A) Increases
(B) Decreases
in separation of two liquids is -
(C) remains the same
(A) difference in melting point (D) First increases decreases
(B) difference in boiling point
(C) difference in concentration
(D) difference in solubility

PAGE # 21
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
9. The boiling point of a gas is –80°C. This temperature 18. A substance A reacts with another substance B to
is equivalent to [Rajasthan_NTSE Stage-I/15] produce the product C and a gas D. If a mixture of
(A) –193 K (B) 193 K the gas D and ammonia is passed through an
(C) 353 K (D) – 353 K aqueous solution of C, baking soda is formed. The
substances A and B are : [NTSE Stage-2/ 2015]
10. When the solid melts, its temperature : (A) HCl and NaOH (B) HCl and Na2CO3
[Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/15] (C) Na and HCl (D) Na2CO3 and H2O
(A) increases
(B) decreases
19. What will be the mass/mass percentage of a solution
(C) remain constant
(D) first increases then decrease containing 30 gm of common salt in 220 gm of water ?
[Raj. NTSEStage-1/2016]
11. W hich of the following gases is used to show the (A) 3% (B) 1.2%
clouds or artificial smoke in film or drama? (C) 12% (D) 22%
[Gujrat NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Carbon Dioxide (B) Oxygen
20. Cheese is an example of which type of colloid ?
(C) Nitrogen (D) Hydrogen
[Raj. NTSEStage-1/2016]
12. The substance which is chemically resistant and (A) Gel (B) Foam
can hold aqua regia (C) Sol (D) Solid sol
[Karnataka NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Ceramics
21. Which process is used to separate a mixture of two
(B) Glass
(C) Fibre miscible liquids A and B having boiling points 56º C
(D) Thermosetting plastic and 65º C respectively ? [Raj. NTSEStage-1/2016]
(A) Destillation
13. The shining finish is given to the walls is given by
(B) Fractional distillation
[Karnataka NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Calcium oxide (B) Calcium Carbonate (C) Sublimation
(C) Calcium hydroxide (D) Carbon-di-oxide (D) Steam distillation.

14. W hen two liquids in a mixture differ by their

boiling points, which of the following is the best
method to separate these liquids?
[Chandigarh NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Evaporation (B) Distillation
(C) chromatography (D) Filtration

15. Milk of magnesia is an example of which type of

colloid ? [West Bengal NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Gel (B) Emulsion
(C) Sol (D) Foam

16. China dish is

[Karnataka NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Brittle and heat resistant
(B) Durable and heat resistant
(C) Brittle and corrosive
(D) Durable and non-corrosive

17. Compound A on strong heating in a boiling tube gives

off reddish brown fumes and a yellow residue. When
the aqueous solution of A is treated with a few drops
of sodium hydroxide solution, a white precipitate
appeared in the compound A . Identify the cation and
anion present in the compound A.
[NTSE Stage-2/ 2015]
(A) Copper (II) and nitrate
(B) Lead (II) and chloride
(C) Zinc and sulphate
(D) Lead (II) and nitrate

PAGE # 22
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 STRUCTURE OF ATOM

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY ELECTRON

In 1808 John Dalton proposed atomic theory of
matter, assuming atoms are ultimate indivisible
particles of matter based on the law of conservation
of mass and law of definite proportion.
The important points of Dalton’s theory are -
(i) Elements consist of small indivisible particles
called atoms and atoms take part in chemical
reactions.
(ii) Atoms of same element are alike in all respect.
(iii) Atoms of different elements are different in all
respect.
(iv) Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
(v) Atoms combine in a fixed, small, whole number to
form compound atoms called molecules.
 Note :
The term “ Element “ was coined by Robert Boyle.
(a) Merits :
(i) Dalton’s theory explains the law of conservation of
mass (point iv) and law of constant proportion (point v).
(ii) Atoms of elements take part in chemical reaction
this is true till today.
Electrons are the fundamental particles of all
substances.
(a) Cathode Rays - Discovery of Electron :
The nature and existence of electron was established
by experiments on conduction of electricity through
gases.
 Note :
In 1859, Julius Plucker started the study of conduction
of electricity through gases at low pressure in a
discharge tube.
A number of interesting things happen when a high
voltage (say, 10,000 V) is applied across the
electrodes of the discharge tube, and the pressure of
the gas inside the tube is lowered.
(i) W hen the pressure of the gas in the discharge
tube is at atmospheric pressure and a high voltage
is applied across the electrodes, nothing noticeable
happens. But as we lower the pressure and increase
the voltage, sparking or irregular streaks of light are
seen in the tube. This is called positive column.
(ii) As the pressure of gas is reduced further, the length
of the positive column reduces, a fine glow can be
seen at the cathode. The dark space or gap left
between the cathode and the positive column is
called the Faraday’s dark space.

(iii) Atoms combine in whole numbers to form

molecules (point v).

(b) Demerits :

(i) The atom is no longer supposed to be indivisible.

The atom is not a simple particle but a complex one.

(ii) He could not explain that why do atoms of same

element combined with each other.

(iii) Atoms of the same element may not necessarily

be identical in all aspects.
There are a number of elements whose atoms
possess different masses. All these atoms of the
same element with same atomic number but different
mass number are called isotopes.
e.g. 1H1, 1H2, 1H3 are the three isotopes of hydrogen.

(iv) Atoms of different elements may not necessarily

be different in all aspects. There are a number of
elements whose atoms possess same mass
number. All these elements with different atomic
number but same mass number are called isobars.
e.g. 20Ca40 and 18Ar40 are isobars of each other.

PAGE # 23
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (iii) When the pressure of gas is reduced to about 1
mm of Hg, the cathode glow moves away from the
cathode, creating a dark space between cathode and
the cathode glow. This dark space is called Crookes
dark space.
(iv) The Crookes dark space expands with further fall
in pressure at 0.1 mm of Hg. The positive column
gets split into a number of bands called striations.
(v) At pressure 0.01 mm of Hg or less, the striations
move towards the anode and vanish finally. At this
stage the glass tubes begins to glow at the end
opposite to the cathode. This phenomenon is called
fluorescence.
Thus, some sort of invisible rays travel from the
negative electrode to the positive electrode. Since the
negative electrode is called cathode, these rays were
called cathode rays. The colour of glow depends upon
the nature of the glass used. For soda glass the
fluorescence is of yellowish green colour.
(b) Properties of cathode rays :
(i) Cathode rays travel in a straight line at a high
velocity and generate normally from the surface of
the cathode. If an opaque object is placed in the path
of cathode rays its shadow falls on opposite side of
the cathode. It shows that cathode rays travel in
straight lines.
To vacuum
pump
Cathode
– small wavelength are emitted which are called X -
Object
High
+ Anode
voltage
 Note :
Cathode rays travel with very high velocities ranging
from 109 to 1010 cm per second.
(ii) They are a beam of minute material particles having
definite mass and velocity. When a light paddle wheel
is placed in the path of the cathode rays, the blades
of the paddle wheel begin to rotate. This also proves
that cathode rays have mechanical energy.
Light paddle wheel
– value of e/m has been found to be 1.7588 × 10 8
Cathode
High voltage source
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(iii) They consist of negatively charged particles. When
the cathode rays pass through an electric field, they
bent towards the positive plate of the electric field.
This indicates that cathode rays are negatively
charged.
(iv) Cathode rays can affect the photographic plate.
(v) The nature of cathode rays is independent of the
nature of gas used in discharge tube or material of
cathode.
(vi) Cathode rays are deflected in the magnetic field
also.
S
– +
N Deflection of
cathode rays
in magnetic field
High
voltage
Shadow (vii) If cathode rays are focused on a thin metal foil,
the metal foil gets heated up to incandescence.
(viii) When cathode rays fall on materials having high
atomic mass, new type of penetrating rays of very
rays.
Thus, investigations on cathode rays showed that
these consisted of negatively charged particles.
 Note :
The negatively charged particles of cathode rays were
called ‘negatrons‘ by Thomson. The name negatron
was changed to ‘electron‘ by Stoney.
(c) Characteristics of electron :
(i) Electrons are sub - atomic particles which
constitute cathode rays.
(ii) In 1897, J.J.Thomson determined the charge to
mass (e/m) ratio of electron by studying the deflections
of cathode rays in electric and magnetic fields. The
+
coulombs/g. The e/m for electrons from different
gases was found to be the same. This indicates that
atoms of all kinds have the same kind of negatively
Anode charged particles. Thus electrons are the common
constituents of all atoms.
 Note :
A cathode ray tube is used to measure the charge to
mass ratio of the electrons.
PAGE # 24
 (iii) Charge on the electron :
The charge (e) on an electron was determined by
Robert Millikan in 1909. Millikan found the charge on
oil drops to be -1.6 × 10-19 C or its multiples. So, the
charge on an electron is to be -1.6 × 10-19 coulombs / unit.
(iv) Mass of an electron :
 Note :
Anode rays are called canal rays because they pass
through the canals or holes of the cathode. These
rays are also called anode rays since they originate
from the anode side. Anode rays are produced from a
positively charged electrode, therefore these were

By Thomson’s experiment e/m = 1.76 × 1011 C/kg named positive rays by J.J.Thomson.
By Millikan’s experiment e = – 1.6 × 10-19 C
(b) Characteristics of Anode Rays :
19
1.6  10 (i) Anode rays travel in straight lines.
So mass of electron (m) =
1.76  1011
(ii) These rays rotate the light paddle wheel placed in
= 9.1096 × 10-31 kg their path. This shows that anode rays are made up
Mass of an electron in amu = 0.000549 of material particles.
(v) Mass of electron in comparison to that of (iii) Anode rays are deflected by magnetic or electric
hydrogen : field. In the electric field they get deflected towards
Mass of hydrogen = 1.008 amu
negatively charged plate. This indicates that these
= 1.008 × 1.66 × 10-24 g ( since 1 amu = 1.66 × 10-24 g )
rays are positively charged.
= 1.673 × 10-24 g
(iv) The anode rays affect photographic plate.
24
Mass of hydrogen atom 1.6 73  10
= = 1837 (v) The nature of anode rays depend upon the type of
Mass of electron 9.1096  10 – 28
gas used.
 Note : (c) Discovery of Proton :
1 J.J.Thomson in 1906, found that particles obtained
Thus, the mass of an electron is times the
1837 in the discharge tube containing hydrogen have e/m
mass of a hydrogen atom. value as 9.579 × 10 4 coulomb/g. This was the
maximum value of e/m observed for any positive
PROTON particle. It was thus assumed that the positive
particles given by hydrogen represent fundamental
(a) Anode Rays (Canal rays) : particle of positive charge. This particle was named
It has been established that electron is a negatively proton.
charged particle and present in all the atoms. As an
H e +
 H (Proton)

atom is electrically neutral, there must be some
positively charged particles present in the atom to
 Note :
neutralize the negative charges of the electrons. It
has been confirmed by experiments. Scientist The name ‘proton’ was given by Rutherford in 1911.
Goldstein in 1886 discovered the existence of a new
type of rays in the discharge tube. He carried out the (d) Characteristics of Proton :
experiment in discharge tube containing perforated (i) A proton is a sub - atomic particle which constitute
cathode. It was observed that when high potential
anode rays produced when hydrogen is taken in the
difference was applied between the electrodes, not
discharge tube.
only cathode rays were produced but also a new type
of rays were produced simultaneously from anode, (ii) Charge of a proton :
moving from anode towards cathode and passed
Proton is a positively charged particle. The charge on
through the holes of cathode.
a proton is equal but opposite to that on an electron.
Thus, the charge on a proton is +1.602 × 10 –19
Anode rays coulombs/ unit.
Fluorescence
(iii) Mass of a proton :
The mass of a proton is equal to the mass of a
Anode Perforated cathode
hydrogen atom.
m p = 1.0073 amu
= 1.673 × 10-24 g
= 1.673 × 10-27 kg
High voltage source

PAGE # 25
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (iv) Mass of proton relative to mass of electron : (ii) About 99.0% of the -particles passed undeflected
24
through the gold foil and caused illumination of zinc
Mass of a proton 1.673 10 g = 1837 sulphide screen.
=  28
Mass of an electron
9.110 g (iii) Very few -particles underwent small and large
Thus, the mass of a proton is 1837 times larger than deflections after passing through the gold foil.
the mass of an electron. (iv) A very few (about 1 in 20,000) were deflected
(v) Charge to mass ratio for a proton : The e/m of backward on their path at an angle of 180º.
particles constituting the anode rays is different for
different gases.
e 1.602  10 19
of proton = = 9.579 × 104 C/g
m 1.673  10 24

THOMSON MODEL OF AN ATOM

J.J. Thomson (1898) tried to explain the structure of

atom. He proposed that an atom consists of a sphere
of positive electricity in which electrons are embedded
like plum in pudding or seeds evenly distributed in Rutherford was able to explain these observations
red spongy mass in case of a watermelon. The radius as follows:
of the sphere is of the order 10–8 cm. (i) Since a large number of -particles pass through
the atom undeflected, hence, there must be large
empty space within the atom.
(ii) As some of the -particles got deflected, therefore,
there must be something massive and positively
charged structure present in the atom.
(iii) The number of -particles which get deflected is
(a) Merits : very small, therefore, the whole positive charge in the
(i) Thomson’s model could explain the electrical atom is concentrated in a very small space.
neutrality of an atom.
(iv) Some of the -particles retracted their path i.e.
(ii) Thomson’s model could explain why only came almost straight back towards the sources as a
negatively charged particles are emitted when a metal result of their direct collisions with the heavy mass.
is heated as he considered the positive charge to be
immovable by assuming it to be spread over the total
volume of the atom.
(iii) He could explain the formation of ions and ionic
compounds.
(b) Demerits :
This model could not satisfy the facts proposed by
Rutherford through his alpha particle scattering
experiment and hence was discarded.

RUTHERFORD MODEL OF AN ATOM

 Note :
(a) Rutherford’s Alpha Particle Scattering  - particles are made up of two protons and two
neutrons and are Helium (He) nuclei.
Experiment (1909) :

Ernest Rutherford and his coworkers performed
numerous experiments in which - particles emitted
from a radioactive element such as polonium were
allowed to strike thin sheets of metals such as gold or
platinum.
(i) A beam of -particles (He2+) was obtained by placing
polonium in a lead box and letting the alpha particles
come out of a pinhole in the lead box. This beam of -
rays was directed against a thin gold foil (0.0004 cm).
A circular screen coated with zinc sulphide was placed
on the other side of the foil.
(b) Rutherford Nuclear Model of Atom (1911) :
Rutherford proposed a new picture of the structure of
atom.
Main features of this model are as follows-
(i) The atom of an element consists of a small
positively charged “Nucleus” which is situated at the
centre of the atom and which carries almost the entire
mass of the atom.
(ii) The electrons are distributed in the empty space
of the atom around the nucleus in different concentric
circular paths (orbits).

PAGE # 26
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (iii) The number of electrons in the orbits is equal to When the electron moves from inner to outer orbit by
the number of positive charges (protons) in the absorbing definite amount of energy, the new state of
nucleus. the electron is said to be excited state.
(iv) Volume of nucleus is very small as compared to
(v) Negatively charged electrons revolves around the
the volume of atom.
nucleus in circular path. The force of attraction
(v) Most of the space in the atom is empty. between the nucleus and the electron is equal to
centrifugal force of the moving electron.
 Note :
Force of attraction towards nucleus = Centrifugal force
Rutherford’s model is also called “Planetary model’.
(vi) Out of infinite number of possible circular orbits
(c) Defects in Rutherford’s Model : around the nucleus, the electron can revolve only in
(i) Rutherford did not specify the number of electrons those orbits whose angular momentum is an integral
in each orbit. h h
multiple of , i.e. mvr = n
2 2
(ii) According to electromagnetic theory, if a charged
where :
particle (like electron) is accelerated around another m = mass of the electron
charged particle (like protons in nucleus) then there
v = velocity of electron
would be continuous loss of energy due to continuous
r = radius of the orbit, and
emission of radiations. This loss of energy would
n =1,2,3 ---- number of the orbit.
slow down the speed of electron and eventually the
electron would fall into the nucleus. But such a The angular momentum can have values such as
collapse does not occur. Rutherford’s model could h 2h 3h
, , , but it cannot have a fractional value.
not explain this theory. 2 2 2
Thus, the angular momentum is quantized. The
(iii) If the electron loses energy continuously, the
observed spectrum should be continuous but the specified circular orbits (quantized) are called
actual observed spectrum consists of well defined stationary orbits.
lines of definite frequencies. Hence the loss of energy
is not continuous in an atom. RADII OF VARIOUS ORBITS
Radii of various orbits can be given by formula.
BOHR MODEL OF AN ATOM (1913)
n 2h 2
r=
To overcome the objections to Rutherford’s model 4 2mkZe 2
and to explain the hydrogen spectrum, Bohr proposed  Note :
a quantum mechanical model of the atom.
Greater is the value of ‘n’ larger is the size of atom.
The important postulates on which Bohr’s model is On the other hand, greater is the value of ‘Z’ smaller
based are the following - is the size of the atom.
(i) The atom has a nucleus where all the protons are n2h2
present. The size of the nucleus is very small. It is For hydrogen atom, Z = 1; so r =
4 2mke 2
present at the centre of the atom.
Now putting the values of h, , m, e and k.
(ii) Each stationary orbit is associated with a definite
amount of energy. The greater is distance of the orbit n 2  ( 6.625  10 –34 ) 2
from the nucleus, more shall be the energy associated r=
4  (3.14 )  ( 9.1 10 – 31 )  (9  10 9 )  (1.6  10 –19 ) 2
2
with it. These orbits are also called energy levels and
are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4 ------or K, L, M, N ---- from = 0.529 ×n2 × 10–10 m = 0.529 × n2 Å
nucleus to outwards.
= 0.529 × 10–8 × n2 cm
(iii) By the time, the electron remains in any one of the
allowed stationary orbits, it does not lose energy. Thus, radius of 1st orbit
Such a state is called ground or normal state. = 0.529 × 10–8 × 12 = 0.529 × 10–8 cm
(iv) The emission or absorption of energy in the form = 0.529 × 10–10 m = 0.529 Å
of radiation can only occur when an electron jumps
Radius of 2nd orbit
from one stationary orbit to another.
E = Efinal - Einitial = h = 0.529 × 10–8 × 22 = 2.11 × 10–8 cm
Where h is Planck’s constant (h = 6.625 × 10–34 Js)
= 2.11 × 10–10 m = 2.11 Å
Energy is absorbed when the electron jumps from
lower to higher orbit and is emitted when it moves Radius of 3rd orbit
from higher to lower orbit. = 0.529 × 10–8 × 32 = 4.76 × 10–8 cm
= 4.76 × 10–10 m = 4.76 Å

PAGE # 27
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 NEUTRONS

Energy of an electron in Bohr’s orbit can be given In 1932, James Chadwick bombarded the element
by the formula : beryllium with  - particles. He observed the emission
of a radiation with the following properties -
2  2 Z 2 K 2 me 4
E=– 2 2
(i) The radiation was highly penetrating.
n h
(ii) The radiation remained unaffected in the electric
For hydrogen atom, Z = 1
or magnetic field i.e. the radiation was neutral.
So,
(iii) The particle constituting the radiation had the same
2 2k 2me 4
E– mass as that of the proton. These neutral particles
n 2h2 were called neutrons.
Putting the values of , k, m, e and h.
9 4 12
4 Be + 2 He  6C + 1
0n
2  (3.14) 2  (9  10 9 ) 2  (9.1 10 –31 )  (1.6  10 –19 ) 4
E=– (Beryllium ) (α  particle) (Carbon) (Neutron)
n2  ( 6.625  10 – 34 )2

21.79  10 –19 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ELECTRON,

=– J per atom PROTON AND NEUTRON
n2
13.6
= – eV per atom (1 J = 6.2419 × 1018 eV) Property Electron Proton Neutron
n2
Symbol e p n
 Note :
The negative sign indicates that the electron is under Nature Negatively charged Positively charged Neutral
attraction towards nucleus, i.e. it is bound to the Relative
nucleus. -1 +1 0
charge
The electron has minimum energy in the first orbit Absolute
–1.602 × 10-19 C +1.602 × 10-19 C 0
and its energy increases as n increases, i.e., it charge
becomes less negative. The electron can have a Relative 1
1 1
maximum energy value of zero when n =  . The zero mass 1837
energy means that the electron is no longer bound to Absolute
the nucleus , i.e. , it is not under the force of attraction 9.109 × 10-28 g 1.6725 × 10-24 g 1.6748 × 10-24 g
mass
towards nucleus.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
VELOCITY OF AN ELECTRON IN BOHR'S ORBIT
An atom consists of two parts -
Velocity of an electron in Bohr’s orbit can be given by (a) Nucleus
the formula : (b) Extra - nuclear region

Z  2e 2  (a) Nucleus :

 
v=  h 
n   Nucleus is situated at the centre of an atom. All the
Substituting the values of h, , e. protons & neutrons are situated in the nucleus,
therefore, the entire mass of an atom is almost
Z 2  3.14 ( 4.8 10 10 )2 concentrated in the nucleus. The overall charge of
v= ×
n 6.625  10 27 nucleus is positive due to the presence of positively
charged protons (neutrons have no charge). The
Z protons & neutrons are collectively called nucleons.
v= × 2.188 × 108 cm/sec ----------- (iii)
n  Note :
2.188  10 8 The radius of the nucleus of an atom is of the order of
v= cm/sec (For hydrogen , Z = 1)
n 10–13 cm and its density is of the order of 1014 g/cm3.
v1 = 2.188 × 108 cm/sec
(b) Extra Nuclear Region :
1 In extra nuclear part or in the region outside the
v2 = × 2.188 × 108 cm/sec = 1.094 × 108 cm/sec
2 nucleus, electrons are present which revolve around
the nucleus in orbits of fixed energies. These orbits
1
v3 = × 2.188 × 108 cm/sec = 0.7293 × 108 cm/sec are called energy levels. These energy levels are
3 designated as K, L, M, N & so on.
Here v1, v2 and v3 are the velocities of electron in first,
second and third Bohr orbit in hydrogen. (i) The maximum number of electrons that can be
accommodated in a shell is given by the formula
2n2.(n = shell number i.e. 1,2,3 -------)

PAGE # 28
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Y
Shell n 2n2 max. no.of electrons Z
2
K 1 2(1) 2
2 X
L 2 2(2) 8
2
M 3 2(3) 18 s- orbital
2
N 4 2(4) 32 (2) p - orbitals : The p-subshell contains three
orbitals which have dumb-bell shape and a directional
character. The three p-orbitals are designated as px,
py & pz which are oriented in the perpendicular axis
ucle
us K L M N Electron shells (x,y,z). The maximum number of electrons which can
N

First energy level

Second energy level
+ 2 8 18 32 Maximum number of
be accommodated in the p subshell is 6 (2 electrons
Third energy level electrons which can be in each of three orbitals).
Fourth energy level accommodated in the
various shells
z z z

(ii) Each energy level is further divided into subshells

designated as s,p,d,f . x x x
1st shell (K) contains 1 subshell (s) y y y y
2nd shell (L) contains 2 subshells (s,p) px
py pz
3rd shell (M) contains 3 subshells (s,p,d)
4th shell (N) contains 4 subshells (s,p,d,f). (3) d - orbitals : The d-subshells contains 5 orbitals which
are double dumb-bell in shape. These orbitals are
(iii) Shells are divided into sub-shells, sub shells designated as dxz, dxy, dyz, d x2  y 2 , d 2 . The d-subshell
z
further contain orbitals. can accommodate a maximum of 10 electrons.
(A) An orbital may be defined as z z z

“A region in the three - dimensional space around the

nucleus where the probability of finding the electron is
maximum.” x y x y x y
(B)The maximum capacity of each orbital is that of two dxy dxz dyz
electrons. z z

 Note :

The maximum number of orbitals that can be present

in a shell is given by the formula n2. x y x y
dx –2 y 2
(C) Types of orbitals : dz2

(1) s-orbitals : The s-subshell contains just one orbital

which is non-directional & spherically symmetrical in
shape. The maximum number of electrons which can
be accommodated in s-orbital is 2.
(iv) Differences between orbit and orbital :
(4) f-orbitals : The f-subshell contains 7 orbitals which
are complex in structure.The f-subshell can
accommodate a maximum of 14 electrons.
 Note :
Letters s, p, d & f have originated from the words
sharp, principal, diffused & fundamental respectively.

S.No. Orbit Orbital

It is a region in three dimensional space
It is well defined circular path around the
1 around the nucleus where the probability
nucleus in which the electron revolves.
of finding electron is maximum.
s,p and d-orbitals are spherical, dumb-bell
2 It is circular in shape.
and double dumb-bell in shape respectively.
It represents that an electron can move around
It represents that an electron moves
3 nucleus along three dimensional space (x,y and z
around the nucleus in one plane.
axis).

It represents that position as well as It represents that position as well as momentum

momentum of an electron can be known of an electron cannot be known simultaneously
4
simultaneously with certainty. It is against with certainty. It is in accordance with Heisenberg's
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. uncertainty principle.

The maximum number of electrons in an

2 The maximum number of electrons in an orbital is
5 orbit is 2n where 'n' is the number of the
two.
orbit.

PAGE # 29
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Note : (iii) It represents the sub-shell present in shell.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle - “It is impossible = 0 represents s sub shell.
to determine exactly and simultaneously both the = 1 represents p sub shell.
position and momentum (or velocity) of an electron = 2 represents d sub shell.
or of any other moving particle.” = 3 represents f sub shell.

(iv) Number of sub-shell in a shell = Principal quantum

QUANTUM NUMBERS number of shell.
To describe the position and energy of electron in an
(v) Maximum value of  is always less than the value
atom, four numbers are required, which are known
of n. So 1p, 1f, 2d, 2f, 3f subshells are not possible.
as quantum numbers. s will start from 1s
Four quantum numbers are : p will start from 2p
(a) Principal quantum number d will start from 3d
(b) Azimuthal quantum number f will start from 4f
(c) Magnetic quantum number
(d) Spin quantum number (vi) Relative energy of various sub-shell in a shell are
as follows -
(a) Principal Quantum Number : s<p<d<f
(i) It is denoted by ‘n’. (vii) Subshells having equal values but with different n
values have similar shapes but their sizes increases
(ii) It represents the name, size and energy of the
as the value of ‘n’ increases. 2s-subshell is greater in
orbit or shell to which the electron belongs.
size than 1s- subshell. Similarly 2p, 3p, 4p subshells
(iii) Higher is the value of ‘n’ , greater is the distance have similar shapes but their sizes increase in
of the shell from the nucleus. order 2p < 3p < 4p.
r1 < r2 < r3 < r4 < r5 < ---- (viii) Maximum no. of electrons present in a subshell
(iv) Higher is the value of ‘n’, greater is the magnitude = 2 (2 +1)
of energy. Subshell Max. electrons
E1 < E2 < E3 < E4 < E5 ---- s ( = 0) 2 (2 × 0 +1) = 2
(v) Maximum number of electrons in a shell is given p ( = 1) 2 (2 × 1 +1) = 6
by 2n2. d ( = 2) 2 (2 × 2 +1) = 10
Shell Max. number of electrons f ( = 3) 2 (2 × 3 +1) = 14
First (n =1) 2 × 12 = 2
 Note :
Second (n = 2) 2 × 22 = 8 Azimuthal quantum number was given by
Third ( n = 3) 2 × 32 = 18 Sommerfeld.
Fourth ( n = 4) 2 × 42 = 32
(c) Magnetic quantum number :
(vi) Angular momentum can also be calculated using
principal quantum number. (i) It is denoted by ‘m’.
nh (ii) It represents the orbitals present in sub-shell. An
mvr  orbital can be defined as :
2π
“Region in the three - dimensional space around the
(vii) Value of n is from 1 to 
nucleus where the probability of finding an electron is
(viii) Every shell is given a specific alphabetic name. maximum”.
First shell (n = 1) is known as K shell.
(iii) For a given value of , values of m are from –
Second shell (n = 2) is known as L shell.
through 0 to +.
Third shell (n = 3) is known as M shell and so on.
 m
 Note : 0 0
Principal quantum number was given by Bohr. 1 –1, 0, +1
2 –2, –1, 0, +1, +2
(b) Azimuthal Quantum Number : 3 –3, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3
(i) It is represented by ‘’.
(iv) Maximum number of orbitals in a sub-shell
 Note : = (2+1)
Sub shell Orbitals
Azimuthal quantum number is also called angular
s ( = 0) (2 × 0 +1) = 1
quantum number, subsidiary quantum number or
p ( = 1) (2 × 1 +1) = 3
secondary quantum number. d ( = 2) (2 × 2 +1) = 5
(ii) For a given value of n values of  are from 0 to n – f ( = 3) (2 × 3 +1) = 7
1
(v) Maximum number of orbitals in a shell = n2
Value of n Values of 
Shell Max. orbitals
1 (1st shell) 0 First (n = 1) 12 = 1
2 (2nd shell) 0,1 Second (n = 2) 22 = 4
3 (3rd shell) 0,1,2 Third (n = 3) 32 = 9
4 (4th shell) 0,1,2,3 Fourth (n = 4) 42 = 16

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (vi) It represents the orientation of orbital in three (d) Spin Quantum Number :
dimensional space.
When l = 0, m = 0, i.e. one value implies that ‘s’ (i) It is denoted by ‘s’.
subshell has only one space orientation and hence,
it can be arranged in space only in one way along x,y (ii) It represents the direction of spin of electron around
or z axis. Thus, ‘s’ orbital has a symmetrical spherical its own axis.
shape.
Y (iii) Clockwise spin is represented by +1/2 or  and
Z anticlockwise by –1/2 or .
X (iv) Maximum two electrons with opposite spin can
be placed in an orbital.
s- orbital
When  = 1,’m’ has three values –1, 0, +1 . It implies
that ‘p’ subshell of any energy shell has three space
orientations, i.e. three orbitals. Each p-orbital has (v) Electrons with same spin are called spin parallel
dumb-bell shape. Each one is disposed and those with opposite spin are called spin paired.
symmetrically along one of the three axis. p orbitals
have directional character.  Note :
orbital Pz Px Py Spin quantum number was given by Gold Schmidt.
m 0 ±1 ±1
z z z ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF AN ATOM

(i) The arrangement of the electrons in different shells

x x x is known as the electronic configuration of the
y y element.
y y
px pz (ii) Each of the orbits can accommodate a fixed number
py
of electrons. Maximum number of electrons in an orbit
When  = 2 ‘m’ has five values –2, –1, 0, +1, +2. It is equal to 2n2, where ‘n’ is the number of the orbit.
implies that d-subshell of any energy shell has five
orientations, i.e. five orbitals. All the five orbitals are (iii) Electrons are filled in the increasing order of energy,
not identical in shape. Four of the d-orbitals i.e. K < L < M < N ......
dxy, dyz, dzx, d contain four lobes while fifth orbital (iv) In the outermost shell of any atom, the maximum
x2 – y2
2
dz consists of only two lobes. possible number of electrons is 8, except in the first
shell which can have at the most 2 electrons.
z z z
 Note :
If the outermost shell has its full quota of 8 electrons
it is said to be an octet. If the first shell has its full
quota of 2 electrons, it is said to be duplet.
x y x y x y The pictorial representation of Bohr’s model of
dxy dxz dyz hydrogen, helium, carbon, sodium and calcium atoms
z z having 1, 2, 6, 11 and 20 electrons respectively are
shown in the figure where the centre of the circle
represents the nucleus.

x y x y
2
dx – y 2

dz2
There are seven f-orbitals designated as
f f f f 2 2 f 2 2 f 2 2 f
yz 2 , xz 2 , z3 , x ( x – y ), y ( x – y ), z( x –y ), and xyz .
Their shapes are complicated ones.
(vii) Characteristics of orbitals :
(A) All orbitals of a subshell possess same energy
i.e., they are degenerate.
(B) All orbitals of the same shell differ in the direction
of their space orientation.
(C) Total number of orbitals in a shell is equal to n2.
 Note :
Magnetic quantum number was given by Zeeman.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (a) Significance of Electronic Configuration : (c) Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity :
The electronic configuration of an atom plays an According to this rule :
important role in determining the chemical behaviour “no electron pairing takes place in the orbitals with
of an element. equivalent energy until each orbital in the given
(i) W hen the atoms of an element have completely subshell contains one electron & the spins of all
filled outermost shell, the element will be chemically unpaired electrons are parallel i.e. in the same
unreactive. For example the noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, direction”.
Kr, Xe and Rn) have completely filled outermost shell Electronic configuration of some elements -
i.e. contains 8 electrons (except helium which has Atom ic Sym bol of Nam e of Electronic
two valence electrons) in outermost shell. num ber the elem ent the elem ent configuration
1 H Hydrogen 1s 1
(ii) W hen the atom of an element has less than 8
2 He Helium 1s 2
electrons in its outermost shell, the element will be 3 Li Lithium 1s 2, 2s 1
reactive. 4 Be Beryllium 1s 2, 2s 2
5 B Boron 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 1
ORDER OF FILLING OF ELECTRONS IN SUBSHELLS 6 C Carbon 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 2
There are different rules governing the filling of 7 N Nitrogen 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 3
8 O Oxygen 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 4
subshells. They are described briefly as follows -
9 F Fluorine 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 5
(a) Aufbau Principle : 10 Ne Neon 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6
11 Na Sodium 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 1
The filling of subshells in atoms is based on their
12 Mg Magnes ium 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2
energies. Electrons first occupy the subshell with
13 Al Alum inium 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 1
lowest energy and progressively fill the other 14 Si Silicon 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 2
subshells in increasing order of energy. 15 P Phos phorus 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 3
 Note : 16 S Sulphur 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 4
The subshell with lowest energy is filled first. 17 Cl Chlorine 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 5
The order of energy of different subshells of an atom is - 18 Ar Argon 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6
19 K Potas sium 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, , 4s 1
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p 20 Ca Calcium 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, , 4s 2
< 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p. 21 Sc Scandium 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 1, 4s 2
22 Ti Titanium 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 2, 4s 2
The number present before the subshells like 1,2,3
23 V Vanadium 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 3, 4s 2
------ represents the number of the shell i.e. n. 24 Cr Chrom ium 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 5, 4s 1
The order of filling of different sub-shells is 25 Mn Manganes e 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 5, 4s 2
represented diagrammatically as follows : 26 Fe Iron 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 6, 4s 2
27 Co Cobalt 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 7, 4s 2
28 Ni Nickel 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 8, 4s 2
1s 29 Cu Copper 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 10, 4s 1
30 Zn Zinc 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 10, 4s 2

2s 2p
VALENCE SHELL AND VALENCE ELECTRONS

The outermost shell of an atom is known as the

3s 3p 3d
valence shell. The electrons present in the valence
shell of an atom are known as valence electrons.
4s 4p 4d 4f
The remainder of the atom i.e. the nucleus and other
electrons is called the core of the atom. Electrons
5f present in the core of an atom are known as core
5s 5p 5d
electrons.
e.g.
6s 6p 6d The electronic configuration of the sodium (Na) atom
is :-
Na (11) K L M
7s 7p 2 8 1
Thus, valence electron in Na atom = 1 and core
electrons in Na atom = 2 + 8 = 10
(b) Pauli’s Exclusion Principle :
(a) Significance of Valence Electrons :
According to Pauli’s exclusion principle “an orbital (i) The valence electrons of an atom are responsible
cannot accommodate more than two electrons. If for, and take part in, chemical changes.
there are two electrons in an orbital they must have (ii) The valence electrons in an atom determine the
opposite spins.” mode of chemical combination.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (iii) The valence electrons determine the combining
capacity or the valency of the atom. The number of
electrons in an atom that actually take part in bond
formation is known as the valency of the element.
e.g. In the carbon atom, there are four valence
electrons.
C(6) K L
2 4
The carbon atom is capable of forming four bonds.
Hence, the valency of carbon is four.
(iv) If the outermost shell of an atom is completely
filled, its valency is zero.
The outermost shells of helium, neon, argon, krypton
etc. are completely filled. Hence the valency of these
elements is zero.
(v) Elements having the same number of valence
electrons in their atoms possess similar chemical
properties.
e.g. All alkali metals have one valence electron in
their atoms. Hence, their chemical properties are
similar.
(vi) Elements having different number of valence
electrons in their atoms show different chemical
properties.
VALENCY
Valency of an element is the combining capacity of
the atoms of the element with atoms of the same or
different elements. The combining capacity of the
atoms was explained in terms of their tendency to
attain a fully filled outermost shell (stable octet or
duplet)
 Note :
The number of electrons gained, lost or contributed
for sharing by an atom of the element gives us directly
the combining capacity or valency of the element.
Valency of an element is determined by the number
of valence electrons in an atom of the element.
The valency of an element = number of valence
electrons (if the number of valence electrons is1 to 4)
The valency of an element = 8– number of valence
electrons. (if the number of valence electrons is 4 to 8)
ISOTOPES
The isotopes of an element have the same atomic
number but different atomic masses.

e.g. Let us consider the electronic configuration of  Note :

alkali metals and halogens. Alkali metal atoms have The term isotope was given by Margaret Todd.
single valence electron whereas halogen atoms have
seven valence electrons. It is observed that the The difference in their masses is due to the presence
chemical properties of the alkali metals are entirely of different number of neutrons.
different from those of halogens. e.g. Isotopes of hydrogen :
(vii) The number of the valence shell in the atom of an
element determines the period number of the
Hydrogen Pr ot iu m De u t e r iu m Tr itium
element in the periodic table. 3
isotopes 1 2
1H
e.g. Sodium (Na) : 1H 1H
Valence shell number = 3. 1. Atomic number 1 1 1
period number = 3 2. No. of protons 1 1 1
Calcium (Ca)
Valence shell number = 4 3. No. of electrons 1 1 1
period number = 4 4. Mass number 1 2 3
(viii) Elements with 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons in their 5. No. of neutrons 0 1 2
atoms are metals.
 Note : Isotopes of oxygen :
Hydrogen and helium are exceptions to this rule.
Hydrogen and helium atoms have 1 and 2 valence
electrons respectively, but they are non-metals. 16 17 18
8O 8O
Oxygen isotopes
8O
(ix) Elements with 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 valence electrons in
1. Atomic number 8 8 8
their atoms are non metals.
e.g. carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O) are non 2. No. of protons 8 8 8

metals. 3. No. of electrons 8 8 8

6
C = 2,4 4. Mass number 16 17 18

7
N = 2,5 5. No. of neutrons 8 9 10
8
O = 2,6

 Note :
 Note :
Whether the atom while combining with other atoms
All the isotopes of an element have identical chemical
can form ionic or covalent bonds is determined by
the number of valence electrons present in the atom. properties.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (a) Characteristics of Isotopes :
ISOBARS
(i) The physical properties of the isotopes of an
element are different. This is due to the fact that The atoms of different elements with different atomic
isotopes have different numbers of neutrons in their numbers, which have same mass number are called
nuclei. Hence mass, density and other physical isobars.
properties of the isotopes of an element are different. e.g. 146 C and 147 N are isobars.
(ii) All the isotopes of an element contain the same
40
number of electrons. So, they have the same 18 Ar and 40
20 Ca are isobars.
electronic configuration with the same number of
valence electrons. Since the chemical properties of Isobars 40 40
18 Ar 20 Ca
an element are determined by the number of valence
electrons in its atom, all the isotopes of an element 1. Atomic number 18 20
have identical chemical properties. 2. Mass number 40 40
3. No. of electrons 18 20
(b) Reason for the Fractional Atomic Masses
4. No. of protons 18 20
of Elements :
5. No. of neutrons 22 20
The atomic masses of many elements are in fraction 6. Electronic configuration 2, 8, 8 2, 8, 8, 2
and not whole number. The fractional atomic masses
of elements are due to the existence of their isotopes  Note
having different masses. Isobars contain different number of electrons,
e.g. protons and neutrons.
The atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 u. Chlorine has
35 37
two isotopes 17 Cl and 17 Cl with abundance of 75% ISOTONES
and 25% respectively. Thus the average mass of a
Isotones may be defined as the atoms of different
chlorine atom will be 75% of 35 and 25% of 37, which
elements containing same number of neutrons.
is 35.5 u.
So, Average atomic mass of chlorine e.g. 136 C and 147 N (Both contain 7 neutrons)
75 25
30 31
= 35 ×
100
+ 37 ×
100 14 Si , 15 P and 32
16 S (All three contain 16 neutrons)
2625 925
= +
100 100 ISOELECTRONIC
= 26.25 + 9.25
= 35.5 u. Ion or atom or molecule which have the same number
Thus, the average atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 u. of electrons are called as isoelectronic species.
  2
(c) Applications of Radioactive Isotopes : e.g.
17Cl 18 Ar 19 K 20 Ca
(i) In agriculture : Certain elements such as boron, No. of electrons 18 18 18 18
cobalt, copper, manganese, zinc and molybdenum
are necessary in very minute quantities for plant
nutrition. By radioactive isotopes we can identify the EXERCISE-1
presence and requirement of these element in the
nutrition of plants. DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY & FUNDAMENTAL
PA RT ICLE OF AT OM
(ii) In industry : Isotopes are used for coating on the
arm of clock to see in dark. To identify the cracks in 1. Cathode rays :
metal casting.
(A) travel in straight line
(iii) In medicine :Thyroid, bone diseases, brain (B) can do mechanical work
tumors and cancer are controlled or destroyed with (C) are negatively charged
24
the help of radioactive isotope 11 Na, 131 32
53 Ι, 15P etc. (D) all of these
(iv) Determination of the mechanism of chemical 2. W hich of the following has the greatest mass ?
reaction by replacing an atom or molecule by its (A) electron (B) proton
isotopes. (C) neutron (D) hydrogen cation
(v) In carbon dating : Will and Libby (1960) developed
the technique of radiocarbon to determine the age of 3. W hich of the following rays does not have mass?
plant, fossil and archeological sample. (A) cathode rays
 Note : (B)  -rays
Isotopes (Like Uranium-238) are used in Nuclear (C) X-rays
reactor to produce energy and power. (D) anode rays

PAGE # 34
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
4. Which of the following is not the basic postulate of MODE RN ATOMI C ST RU CT UR E
Dalton’s atomic theory ? 13. Chlorine has atomic mass 35.5 . This mass is
(A) Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in a
fractional due to :
chemical reaction.
(A) existence of electrons
(B) In a given compound, the relative number and
(B) existence of isotopes having different masses
kinds of atoms are constant.
(C) Atoms of all elements are alike, including their (C) rapid conversion of proton into neutron and
masses. vice  versa in nucleus
(D) Each element is composed of extermely small (D) fractional atomic masses are meaningless
particles called atoms. 14. Hund’s rule states that -
(A) matter and radiation have a dual nature.
5. From the discharge tube experiment, it is concluded (B) in the orbitals of equivalent energy, pairing of
that : electrons begins only after all the orbitals have
(A) mass of proton is in fraction. been singly occupied by electron.
(B) matter contains electrons. (C) the position and velocity of an electron cannot be
(C) nucleus contains positive charge. exactly measured at the same time.
(D) positive rays are heavier than protons. (D) no two electrons in an atom can have the same
set of four quantum numbers.
ATOMI C MODE L
15. The electrons, identified by quantum numbers n and 
6. The ratio of the difference in energy of electron (i) n = 4,  = 1 (ii) n = 4,  = 0
between the first and second Bohr’s orbits to that (iii) n = 3,  = 2, (iv) n = 3 ,  = 1
between second and third Bohr’s orbits of H like atom can be placed in order of increasing energy from the
is - lowest to highest as -
(A) 1/3 (B) 27/5 (A) (iv) < (ii) < (iii) < (i) (B) (ii) < (iv) < (i) < (iii)
(C) 9/4 (D) 4/9 (C) (i) < (iii) < (ii) < (iv) (D) (iii) < (i) < (iv) < (ii)
16. If the nitrogen atom had electronic configuration 1s7,
7. The velocity of electron in the fourth Bohr’s orbit of
it would have energy lower than that of the normal
hydrogen is u. The velocity of the electron in the first
ground state configuration 1s2, 2s2 2p3, because the
orbit would be -
electrons would be closer to the nucleus. Yet 1s7 is
(A) 4u (B) 16u
not observed because it violates -
(C) u/4 (D) u/16
(A) Heisenberg uncertainty principle
(B) Hund’s Rule
8. The energy of electron in first orbit of He + is
(C) Pauli’s exclusion principle
– 871.6 × 10–20 J. The energy of electron in the first
(D) Bohr’s postulate of stationary orbits
orbit of H is :
(A) –871.6 × 10–20 J (B) –435.8 ×10–20 J
17. In any subshell, the maximum number of electrons
(C) –217.9 × 10–20 J (D) –108.9 × 10–20 J
having same value of spin quantum number is:

9. The energy of second Bohr’s orbit in H-atom is –328 (A) (   1) (B)  +2

kJ mol–1, hence the energy of fourth Bohr orbit would
be : (C) 2  +1 (D) 4  +2
(A) – 82 kJ mol–1 (B) –41 kJ mol–1 18. In ‘aufbau principle’, the term aufbau represents :
–1
(C) –1312 kJ mol (D) –164 kJ mol–1 (A) The name of scientist.
(B) German term meaning for building up.
10. According to classical theory, the proposed path of (C) The energy of electron.
an electron in Rutherford atomic model will be : (D) The angular momentum of electron.
(A) Circular (B) Straight line
(C) Parabolic (D) Spiral. 19. For azimuthal quantum number  = 3, the maximum
number of electrons will be :
11. Alpha-particles that come closer to nuclei in (A) 2 (B) 6
Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering experiment - (C) Zero (D) 14.
(A) are deflected more (B) are deflected less
(C) make more collisions. (D) none of these. 20. The n +  value for the 3p-energy level is :
(A) 4 (B) 7
12. The Bohr radius for the hydrogen atom(n = 1)is approx (C) 3 (D) 1
0.53 Å. The radius for the first excited state (n = 2 21. Which one represents an impossible arrangement ?
orbit) is (in Å) - n  m s
(A) 0.13 (B) 1.06 (A) 3 2 –2 1/2
(C) 4.77 (D) 2.12 (B) 4 0 0 1/2
(C) 3 2 –3 1/2
(D) 5 3 0 1/2

PAGE # 35
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
22. The number of vacant orbitals in the valence shell of 32. Two electrons A and B in an atom have the following
an element with atomic number 14 is : set of quantum numbers :
(A) 2 (B) 4 A : 3, 2, –2, + 1/2.
(C) 1 (D) 6 B : 3, 0, 0, +1/2.
23. n and  values of an orbital “A” are 3 and 2 and of Which statement is correct for A and B.
another orbital “B” are 5 and 0. The energy of : (A) A and B have same energy.
(A) B is more than A (B) A has more energy than B.
(B) A is more than B (C) B has more energy than A.
(C) A and B are of same energy (D) A and B represents same electron.
(D) None of the above 33. Which of the following has more number of unpaired
24. W hich of the following set of quantum numbers electron ?
correctly represents Beryllium’s fourth electron ? (A) Zn+ (B) Fe2+
2+
n  m s (C) Ni (D) Cu+
1 34. Number of electrons having  + m value equal to zero
(A) 1 0 0 –
2 in 26Fe may be
1 (A) 13 (B) 15
(B) 1 1 1 + (C) 7 (D) 12
2
1
(C) 2 0 0 –
2 EXERCISE-2
1
(D) 2 1 0 +
2 NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS

25. The number of subshells in the second energy level 1. K, L and M shells of an atom have 2, 8 and 5 electrons
is - respectively. The number of electrons in its p-orbitals
(A) 4 (B) 11 is - [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/05]
(C) 9 (D) 2 (A) 6 (B) 7
(C) 8 (D) 9
26. The number of orbitals in the fourth energy level is -
(A) 4 (B) 16 2. W hich of the following is correct electronic
(C) 32 (D) 9 configuration of argon ? [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) 2, 8 (B) 2, 8, 8
27. Azimuthal quantum number value for a dumb-bell
(C) 2, 8, 1 (D) 8, 2, 8
shaped orbital is :
(A) – 1 (B) 1 3. The electronic configuration of Cu2+ (Z = 29) ion is
(C) 0 (D) 2 [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/07]
28. The total number of orbitals in 3rd orbit is : (A) [ Ar ] 3d10 4s0 (B) [ Ar ] 3d10 4s1
9 0
(A) 3 (B) 5 (C) [ Ar ] 3d 4s (D) [ Ar ] 3d7 4s2
(C) 4 (D) 9 4. Isotopes of an element have –
29. W hich of the quantum numbers describe shape of [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/13]
electron cloud ? (A) same physical properties
(A) Principal quantum number (B) different chemical properties
(B) Azimuthal quantum number (C) different no. of neutrons
(C) Magnetic quantum number (D) different atomic number
(D) Spin quantum number. 5. The electronic configuration of an ion M2+ is 2,8,14. If
30. Correct set of all four quantum number for an un- its mass is 56, the number of neutrons in its nucleus
paired electron for 3d9 is : is : [Delhi NTSE Stage-I/13]
n  m s (A) 30 (B) 32
(A) 3, 2, – 3, + 1/2 (C) 34 (D) 42
(B) 3, 2, –2, – 1/2
6. Structure of nuclei of three atoms A, B and C are given
(C) 3, 3, +2 + 1/2
below - [Delhi NTSE Stage-I/13]
(D) 3, 3, + 2, – 1/2
A has 90 protons and 146 neutrons
B has 92 protons and 146 neutrons
31. The number of electrons with the azimuthal quantum
C has 90 protons and 148 neutrons
number  = 1 and 2 for 24Cr in ground state are :
Based on the above data, which of these atoms are
(A) 16 and 5 (B) 12 and 5
isotopes and which are isobars ?
(C) 16 and 4 (D) 12 and 4
(A) A and C are isotopes B and C are isobars
(B) A and B are isotopes A and C are isobars
(C) B and C are isobars A and B are isotopes
(D) A and C are isotopes A and B are isobars

PAGE # 36
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
7. Which of the following will have equal number of elec- 15. Atomic number of which element is 19 ?
trons ? [Delhi NTSE Stage-I/13] [Maharastra NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) Cl and Br (B) Na+ and Mg 2+ (A) Mg (B) K
(C) Ar and Ne (D) Mg2+ and Ca2+ (C) Ar (D) Ca

8. Three elements A, B and C have atomic number Z-1, 16. Which of the following pair is isoelectonic ?
Z and Z+2 respectively. B is a noble gas. The com-
(A) Na+, Ar (B) Mg++, Ca++
pound between A and C will be: +
(C) K , Ar (D) Na+, K
[Haryana NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) CA2 (B) CA 17. False statement for second period elements is-
(C) C2A (D) CA3 [Rajasthan NTSE Stage-I/14]
(A) change in number of electrons produces ions
9. The distribution of electrons in different shells in the
(B) numbers of protons and electrons are equal in
element with atomic number 25 is :
neutral atom
[HaryanaNTSE Stage-I/13]
(C) number of neutrons is less than the number of
(A) 2, 8, 15 (B) 2, 18, 5
protons in atoms
(C) 2, 8, 13, 2 (D) 2, 8, 8, 7
(D) change in the number of neutrons in atom
10. When two atoms combine to form molecule then : produces isotopes
[M.P. NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) energy is released 18. Neutronless neutral atom is :
(B) energy is abosrbed [Rajasthan NTSE Stage-I/14]
(C) energy is neither released nor absorbed (A) H (B) He
(D) energy may either be released or absorbed (C) Na (D) K
11. The electronic structure of four elements a, b c, d
19. Neutron was discovered by
respectively are : [M.P NTSE Stage-I/13]
[Madhya Pradesh NTSE Stage-I/14]
1s 2 1s2, 2s2, 2p2
1s2, 2s2, 2p5 1s2, 2s2, 2p6 (A) Thomson (B) Rutherford
(C) Chadwick (D) Niels Bohr
The tendency to form electrovalent bond will be largest in
(A) a (B) b 20. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a Cath-
(C) c (D) d ode Rays ? [Gujarat NTSE Stage-I/14]

12. Which statement is correct about a proton ? (A) It has a negative charge.

[M.P. NTSE Stage-I/13] (B) It deviates in the electric field

(A) It is nucleus of deuterium. (C) It passes through black opaque paper
(B) it is ionised hydrogen molecule. (D) It travels in straight line.
(C) it is ionised hydrogen atom.
21. Which rays are used to diagnose Intestinal cancer ?
(D) it is -particle.
[Gujarat NTSE Stage-I/14]
13. Which of the following statements is incorrect? (A) Laser Rays (B) Cathode Rays
[M.P. NTSE Stage-I/13] (C) X-Rays (D)  Rays
(A) Charges on an electron and proton are equal and
opposite. 22. How many times weight of proton is greater than the
(B) Neutron have no charge. mass of the electron ? [Gujarat NTSE Stage-I/14]
(C) Electron and proton have same mass. (A) 1838 (B) 1836
(D) Masses of proton and neutron are nearly the same. (C) 1338 (D) 1336
14. Electronic configuration of copper (atomic No. Cu –
23. ‘Proton’ is : [Karnataka NTSE Stage-I/14]
29) is : [Karnataka NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) Nucleus of Deuterium
(A) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2 4p1
(B) Ionised hydrogen molecule
(B) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 4s1 4p1
(C) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s1 4p1 (C) Ionised hydrogen atom
(D) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1 4p0 (D) An alpha particle

PAGE # 37
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
24. W hich of the following do not represent Electronic 28. Electron was discovered by......................
configuration correctly ? [M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15]
[Maharashtra_NTSE Stage-I/15] (A) Chadwick (B) Rutherford
(C) Thomson (D) Niel’s Bohr

29. What are the electronic configurations of Na+ and Cl–

ions ? [Delhi_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) Na+ = 2, 8, 1 and Cl– = 2, 8, 7
(B) Na+ = 2, 8 and Cl– = 2, 8, 8
(C) Na+ = 2, 8, 2 and Cl– = 2, 8, 6
(a) (b)
(D) Na+ = 2, 8 and Cl– = 2, 8, 7

30. In the helium atom, the number of electrons in L-

shell will be : [Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) 0 (B) 2
(C) 8 (D) 6

31. The value of ‘X’ in K2 Al2 ( SO4)x. 24H2O is ………

[Andhra Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(c) (d)
(A) 1 (B) 2
(C) 3 (D) 4
(A) (a) & (b) (B) (b) & (d)
(C) (b) & (c) (D) (a) & (d) 32. How many orbitals can have the following set of

quantum numbers : n = 3,  = 2, m1 = – 2
25. Arrange of the following consist of one electron, one
[Andhra Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
proton and zero neutron ?
(A) 1 (B) 8
[Maharashtra_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(C) 2 (D) 4
(A) 1H2 (B) 1H1
(C) 1H3 (D) 2He4
33. W hile roaming in a parallel universe, you discover
the hypothetical element ‘X’. You obtain a represen-
e
26. The ascending order of (charge/mass) value for tative sample of the element and discover that it is
m made up of three isotopes, X-48, X-52, X-54 To help
electron (e), proton(p), neutron(n) and alpha()
your science team, calculate the atomic mass of the
particle is [West Bengal_NTSE Stage-I/15]
substance. You send the following drawing of your
(A) e, p, n,  (B) n, p, e, 
sample with you report.
(C) n, , p, e (D) n, p, , e
[Andhra Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]

27. Structure of nuclei of three atoms X,Y and Z are as

follows : [M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15]
(1) X has 90 Protons and 146 Neutrons.
(2) Y has 92 Protons and 146 Neutrons.
(3) Z has 90 Protons and 148 Neutrons.
Which of the following statement is correct based on
above data ? [M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) X and Z are isotopes ; Y and Z are isobars.
(B) X and Y are isotopes; X and Z are isobars.
(C) Y and Z are isobars ; X and Z are isobars. In the report you also inform the science team that
(D) X and Z are isotopes ; X and Y are isobars. the circular ;atoms are X-48, star atoms are X-52 and
the remaining crossed circular atoms are X-54 What
is the average atomic mass of X ?
(A) 50.5 (B) 51.5
(C) 52.5 (D) 53.5

PAGE # 38
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
34. An ion with mass number 56 contains 3 units of 39. Number of valence electrons in Magnesium is
positive charge and 30.4% more neutrons than [Raj. NTSE Stage-1/2016]
electrons. Atomic number of the element is (A) 12 (B) 10
[West Bengal NTSE Stage-1/ 2015] (C) 8 (D) 2
(A) 24 (B) 25 (C) 26 (D) 27.
40. Number of which among the following is same in
21
35. If 10 molecules of CO2 are removed from 200 mg of Al+3 and F- ? [Raj. NTSE Stage-1/2016]
CO2 sample, then the number of moles of CO2 left are (A) Proton (B) Neutron
[Delhi NTSE Stage-1/ 2015] (C) Atomic mass (D) Electron
(A) 2.88  10?3 (B) 4.54  10–3
(C) 1.66  10–3 (D) 1.66  10–2 41. Electronic configuration of an atom is 2,8,1. Which of
the following elements is similar with it in chemical
36. How many sub-atomic particles are present in an - reactivity ? [Raj. NTSE Stage-1/2016]
particle used in Rutherford’s scattering experiment ? (A) K (B) Cl
[NTSE Stage-2/ 2015] (C) N (D) Ar.
No. of No. of No. of
protons Neutrons Electrons
(A) 4 0 0
(B) 2 0 2
(C) 2 2 0
(D) 2 2 1

69
37. A certain sample of element Z contains 60% of Z
71
and 40% of Z. What is the relative atomic mass of
element Z in this sample ? [NTSE Stage-2/ 2015]
(A) 69.2 (B) 69.8
(C) 70.0 (D) 70.2

38. Consider following as a portion of the periodic table

from Group No. 13 to 17. W hich of the following
statments is are true about the elements shown in
it ? [NTSE Stage-2/ 2015]
(I) V, W, X and Z are less electropositive than X.
(II) V, W, X and Y are more electronegative than Z.
(III) Atomic size of Y is greater than that of W.
(IV) Atomic size of W is smaller than that of X.

V Z
W Y

(A) I, II and III (B) II and III

(C) I and IV (D) III and IV

PAGE # 39
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 MOLE CONCEPT

ATOMS
The symbol of Copper is Cu (from its Latin name
All the matter is made up of atoms. An atom is the Cuprum)
smallest particle of an element that can take part in a It should be noted that in a "two letter" symbol, the
chemical reaction. Atoms of most of the elements first letter is the "capital letter" but the second letter is
the small letter
are very reactive and do not exist in the free state (as
single atom).They exist in combination with the atoms Symbol Derived from English Names
of the same element or another element. English Name of
Atoms are very, very small in size. The size of an atom Symbol
the Element
is indicated by its radius which is called "atomic Hydrogen H
radius" (radius of an atom). Atomic radius is Helium He
measured in "nanometres"(nm). Lithium Li
1 metre = 109 nanometre or 1nm = 10-9 m. Boron B
Atoms are so small that we cannot see them under Carbon C
the most powerful optical microscope. Nitrogen N
 Note : Oxygen O
Fluorine F
Hydrogen atom is the smallest atom of all , having an Neon Ne
atomic radius 0.037nm. Magnesium Mg
(a) Symbols of Elements :  Aluminium Al
Silicon Si
A symbol is a short hand notation of an element which Phosphorous P
can be represented by a sketch or letter etc. Sulphur S
Dalton was the first to use symbols to represent
Chlorine Cl
elements in a short way but Dalton's symbols for
Argon Ar
element were difficult to draw and inconvenient to
Calcium Ca
use, so Dalton's symbols are only of historical
importance. They are not used at all. Symbols Derived from Latin Names

English Name of Latin Name of

Symbol
the Element the Element

Sodium Na Natrium

It was J.J. Berzelius who proposed the modern
system of representing an element.
The symbol of an element is the "first letter" or the
"first letter and another letter" of the English name or
the Latin name of the element.
e.g. The symbol of Hydrogen is H.
The symbol of Oxygen is O.
There are some elements whose names begin with
the same letter. For example, the names of elements
Carbon, Calcium, Chlorine and Copper all begin with
the letter C. In such cases, one of the elements is
given a "one letter "symbol but all other elements are
given a "first letter and another letter" symbol of the
English or Latin name of the element. This is to be
noted that "another letter" may or may not be the
"second letter" of the name. Thus,
The symbol of Carbon is C.
The symbol of Calcium is Ca.
The symbol of Chlorine is Cl.
Potassium K Kalium
(b ) S ig ni fi ca nc e of The S ym bol of a n
Element :
(i) Symbol represents name of the element.
(ii) Symbol represents one atom of the element.
(iii) Symbol also represents one mole of the element.
That is, symbol also represent 6.023 × 1023 atoms of
the element.
(iv) Symbol represent a definite mass of the element
i.e. atomic mass of the element.
Example :
(i) Symbol H represents hydrogen element.
(ii) Symbol H also represents one atom of hydrogen
element.
(iii) Symbol H also represents one mole of hydrogen
atom.
(iv) Symbol H also represents one gram hydrogen
atom.

PAGE # 40
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division

IONS
An ion is a positively or negatively charged atom or
group of atoms.
Every atom contains equal number of electrons
(negatively charged) and protons (positively charged).
Both charges balance each other, hence atom is
electrically neutral.
(a) Cation :
If an atom has less electrons than a neutral atom,
then it gets positively charged and a positively
charged ion is known as cation.
e.g. Sodium ion (Na+), Magnesium ion (Mg2+) etc.
A cation bears that much units of positive charge as
there are the number of electrons lost by the neutral
atom to form that cation.
e.g. An aluminium atom loses 3 electrons to form
aluminium ion, so aluminium ion bears 3 units of
positive charge and it is represented as Al3+ .
(b) Anion :
If an atom has more number of electrons than that of
neutral atom, then it gets negatively charged and a
negatively charged ion is known as anion.
e.g. Chloride ion (Cl¯), oxide ion (O2-) etc.
LIST OF COMMON ELECTROVALENT POSITIVE RADICALS
LIST OF COMMON ELECTROVALENT NEGATIVE RADICALS
 Note :
Cation contains less no. of electrons and anion contains more no. of electrons than the no. of protons present in
them.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
An anion bears that much units of negative charge as
there are the number of electrons gained by the
neutral atom to form that anion.
e.g. A nitrogen atom gains 3 electrons to form nitride
ion, so nitride ion bears 3 units of negative charge
and it is represented as N3-.
 Note :
Size of a cation is always smaller and anion is always
greater than that of the corresponding neutral atom.
(c) Monoatomic ions and polyatomic ions :
(i) Monoatomic ions : Those ions which are formed
from single atoms are called monoatomic ions or
simple ions.
e.g. Na+, Mg2+ etc.
(ii) Polyatomic ions : Those ions which are formed
from group of atoms j oined together are called
polyatomic ions or compound ions.
e.g. Ammonium ion (NH4+) , hydroxide ion (OH–) etc.
which are formed by the joining of two types of atoms,
nitrogen and hydrogen in the first case and oxygen and
hydrogen in the second.
(d) Valency of ions :
The valency of an ion is same as the charge present
on the ion.
If an ion has 1 unit of positive charge, its valency is 1
and it is known as a monovalent cation. If an ion has
2 units of negative charge, its valency is 2 and it is
known as a divalent anion.
PAGE # 41

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
The laws of chemical combination are the
experimental laws which led to the idea of
atoms being the smallest unit of matter. The laws of
chemical combination played a significant role in the
development of Dalton’s atomic theory of matter.
There are two important laws of chemical combination.
These are:
(i) Law of conservation of mass
(ii) Law of constant proportions
(a) Law of Conservation of Mass or Matter :
This law was given by Lavoisier in 1774 . According to
the law of conservation of mass, matter can neither
be created nor be destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Or
The law of conservation of mass means that in a
chemical reaction, the total mass of products is equal
to the total mass of the reactants. There is no change
in mass during a chemical reaction.
Suppose we carry out a chemical reaction between A
and B and if the products formed are C and D then,
A + B  C + D
Suppose 'a' g of A and 'b' g of B react to produce 'c' g of
C and 'd' g of D. Then, according to the law of
conservation of mass, we have,
a+b = c+d
Example :
W hen Calcium Carbonate (CaCO 3 ) is heated, a
chemical reaction takes place to form Calcium Oxide
(CaO) and Carbon dioxide (CO2). It has been found
by experiments that if 100 grams of calcium carbonate
is decomposed completely, then 56 grams of Calcium
Oxide and 44 grams of Carbon dioxide are formed.
Since the total mass of products (100g ) is equal to
the total mass of the reactants (100g), there is no
change in the mass during this chemical reaction.
The mass remains same or conserved.
(b) Law of Const ant Proport ions / La w of
Definite Proportions :
Proust, in 1779, analysed the chemical composition
(types of elements present and percentage of
elements present ) of a large number of compounds
and came to the conclusion that the proportion of
each element in a compound is constant (or fixed).
According to the law of constant proportions: A
chemical compound always consists of the same
elements combined together in the same proportion
by mass.
 Note :
The chemical composition of a pure substance is
not dependent on the source from which it is obtained.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
Example :
Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. It can
be obtained from various sources (like river, sea, well
etc.) or even synthesized in the laboratory. From
whatever source we may get it, 9 parts by weight of
water is always found to contain 1 part by weight of
hydrogen and 8 parts by weight of oxygen. Thus, in
water, this proportion of hydrogen and oxygen always
remains constant.
 Note :
The converse of Law of definite proportions that when
same elements combine in the same proportion, the
same compound will be formed, is not always true.
(c) Law of Multiple Proportions :
According to it, when one element combines with the
other element to form two or more different compounds,
the mass of one element, which combines with a
constant mass of the other, bears a simple ratio to
one another.
Simple ratio means the ratio between small natural
numbers, such as 1 : 1, 1 : 2, 1 : 3
e.g.
Carbon and oxygen when combine, can form two
oxides that are CO (carbon monoxide), CO2 (carbon
dioxide).
In CO,12 g carbon combined with 16 g of oxygen.
In CO2,12 g carbon combined with 32 g of oxygen.
Thus, we can see the mass of oxygen which combine
with a constant mass of carbon (12 g) bear simple
ratio of 16 : 32 or 1 : 2
 Note :
The law of multiple proportion was given by Dalton in
1808.
Sample Problem :
1. Carbon is found to form two oxides, which contain
42.8% and 27.27% of carbon respectively. Show that
these figures illustrate the law of multiple proportions.
Sol. % of carbon in first oxide = 42.8
 % of oxygen in first oxide = 100 - 42.8 = 57.2
% of carbon in second oxide = 27.27
 % of oxygen in second oxide = 100 - 27.27 = 72.73
For the first oxide -
Mass of oxygen in grams that combines with 42.8 g
of carbon = 57.2
 Mass of oxygen that combines with 1 g of carbon =
57.2
 1.34 g
42.8
For the second oxide -
Mass of oxygen in grams that combines with 27.27 g
of carbon = 72.73
 Mass of oxygen that combines with 1 g of carbon =
72.73
 2.68 g
27.27
Ratio between the masses of oxygen that combine
with a fixed mass (1 g) of carbon in the two oxides
= 1.34 : 2.68 or 1 : 2 which is a simple ratio. Hence,
this illustrates the law of multiple proportion.
PAGE # 42
 (d) Law of Reciprocal Proportions :
According to this law the ratio of the weights of two
element A and B which combine separately with a
fixed weight of the third element C is either the same
or some simple multiple of the ratio of the weights in
which A and B combine directly with each other.
e.g.
The elements C and O combine separately with the
third element H to form CH4 and H2O and they combine
directly with each other to form CO2.
4 H2
CH4 H2O
12 16
C O
12 CO2 32
In CH4, 12 parts by weight of carbon combine with 4
parts by weight of hydrogen. In H2O, 2 parts by weight
of hydrogen combine with 16 parts by weight of
oxygen. Thus the weight of C and O which combine
with fixed weight of hydrogen (say 4 parts by weight)
are 12 and 32 i.e. they are in the ratio 12 : 32 or 3 : 8.
Now in CO2, 12 parts by weight of carbon combine
directly with 32 parts by weight of oxygen i.e. they
combine directly in the ratio 12 : 32 or 3 : 8 which is
the same as the first ratio.
 Note :
The law of reciprocal proportion was put forward by
Ritcher in 1794.
Sample Problem :
2. Ammonia contains 82.35% of nitrogen and 17.65%
of hydrogen. Water contains 88.90% of oxygen and
11.10% of hydrogen. Nitrogen trioxide contains
63.15% of oxygen and 36.85% of nitrogen. Show that
these data illustrate the law of reciprocal proportions.
Sol
In NH3, 17.65 g of H combine with N = 82.35 g
82.35
 1g of H combine with N = g = 4.67 g
17.65
In H2O, 11.10 g of H combine with O = 88.90 g
88.90
 1 g H combine with O =
11.10
 Ratio of the weights of N and O which combine
with fixed weight (=1g) of H
= 4.67 : 8.01 = 1 : 1.72
In N2O3, ratio of weights of N and O which combine
with each other = 36.85 : 63.15 = 1 : 1.71
Thus the two ratio are the same. Hence it illustrates
the law of reciprocal proportions.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(e) Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes :
Gay Lussac found that there exists a definite
relationship among the volumes of the gaseous
reactants and their products. In 1808, he put forward
a generalization known as the Gay Lussac’s Law of
combining volumes. This may be stated as follows :
W hen gases react together, they always do so in
volumes which bear a simple ratio to one another
and to the volumes of the product, if these are also
gases, provided all measurements of volumes are
done under similar conditions of temperature and
pressure.
e.g.
Combination between hydrogen and chlorine to form
hydrogen chloride gas. One volume of hydrogen and
one volume of chlorine always combine to form two
volumes of hydrogen chloride gas.
H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) 2HCl (g)
1vol. 1 vol. 2 vol.
The ratio between the volume of the reactants and
the product in this reaction is simple, i.e., 1 : 1 : 2.
Hence it illustrates the Law of combining volumes.
(f) Avogadr o’s H ypot hesi s :
This states that equal volumes of all gases under
similar conditions of temperature and pressure
contain equal number of molecules.
This hypothesis has been found to explain elegantly
all the gaseous reactions and is now widely
recognized as a law or a principle known as Avogadro’s
Law or Avogadro’s principle.
The reaction between hydrogen and chlorine can be
explained on the basis of Avogadro’s Law as follows :
Hydrogen + Chlorine Hydrogen chloride gas
1 vol. 1 vol. 2 vol. (By experiment)
n molecules. n molecules. 2n molecules.(By Avogadro's Law)
1 molecules. 1 molecules.
1 molecules. (By dividing throughout by 2n)
2 2
1 Atom 1 Atom
1 Molecule (Applying Avogadro's hypothesis)
It implies that one molecule of hydrogen chloride gas
is made up of 1 atom of hydrogen and 1 atom of
g = 8.01 g chlorine.
(i) Applications of Avogadro’s hypothesis :
(A) In the calculation of atomicity of elementary
gases.
e.g.
2 volumes of hydrogen combine with 1 volume of
oxygen to form two volumes of water vapours.
Hydrogen + Oxygen  Water vapours
2 vol. 1 vol. 2 vol.
PAGE # 43
 Applying Avogadro’s hypothesis
GRAM-ATOMIC MASS
Hydrogen + Oxygen  Water vapours
2 n molecules n molecules 2 n molecules The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams
1 is called the Gram Atomic Mass of the element.
or 1 molecule molecule 1 molecule
2 The number of gram -atoms
1
Thus1 molecule of water contains molecule of
=
Mass of the element in grams
2
oxygen. But 1 molecule of water contains 1 atom of Gram Atomic mass of the element
e.g.
1
oxygen. Hence. molecule of oxygen = 1 atom of Calculate the gram atoms present in (i) 16g of oxygen
2
oxygen or 1 molecules of oxygen = 2 atoms of oxygen and (ii) 64g of sulphur.
i.e. atomicity of oxygen = 2.
(B) To find the relationship between molecular mass (i) The atomic mass of oxygen = 16.
and vapour density of a gas.
 Gram-Atomic Mass of oxygen (O) = 16 g.
Density of gas 16
Vapour density (V.D.) = Density of hydrogen No. of Gram-Atoms = =1
16
(ii) The gram-atoms present in 64 grams of sulphur.
Mass of a certain volume of the gas
=
Mass of the same volume of hydrogen at 64 64
the same temp. and pressur e = Gram Atomic Mass of sulphur = =2
32
If n molecules are present in the given volume of a gas
Atomic Atomic
and hydrogen under similar conditions of temperature
and pressure. Number Element Symbol mass
1 Hydrogen H 1
Mass of n molecules of the gas
V.D. = Mass of n molecules of hydrogen 2 Helium He 4
3 Lithium Li 7
Mass of 1 molecule of the gas 4 Beryllium Be 9
= Mass of 1 molecule of hydrogen
5 Boron B 11
Molecular mass of the gas 6 Carbon C 12
= Molecular mass of hydrogen 7 Nitrogen N 14
8 Oxygen O 16
Molecular mass 9 Fluorine F 19
=
2 10 Neon Ne 20
(since molecular mass of hydrogen is 2) 11 Sodium Na 23
Hence, Molecular mass = 2 × Vapour density
12 Magnesium Mg 24
ATOMIC MASS UNIT 13 Aluminium Al 27
14 Silicon Si 28
The atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to one-twelfth 15 Phosphorus P 31
(1/12) of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.The mass 16 Sulphur S 32
of an atom of carbon-12 isotope was given the atomic 17 Chlorine Cl 35.5
mass of 12 units, i.e. 12 amu or 12 u.
18 Argon Ar 40
The atomic masses of all other elements are now
expressed in atomic mass units. 19 Potassium K 39
20 Calcium Ca 40
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS
The atomic mass of an element is a relative quantity The relative molecular mass of a substance is the
and it is the mass of one atom of the element relative mass of a molecule of the substance as compared
to one -twelfth (1/12) of the mass of one carbon-12
to one-twelfth of the mass of one carbon -12 atom
atom. Thus, Relative atomic mass
i.e.,
Mass of one atom of the element Relative molecular mass
=
1
 mass of one C  12 atom Mass of one molecule of the substance
12 =
[1/12 the mass of one C-12 atom = 1 amu, 1 amu = 1
 mass of one C  12 atom
1.66 × 10–24 g = 1.66 × 10–27 kg.] 12
 Note : The molecular mass of a molecule, thus, represents
One amu is also called one dalton (Da). the number of times it is heavier than 1/12 of the
mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope.

PAGE # 44
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 GRAM MOLECULAR MASS EQUIVALENT MASS

The molecular mass of a substance expressed in (a) Definition :

grams is called the Gram Molecular Mass of the
substance . The number of gram molecules
Mass of the subs tance in grams
=
Gram molecular mass of the subs t ance
e.g.
(i) Molecular mass of hydrogen (H2) = 2u.
 Gram Molecular Mass of hydrogen (H2) = 2 g .
Equivalent mass of an element is the mass of the
element which combine with or displaces 1.008 parts
by mass of hydrogen or 8 parts by mass of oxygen or
35.5 parts by mass of chlorine.
(b) Formulae of Equivalent Masses of different
substances :
(i) Equivalent mass of an element =
Atomic wt. of the element
Valency of the element

(ii) Molecular mass of methane (CH4) = 16u Mol. wt. of the acid
(ii) Eq. mass an acid =
 Gram Molecular Mass of methane (CH4) = 16 g. Basicity of the acid

e.g. the number of gram molecules present in 64 g of Basicity is the number of replaceable H + ions from
one molecule of the acid.
methane (CH 4).
Mol. wt. of the base
64 64 (iii) Eq. Mass of a base =
Acidity of the base
= Gram molecular mass of CH = = 4.
4 16 Acidity is the number of replaceable OH – ions from
(a) Calculation of Molecular Mass : one molecule of the base
(iv) Eq. mass of a salt
The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of
the atomic masses of its constituent atoms present Mol. wt. of the salt
=
in a molecule. Number of metal atoms  valency of metal

Ex.3 Calculate the molecular mass of water. Formula wt. of the ion
(v) Eq. mass of an ion =
(Atomic masses : H = 1u, O = 16u). Charge on the ion
Sol. The molecular formula of water is H2O.
(vi) Eq. mass of an oxidizing/reducing agent
Molecular mass of water = ( 2 × atomic mass of H)
+ (1 × atomic mass of O) Mol wt. or At. wt
=
= 2 × 1 + 1 × 16 = 18 No. of electrons lost or gained by one
i.e., molecular mass of water = 18 amu. molecule of the substance

Ex.4 Find out the molecular mass of sulphuric acid. Equivalent weight of some compounds are given in
(Atomic mass : H = 1u, O = 16u, S = 32u). the table :

Sol. The molecular formula of sulphuric acid is H2SO4. Equivalent

S.No. Compound
 Molecular mass of H2SO4 weight
= (2 × atomic mass of H) + ( 1 × atomic mass of S) 1 HCl 36.5
+ ( 4 × atomic mass of O)
2 H2SO4 49
= (2 × 1) + (1× 32) + (4×16) = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98
i.e., Molecular mass of H2SO4= 98 amu. 3 HNO3 63

FORMULA MASS 4 45
COOH
The term ‘formula mass’ is used for ionic compounds
and others where discrete molecules do not exist,
e.g., sodium chloride, which is best represented as 5 63
.2H2O
(Na+ Cl–)n, but for reasons of simplicity as NaCl or COOH
Na+Cl–. Here, formula mass means the sum of the
6 NaOH 40
masses of all the species in the formula.
Thus, the formula mass of sodium chloride = (atomic 7 KOH 56
mass of sodium) + (atomic mass of chlorine) 8 CaCO3 50
= 23 + 35.5 9 NaCl 58.5
= 58.5 amu
10 Na2CO3 53

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 SOME IMPORTANT RELATIONS AND FORMULAE
(i) 1 mole of atoms = Gram Atomic mass = mass of
In Latin, mole means heap or collection or pile. A
6.023 × 1023 atoms
mole of atoms is a collection of atoms whose total
mass is the number of grams equal to the atomic (ii) 1 mole of molecules = Gram Molecular Mass
mass in magnitude. Since an equal number of moles = 6.023 x 1023 molecules
of different elements contain an equal number of (iii) Number of moles of atoms
atoms, it becomes convenient to express the
amounts of the elements in terms of moles. A mole Mass of element in grams
represents a definite number of particles, viz, atoms, =
Gram Atomic Mass of element
molecules, ions or electrons. This definite number is
called the Avogadro Number (now called the Avogadro (iv) Number of moles of molecules
constant) which is equal to 6.023 × 1023.
Mass of substance in grams
A mole is defined as the amount of a substance that =
Gram Molecular Mass of substance
contains as many atoms, molecules, ions, electrons
or other elementary particles as there are atoms in (v) Number of moles of molecules
exactly 12 g of carbon -12 (12C).
No. of molecules of element N
(a) Moles of Atoms : = 
Avogadro number NA
(i) 1 mole atoms of any element occupy a mass which
is equal to the Gram Atomic Mass of that element. Ex.5 To calculate the number of moles in 16 grams of
Sulphur (Atomic mass of Sulphur = 32 u).
e.g. 1 Mole of oxygen atoms weigh equal to Gram
Atomic Mass of oxygen, i.e. 16 grams. Sol. 1 mole of atoms = Gram Atomic Mass.
So, 1 mole of Sulphur atoms = Gram Atomic Mass of
(ii) The symbol of an element represents 6.023 x 1023
Sulphur = 32 grams.
atoms (1 mole of atoms) of that element.
Now, 32 grams of Sulphur = 1 mole of Sulphur
e.g : Symbol N represents 1 mole of nitrogen atoms So, 16 grams of Sulphur
and 2N represents 2 moles of nitrogen atoms. = (1/32) x 16 = 0.5 moles
(b) Moles of Molecules : Thus, 16 grams of Sulphur constitute 0.5 mole of
Sulphur.
(i) 1 mole molecules of any substance occupy a mass
which is equal to the Gram Molecular Mass of that 22.4 litre
substance.
e.g. : 1 mole of water (H2O) molecules weigh equal to In term of
volume
Gram Molecular Mass of water (H2O), i.e. 18 grams.
6.023 × 1023 6.023 × 1023
(ii) The symbol of a compound represents 6.023 x (NA) Atoms In terms of (NA) molecules
10 23 molecules (1 mole of molecules) of that particles
compound. 1 Mole

e.g. : Symbol H 2O represents 1 mole of water In terms of

mass
molecules and 2 H 2O represents 2 moles of water
molecules.
1 gram atom 1 gram molecule 1 gram formula
 Note : of element of substance mass of substance

The symbol H 2O does not represent 1 mole of H 2

molecules and 1 mole of O atoms. Instead, it
represents 2 moles of hydrogen atoms and 1 mole PROBLEMS BASED ON THE MOLE CONCEPT
of oxygen atoms.
 Note : Ex.6 Calculate the number of moles in 5.75 g of
The SI unit of the amount of a substance is Mole. sodium. (Atomic mass of sodium = 23 u)
Sol. Number of moles
(c) Mole in Terms of Volume :
Volume occupied by 1 Gram Molecular Mass or 1 Mass of the element in grams 5.75
mole of a gas under standard conditions of = = = 0.25 mole
Gram Atomic Mass of element 23
temperature and pressure (273 K and 1atm.
pressure) is called Gram Molecular Volume. Its value or,
is 22.4 litres for each gas. 1 mole of sodium atoms = Gram Atomic mass of
Volume of 1 mole = 22.4 litre (at STP) sodium = 23g.
23 g of sodium = 1 mole of sodium.
 Note :
The term mole was introduced by Ostwald in 1896. 5.75
5.75 g of sodium = mole of sodium = 0.25 mole
23

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
Ex.7 W hat is the mass in grams of a single atom of Ex.13 What mass in grams is represented by
chlorine ? (Atomic mass of chlorine = 35.5u) (a) 0.40 mol of CO2,
Sol. Mass of 6.022 × 10 23 atoms of Cl = Gram Atomic (b) 3.00 mol of NH3,
Mass of Cl = 35.5 g.
(c) 5.14 mol of H5IO6
35.5 g (Atomic masses : C=12 u, O=16 u, N=14 u,
 Mass of 1 atom of Cl = = 5.9 × 10–23 g.
6.022  10 23 H=1 u and I = 127 u)
Ex.8 The density of mercury is 13.6 g cm . How many –3 Sol. W eight in grams = number of moles × molecular
moles of mercury are there in 1 litre of the metal ? mass.
(Atomic mass of Hg = 200 u). Hence,
Sol. Mass of mercury (Hg) in grams = Density (a) mass of CO2 = 0.40 × 44 = 17.6 g
(g cm–3)× Volume (cm3) (b) mass of NH3 = 3.00 × 17 = 51.0 g
= 13.6 g cm–3 × 1000 cm3 = 13600 g. (c) mass of H5IO6 = 5.14 × 228 = 1171.92g
 Number of moles of mercury
Ex.14 Calculate the volume in litres of 20 g of hydrogen
Mass of mercury in grams 13600 gas at STP.
= Gram Atomic Mass of mercury = = 68
200 Sol. Number of moles of hydrogen
Ex.9 The mass of a single atom of an element M is Mass of hydrogen in grams 20
3.15× 10–23 g . What is its atomic mass ? What = =
= 10
Gram Molecular Mass of hydrogen
2
could the element be ?
 Volume of hydrogen = number of moles × Gram
Sol. Gram Atomic Mass = mass of 6.022 × 1023 atoms
= mass of 1 atom × 6.022 × 1023 Molecular Volume.
= (3.15 × 10–23g) × 6.022 × 1023 = 10 ×22.4 = 224 litres.
= 3.15 × 6.022 g = 18.97 g. Ex.15 The molecular mass of H 2 SO 4 is 98 amu.
 Atomic Mass of the element = 18.97u Calculate the number of moles of each element
Thus, the element is most likely to be fluorine. in 294 g of H2SO4.
294
Ex.10 An atom of neon has a mass of 3.35 × 10 –23 g. Sol. Number of moles of H2SO4 = =3.
How many atoms of neon are there in 20 g of the 98
gas ? The formula H 2SO 4 indicates that 1 molecule of
H2SO 4 contains 2 atoms of H, 1 atom of S and 4
Sol. Number of atoms
atoms of O. Thus, 1 mole of H 2SO 4 will contain 2
Total mass = 20 moles of H,1 mole of S and 4 moles of O atoms
= = 5.97 × 1023 Therefore, in 3 moles of H2SO4 :
Mass of 1 atom 3.35  10 – 23
Number of moles of H = 2 × 3 = 6
Ex.11 How many grams of sodium will have the same Number of moles of S = 1 × 3 = 3
number of atoms as atoms present in 6 g of Number of moles of O = 4 × 3 = 12
magnesium ? Ex.16 Find the mass of oxygen contained in 1 kg of
(Atomic masses : Na = 23u ; Mg =24u) potassium nitrate (KNO 3).
Sol. Number of gram -atom of Mg Sol. Since 1 molecule of KNO 3 contains 3 atoms of
oxygen, 1 mol of KNO 3 contains 3 moles of
Mass of Mg in grams 6 1 oxygen atoms.
= Gram Atomic Mass = =
24 4  Moles of oxygen atoms = 3 × moles of KNO3
1 1000
 Gram Atoms of sodium should be = =3× = 29.7
4 101
 1 Gram Atom of sodium = 23 g (Gram Molecular Mass of KNO3 = 101 g)
 Mass of oxygen = Number of moles × Atomic
1 1 m a ss
gram atoms of sodium = 23 × = 5.75 g
4 4 = 29.7 × 16 = 475.2 g
Ex.17 You are asked by your teacher to buy 10 moles of
Ex.12 How many moles of Cr are there in 85g of Cr2S3 ?
distilled water from a shop where small bottles
(Atomic masses : Cr = 52 u , S =32 u) each containing 20 g of such water are available.
Sol. Molecular mass of Cr2S3 = 2 × 52 + 3 × 32 = 104 How many bottles will you buy ?
+ 96 = 200 u. Sol. Gram Molecular Mass of water (H2O) = 18 g
200g of Cr2S3 contains = 104 g of Cr.  10 mol of distilled water = 18 × 10 = 180 g.
104  85 Because 20 g distilled water is contained in 1
 85 g of Cr2S3 contains = g of Cr = 44.2g bottle,
200
180
44.2 180 g of distilled water is contained in =
Thus, number of moles of Cr = = 0.85 . 20
52 bottles = 9 bottles.
 Number of bottles to be bought = 9

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
Ex.18 6.022 × 1023 molecules of oxygen (O2) is equal to (iii) If the simplest ratio is fractional, then values of
how many moles ? simplest ratio of each element is multiplied by
Sol. No. of moles = smallest integer to get the simplest whole number
for each of the element.
No. of molecules of oxygen N 6.023  10 23
 = =1 (iv) To get the empirical formula, symbols of various
Avogadro' s no. of molecules N 6.023  10 23
A elements present are written side by side with their
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION respective whole number ratio as a subscript to the
lower right hand corner of the symbol.
The percentage composition of elements in a
compound is calculated from the molecular formula (v) The molecular formula of a substance may be
determined from the empirical formula if the molecular
of the compound.
mass of the substance is known. The molecular
The molecular mass of the compound is calculated
formula is always a simple multiple of empirical
from the atomic masses of the various elements
formula and the value of simple multiple (n) is
present in the compound. The percentage by mass
obtained by dividing molecular mass with empirical
of each element is then computed with the help of the formula mass.
following relations.
Molecular Mass
Percentage mass of the element in the compound n =
Empirical Formula Mass
Total mass of the element
= × 100 Ex-22.A compound of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen
Molecular mass
contains these elements in the ratio of 9:1:3.5 respectively.
Ex.19 W hat is the percentage of calcium in calcium
Calculate the empirical formula. If its molecular mass is
carbonate (CaCO3) ?
108, what is the molecular formula ?
Sol. Molecular mass of CaCO 3 = 40 + 12 + 3 × 16
= 100 amu. Sol. Element
Mass Atomic Relative Number Simplest
Ratio Mass of Atoms Ratio
Mass of calcium in 1 mol of CaCO3 = 40g.
9
Carbon 9 12  0.75 0.75×4 = 3
40  100 12
Percentage of calcium = = 40 %
100 1
Hydrogen 1 1  1 1×4=4
1
Ex.20 What is the percentage of sulphur in sulphuric
3.5
acid (H2SO4) ? Nitrogen 3.5 14  0.25 0.25 ×4 = 1
14
Sol. Molecular mass of H2SO4 = 1 × 2 + 32 + 16 × 4 = 98
amu.
32  100 Empirical ratio = C3H4N
 Percentage of sulphur = = 32.65 % Empirical formula mass = (3 × 12) + (4× 1) + 14 = 54
98
Ex.21. W hat are the percentage compositions of
Molecular Mass 108
n= = 2
hydrogen and oxygen in water (H2O) ? Empirical Formula Mass 54
(Atomic masses : H = 1 u, O = 16 u) Thus, molecular formula of the compound
= (Empirical formula)2
Sol. Molecular mass of water, H2O = 2 + 16 = 18 amu.
H2O has two atoms of hydrogen. = (C3H4N)2
So, total mass of hydrogen in H2O = 2 amu. = C6H8N2
2  100 Ex.23. A compound on analysis, was found to have the
Percentage of H = = 11.11 %
18 following composition :
Similarly, (i) Sodium = 14.31%, (ii) Sulphur = 9.97%, (iii) Oxygen
16  100 = 69.50%, (iv) Hydrogen = 6.22%. Calculate the
percentage of oxygen = = 88.88 %
18 molecular formula of the compound assuming that
whole hydrogen in the compound is present as water
of crystallisation. Molecular mass of the compound
is 322.
The following steps are involved in determining the Atomic Relative Number
Sol. Element Percentage Simplest ratio
empirical formula of a compound : mass of atoms

14 .31
(i) The percentage composition of each element is Sodium 14.31 23  0.622 0.622
2
23 0.311
divided by its atomic mass. It gives atomic ratio of the
9 .97 0.311
Sulphur 9.97 32  0.311 1
elements present in the compound. 32 0.311

(ii) The atomic ratio of each element is divided by the Hydrogen 6.22 1
6 . 22
 6.22
6.22
 20
1 0.311
minimum value of atomic ratio as to get the simplest
ratio of the atoms of elements present in the Oxygen 69.50 16
69. 50
 4.34
4.34
 14
16 0.311
compound.

PAGE # 48
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 The empirical formula = Na2SH 20O14 (d) Normality :
Empirical formula mass Normality of a solution is defined as the number of
= (2 × 23) + 32 + (20 × 1) + (14 × 16) gram equivalents of the solute dissolved per litre (dm3)
= 322 of given solution. It is denoted by ‘N’.
Molecular mass = 322 Mathematically,
Molecular formula = Na2SH 20O14
Number of gram equivalent s of solute
Whole of the hydrogen is present in the form of water N =
of crystallisation. Thus, 10 water molecules are Volume of the solution in litre
present in the molecule. Weight of solute in gram / equivalent weight of solute
So, molecular formula = Na2SO4. 10H2O N=
Volume of the solution in litre

CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS N can be calculated from the strength as given below :

(a) Strength in g/L : Strength in grams per litre S

N= =
Equivalent mass of solute E
The strength of a solution is defined as the amount of
the solute in grams present in one litre (or dm3) of the If ‘w’ gram of the solute is present in V cm3 of a given
solution, and hence is expressed in g/litre or g/dm3. solution.
Weight of solute in gram w 1000
Strength in g/L = N = Equivalent mass of the solute ×
Volume of solution in litre V
(b) Molarity : e.g. A solution of sulphuric acid having 0.49 gram of
it dissolved in 250 cm 3 of solution will have its
Molarity of a solution is defined as the number of
normality,
moles of the solute dissolved per litre (or dm 3) of
w 1000
solution. It is denoted by ‘M’. Mathematically, N = Equivalent mass of the solute ×
V
Number of moles of solute
M= 0.49 1000
Volume of the solution in litre N= × = 0.04
49 250
Mass of solute in gram/Gram Molecular Mass of solute (Eq. mass of sulphuric acid = 49).
Volume of solution in litre
Solution Semi Deci Centi
M can be calculated from the strength as given below : normal normal normal
Normality 1 1 1
Strength in grams per litre
M= 2 10 100
Molecular mass of solute
Some Important Formulae :
If ‘w’ gram of the solute is present in V cm3 of a given
solution , then (i) Milli equivalent of substance = N × V
w 1000 where , N  normality of solution
M= × V  Volume of solution in mL
Molecular mass
V
e.g. a solution of sulphuric acid having 4.9 grams of it (ii) If weight of substance is given,
dissolved in 500 cm3 of solution will have its molarity, w  1000
milli equivalent (NV) =
E
w 1000
M= × Where, W  Weight of substance in gram
Molecular mass V E  Equivalent weight of substance
4.9 1000 (iii) S = N × E
M= × = 0.1
98 500 S  Strength in g/L
N  Normality of solution
(c) Formality : E  Equivalent weight
In case of ionic compounds like NaCl, Na2CO 3 etc., (iv) Calculation of normality of mixture :
formality is used in place of molarity. The formality of N N
a solution is defined as the number of gram formula Ex.24 100 ml of HCl is mixed with 50 ml of
H SO .
10 5 2 4
masses of the solute dissolved per litre of the Find out the normality of the mixture.
solution. It is represented by the symbol ‘F’. The term Sol. Milli equivalent of HCl + milli equivalent H 2 SO 4
formula mass is used in place of molecular mass = milli equivalent of mixture
because ionic compounds exist as ions and not as N1 V1 + N2 V2 = N3 V3 { where, V3 =V1 + V2 )
molecules. Formula mass is the sum of the atomic
 1  1 
masses of the atoms in the formula of the compound.   100     50   N3 × 150
 10  5 
Mass of solute in gram/Formu la Mass of solute 20 2
Volume of solution in litre N3 = = = 0.133
150 15

PAGE # 49
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 N N Ex.27 Find the molarity and molality of a 15% solution
Ex.25 100 ml of HCl is mixed with 25 ml of NaOH. of H2SO4 (density of H2SO4 solution = 1.02 g/cm3)
10 5
Find out the normality of the mixture. (Atomic mass : H = 1u, O = 16u , S = 32 u)
Sol. 15% solution of H 2SO 4 means 15g of H 2SO 4 are
Sol. Milli equivalent of HCl – milli equivalent of NaOH
present in 100g of the solution i.e.
= milli equivalent of mixture
N1 V1 – N2 V2 = N3 V3 { where, V3 =V1 + V2 ) Wt. of H2SO4 dissolved = 15 g
Weight of the solution = 100 g
 1  1  Density of the solution = 1.02 g/cm3 (Given)
  100  –   25  = N3 × 125
 10   5 
Calculation of molality :
1
N3 = Weight of solution = 100 g
25 Weight of H2SO4 = 15 g
 Note : Wt. of water (solvent) = 100 – 15 = 85 g
1 milli equivalent of an acid neutralizes 1 milli Molecular weight of H2SO4 = 98
equivalent of a base. 15
 15 g H2SO4 = = 0.153 moles
(e) Molality : 98
Thus ,85 g of the solvent contain 0.153 moles .
Molality of a solution is defined as the number of
0.153
moles of the solute dissolved in 1000 grams of the 1000 g of the solvent contain= × 1000 = 1.8 mole
solvent. It is denoted by ‘m’. 85
Mathematically, Hence ,the molality of H2SO4 solution = 1.8 m

Number of moles of the solute Calculation of molarity :

m= × 1000 ‘m’ can
Weight of the solvent in gram
15 g of H2SO4 = 0.153 moles
be calculated from the strength as given below :
Wt. of solution
Strength per 1000 gram of solvent Vol. of solution =
m= Density of solution
Molecular mass of solute
100
If ‘w’ gram of the solute is dissolved in ‘W’ gram of the = = 98.04 cm3
1.02
solvent then
This 98.04 cm 3 of solution contain H 2SO 4 = 0.153
w 1000
m= × moles
Mol. mass of the solute W
1000 cm3 of solution contain H2SO4
e.g. A solution of anhydrous sodium carbonate
0.153
(molecular mass = 106) having 1.325 grams of it, = × 1000 = 1.56 moles
dissolved in 250 gram of water will have its molality - 98.04
1.325 1000 Hence the molarity of H2SO4 solution = 1.56 M
m=  = 0.05
106 250 (f) Mole Fraction :
 Note :
Relationship Between Normality and Molarity of a The ratio between the moles of solute or solvent to
Solution : the total moles of solution is called mole fraction.
Normality of an acid = Molarity × Basicity Moles of solute n
Normality of base = Molarity × Acidity mole fraction of solute = 
Moles of solution nN
Ex.26 Calculate the molarity and normality of a solution
containing 0.5 g of NaOH dissolved in 500 cm3 of w/m
=
solvent. w/m  W/M
Sol. Weight of NaOH dissolved = 0.5 g Moles of solvent N
Volume of the solution = 500 cm3 Mole fraction of solvent = 
Moles of solution nN
(i) Calculation of molarity :
Molecular weight of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 W/M
=
Weight of solute/ molecular weight of solute w/m  W/M
Molarity =
Volume of solution in litre where,
0.5/40 n  number of moles of solute
= = 0.025
500/1000 N  number of moles of solvent
(ii) Calculation of normality : m  molecular weight of solute
Normality M  molecular weight of solvent
Weight of solute/ equivalent weight of solute w  weight of solute
=
Volume of solution in litre
0.5/40 W  weight of solvent
= = 0.025
500/1000

PAGE # 50
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
Ex.28 Find out the mole fraction of solute in 10% (by weight) (ii) Calculations based on mass-mass relationship:
urea solution. In making necessary calculation, following steps are
weight of solute (urea) = 10 g followed -
weight of solution = 100 g
(a) Write down the balanced chemical equation.
weight of solvent (water) = 100 – 10 = 90g
(b) Write down theoretical amount of reactants and
Moles of solute
products involved in the reaction.
mole fraction of solute = =
Moles of solution (c) The unknown amount of substance is calculated
w/m 10 / 60 using unitary method.
= = 0.032
w/m  W/M 10 / 60  90 / 18 Ex.30 Calculate the mass of CaO that can be prepared
by heating 200 kg of limestone CaCO 3 which is
 Note : 95% pure.
Sum of mole fraction of solute and solvent is always
equal to one. 95
Sol. Amount of pure CaCO 3 =  200 = 190 kg
100
STOICHIOMETRY = 190000 g
CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g)
( a) Qua nt it at iv e Re la ti ons in Che mi ca l 1 mole CaCO3  1 mole CaO
Reacti ons : 100 g CaCO3  56 g CaO
Stoichiometry is the calculation of the quantities of 100 g CaCO3 give 56 g CaO
reactants and products involved in a chemical 56
reaction.  190000 g CaCO3 will give= × 190000 g CaO
100
It is based on the chemical equation and on the = 106400 g = 106.4 kg
relationship between mass and moles.
Ex.31 Chlorine is prepared in the laboratory by treating
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)
manganese dioxide (MnO 2 ) with aqueous
A chemical equation can be interpreted as follows - hydrochloric acid according to the reaction -
1 molecule N2 + 3 molecules H2  2 molecules MnO2 + 4HCl  MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
NH 3 (Molecular interpretation) How many grams of HCl will react with 5 g MnO2 ?
1 mol N2 + 3 mol H2  2 mol NH3 Sol. 1 mole MnO2 reacts with 4 mole HCl
(Molar interpretation) or 87 g MnO2 react with 146 g HCl
28 g N2 + 6 g H2  34 g NH3 146
(Mass interpretation)  5 g MnO2 will react with = × 5 g HCl = 8.39 g HCl
87
1 volume N2 + 3 volume H2  2 volume NH3 Ex.32 How many grams of oxygen are required to burn
(Volume interpretation) completely 570 g of octane ?
Thus, calculations based on chemical equations are Sol. Balanced equation
divided into four types - 2C8H18 + 25O2 16CO2 + 18H2O
2 mole 25 mole
(i) Calculations based on mole-mole relationship. 2 × 114 25 × 32
(ii) Calculations based on mass-mass relationship. First method : For burning 2 × 114 g of the octane,
oxygen required = 25 × 32 g
(iii) Calculations based on mass-volume relationship.
25  32
(iv) Calculations based on volume -volume For burning 1 g of octane, oxygen required = g
2  114
relationship.
Thus, for burning 570 g of octane, oxygen required
(i) Calculations based on mole-mole relationship : 25  32
In such calculations, number of moles of reactants = × 570 g = 2000 g
are given and those of products are required. 2  114
Conversely, if number of moles of products are given, Mole Method : Number of moles of octane in 570
then number of moles of reactants are required. grams
Ex.29 Oxygen is prepared by catalytic decomposition 570
= 5.0
of potassium chlorate (KClO 3). Decomposition 114
of potassium chlorate gives potassium chloride For burning 2.0 moles of octane, oxygen required
(KCl) and oxygen (O 2). How many moles and how = 25 mol = 25 × 32 g
many grams of KClO 3 are required to produce For burning 5 moles of octane, oxygen required
2.4 mole O2.
Sol. Decomposition of KClO3 takes place as, 25  32
= × 5.0 g = 2000 g
2KClO3(s)  2KCl(s) + 3O2(g) 2. 0
2 mole KClO3  3 mole O2 Proportion Method : Let x g of oxygen be required for
 3 mole O2 formed by 2 mole KClO3 burning 570 g of octane. It is known that 2 × 114 g of
the octane requires 25 × 32 g of oxygen; then, the
2  proportion.
 2.4 mole O 2 will be formed by  3  2.4 
  x
25  32 g oxygen
mole KClO3 = 1.6 mole KClO3 =
Mass of KClO3 = Number of moles × molar mass 2  114 g oc tan e 570 g oc tan e
= 1.6 × 122.5 = 196 g
25  32  570
x= = 2000 g
2  114

PAGE # 51
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
Ex.33 How many kilograms of pure H 2SO 4 could be Ex.37 Calculate the volume of hydrogen liberated at 27ºC
obtained from 1 kg of iron pyrites (FeS2) according to and 760 mm pressure by heating 1.2 g of magnesium
the following reactions ? with excess of hydrochloric acid.
Sol. The balanced equation is
4FeS2 + 11O2  2Fe2O3 + 8SO2
2SO2 + O2  2SO3 Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
24 g 1 mol
SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
24 g of Mg liberate hydrogen = 1 mole
Sol. Final balanced equation,
4FeS2 + 15O2 + 8H2O 2Fe2O3 + 8H2SO4 1.2 g Mg will liberate hydrogen = 0.05 mole
4 mole 8 mole
4 × 120 g 8 × 98 g
PV = nRT
4 × 120 g of FeS2 yield H2SO4 = 8 × 98 g
1 × V = 0.05 × 0.0821 × 300
8  98 V = 1.2315 litre
1000 g of FeS 2 will yield H 2SO 4 = × 1000
4  120 (iv) Calculations based on volume volume
= 1633.3 g relationship :
These calculations are based on two laws :
(iii) Calculations involving mass-volume relationship :
(i) Avogadro’s law (ii) Gay-Lussac’s Law
In such calculations masses of reactants are given
e.g.
and volume of the product is required and vice-versa.
N 2(g) + 3H 2(g) 2NH3(g) (Avogadro's law)
1 mole of a gas occupies 22.4 litre volume at STP. 1 mol 3 mol 2 mol
1 × 22.4 L 3 × 22.4 L 2 × 22.4 L
Mass of a gas can be related to volume according to
the following gas equation - (under similar conditions of temperature and
PV = nRT pressure, equal moles of gases occupy equal
w volumes)
PV = RT N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) (Gay- Lussac's Law)
m 1 vol 3 vol 2 vol
(under similar conditions of temperature and
Ex-34. What volume of NH3 can be obtained from 26.75 g
pressure, ratio of coefficients by mole is equal to ratio
of NH4Cl at 27ºC and 1 atmosphere pressure.
of coefficient by volume).
Sol. The balanced equation is -
Ex-38 One litre mixture of CO and CO2 is taken. This is
NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g) passed through a tube containing red hot charcoal.
1 mol 1 mol The volume now becomes 1.6 litre. The volume are
53.5 g
measured under the same conditions. Find the
 53.5 g NH4Cl give 1 mole NH3 composition of mixture by volume.
1 Sol. Let there be x mL CO in the mixture , hence, there will
 26.75 g NH4Cl will give × 26.75 mole NH3 be (1000 – x) mL CO2. The reaction of CO2 with red
53.5 hot charcoal may be given as -
= 0.5 mole
PV = nRT CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
1 vol. 2 vol.
1 ×V = 0.5 × 0.0821 × 300 (1000 –x) 2(1000 – x)
V = 12.315 litre Total volume of the gas becomes = x + 2(1000 – x)
Ex-35 What quantity of copper (II) oxide will react with x + 2000 – 2x = 1600
x = 400 mL
2.80 litre of hydrogen at STP ?
 volume of CO = 400 mL and volume of CO2 = 600 mL
Sol. CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
Ex-39 What volume of air containing 21% oxygen by volume
1 mol 1 mol
79.5 g 22.4 litre at NTP is required to completely burn 1kg of carbon containing
100% combustible substance ?
22.4 litre of hydrogen at STP reduce CuO = 79.5 g Sol. Combustion of carbon may be given as,
2.80 litre of hydrogen at STP will reduce CuO
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
79.5
= × 2.80 g = 9.93 g 1 mol 1 mol
22.4 12 g 32 g
Ex-36 Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide at STP
 12 g carbon requires 1 mole O 2 for complete
evolved by strong heating of 20 g calcium carbonate.
combustion
Sol. The balanced equation is -
1
 1000 g carbon will require  1000 mole O2 for
CaCO3 CaO + CO2 12
1 mol 1 mol combustion, i.e. , 83.33 mole O2
100 g = 22.4 litre at STP
Volume of O2 at STP = 83.33 × 22.4 litre
100 g of CaCO3 evolve carbon dioxide = 22.4 litre = 1866.66 litre
20 g CaCO3 will evolve carbon dioxide  21 litre O2 is present in 100 litre air
22.4 100
= × 20 = 4.48 litre 1866.66 litre O2 will be present in × 1866.66 litre air
100 21
3
= 8888.88 litre or 8.89 × 10 litre

PAGE # 52
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
Ex-40 An impure sample of calcium carbonate contains Ex.42 Calculate the number of m.e. and equivalents of
80% pure calcium carbonate 25 g of the impure NaOH present in 1 litre of N/10 NaOH solution.
sample reacted with excess of hydrochloric acid. Sol. Number of m.e. = normality × volume in mL
Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide at STP
1
obtained from this sample. = × 1000 = 100
10
Sol. 100 g of impure calcium carbonate contains = 80 g
no. of m.e. 100
pure calcium carbonate Number of equivalents = = = 0.10
1000 1000
25 g of impure calcium carbonate sample will contain
80 Ex.43 Calculate number of m.e. of the acids present in
= × 25 = 20 g pure calcium carbonate (i) 100 mL of 0.5 M oxalic acid solution.
100
The desired equation is - (ii) 50 mL of 0.1 M sulphuric acid solution.
CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O Sol. Normality = molarity × basicity of acid
1 mol 22.4 litre (i) Normality of oxalic acid = 0.5 × 2 = 1 N
100 g at STP
m.e. of oxalic acid = normality × vol. in mL = 1 × 100
100 g pure CaCO3 liberate = 22.4 litre CO2. = 100.
(ii) Normality of sulphuric acid = 0.1 × 2 = 0.2 N
22.4
20 g pure CaCO3 liberate =  20 m.e. of sulphuric acid = 0.2 × 50 = 10
100
= 4.48 litre CO2 Ex.44 A 100 mL solution of KOH contains 10
milliequivalents of KOH. Calculate its strength in nor-
VOLUMETRIC CALCULATIONS mality and grams/litre.
no. of m.e. 10
The quantitative analysis in chemistry is primarily Sol. Normality = volume in mL =  0. 1
100
carried out by two methods, viz, volumetric analysis
and gravimetric analysis.In the first method the mass  strength of the solution = N/10
of a chemical species is measured by measurement Again, strength in grams/litre = normality × eq. wt.
of volume, whereas in the second method it is deter- 1
mined by taking the weight. =  56 = 5.6 gram/litre.
10
The strength of a solution in volumetric analysis is  molecular wt. 56 
 eq. wt. of KOH    56 
generally expressed in terms of normality, i.e., num- acidity 1
 
ber of equivalents per litre but since the volume in the
volumetric analysis is generally taken in millilitres Ex.45 What is strength in gram/litre of a solution of H2SO4,
(mL), the normality is expressed by milliequivalents
N
per millilitre. 12 cc of which neutralises 15 cc of NaOH
10
USEFUL FORMULAE FOR solution ?
VOLUMETRIC CALCULATIONS 1
Sol. m.e. of NaOH solution = × 15 = 1.5
10
(i) milliequivalents = normality × volume in millilitres. m.e. of 12 cc of H2SO4 = 1.5
(ii) At the end point of titration, the two titrants, say 1 1.5
and 2, have the same number of milliequivalents,  normality of H2SO4 =
12
i.e., N1V1 = N2V2, volume being in mL. Strength in grams/litre = normality × eq. wt.
m.e. 1.5
(iii) No. of equivalents = . = × 49 grams/litre
1000 12
(iv) No. of equivalents for a gas = = 6.125 grams/litre.
Volumeat STP  molecular wt. 98 
equivalent volume(vol. of 1eq. at STP)  eq. wt. of H2 SO 4    49 
 basicity 2 
(v) Strength in grams per litre = normality × equivalent Ex.46 What weight of KMnO4 will be required to prepare
weight.
N
(vi) (a) Normality = molarity × factor relating mol. wt. 250 mL of its solution if eq. wt. of KMnO4 is 31.6 ?
10
and eq. wt. Sol. Equivalent weight of KMnO4 = 31.6
(b) No. of equivalents = no. of moles × factor relat
1
ing mol. wt. and eq. wt. Normality of solution (N) =
10
Ex.41 Calculate the number of milli equivalent of H2SO 4 Volume of solution (V) = 250 ml
present in 10 mL of N/2 H2SO4 solution.
NEV 1 31.6  250 31.6
1 W ; W=   0.79 g
Sol. Number of m.e. = normality × volume in mL = × 10 = 5. 1000 10 1000 40
2

PAGE # 53
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
Ex.47 100 mL of 0.6 N H2SO4 and 200 mL of 0.3 N HCl
were mixed together. What will be the normality of the
resulting solution ?
Sol. m.e. of H2SO4 solution = 0.6 × 100 = 60
m.e. of HCl solution = 0.3 × 200 = 60
 m.e. of 300 mL (100 + 200) of acidic mixture
= 60 + 60 = 120.
m.e.
Normality of the resulting solution =
total vol.
120 2 (iv) Titrate : The solution consisting the substance to
= = N.
300 5
Ex.48 A sample of Na2CO3. H2O weighing 0.62 g is added
to 100 mL of 0.1 N H2SO4. Will the resulting solution
be acidic, basic or neutral ?
0.62
Sol. Equivalents of Na2CO3. H2O = = 0.01
62
 124  (vi) Indicator : It is the auxiliary substance used for
 eq. wt. of Na 2CO 3 .H2O   62 
 2 
m.e. of Na2CO3. H2O = 0.01 × 1000 = 10
m.e. of H2SO4 = 0.1 × 100 = 10
Since the m.e. of Na2CO3. H2O is equal to that of H2SO4,
the resulting solution will be neutral.
(a) Introduction :
Volumetric analysis is a method of quantitative
analysis. It involves the measurement of the volume
of a known solution required to bring about the
completion of the reaction with a measured volume
of the unknown solution whose concentration or
strength is to be determined. By knowing the volume
of the known solution, the concentration of the solution
under investigation can be calculated. Volumetric
analysis is also termed as titrimetric analysis.
( b) I mp or ta nt t er ms use d in v ol um et ri c
analy sis :
(i) Titration : The process of addition of the known
solution from the burette to the measured volume of
solution of the substance to be estimated until the
reaction between the two is just complete, is termed
as titration. Thus, a titration involves two solutions:
(a) Unknown solution and (b) Known solution or stan-
dard solution.
(ii) Titrant : The reagent or substance whose solu-
tion is employed to estimate the concentration of un-
known solution is termed titrant. There are two types
of reagents or titrants:
(A) Primary titrants : These reagents can be
accurately weighed and their solutions are not to be
standardised before use. Oxalic acid, potassium
dichromate, silver nitrate, copper sulphate, ferrous
ammonium sulphate, sodium thiosulphates etc., are
the examples of primary titrants.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(B) Secondary titrants : These reagents cannot
accurately weighed and their solutions are to be
standardised before use. Sodium hydroxide,
potassium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric
acid, iodine, potassium permanganate etc. are the
examples of secondary titrants.
(iii) Standard solution : The solution of exactly known
concentration of the titrant is called the standard
solution.
be estimated is termed unknown solution. The
substance is termed titrate.
(v) Equivalence point : The point at which the reagent
(titrant) and the substance (titrate) under investigation
are chemically equivalent is termed equivalence point
or end point.
physical (visual) detection of the completion of titration
or detection of end point is termed as indicator.
Indicators show change in colour or turbidity at the
stage of completion of titration.
(c) Concentraion representation of solution
(A) Strength of solution : Grams of solute dissolved
per litre of solution is called strength of solution'
(B) Parts Per Million (ppm) : Grams of solute
dissolved per 10 6 grams of solvent is called
concentration of solution in the unit of Parts Per Million
(ppm). This unit is used to represent hardness of
water and concentration of very dilute solutions.
(C) Percentage by mass : Grams of solute dissolved
per 100 grams of solution is called percentage by
mass.
(D) Percentage by volume : Millilitres of solute per
100 mL of solution is called percentage by volume.
For example, if 25 mL ethyl alcohol is diluted with
water to make 100 mL solution then the solution thus
obtained is 25% ethyl alcohol by volume.
(E) Mass by volume percentage :Grams of solute
present per 100 mL of solution is called percentage
mass by volume.
For example, let 25 g glucose is dissolved in water to
make 100 mL solution then the solution is 25% mass
by volume glucose.
(d) Clas sifica tion of re actions inv olved in
vol umet ric a naly sis
(A) Neutralisation reactions
The reaction in which acids and bases react to form
salt called neutralisation.
e.g., HCI + NaOH  NaCI + H2O
H+(acid) + OH–(base)  H2O (feebly ionised)
The titration based on neutralisation is called
acidimetry or alkalimetry.
PAGE # 54
 (B) Oxidation-reduction reactions
The reactions involving simultaneous loss and gain
of electrons among the reacting species are called
oxidation reduction or redox reactions, e.g., let us
consider oxidation of ferrous sulphate (Fe2+ ion) by
potassium permanganate (MnO 4– ion) in acidic
medium.
MnO4– + 8H+ + 5e–  Mn2+ + 4H2O
(Gain of electrons or reduction)
5  [Fe2+  Fe3+ + e–]
(Loss of electrons or oxidation)
______________________________________________________________
MnO4– + 5Fe2+ + 8H+  Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O
________________________________________________________________
In the above reaction, MnO4– acts as oxidising agent
and Fe2+ acts as reducing agent.
The titrations involving redox reactions are called redox
titrations. These titrations are also called according
to the reagent used in the titration, e.g., iodometric,
cerimetric, permanganometric and dichromometric
titrations
(C) Precipitation reactions :
A chemical reaction in which cations and anions
combine to form a compound of very low solubility (in
the form of residue or precipitate), is called
precipitation.
BaCl2 + Na2SO4  BaSO4 + 2NaCl
(white precipitate)
The titrations involving precipitation reactions are
called precipitation titrations.
(D) Complex formation reactions :
These are ion combination reactions in which a
soluble slightly dissociated complex ion or
compound is formed.
Complex compounds retain their identity in the
solution and have the properties of the constituent
ions and molecules.
e.g. CuSO4 + 4NH3  [Cu(NH3)4]SO4
(complex compound)
AgNO3 + 2KCN  K[Ag(CN)2] + KNO3
(complex compound)
2CuSO4 + K4[Fe(CN)6]  Cu2[Fe(CN)6] + 2K2SO4
(complex compound)
The titrations involving complex formation reactions
are called complexometric titrations.
The determination of concentration of bases by
titration with a standard acid is called acidimetry and
the determination of concentration of acid by titration
with a standard base is called alkalimetry.
The substances which give different colours with
acids and base are called acid base indicators. These
indicators are used in the visual detection of the
equivalence point in acid-base titrations.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
The acid-base indicators are also called pH
indicators because their colour change according to
the pH of the solution.
In the selection of indicator for a titration, following
two informations are taken into consideration :
(i) pH range of indicator
(ii) pH change near the equivalence point in the
titration.
The indicator whose pH range is included in the pH
change of the solution near the equivalence point, is
taken as suitable indicator for the titration.
(i) Strong acid-strong base titration : In the titration
of HCl with NaOH, the equivalence point lies in the
pH change of 4–10. Thus, methyl orange, methyl red
and phenolphthalein will be suitable indicators.
(ii) Weak acid-strong base titration : In the titration
of CH3COOH with NaOH the equivalence point lies
between 7.5 and 10. Hence, phenolphthalein (8.3–
10) will be the suitable indicator.
(iii) Weak base-strong acid titration : In the titration
of NH4OH (weak base) against HCl (strong acid) the
pH at equivalence point is about 6.5 and 4. Thus,
methyl orange (3.1–4.4) or methyl red (4.2–6.3) will
be suitable indicators.
(iv) Weak acid-weak base titration : In the titration of
a weak acid (CH 3COOH) with weak base (NH 4OH)
the pH at the equivalence point is about 7, i.e., lies
between 6.5 and 7.5 but no sharp change in pH is
observed in these titrations. Thus, no simple indica-
tor can be employed for the detection of the equiva-
lence point.
(v) Titration of a salt of a weak acid and a strong
base with strong acid:
H2CO3 + 2NaOH  Na2CO3 + 2H2O
Weak acid Strong base
Na2CO 3 when titrated with HCl, the following two
stages are involved :
Na2CO3 + HCl  NaHCO3 + NaCl (First stage)
pH = 8.3, near equivalence point
NaHCO3 + HCl  NaCl + H2CO3 (Second stage)
pH = 4, near equivalence point
For first stage, phenolphthalein and for second stage,
methyl orange will be the suitable indicator.
In this titration the following indicators are mainly used :
(i) Phenolphthalein (weak organic acid) : It shows
colour change in the pH range (8 – 10)
(ii) Methyl orange (weak organic base) : It shows
colour change in the pH range (3.1 – 4.4). Due to
lower pH range, it indicates complete neutralisation
of whole of the base.
PAGE # 55
 Let for complete neutralisation of Na2CO 3, NaHCO3 and NaOH, x,y and z mL of standard HCl are required. The
titration of the mixture may be carried by two methods as summarised below :

Volume of HCl Volume of HCl used

used with
Mixture Phenlphthalein Methyl orange Phenolphthalein Methyl orange
from from from after first end
beginning beginning beginning point

1. NaOH z + (x/2) (x + z) z + x/2 x/2 (for remaining 50%

+ Na2CO3 Na2CO3)

2. NaOH z+0 (z + y) z+0 y (for remaining 100%

+ NaHCO3 NaHCO3
3. Na2CO3 (x/2) + 0 (x + y) (x/2) + 0 x/2 + y (for remaining 50%
+ NaHCO3 of Na2CO3 and 100%
NaHCO3 are indicated)

1. Ostwald's theory:
According to this theory
An indicator is a substance which is used to deter-
(a) The colour change is due to ionisation of the acid-
mine the end point in a titration. In acid-base titra-
base indicator. The unionised form has different
tions organic substances (weak acids or weak bases)
colour than the ionised form.
are generally used as indicators. They change their
colour within a certain pH range. The colour change (b) The ionisation of the indicator is largely affected in
and the pH range of some common indicators are acids and bases as it is either a weak acid or a weak
base. In case, the indicator is a weak acid, its
tabulated below:
ionisation is very much low in acids due to common
________________________________________
ions while it is fairly ionised in alkalies. Similarly if the
Indicator pH range Colour
indicator is a weak base, its ionisation is large in
change acids and low in alkalies due to common ions.
________________________________________
Methyl orange 3.2 – 4.5 Red to orange Considering two important indicators phenolphtha-
lein (a weak acid) and methyl orange (a weak base),
Methyl red 4.4 – 6.5 Red to yellow
Ostwald's theory can be illustrated as follows:
Litmus 5.5 – 7.5 Red to blue
Phenol red 6.8 – 8.4 Yellow to red Phenolphthalein: It can be represented as HPh. It
Phenolphthalein 8.3 – 10.5 Colourless to pink ionises in solution to a small extent as:
________________________________________
HPh H+ + Ph–
Theory of acid-base indicators : Two theories have Colourless Pink
been proposed to explain the change of colour of
acid-base indicators with change in pH. Applying law of mass action,
[H ][Ph  ]
K=
[HPh]

PAGE # 56
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 The undissociated molecules of phenolphthalein are
colourless while ph– ions are pink in colour. In pres-
SOLUBILITY
ence of an acid, the ionisation of HPh is practically The solubility of a solute in a solution is always
negligible as the equilibrium shifts to left hand side expressed with respect to the saturated solution.
due to high concentration of H+ ions. Thus, the solu-
(a) Definition :
tion would remain colourless. On addition of alkali,
– The maximum amount of the solute which can be
hydrogen ions are removed by OH ions in the form of
dissolved in 100g (0.1kg) of the solvent to form a
water molecules and the equilibrium shifts to right
saturated solution at a given temperature.
hand side. Thus, the concentration of ph – ions in- Suppose w gram of a solute is dissolved in W gram
creases in solution and they impart pink colour to the of a solvent to make a saturated solution at a fixed
solution. temperature and pressure. The solubility of the solute
Let us derive Hendetson's equation for an indicator will be given by -
w Mass of the solute
HIn + H2O H3+O + In– × 100 = × 100
W Mass of the solvent
'Acid form' 'Base form'
For example, the solubility of potassium chloride in
Conjugate acid-base pair water at 20ºC and 1 atm. is 34.7 g per 100g of water.
This means that under normal conditions 100 g of
water at 20ºC and 1 atm. cannot dissolve more than
[In ][H3 O] 34.7g of KCl.
KIn =
[HIn]
(b) Effect of Temperature and Pressure on
KIn = Ionization constant of indicator Solubility of a Solids :
The solubility of a substance in liquids generally
[HIn] increases with rise in temperature but hardly changes
+
[H O] = KIn 
3 [In ] with the change in pressure. The effect of temperature
depends upon the heat energy changes which
[HIn] accompany the process.
pH = –log10 [H3+O] = –log10 [KIn] – log10
[In ]  Note :
[In  ] If heat energy is needed or absorbed in the process,
pH = pKIn + log10 (Henderson's equation for it is of endothermic nature. If heat energy is evolved
[HIn ]
or released in the process, it is of exothermic nature.
indicator)
At equivalence point ; (i) Effect of temperature on endothermic dissolution
[In–] = [HIn] and pH = pKIn process : Most of the salts like sodium chloride,
potassium chloride, sodium nitrate, ammonium
Methyl orange : It is a very weak base and can be
chloride etc. dissolve in water with the absorption of
represented as MeOH. It is ionised in solution to give heat. In all these salts the solubility increases with
Me+ and OH– ions. rise in temperature. This means that sodium chloride
MeOH Me+ +OH– becomes more soluble in water upon heating.
Orange Red (ii) Effect of temperature on exothermic dissolution
process : Few salts like lithium carbonate, sodium
Applying law of mass action, carbonate monohydrate, cerium sulphate etc.
[Me  ][OH ] dissolve in water with the evolution of heat. This
K= means that the process is of exothermic nature. In
[MeOH ]
these salts the solubility in water decreases with rise
In presence of an acid, OH– ions are removed in the in temperature.
form of water molecules and the above equilibrium
 Note :
shifts to right hand side. Thus, sufficient Me+ ions are
produced which impart red colour to the solution. On 1. W hile expressing the solubility, the solution must
– be saturated but for expressing concentration (mass
addition of alkali, the concentration of OH ions in-
creases in the solution and the equilibrium shifts to percent or volume percent), the solution need not to
left hand side, i.e., the ionisation of MeOH is practi- be saturated in nature.
cally negligible. Thus, the solution acquires the colour 2. W hile expressing solubility, mass of solvent is
of unionised methyl orange molecules, i.e. orange. considered but for expressing concentration the
mass or volume of the solution may be taken into
This theory also explains the reason why phenol- consideration.
phthalein is not a suitable indicator for titrating a weak
– (c) Effect of Temperature on the Solubility
base against strong acid. The OH ions furnished by
of a Gas
a weak base are not sufficient to shift the equilibrium
towards right hand side considerably, i.e., pH is not (i) The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases with
reached to 8.3. Thus, the solution does not attain the rise in temperature.
pink colour. Similarly, it can be explained why methyl (ii) The solubility of gases in liquids increases on
orange is not a suitable indicator for the titration of increasing the pressure and decreases on decreas-
weak acid with strong base. ing the pressure.

PAGE # 57
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 4. 14 g of element X combine with 16 g of oxygen. One
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
the basis of this information, which of the following is
Ex.49 12 grams of potassium sulphate dissolves in
a correct statement ?
75 grams of water at 60ºC. W hat is the solubility
(A) The element X could have an atomic weight of 7
of potassium sulphate in water at that temperature ?
and its oxide is XO.
mass of solute
Sol. Solubility =  100 (B) The element X could have an atomic weight of 14
mass of solvent
and its oxide is X2O.
12
= ×100 = 16 g (C) The element X could have an atomic weight of 7
75
and its oxide is X2O.
Thus, the solubility of potassium sulphate in (D) The element X could have an atomic weight of 14
water is 16 g at 60ºC.
and its oxide is XO2 .
Ex.50 4 g of a solute are dissolved in 40 g of water to
form a saturated solution at 25ºC. Calculate the 5. On analysis a certain compound was found to con-
solubility of the solute. tain iodine and oxygen in the ratio 254 g of iodine and
Mass of solute 80 g of oxygen. The atomic mass of iodine is 127 and
Sol. Solubility = × 100 that of oxygen is 16. Which is the formula of the com-
Mass of solvent
Mass of solute = 4 g pound ?
Mass of solvent = 40 g (A) IO (B) I2O
4 (C) I5O2 (D) I2O5
Solubility = × 100 = 10 g
40
M OLE CONCEP T VOLU ME TR IC A NA LYSI S &
Ex.51 (a) W hat mass of potassium chloride would be
S OLU B I LI T Y
needed to form a saturated solution in 50 g of
water at 298 K ? Given that solubility of the salt is
46g per 100g at this temperature. 6. O n stan dard tem peratu re an d pressu re, th e
volume of 7.1 kg of Cl2 will be :
(b) What will happen if this solution is cooled ?
(A) 2240 L (B) 2.24 L
Sol. (a) Mass of potassium chloride in 100 g of water (C) 224 L (D) 4.48 L
in saturated solution = 46 g
Mass of potassium chloride in 50 g of water in 7. W hich of the following has the smallest number of
saturated solution. molecules ?
46 (A) 2 gm H2 gas
= × (50g) = 23 g
100 (B) 22.4 L SO2 gas at NTP
(b) W hen the solution is cooled, the solubility of (C) 1 mole SO2 gas
salt in water will decrease. This means, that upon (D) 35.5 gm Cl2 gas
cooling, it will start separating from the solution
in crystalline form. 8. How many litres of O 2 gas at STP or NTP is needed
to react completely with 27 gm of Al ?
(A) 5.6 lit. (B) 11.2 lit.
EXERCISE-1 (C) 22.4 lit. (D) 16.8 lit.

LA WS OF CH EMI CAL COMBI NATION, 9. The ratio of molecules present in 4.4 g of CO 2 and
CONCE PT OF MA SS
0.56 L (at STP) of SO 2 is : (At. mass : C = 12, O =
1. If a compound contains two oxygen atoms, four 16, S = 32)
carbon atoms and number of hydrogen atoms is (A) 2 : 1 (B) 4 : 1
double of carbon atoms, the vapour density of it is : (C) 8 : 1 (D) 3 : 2
(A) 88 (B) 44
(C) 132 (D) 72 10. 8g of sulphur is burnt to form SO2, which is oxidised
by Cl2 water. The solution is treated with BaCl 2
2. Analysis of a sample of a compound shows that it solution. The amount of BaSO4 precipitated is -
contains 24.3% carbon, 4.1% hydrogen and 71.6% (A) 1.0 mole (B) 0.5 mole
chlorine. The empirical formula of the compound (C) 0.75 mole (D) 0.25 mole
is -
(A) CH 2Cl (B) C 2H 2Cl 11. The percentage of P 2O 5 in diammonium hydrogen
(C) CH 2Cl2 (D) CHCl3 phosphate is -
(A) 77.58 (B) 46.96
3. The density of air is 0.001293 g/ml at S.T.P. Its vapour
(C) 53.78 (D) 23.48
density will be :
(A) 10 (B) 15 12. 100 mL of 0.5 N NaOH were added to 20 ml of 1N
(C) 1.44 (D) 14.4
HCl and 10 mL of 3 N H2SO4. The solution is -
(A) acidic (B) basic
(C) neutral (D) none of these

PAGE # 58
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
13. W hen FeCl3 is ignited in an atmosphere of pure
oxygen, the following reaction takes place-
4FeCl3(s) + 3O2(g)  2Fe2O3(s) + 6Cl2(g)
If 3 moles of FeCl3 are ignited in the presence of 2
moles of O 2 gas, how much of which reagent is
present in excess and therefore, remains unreacted ?
(A) 0.33 mole FeCl3 remains unreacted
(B) 0.67 mole FeCl3 remains unreacted
(C) 0.25 mole O2 remains unreacted
(D) 0.50 mole O2 remains unreacted
14. What volume of 0.8 M solution contains 0.1 mole of
solute ?
(A) 100 mL (B) 125 mL
(C) 500 mL (D) 0.125 L
15. Which of the following statements is not correct ?
(A) the number of molecules in 1 gm H2 is greater
than the number of molecules in 1 gm CO2
(B) the number of atoms in 1 gm of an element is
not equal to the number of atoms in 1 gm atom
of element
(C) the modern atomic mass unit is based on the
mass of 12C isotopes of carbon
(D) none of these
16. The number of molecules in 16 g of methane is-
(A) 30×1023 (B) 6.02×1023
16
(C)  10 23
6.02
17. Which of the following statement is correct :
(A) 1 mole of electrons has 1.6 × 10–19 C of charge.
(B) 1 mole of electron weighs 0.54 mg
(C) 1 mole of electrons weighs 5.4 mg
(D) 1 mole of electrons weighs 0.54 kg
18. The hourly energy requirement of an astronaut can
be satisfied by the energy released when 34 g of
sucrose (C12H22O11) are burnt in his body. How many
g of oxygen would be needed to be carried in space
capsule to meet his requirement for one day -
(A) 916.2 gm (B) 91.62 gm
(C) 8.162 gm (D) 9.162 gm.
19. Minimum amount of Ag2CO3 (s) required to produce
sufficient oxygen for the complete combustion of C2H2
which produces 11.2 ltr of CO 2 at S.T.P after
combustion is: [Ag = 108]
Ag2CO3 (s)  2Ag (s) + CO2 (g) + 1 2 O2 (g)
C2H2 + 5 2 O2  2CO2 + H2O
(A) 276 g (B) 345 g
(C) 690 g (D) 1380 g
20. Consider the following statements
1.If all the reactants are not taken in their stoichiometric
ratio, then at least one reactant will be left
behind.
2.2 moles of H2(g) and 3 moles of O2(g) produce 2
moles of water.
3.equal wt. of carbon and oxygen are taken to produce
CO2 then O2 is limiting reagent.
The above statements 1, 2, 3 respectively are
(T = True, F = False)
(A) T T T (B) F T F
(C) F F F (D) T F T
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
21. The density of 3M sodium thiosulphate is 1.25 g/ml.
Identify the correct statements among the following :
(A) % by weight of sodium thisoulphate is 37.92
(B) The mole fraction of sodium thisoulphate is 0.065
(C) The molarity of Na+ is 2.53 and S2O32– is 1.25
(D) (A) & (B) both
22. Silver metal in ore is dissolved by potassium cyanide
solution in the presence of air by the reaction
4 Ag + 8 KCN + O2 + 2H2O  4 K[Ag (CN)2] + 4 KOH
(A) The amount of KCN required to dissolve 100 g of
pure Ag is 120 g.
(B) The amount of oxygen used in this process is
7.40 g (for 100 gm pure Ag)
(C) The volume of oxygen used at STP is 5.19 litres
for the same process.
(D) all of these are correct
23. For the reaction 2P + Q  R, 12 mol of P and 8 mol of
Q are taken then
(A) 3 mol of R is produced
(B) 6 mol of R is produced
(C) 25% of Q is left behind
(D) Both (B) and (C) are correct
24. A solution containing 0.1 mol of a metal chloride MClx
requires 500 ml of 0.8 M AgNO3 solution for complete
reaction MClx + xAgNO3  xAgCl + M(NO3)x. Then the
value of x is -
(A) 1 (B) 2
(C) 4 (D) 3
16
(D)  10 23 25. W hen burnt in air, a 12.0 g mixture of carbon and
3.0 sulphur yields a mixture of CO2 and SO2, in which the
number of moles of SO2 is half that of CO2. The mass
of the carbon the mixture contains is (At. wt. S = 32)
(A) 4.08 g (B) 5.14 g
(C) 8.74 g (D) 1.54 g
26. The haemoglobin from the red blood corpuscles of
most mammals contains approximately 0.33% of iron
by weight. The molecular weight of haemoglobin as
67,200. The number of iron atoms in each molecule
of haemoglobin is (atomic weight of iron = 56) :
(A) 2 (B) 3
(C) 4 (D) 5
27. On adding 20 mL of 0.1 N NaOH solution to 10 mL of
0.1 N HCl, the resulting solution will :
(A) Turn blue litmus red
(B) Turn phenolphthalein solution pink
(C) Turn methyl orange red
(D) Will have no effect on red or blue litmus paper.
28. The isotopic abundance of C–12 and C–14 is 98%
and 2% respectively. W hat would be the number of
C–14 isotope in 12 g carbon sample ?
(A) 1.032×1022 (B) 3.01×1023
(C) 5.88×1023 (D) 6.02×1023
29. Amount of oxygen required for combustion of 1 kg of
a mixture of butane and isobutane is :
(A) 1.8 kg (B) 2.7 kg
(C) 4.5 kg (D) 3.58 kg
29. The dehydration yield of cyclohexanol to cyclohexene
is 75%. W hat would be the yield if 100 g of
cyclohexanol is dehydrated ?
(A) 61.7 g (B) 16.5 g
(C) 6.15 g (D) 615 g
PAGE # 59
 10. The mass of a platinum wire is W gm. On heating it
EXERCISE-2 red hot in air and cooling, its mass remains W gm.
This observation proves [Raj.NTSE Stage-I/07]
NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS (A) Law of definite proportion
(B) Law of multiple proportion
1. In a chemical reaction one molecule of hydrogen (C) Law of conservation of mass
sulphide gas reacts with two molecules of nitric acid. (D) None of these
The molecules of nitrogen dioxide and water and 11. If the quantity of metal in a metallic oxide is 60% then
atoms of sulphur formed has a ratio of - its equivalent weight is [Delhi.NTSE Stage-I/13]
[Raj.NTSE Stage-I/05]
(A) 1 : 2 : 2 (B) 2 : 1 : 2
1
(A) of molecular weight
(C) 2 : 2 : 1 (D) 1 : 1 : 1 5
1
(B) of molecular weight
2. Molecular formula of a compound of metal M 2
(equivalent weight 8) is M2CO3 . Atomic weight of the
3
metal will be - [Raj.NTSE Stage-I/05] (C) of molecular weight
(A) 24 (B) 16 2
(C) 8 (D) 4 3
(D) of molecular weight
3. The quantity of potassium chlorate (molecular weight 5
122.5) required in grams to produce 33.6 litre of
12. The normality of 0.3 M phosphoric acid is
oxygen at normal temperature and pressure will be -
[Raj.NTSE Stage-I/05] [Delhi.NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) 122.5 (B) 132.6 (A) 0.1 (B) 0.9
(C) 245.0 (D) 254.0 (C) 0.3 (D) 0.6
4. The group of symbols of elements based on Latin
13. Mg has three natural isotopes whose isotopic
names out of the following is -
[Raj.NTSE Stage-I/05]
masses and relative abundances are respectively
(A) Ca, Ag, Cu (B) Ag, Au, K 23.98(78.60%), 24.98 (10.11%) and 25.98 (11.29%)
(C) Pb, Cl, Cd (D) Cs, Fe, Na The atomic mass of Mg will be -
[Delhi.NTSE Stage-I/13]
5. The molecular formula of the compound formed by
the combination of elements 13A27 and 8 B 16 is: (A) 23.42 (B) 24.31
[Raj.NTSE Stage-I/06] (C) 24.95 (D) 23.95
(A) AB (B) A2B
14. One Litre of a gas at STP has mass equal to 1.25 g.
(C) AB2 (D) A2B3
The gas is - [Haryana.NTSE Stage-I/13]
6. 1.204 × 10 24 molecules are present in a sample of (A) H2 (B) O2
methane. W hat will be its weight (in grams)? (C) N2 (D) CO2
[Raj.NTSE Stage-I/06]
15. 100 gm of an aq. solution of sugar contains 40%
(A) 32 (B) 24 sugar by mass. How much water hould be evapo-
(C) 16 (D) 12 rated to get 50% sugar solution by mass ?
[Haryana.NTSE Stage-I/13]
7. Na2 CO3 + 2HCl  2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O
(A) 10 g. (B) 20 g.
According to the above reaction, how many grams of (C) 0.0 g. (D) 40 g.
Na2CO3 will be needed to obtain 11.2 litre CO2 ?
[Raj.NTSE Stage-I/06] 16. The percentage by mass of cation is ammonium chro-
(A) 51 (B) 53 mate will be (At. mass of Cr = 52, N = 14, O = 16).
(C) 83 (D) 106 [Haryana.NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) 13.4% (B) 30.4%
8. The empirical formula of a compound is CH 2. If its (C) 25.7% (D) 23.7%
vapour density be 21, the molecular formula of this
17. Empirical formula of a compound is CH2O. Its vapor
compound will be [Raj.NTSE Stage-I/07]
density is 30. The compound is :
(A) C2H4 (B) C3H6
[Haryana.NTSE Stage-I/13]
(C) C4H8 (D) C5H10 (A) Ethanoic acid
9. A gas X is five times heavier than hydrogen while the (B) Methyl Methanoate
other gas Y is two times heavier than X.The molecular (C) Ethanal
(D) Both (A) and (B)
weight of Y will be - [Raj.NTSE Stage-I/05]
(A) 2.5 (B) 5
(C) 20 (D) 10

PAGE # 60
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
18. 2 litre of hydrogen and 1.2 litre of chlorine are mixed 27. Number of molecules in 14 g of carbon monoxide is
and exploded.The composition by volume of the [Rajasthan_NTSE Stage-I/15]
resultant mixture will be- [West Bengal NTSE Stage-I/13] (A) 12.044 × 1023 (B) 6.022 × 1023
(C) 3.011 × 1023 (D) 1.5050 × 1023
(A) 0.8 litre of hydrogen and 2.4 litre of chlorine
(B) 0.8 litre of hydrogen and 2.4 litre of hydrogen
28. Hydrogen was passed over heated 2.0 gm copper
chloride
oxide till only copper was left. The mass of copper
(C) 2.4 litre of hydrogen chloride
obtained was 1.6 gm. The percentage of oxygen in
(D) 0.8 litre of chlorine and 24 litre of hydrogen copper oxide is : [Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/15]
chloride (A) 80% (B) 60%
19. 1.35 gm ‘X’ element is completely converted to 1.88 (C) 40% (D) 20%
gm compound ‘XO’. What is the atomic weight of ‘X’ ?
[West Bengal NTSE Stage-I/13] 29. Which of the following molecule has an atomicity of
(A) 20.32 (B) 40.75 four : [Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(C) 16.25 (D) 56.10 (A) H2O (B) NH3
20. The mass of oxygen required for the complete (C) CH4 (D) CO2
combustion of 1.6 Kg of methane is :
[Karnataka.NTSE Stage-I/13] 30. One mole of CO2 means :
(A) 6.4 Kg (B) 3.2 Kg [Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(C) 1.2 Kg (D) 12.8 kg
(A) 4.4 gm CO2
21. One mole of magnesium nitride on reaction with (B) 2.24 litres gas at STP
excess of water gives : [Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/14] (C) 6.022 × 1023 molecules of CO2
(A) One mole of ammonia
(D) 22 gm CO2
(B) Two moles of ammonia
(C) One mole of nitric acid
(D) Two moles of nitric acid 31. How many grams of oxygen are required to burn 40
gm of sulphur ? S(s) + O2(g)  SO2(g)
22. When 2 moles of N2 gas and 9 moles of H2 gas are
mixed and reaction is completed to from NH 3 gas [Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/15]
then reaction mixture will contain: (A) 4.0 gm (B) 40.0 gm
[Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/14] (C) 400 gm (D) 80 gm
(A) 11 moles of NH3
(B) 4 moles of NH3 + 3 moles of H2
32. W hen iron filings are heated in a steam of dry
(C) 6 moles of NH3 + 3 moles of H2
hydrogen chloride, the compound formed is FeClx
(D) 2 moles of NH3 + 1 mole of N2
where x is [Jharkhand NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
23. Under the same conditions of temperature and (A) 1 (B) 2
pressure, 1L of oxygen gas was mixed with 1L of (C) 3 (D) 4
carbon dioxide gas. The mass ratio of the gases in 33. The solubility of a substance S in water is 28.6%
the mixture will be [West Bengal_NTSE Stage-I/15] (mass by volume) at 50º C. When 50 mL of its satu-
(A) 1 : 1 (B) 8 : 11 rated solution at 50ºC is cooled to 40ºC, 2.4 g of solid
(C) 11 : 8 (D) 16 : 44 S separates out.The solubility of S in water at 40ºC
24. 10 gm H2 and 64 gm O2 were taken in a sealed vessel (mass by volume) is : [NTSE Stage-2/ 2015]
and exploded. The amount of water produced in the (A) 2.4 % (B) 11.9%
reaction was : [West Bengal_NTSE Stage-I/15] (C) 26.2% (D) 23.8%
(A) 3 mole (B) 4 mole 34. What mass of CO2 will be formed when 6g of carbon
(C) 1 mole (D) 2 mole is burnt in 32 g of oxygen ? [NTSE Stage-2/ 2015]
(A) 38 g (B) 12g
25. A sample of MgCO3 contains 3.01 × 1023 Mg2+ ions (C) 26 g (D) 22 g
and 3.01 × 1023 CO32– ions. The mass of the sample
35. The law of conservation of mass is valid for which of
is : [Delhi_NTSE Stage-I/15]
the following ? [NTSE Stage-2/ 2015]
(A) 42 mg (B) 84 g
(a) Reactions involving oxidation
(C) 0.042 kg (D) 42 mol
(b) Nuclear reactions.
26. What mass of hydrogen and oxygen will be produced (c) Endothermic reactions
(A) (a) and (c) (B) (a) and (b)
on complete electrolysis of 18g of water ?
(C) (b) and (c) (D) (b) only
[Delhi_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) 2g hydrogen and 32g oxygen 36. Total number of atoms in 4 gm of oxygen molecule is
(B) 2g hydrogen and 16g oxygen : [Raj. NTSE Stage-1/2016]
(C) 4g hydrogen and 32g oxygen (A) 6.022×1023 (B) 7.52×1022
(D) 4g hydrogen and 14g oxygen (C) 1.5055×1023 (D) 0.0752×1023

PAGE # 61
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

INTRODUCTION (i) Evolution of gas :

Some chemical reactions take place with the
Chemistry is defined as that branch of science which evolution of a gas.
deals with the composition and properties of matter Some reactions in which a gas is evolved are
and the changes that matter undergoes by various described below :
interactions.
A chemical compound is formed as a result of a
chemical change and in this process different types
of energies such as heat, electrical energy, radiation
etc. are either absorbed or evolved. The total mass of
the substance remains the same throughout the
chemical change.

CHEMICAL ACTION OR REACTION

When a chemical change occurs, a chemical action

is said to have taken place. A chemical change or Evolution of Gas
chemical action is represented by a chemical Reaction between a metal such as zinc, magnesium,
equation. The matter undergoing change is known or iron and dilute sulphuric acid produces hydrogen
as reactant and new chemical component formed is gas.
known as product. Zn (s)+H2SO4 (dil)  ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
zinc sulphuric zinc sulphate hydrogen
(a) Characteristics of a Chemical Reaction:
acid gas
When we heat sugar crystals they melt and on further
Reaction between iron sulphide and dilute
heating they give steamy vapour, leaving behind
sulphuric acid produces hydrogen sulphide gas.
brownish black mass. On cooling no sugar crystals FeS (s) + H2SO4(dil)FeSO4 (aq) + H2S (g)
appear. Thus change which takes place on heating iron sulphide ferrous sulphate
sugar is a chemical change and the process which
Heating a mixture of potassium chlorate (KClO3 )
brings about this chemical change is called chemical
and manganese dioxide (MnO2) gives oxygen gas.
reaction.
heat
2KClO3 (s)   2KCl (s) + 3O2(g)
• In this reaction the substances which take part in MnO 2
bringing about chemical change are called reactants. Potassium chlorate potassium chloride oxygen gas

• The substances which are produced as a result of
chemical change are called products.
•These reactions involve breaking and making of
chemical bonds.
• Product(s) of the reaction is/are new substances
with new name(s) and chemical formulae.
• It is often difficult to reverse a chemical reaction.
• Properties of products formed during a chemical
reaction are different from those of the reactants.
MnO2 is used as a catalyst in this reaction.
This reaction is used for the preparation of oxygen
in the laboratory.
(ii) Change of colour : Certain chemical reactions
are characterised by the change in colour of reacting
substances.
• W hen red lead oxide is heated strongly it forms
yellow coloured lead monoxide and gives off oxygen
gas.

• Apart from heat other forms of energies are light

and electricity which are also used in carrying out
chemical changes. • When copper carbonate (green) is heated strongly
In all chemical reactions, the transformation from it leaves behind a black residue.
reactants to products is accompanied by various
characteristics, which are-

PAGE # 62
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Other such examples are - (B) Exothermic reaction : A chemical reaction which is
accompanied by the release of energy is called
2Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
Lead (II) nitrate Lead (II) oxide Nitrogen
exothermic reaction.
(White ) (Yellow) dioxide
• W hen magnesium wire is heated from its tip in a
(Brown)
bunsen flame, it catches fire and burns with a dazzling
C12H22O11(s) 12C(s) +11H2O(g) white flame with release of heat and light energy.
White Carbon Water Heat
2Mg (s) + O2 (g)  2MgO (s) + Energy
sugar black
• When quick lime (calcium oxide) is placed in water,
(iii) Formation of precipitate : Some chemical reactions
the water becomes very hot and sometimes starts
are characterised by the formation of precipitate (an boiling. It is because of release of heat energy during
insoluble substance), when the solutions of two the reaction.
soluble chemical compounds are mixed together.
• When silver nitrate solution is mixed with a solution CaO (s) + H2O Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Heat energy
Calcium Water Calcium
of sodium chloride, a white precipitate of silver chloride oxide hydroxide
is formed.
(v) Change of state : Some chemical reactions are
characterised by a change in state - i.e. solid, liquid or
gas.
• Two volumes of hydrogen gas react with one volume
of oxygen gas to form water.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O ()
or when electric current is passed through water it splits
into its elements .
Electric current
2H2O ()   2H2(g) + O2 (g)

• NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl (s)

Ammonia Hydrochloric Ammonium
acid chloride
AgNO3 (aq)+ NaCl (aq) NaNO3(aq) + AgCl (s)
Silver Sodium Sodium Silver CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
nitrate chloride nitrate chloride
(Colourless) (Colourless) (White All chemical changes are accompanied by chemical
precipitate) reactions. These reactions can be described in
sentence form, but the description would be quite long.
• A dirty green precipitate of ferrous hydroxide is formed,
Chemical equations have been framed to describe
when a solution of ferrous sulphate is mixed with
the chemical reactions.
sodium hydroxide solution .
A chemical equation links together the substances
FeSO4 (aq)+ 2NaOH (aq) Na2SO4(aq) + Fe(OH)2 (s) which react (reactants) with the new substances that
Ferrous Sodium Sodium Ferrous are formed (products).
sulphate hydroxide sulphate hydroxide
(Green
precipitate)

 Note :
•
A chemical reaction can be summarised by chemical
equation.
(a) Types of Chemical Equations :
(iv) Energy changes : All chemical reactions proceed
(i) Word equation : A word equation links together the
either with the absorption or release of energy.
names of the reactants with those of the products. For
On the basis of energy changes, there are two types of
example, the word equation, when magnesium ribbon
reactions :
burns in oxygen to form a white powder of magnesium
(A) Endothermic reaction : A chemical reaction which oxide, may be written as follows-
is accompanied by the absorption of energy is called
an endothermic reaction.
Heat
• C (s) + 2S (s)  CS2 ()
Similarly, the word equation for the chemical reaction
• Light energy is essential for biochemical reaction, between granulated zinc and hydrochloric acid may be
photosynthesis, by which green plants prepare their written as -
food from carbon dioxide & water.
Zinc + Sulphuric acid  Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen

PAGE # 63
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 In a word equation
• The reactants are written on the left hand side with a
plus sign (+) between them.
• The products are written on the right hand side with a
plus sign (+) between them.
• An arrow () separates the reactants from the
products.
• The direction of the arrow head points towards the
products.
 Note :
Although word equations are quite useful, yet they don’t
give the true picture of chemical reactions.
(ii) Symbol equation : A brief representation of a
chemical reaction in terms of symbols and formulae
of the substances involved is known as a symbol
equation.
In a symbol equation, the symbols and formulae of
the elements and compounds are written instead of
their word names.
e.g. Burning of magnesium in oxygen to form
magnesium oxide may be written as follows :
Mg + O2  MgO
 Note :
Symbol equations are always written from the word
equations.
( b) U nb al ance d and Ba la nc ed Che mi ca l
Equations :
In an unbalanced equation, the number of atoms of
different elements on both sides of the equation are
not equal. For example, in the equation given below,
the number of Mg atoms on both sides of the equation
is one (same), but the number of oxygen atoms are
not equal. It is known as an unbalanced equation.
Mg + O2  MgO
 Note :
An unbalanced equation is also called skeletal
equation.
In a balanced equation, the number of atoms of different
elements on both sides of the equation are always
equal. The balanced equation for the burning of
magnesium ribbon in oxygen is written as -
2Mg + O2  2MgO
(i) Importance of balanced chemical equation : The
balancing of a chemical equation is essential or
necessary to fulfil the requirement of “Law of
conservation of mass”.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(ii) Balancing of chemical equations : Balancing of
chemical equations may be defined as -
“The process of making the number of different types
of elements, on both sides of the equation, equal.”
The balancing of a chemical equation is done with the
help of Hit and Trial method. In this method, the
coefficients before the symbols or formulae of the
reactants and products are adjusted in such a way
that the total number of atoms of each element on both
the sides of the arrow head become equal. This
balancing is also known as mass balancing because
if the atoms of elements on both sides are equal and
their masses will also be equal.
The major steps involved in balancing a chemical
equation are as follows -
• W rite the chemical equation in the form of a word
equation. Keep the reactants on the left side and the
products on the right side. Separate them by an arrow
(), whose head points from the reactants towards the
products.
• Convert the word equation into the symbol equation
by writing the symbols and formulae of all the reactants
and products.
• Make the atoms of different elements on both sides
of the equation equal by suitable method. This is known
as balancing of equation.
• Do not change the formulae of the substances while
balancing the equation.
• Make the equation more informative if possible.
Examp les :
1. Zinc reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to give zinc
sulphate and hydrogen.
Sol. The word equation for the reaction is -
Zinc + Sulphuric acid  Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen
The symbol equation for the same reaction is -
Zn + H2SO4  ZnSO4 + H2
Let us count the number of atoms of all the elements
in the reactants and products on both sides of the
equation.
Element No. of atoms No. of atoms of
of reactants products
(L.H.S.) (R.H.S.)
Zn 1 1
H 2 2
S 1 1
O 4 4
As the number of atoms of the elements involved in
the reactants and products are equal, the equation is
already balanced.
2. Iron reacts with water (steam) to form iron (II,III) oxide
and liberates hydrogen gas.
Sol. The word equation for the reaction is -
Iron + Water  Iron (II,III) oxide + Hydrogen
The symbol equation for the same reaction is -
Fe + H2O  Fe3O4 + H2
PAGE # 64
 The balancing of the equations is done in the following
steps :
I : Let us count the number of atoms of all the elements
in the reactants and products on both sides of the
equation .
Element No. of atoms No. of atoms
of reactants of products
(L.H.S.) (R.H.S.)
Fe 1 3
H 2 2
O 1 4 (d ) Lim ita tions of Chem ica l E quati ons a nd
Thus, the number of H atoms are equal on both sides.
At the same time, the number of Fe and O atoms are
not equal.
II : On inspection, the number of O atoms in the reactant
(H2O) is 1 while in the product (Fe3O4), these are 4. To
balance the atoms, put coefficient 4 before H2O on the
reactant side. The partially balanced equation may be
written as
Fe + 4H2O  Fe3O4 + H2
III : In order to equate H atoms, put coefficient 4 before
H2 on the product side. As a result, the H atoms on
both sides of the equation become 8 and are thus
balanced. The partially balanced equation may now
be written as
Fe + 4H2O  Fe3O4 + 4H2
IV : In order to balance the Fe atoms, put coefficient 3
before Fe on the reactant side. The equation formed
may be written as -
3Fe + 4H2O  Fe3O4 + 4H2
V : On final inspection, the number of atoms of all the
elements on both sides of the equation are equal.
Therefore, the equation is balanced.
(c) Specialities of Chemical Equation :
(i) We get the information about the substances which
are taking part and formed in the reaction.
(ii) W e get the information about the number of
molecules of elements or compounds which are either
taking part or formed in the chemical reaction.
(iii) We also get the information of weight of reactants
or products.
For example - CaCO3  CaO + CO2
(100g) (56 g) (44 g)
Total weight of reactants is equal to the total weight of
products because matter is never destroyed. In the
above example total weight of calcium carbonate
(reactant) is 100 g and of product is also 100g (56 g + 44 g).
(iv) In a chemical equation if any reactant or product is
in gaseous state, then its volume can also be
determined. For example in the above reaction volume
of carbon dioxide is 22.4 litres at S.T.P.
(v) In a chemical equation with the help of product we
can get information about the valency as well.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
For example -
Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2
In the above reaction one atom of Mg displaces two
atoms of hydrogen, so valency of magnesium is two.
 Note :
All chemical equations are written under N.T.P.
conditions (at 298 K and 1 atmosphere pressure ) if
conditions are not otherwise mentioned.
their Rectifications :
(i) We do not get information about the physical state of
reactants and products.
For example solid, liquid or gas.
(ii) No information about the concentration of reactants
and products is obtained .
(iii) No information about the speed of reaction and
sense of timing can be obtained.
(iv) Information regarding the favourable conditions of
the reactions such as pressure, temperature, catalyst
etc. can’t be obtained during the reaction.
(v) W e do not get information whether energy is
absorbed or evolved during the reaction.
(vi) We do not get information whether the reaction is
reversible or irreversible.
(vii) W e do not get information about the necessary
precautions to be taken for the completion of reaction.
The above limitations are rectified in the following
manner -
(i) The physical state of reactants and products are
represented by writing them in bracket.
Writing State Symbols :
The chemical equations or symbol equations which
we have enlisted don’t mention the physical states of
the reactant and product species involved in the
reaction. In order to make the equation more
informative, the physical states are also mentioned
with the help of certain specific symbols known as
state symbols.These symbols are
• (s) for solid state
• () for liquid state
• (g) for gaseous state
• (aq) for aqueous solution i.e., solution prepared in
water.
Sometimes a gas if evolved in a reaction is shown by
the symbol () i.e., by an arrow pointing upwards.
Similarly the precipitate, if formed during the reaction,
is indicated by the symbol () i.e., by an arrow pointing
downwards.
PAGE # 65
 Significance of State Symbols : (iii) To express the concentration, dilute or conc. is
The state symbols are of most significance for those written below the formula.
chemical reactions which are either accompanied by Mg + H2SO4  MgSO4 + H2
the evolution of heat (exothermic) or by the absorption (dilute)
of heat (endothermic). For example.
(iv) Favourable conditions required for the completion
2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O() + 572 kJ of reaction are written above and below the arrow.
2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(g) + 484 kJ
500 ºC , Fe / Mo
N2 + 3H2    2NH3 + 22400 Calorie heat
200 atm
Both these reactions are of exothermic nature because
heat has been evolved in these. However, actual (v) Reversible reaction is represented by ( )
amounts of heat evolved are different when water is in
symbol and irreversible reaction by () symbol.
the liquid state and when it is in the vapour state.
(vi) The heat absorbed in the chemical reaction is
(ii) The precipitate formed in the reaction is represented
written on the right side by putting negative (-) sign and
by  symbol and gaseous substance by  symbol.
heat evolved in the chemical reaction is written on the
The abbreviation ‘ppt’ is also used to represent the
right side by putting positive (+)sign.
precipitate, if formed.
• 2Na(s) + 2H2O()  2NaOH (aq) + H2(g) or H2  N2 + 3H2 2NH3 + 22400 Calorie
(Exothermic Reaction)
• Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g)  CaCO3  + H2O()
N2 + O2 2NO – 43200 Calorie
• AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)  AgCl (ppt.) + NaNO3(aq)
(Endothermic Reaction)

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

 Note :
(a) Addition Reactions : All synthesis reaction are addition reactions but all
It is a union of two or more than two substances to addition reactions are not synthesis reactions.
form a new substance. It may be brought about by the Other examples of synthesis reactions are -
application of heat, light, electricity or pressure. • 2H2 + O2  2H2O
• 2Mg + O2  2MgO
e.g. H2 + Cl2  2HCl • 2Na + Cl2  2NaCl
In the above example H2 and Cl2 two elements combine
(ii) When two or more compounds combine to form a
to form hydrogen chloride. new compound.
e.g.
Addition reactions may be formed in the following
• NH3 + HCl  NH4Cl
conditions - • CaO + CO2  CaCO3
(i) When two or more elements combine to form a new • CH2 = CH2 + Br2 
compound.

Synthesis reaction : It is a type of addition reaction in (iii) W hen an element and a compound combine to
which a new substance is formed by the union of its form a new compound.
component elements. e.g.
e.g. N2 + 3H2  2NH3 (Haber’s Process) • 2CO + O2  2CO2
• 2SO2 + O2  2SO3
Ammonia is synthesised from its components,
nitrogen and hydrogen, so it is a synthesis reaction.  Note :
Only single substance is formed as a product in the
addition reactions.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (b) Decomposition Reaction : Displacement of A Less Active Metal By A More
It is breaking up of a substance into simpler compounds Active Metal
and it may be brought about by the application of heat, Reaction 1.
light, electricity etc. When an iron nail is dipped in a copper sulphate solu-
tion, it gets coated with copper.
(i) A decomposition reaction brought by heat is known Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq)  FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
as thermal decomposition. Iron Copper sulphate Iron sulphate Copper
e.g.
 In this reaction, Fe has taken the place of Cu in the
• CaCO3  CaO + CO2
 compound CuSO4. In other words, we say that Fe
• 2Pb (NO3)2  2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
has displaced Cu from the compound CuSO4 .
(ii) Decomposition performed by electricity is known Conclusion
as electrolysis.
e.g. From this reaction we conclude that Fe (iron) is more
Electricity reactive metal than Cu (Copper).
• 2H2O      2H2 + O2
Electricity
• 2NaCl (molten)      2Na + Cl2
Displacement of A Less Active Non metal By A More
Electricity
Active Non metal
• 2Al2O3      4 Al + 3O2
Reaction 1.
(iii) A decomposition reaction brought by light is known When chlorine gas is passed through sodium bromide
as photo decomposition. solution, sodium chloride and bromine are formed.
e.g. 2NaBr(aq) + Cl2(g)  2NaCl (aq) + Br2(g)
Sodium bromide Chlorine Sodium chloride Bromine
Light
• 2AgBr   2Ag + Br2
Conclusion.
Light
• 2AgCl  In this reaction, chlorine has displaced bromine from
 2Ag + Cl2
NaBr. Therefore, chlorine is more reactive than
(iv) Decomposition reaction in which a compound
bromine.
decomposes into its elements is known as analysis
Reaction 2.
reaction.
e.g. When chlorine is bubbled through sodium iodide
 solution, sodium chloride and iodine are formed
• 2HgO  2Hg + O2
 2NaI(aq) + Cl2 (g)  2NaCl (aq) + I2 (g)
• 2H  H2  + 2 
Sodium iodide Chlorine Sodium chloride Iodine
Conclusion
All analysis reactions are decomposition reactions,
In this reaction chlorine has displaced I2 from
but all decomposition reactions are not analysis
sodium iodide (NaI).
reactions.
Therefore, Cl (chlorine) is more reactive than I
 Note : (Iodine).
Decomposition reaction is just opposite of the addition
Displacement of Hydrogen From Acids By Active Met-
reaction.
als
(c) Displacement Reactions : When zinc reacts with sulphuric acid, hydrogen gas is
liberated and zinc sulphate is formed.
It involves displacement of one of the constituents of a Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq)  Zn SO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
compound by another substance and may be regarded
Zinc Sulphuric acid Zinc sulphate Hydrogen
as a displacement reaction.
Conclusion
Types of Displacement Reactions Zn (Zinc) is more reactive than H (hydrogen).
The displacing group may have many types of electronic
(d) Double Displacement :
configuration and hence many types of substitution
It is mutual exchange of the radicals of two compounds
reactions are possible. In general :
taking part in the reaction and results in the formation
(i) A more active metal will displace a less active metal of two new compounds.
from compound. • NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq)  AgCl + NaNO3 (aq)

(ii) Some active nonmetals will displace less active • BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) BaSO4 + 2NaCl (aq)
non metals.
 Note :
(iii) Some metals will displace a non metal. Acid base neutralisation reactions are double
displacement reactions.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (e) Redox Reactions :
In our daily life we come across processes like rusting
of objects made of iron, fading of the colour of the
clothes, burning of the combustible substances such
as cooking gas, wood, coal, etc. All such processes
fall in the category of specific type of chemical reactions
called oxidation - reduction reactions or redox
reactions.
Most of the elements are reactive and react with oxygen
and hydrogen. Initially, on the basis of addition of oxygen
and hydrogen, the chemical reactions were considered
as oxidation and reduction reactions but afterwards,
the definition was expanded, on the basis of addition
or displacement of other elements except O2 and H2 ,
which are as follows -
Examples
(1) 2Fe  3Cl2  2FeCl3
(2) SnCl2  Cl2  SnCl 4
In these reactions, numbers of atoms of electronegative
element chlorine is increased in Fe and SnCl2 and
forms FeCl3 and SnCl4 respectively
(d) There is removal of electropositive element from
a substance
Examples
(1) 2KI  Cl2  2KCl  I2
The electropositive element K (Potassium) is lost and
in this way oxidation of KI takes place.
(2) 2NaBr  Cl2 ( g)  2NaCl  Br2 (g)

Oxidation : In this reaction NaBr changes to Br 2 . This involves

Definitions : The oxidation of a substance takes place removal of electropositive atom i.e. oxidation thus NaBr
when :
is oxidised to Br2
(a) There is addition of oxygen to a substance. So, in short oxidation is a chemical reaction in which
(i) The chemical reactions in which oxygen combines substances combine with oxygen or an electronegative
with some other substance. element or lose hydrogen or an electropositive element.
Examples Reduction :
(1) C (s) + O2 (g)  CO2 (g) Definitions : The reduction of a substance takes place
(2) 2Mg (s) + O2 (g)  2MgO (g)
when :
(3) P 4(s) + 5O2  2P2O5 (s)
(a) There is addition of hydrogen to a substance.
(4) 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)  2H2O (l)
(5) 2Cu(s) + O2 (g)  2CuO(s) Examples
(6) 2CO(g) + O2 (g)  2CO 2(s) (1) H2  S  H2 S
(b) There is removal of hydrogen from a substance (2) Cl2  H2 S  2HCl  S
(i) The chemical reactions in which hydrogen is lost
from a substance. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) when reacted with chlorine
(Cl2) gets oxidised to sulphur where as chlorine gets
(1) H2 S  H2 + S reduced to HCl
Cu (3) H2  Cl2  2HCl
(2) CH3CH2OH O CH3CHO + H2
300 C
In ethyl alcohol, 6 hydrogen atoms are present and 4 (4) 2Na  H 2  2NaH
hydrogen atoms are present in acetaldehyde, so (5) C2H4  H2  C 2H6
formed. (b) There is removal of oxygen from a substance
Hence, there is a loss of two hydrogen atoms so this Examples :
reaction is an oxidation reaction.
(1) H2 O  C  CO  H 2
(3) H2S (aq) + Br2 (aq)  2HBr (aq) + S
Steam coke water gas
Oxidation In this case, water has been reduced to hydrogen by
(hydrogen is removed from H2S) the removal of oxygen

(4) (2) ZnO  H2  Zn  H2O

Here Zinc oxide has been reduced to zinc by the
Heat
4HCl  MnO2  MnCl2  2H2O  2Cl2 (g) removal of oxygen
Oxidation
(3) ZnO  C  Zn  CO
( hydrogen is removed from HCl ) Reduction
(Removal of oxygen)
(5) 2H2 S  O 2  2H2O  2S
Oxidation
Here hydrogen is removed from H2S
(4) CuO  H2  Cu  H 2O
Reduction
(c) There is addition of an electronegative element to (Removal of oxygen)
a substance
(5) 2MgO  2Mg  O 2
Reduction
(Removal of oxygen)

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (c) There is addition of electropositive element to a (ii) The substance from which oxygen is removed or
substance. substance to which hydrogen is added is said to be
reduced.
Examples
(iii) The substance which gets oxidised acts as
(1) Cl 2  Mg  MgCl2 reducing agent.
(iv) The substances which gets reduced acts as an
(2) I 2  Hg  HgI 2
oxidising agent.
In above reaction, Cl2 is reduced to MgCl2 and I2 is
reduced to Hgl2 MODERN CONCEPT OF OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
Besides earlier concepts of oxidation and reduction,
(d) There is removal of an electronegative element
two modern concepts of oxidation and reduction are
from a substance. more common.
(i) Electronic concept
Examples : (ii) Oxidation number concept
(1) 2FeCl 3  2FeCl 2  Cl2 Here we will study only electronic concept.
Oxidation
(2) FeS  Fe  S According to electronic concept, those chemical
In the above reactions change of FeCl3 and FeS to reactions in which an atom, ion or molecule loses
FeCl2 and Fe respectively are examples of reduction. electron are known as Oxidation reaction. This is also
known as de-electronation.
So, in short, reduction is a chemical reaction in which
(i) Oxidation of atom
substance combine with hydrogen or an electropositive
Na  Na+ + e–
element or lose oxygen or an electro negative element.
Ca  Ca2+ + 2e–
A substance that brings about oxidation that is addition 2+
Zn  Zn + 2e–
of oxygen or an electronegative element and removal
of hydrogen or an electropositive element is called (ii) Oxidation of ion (Cation)
oxidising agent. Fe2+  Fe3+ + e–
2+ 4+
On the other hand, a substance that brings about Sn  Sn + 2e–
reduction, that is removal of oxygen or an Cu+  Cu2+ + e–
electronegative element and addition of hydrogen or
(iii) Oxidation of ion (Anion)
an electropositive element is called reducing agent.
2Cl–  Cl2 + 2e–
Consider the reaction
MnO42–  MnO–4 + e–
CuO  H2  Cu  H 2O 2O2–  O2 + 4e–
In this reaction, hydrogen removes oxygen from copper (iv) Oxidation of molecule
oxide. Thus, CuO is reduced and hydrogen behaves
H2S  H2 + S
as reducing agent.
H2S  2H+ + S 2–
Copper oxide gives oxygen to hydrogen and hydrogen
In oxidation reaction, electrons are lost due to which,
is oxidised to water by CuO. Therefore, CuO is acting
positive charge on substance is increased and
as oxidising agent
negative charge on substance is decreased.
(Removal of oxygen) Reduction
Reduction Reduction is the chemical reaction in which an atom,
ion or molecule gains one or more electron. This is
CuO  H2  Cu  H 2O
also known as electronation.
Oxidising Reducing
agent agent (i) Reduction of atom
Cl + e–  Cl–
S + 2e–  S2–
(Addition of oxygen) (ii) Reduction of ion
Oxidation
Mg2+ + 2e–  Mg
Pb4+ + 2e–  Pb2+
CuO makes oxidation to occur  Oxidising agent 2–
Cr2O7  2Cr3+
H2 makes reduction to occur  Reducing agent NO 3  NO 2–
–

NOTE :
(iii) Reduction of molecule
(i) The substance to which oxygen is added or
substance from which hydrogen is removed is said to MnO2  Mn2+
be oxidised. In reduction reaction, gain of electrons takes place due
to which there is increase in negative charge or
decrease in positive charge.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Oxidizing agent according to electronic concept
TABLE : COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OXIDATION AND
Those substances which gain electrons or get reduced
REDUCTION REACTIONS
are known as oxidizing agent.

Oxidation Reduction Reducing agent according to electronic concept

Those substances which lose electrons or get oxidised
Combination of substance Combination of substance
1 are known as reducing agent,
with oxygen with hydrogen
Combination of substance CuSO4 + Fe  FeSO4 + Cu
Combination of substance Oxidation
2 with electronegative
with electropositive element
element
Loss of hydrogen Loss of oxygen from
3
from substance substance Cu2+ + Fe0  Fe2+ + Cu0
Loss of electropositive Loss of electronegative
4
element from substance element from substance
Loss of electron from an Gain of electron by an atom Reduction
5
atom or ion. or ion.
In this reaction, Fe loses electrons and get oxidised
Redox Reactions so it is reducing agent, while CuSO4 gains electrons
Generally, oxidation and reduction reaction takes place and get reduced, so clearly it is an oxidizing agent.
simultaneously because in a chemical reaction, one
atom, ion or molecule of a substance loses electron
EFFECT OF OXIDATION REACTIONS
while another atom, ion or molecule gains electron. In
IN EVERYDAY LIFE
this way oxidation of one substance while reduction of
another substance takes place. Thus such reaction
are known as Redox reactions. W e are all aware of the fact that oxygen is most
essential for sustaining life. One can live without food
Example :
or even water for a number of days but not without
(1) oxygen. It is involved in a variety of actions which have
wide range of effects on our daily life. Most of them are
quite useful while a few may be harmful in nature.
Some of these effects are briefly discussed.
2Mg  O 2  2MgO (Mg 2  O 2 )
(a) Combustion Reactions :
A chemical reaction in which a substance burns or
gets oxidised in the presence of air or oxygen is called
(Loss of electrons) combustion reaction. For example, kerosene, coal,
(oxidation) charcoal, wood etc. burn in air and thus, undergo
combustion. Methane (CH 4) a major constituent of
(2) 
Fe  S  FeS (Fe2  S 2 ) natural gas undergoes combustion in excess of oxygen
upon heating.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O () + energy
Methane
Similarly, butane (C4H10), the main constituent of L.P.G.
also undergoes combustion.
2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g)  8CO2(g) + 5H2O(g) + energy
Butane
All combustion reactions are of exothermic nature and
(3) are accompanied by release of heat energy. The
human body may be regarded as a furnace or machine
in which various food stuffs that we eat undergo
oxidation. The heat energy evolved keeps our body
working. Carbohydrates such as glucose, fructose,
(4) 2Al  6HCl  2AlCl3  3H2 starch etc. are the major source of energy to the human
OR body. They undergo oxidation with the help of oxygen
that we inhale to form carbon dioxide and water. For
example.
2Al  6H  2Al3  3H2 C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)  6CO2(g) + 6H2O () + energy
Gain of electrons All combustion reactions are not accompanied by
(Reduction) flame. Combustion is basically oxidation accompanied
by release of energy.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (b) Respiration :
Respiration is the most important biochemical reaction
which releases energy in the cells. When we breathe
in air, oxygen enters our lungs and passes into
thousands of small air sacs (alveoli). These air sacs
occupy a large area of membranes and oxygen
diffuses from the membranes into blood. It binds itself
to haemoglobin present in red blood cells and is
carried to millions of cells in the body. Respiration
occurs in these cells and is accompanied by the
combustion of glucose producing carbon dioxide and
water. Since the reaction is of exothermic nature, the
energy released during respiration carry out many cell
reactions and also keeps our heart and muscles
working. It also provides the desired warmth to the
body. Both carbon dioxide and water pass back into
the blood and we ultimately breathe them out.
Respiration takes place in the cells of all living beings.
 Note :
Fish take up oxygen dissolved in water through their
gills while plants take up air through small pores
(stomata) present in their leaves.
(c) Harmful Effects of Oxidation :
We have discussed the utility of oxidation in releasing
energy which our body needs to keep warm and
working. However, oxidation has harmful effects also.
(i) Pollution : The environmental pollution is basically
due to combustion. Poisonous gases like carbon
monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), sulphur trioxide
(SO 3) and oxides of nitrogen (N xO y) etc. are being
released into the atmosphere as a result of variety of
combustion reaction which are taking place. They
pollute the atmosphere and make our lives miserable.
(ii) Corrosion :
The process of slowly eating up of the metals due to
attack of atmospheric gases such as oxygen, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, water vapour etc. on the
surface of the metals so as to convert the metal into
oxide, carbonate, sulphide etc. is known as corrosion.
The most common example of corrosion is rusting i.e.
corrosion of iron. W hen an iron article remains
exposed to moist air for a long time, its surface is
covered with a brown, flaky (non-sticky) substance
called rust. Rust is mainly hydrated ferric oxide (Fe2O3
.xH2O). It is formed due to attack of oxygen gas and
water vapour present in the air on the surface of iron.
2Fe(s)  3 / 2O2 (g)  xH 2O(l)  Fe 2O3 .xH 2O(s)
hydrated ferric oxide
(Rust)
Similarly , copper objects lose their lustre or shine
after some time. The surface of these objects acquire
a green coating of basic carbonate, CuCO3 . Cu(OH)2
when exposed to air. This is due to attack of O2, CO2
and water vapour present in the air on the surface of
copper.
2Cu (s)  CO2 (g)  O 2 (g)  H2 O (l)  CuCO 3 . Cu(OH)2
Copper Basic copper
From moist air
carbonate(Green)
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
Likewise, the surface of silver metal gets tarnished
(i.e. loses lustre and becomes dull) on exposure to air.
This is due to the formation of a coating of black silver
sulphide (Ag2 S) on its surface by the action of H2 S
present in the air.
2 Ag(s)  H2S (g)  Ag2S (s)  H2 (g)
Silver Hydrogen sulphide Silver sulphide
(From air) (Black)
Rusting is a serious problem because it weakens the
structure of bridges, iron railings, automobile parts etc.
Every year a large amount of money is spent to replace
rusted iron and steel structures. The reason is that the
reddish brown crust of rust does not stick to the surface.
It peels off (or falls down) exposing fresh surface for
rusting. Thus, corrosion of iron is a continuous process
which ultimately eats up the whole iron object.
Methods to prevent rusting. Rusting can be prevented
if iron objects are not allowed to come in contact with
the damp air. Some common methods generally used
are given below.
(i) By painting the iron articles such as window grills,
iron gates, steel furniture, railway coaches, bodies of
cars, buses etc.
(ii) By greasing and oiling the iron articles such as
mechanical tools, machine parts etc.
(iii) By galvanisation, i.e. coating the surface of iron
objects with a thin layer of zinc.
(iii) Rancidity :
Oxidation also has damaging effect on foods
containing fats and oils. W hen the food materials
prepared in fats and oils are kept for a long time, they
start giving unpleasant smell and taste, this is called
rancidity. This happens as follows :
When the fats and oils present in food materials get
oxidised by the oxygen (of air), their oxidation products
have unpleasant smell and taste.The condition
produced by aerial oxidation of fats and oils in foods
marked by unpleasant smell and taste is called
rancidity. Rancidity spoils the food materials prepared
in fats and oils which have been kept for a considerable
time and makes them unfit for eating. Rancidity is called
‘vikritgandhita’ in Hindi.
The development of rancidity of food can be prevented
or retarded (slowed down) in the following ways :
1. Rancidity can be prevented by adding anti-oxidants
to foods containing fats and oils :
Anti-oxidant is a substance (or chemical) which
prevents oxidation. Anti-oxidants are actually reducing
agents. When anti-oxidants are added to foods, then
the fats and oils present in them do not get oxidised
easily and hence do not turn rancid. So the foods
remain good to eat for a much longer time. The two
common anti-oxidants used in foods to prevent the
development of rancidity are BHA (Butylated Hydroxy-
Anisole) and BHT (Butylated Hydroxy Toluene).
2. Rancidity can be prevented by packaging fat and oil
containing foods in nitrogen gas :
When the packed food is surrounded by an unreactive
gas like nitrogen, there is no oxygen (of air) to cause
its oxidation and make it rancid. The manufacturers of
potato chips (and other similar food products) fill the
plastic bags containing chips with nitrogen gas to
prevent the chips from being oxidised and turn rancid.
PAGE # 71
3. Rancidity can be retarded by keeping food in a
COMBUSTION OF A WAX CANDLE
refrigerator :
The refrigerator has a low temperature inside it. When Candles are usually made of paraffin wax, which is
the food is kept in a refrigerator, the oxidation of fats obtained from petroleum .W hen a candle is burnt,
and oils in it is slowed down due to low temperature. following observations can be made -
So, the development of rancidity due to oxidation is
(i) The wick burns and it stands in a pool of liquid wax.
retarded.
(ii) There is a small portion of unburnt wick between
4. Rancidity can be retarded by storing food in air-tight the flame and the liquid wax.
containers :
(iii) The liquid wax is trapped in a cup of solid wax.
When food is stored in air-tight containers, then there
is little exposure to oxygen of air. Due to reduced (iv) The liquid or solid wax never catches fire. Also the
flame never travels down to burn either liquid wax or
exposure to oxygen, the oxidation of fats and oils
the solid wax.
present in food is slowed down and hence the
development of rancidity is retarded. What actually happens in the process of burning of a
candle ?
5. Rancidity can be retarded by storing foods away
(i) It is only the wax vapours that burn neither liquid wax
from light :
nor solid wax burns.
In the absence of light, the oxidation of fats and oils
(ii) When a candle wick is lit, the heat produced from
present in food is slowed down and hence the
the flame melts the wax.
development of rancidity is retarded.
(iii) The wick soaks or absorbs the molten wax.
FLAME (iv) The heat of the flame vapourizes the molten wax in
A flame is a region where combustion of gases take the wick.
place. A flame is the product of a highly exothermic (v) The gaseous wax burns in the flame, which keeps
reaction. the flame alive. This process goes on till the entire wax
gets burnt.
A flame is the visible (light - emitting) part of fire.

(a) Colour of Flame :

Colour of flame depends on the temperature, amount
of air supplied, and the substance burning.
e.g. flames produced by hydrocarbon fuels are either
blue or yellow.
(b) Types of Flame :
1. Outermost nonluminous zone of complete
combustion : This zone is faintly visible and surrounds
the yellow luminous part of the flame. In this zone, the
wax vapour undergoes complete combustion because
plenty of air is present around it. This zone is the hottest
part of the candle flame.

A flame can be of two types : 2. Central (or middle) luminous zone of incomplete
(i) Luminous flame (ii) Non-luminous flame combustion : The central luminous zone is the major
part of the candle flame. This zone is bright yellow and
Luminous flame Non-luminous flame luminous, and lies below the outermost nonluminous
This flame is accompained This flame is accompained zone. In this zone, wax vapour undergoes incomplete
with sufficient amount of with heat but very little light. combustion because not enough of air is present here.
heat and light. The incomplete combustion of wax vapour produces
carbon particles. These unburnt carbon particles get
This type of flame is This type of flame occurs heated up and start glowing. These glowing carbon
observed when there is because of complete
particles make the flame luminous. Thus, the central
insufficient oxygen. combustion of hydrocarbons
in the presence of excess of zone of the candle flame is luminous due to the
oxygen. incomplete combustion of wax vapour in this zone.
This part of the flame has moderate temperature.
It leaves black soot and This type of flame does not
other residue. leave any residue. 3. Inner dark zone of no combustion : The dark zone
Yellow flame is luminous Blue flame is non-luminous around the wick is called inner dark zone of no
flame. flame. combustion. In this zone very little or no combustion
takes place because in this zone no air is present.
This part of the flame is the least hot.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 4. Lowest blue zone : This zone is located at the base
of the flame. The blue colour of this zone is due to the
burning of the carbon monoxide produced in the dark
zone.
Structure of a candle flame
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) of the United States has recently discovered
that gravity also, indirectly, plays a role in flame
formation and composition.
In zero gravity place or in outer space, the efficiency of
a flame goes to the maximum possible limit. In zero-
gravity the hot combustion products move away from
the fuel source, resulting in a spherical flame front.
The flame is also believed to be more bluish and
efficient in such conditions.
 Note :
(i) Eulachon (oolichan) is known as candlefish. Its
name is derived from the fact that it is so full of fat
during spawning (production of eggs in large numbers)
that caught, dried and strung on a wick, it can be used
as a candle.
(ii) Goldsmiths blow the outermost zone of a flame
with a metallic blow-pipe because outermost zone has
very high temperature.
FUELS
Fuels are substances that produce heat and light
energy on burning. e.g. Wood, Coal, Cow dung cakes,
Kerosene, LPG etc. are used as fuels for cooking and
heating. Petrol, diesel, etc. are used in automobiles.
(i) Calorific value : The amount of heat produced by
complete burning of per unit mass of a fuel is known
as calorific value of that fuel.
A device used to put off fire is called a fire extinguisher.
Various types of fire extinguishers are used for different
types of fires.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
Types of fire extinguisher :
(a) Water as a Fire Extinguisher :
(i) Principle : When water is thrown on fire, it cools the
combustible substance below its ignition temperature
(kindling temperature) and the fire is extinguished. The
water vapours also surround the combustible material
and thus help in cutting off the supply of air.
(ii) Limitations :
• W ater cannot be used for extinguishing oil fires
because being heavier it sinks down and the oil comes
up and continues to burn.
• Water cannot be used to put off fires in electrical wiring
as water conducts electricity and may result in the
electrocution of the person involved.
(b) Foam Type Fire Extinguisher :
(i) Principle : This is based on the principle of
extinguishing fire by cutting off air supply to the burning
substance.
(ii) Structure : It contains a solution of aluminium
sulphate in the glass bottle and a saturated solution of
sodium bicarbonate in the metallic cylinder. Saponin
is added to sodium bicarbonate solution to produce
foam.
(iii) Working : W hen the knob of a foam type fire
extinguisher is pressed, the glass bottle containing
aluminium sulphate solution breaks and comes in
contact with the sodium bicarbonate solution. The
following reaction takes place.
Al2(SO4)3 + 6NaHCO3 2Al(OH)3 + 6CO2 + 3Na2SO4.
Due to presence of saponin, a stable foam of CO2 is
formed. The CO 2 foam comes out of the fire
extinguisher with great pressure and covers the entire
surface of burning oil. This cuts off the supply of air to
the burning oil and hence the fire is extinguished.
(iv) Uses : It is used for -
• extinguishing fire caused by burning oil.
• extinguishing fire caused by petrol at petrol pumps,
in oil tanks etc.
(c) Carbon Tetrachloride Fire Extinguisher :
(i) Principle : CCl4 fire extinguisher is based on the
principle of extinguishing fire by cutting off the air supply
to the burning substance.
(ii) Working : W hen CCl4 is pumped out from the
extinguisher, it vapourises on coming in contact with
the burning material. Since CCl4 vapours are heavier
than air they settle down on the burning material and
cut off the air supply. The fire gets extinguished.
(iii) Uses :
Carbon tetrachloride fire extinguisher is used for
extinguishing fire caused by electricity.
PAGE # 73
 (d) Soda Acid Fire Extinguisher : 5. aK2Cr2O7 + bKCl + cH2SO4  xCrO2Cl2 + y KHSO4
+ zH2O
(i) Principle : It extinguishes fire by cooling the burning The above equation balances when
substance below its ignition temperature and by cutting (A) a = 2, b = 4, c = 6 and x = 2, y = 6 , z = 3
(B) a = 4, b = 2, c = 6 and x = 6, y = 2, z = 3
off the supply of air.
(C) a = 6, b = 4, c = 6 and x = 6, y = 3, z = 2
(D) a = 1, b = 4, c = 6 and x = 2, y = 6, z = 3
(ii) Structure : A soda acid fire extinguisher consists of
a metallic cylinder having a knob and a nozzle tube. 6. In the reaction,
The cylinder is filled with a saturated solution of sodium As2S5 + xHNO3  5H2SO4 + yNO2 + 2H3AsO4
bicarbonate. A glass bottle containing conc. H2SO 4 is + 12H2O
the values of x and y are-
kept inside the metal cylinder. When we strike the knob
(A) 40, 40 (B) 10, 10
of the extinguisher against a hard surface the acid bottle (C) 30, 30 (D) 20, 20
breaks and the acid comes in contact with the solution
of NaHCO3. TY PE S OF CHE MICAL RE ACT IONS

7. Match the following -

2NaHCO3 + H2 SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2 O + 2CO2
Sodium Sulphuric Sodium Water Carbon Column A Column B
bicarbonate acid sulphate dioxide Types of chemical Chemical equations
reaction
(a) Combination reaction (i) CaCO3   CaO + CO2
(iii) Working : The CO2 produced exerts pressure and
forces the water solution out through the nozzle. The (b) Decomposition reaction (ii) 2H2O  2H2 + O2
Electricit y

solution cools the combustible substance below its (c) Displacement reaction (iii) CaO + CO2  CaCO3

ignition temperature and CO2 cuts off oxygen supply by (d) Analysis reaction (iv) Fe(s) +CuSO4(aq.) 
covering the surface of the burning substance. FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
(A) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii) (B) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
(C) a(iii), b(i), c(iv), d(ii) (D) a(iii), b(i), c(iii), d(iv)
EXERCISE -1
8. W hich of the following reactions is/are a double
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS displacement reaction(s) ?
& BA LA NCIN G
(i) AgNO3 + NaBr  NaNO3 + AgBr

1. In the balanced equation - (ii) BaCl2 + H2SO4  BaSO4 + 2HCl

aHgS+bHCl + cHNO3  dH2HgCl4 + eNO + fS + gH2O
(iii) As2O3 + 3H2S  As2S3 + 3H2O
The values of b, c, e, and g are respectively -
(A) 2, 2, 4, 12 (B) 6, 1, 1, 2 (iv) NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
(C) 12,2, 2, 4 (D) both (B) and (C) (A) (i) & (ii) (B) only (iii)
2. In the reaction FeSO4 + x  Na2SO4 + Fe(OH)2 , x (C) only (iv) (D) (i) to (iv) all
is - 9. In the reaction Mg + Cl2  MgCl2
(A) Na2SO4 (B) H2SO4 Chlorine may be regarded as -
(C) NaOH (D) none of these (A) an oxidising agent
(B) a reducing agent
3. In the reaction (C) a catalyst
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 + Heat energy (D) providing an inert medium
Calcium Water Calcium
oxide hydroxide 10. The antioxidant which is used to prevent rancidity in
the possible state of Ca(OH)2 is - foods is
(A) liquid. (B) aqueous. (A) butylated hydroxyl anisole.
(C) gaseous. (D) solid. (B) sodium hydroxide.
(C) sodium carbonate.
4. The rate of reaction remains same, when -
(A) temperature of the reaction changes. (D) methylated hydroxyl anisole
(B) catalyst is added to reaction mixture. 11. The colour of the chemical that changes when it is left
(C) both (A) and (B) are correct open in sunlight is -
(D) none of these is correct (A) FeSO4 (s). (B) Pb(NO3)2 (s)
(C) AgCl (s). (D) BaCl2 (aq)

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
12. Sun produces heat and light by - 22. Oxidants are substances which :
(A) combustion. (A) Show a decrease in their oxidation number during
(B) inflammation. a change
(C) nuclear reactions. (B) Gain electrons during a change
(D) photochemical reactions. (C) Oxidise others and reduce themselves
(D) All of the above
13. Decomposition of calcium carbonate to give calcium
oxide and carbon dioxide is - 23. If an iron rod is dipped in CuSO4 solution :
(A) An oxidation process (A) Blue colour if the solution turns red
(B) A reduction process (B) Brown layer is deposited on iron rod
(C) Disproportionation (C) No change occurs in the colour of the solution
(D) Decomposition (D) None of the above

14. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct ? 24. Which of the following is a redox reaction ?
(A) Many compounds can be used as oxidizing as
(A) CaCO3  CaO + CO2
well as reducing agent .
(B) W e need equal moles and equal volumes of (B) H2 + Cl2  2HCl
strong monobasic acid and strong monoacidic (C) CaO + 2HCl  CaCl2 + H2O
base to completely neutralize themselves.
(D) NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
(C) The quantity of a catalyst does not change at the
end of a chemical reaction . 25. Which of the following statement about the following
(D) All of these are correct reaction is correct
15. The elements undergoing reduction and oxidation dur- ZnO + CO  Zn + CO2
ing the reaction, (A) ZnO is being oxidised
(B) CO is being reduced
(NH4)2Cr2O7  N2 + Cr2O3 + 4H2O are respectively
(C) CO2 is being oxidised
(A) N and Cr (B) Cr and N
(D) ZnO is being reduced
(C) N and O (D) Cr and O
16. The decomposition of KCIO3 to KCI and O2 on heating FLAME & FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
is an example of:
(A) Intermolecular redox change
26. Calorific value of a fuel may be defined as -
(B) Intramolecular redox change
(A) The amount of heat produced when 1000 kg of a
(C) Disproportionation or auto redox change
fuel is completely burnt.
(D) None of the above
(B) The amount of heat produced when 1 g of fuel is
17. Which of the following can act as oxidant ? incompletely burnt.
(A) H2O2 (B) H2S (C) The amount of heat produced when 10 g of a fuel is
(C) NH3 (D) None of these completely burnt.
(D) The amount of heat produced in kilojoules when
18. Conversion of PbSO4 to PbS is - unit mass of a fuel is completely burnt.
(A) reduction of S (B) oxidation of S
(C) dissociation (D) none of these 27. Which of the following fuels has the highest calorific
value ?
19. Which of the following is redox reaction ? (A) Petrol (B) Hydrogen
(A) NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O (C) LPG (D) Natural gas
(B) AgNO3 + KI  AgI + KNO3
28. In which zone of a candle flame does complete
(C) BaO2 + H2SO4  BaSO4 + H2O2
combustion take place ?
(D) SnCI2 + HgCI2  SnCI4 + Hg (A) Inner (B) Outer
(C) Middle (D) All three zones
20. In a conjugate pair of reductant and oxidant, the reduc-
tant has : 29. The zone of no combustion is -
(A) Lower ox. no. (B) Higher ox. no. (A) the middle zone (B) outermost zone
(C) Same ox. no. (D) Either of these (C) the base of the flame (D) innermost zone.
30. The colour of the flame in luminous zone is -
21. Oxidation is process which involves:
(A) blue. (B) red.
(A) De-electronation (B) Electronation
(C) yellow. (D) black.
(C) Addition of hydrogen (D) Addition of metal
31. The non-combustible substance among the following
is -
(A) coal. (B) glass.
(C) wood. (D) paper.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
32. Combustion is a - 8. The equation given below indicates
(A) physical process NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl + NaNO3 :
(B) chemical process [Karnataka. NTSE Stage-I/13]
(C) biological process (A) Chemical decomposition
(D) mechanical process (B) Chemical combination
(C) Chemical displacement
33. A circular blackish ring on the glass plate kept over the (D) Chemical double decomposition
candle flame indicates-
(A) complete combustion. 9. From the given reactions which is a redox reaction ?
(B) dark zone of the flame. [Karnataka. NTSE Stage-I/13]
(C) non-luminous zone. (A) CuO(s) + H2O(g)  Cu(s) + H2O()
(D) luminous zone (B) 2Cu(s) + O2(g)  2CuO(s)
(C) C(s) + 2H2(g)  CH4(g)
34. Combustion is a process involving - (D) 4Al(s) + 3O2(g)  2Al2O3(s)
(A) oxidation
(B) reduction 10. Diplacement reaction is :
(C) liberation of heat [RajasthanNTSE Stage-I/14]
(D) all(A), (B) & (C) (A) CaO (s) + H2O(l)  Ca(OH)2 (aq)
(B) Pb(s) + CuCl2(aq)  PbCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
(C) MnO2(s) + 4HCl(l)  MnCl2\(s) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
EXERCISE -2 (D) C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O

NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS 11. What is the instrument called for water electrolysis pro-
cess ? [Gujrat NTSE Stage-I/14]
1. The reaction between aqueous solutions of sodium (A) Voltameter (B) Voltmeter
chloride and silver nitrate is - [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/05] (C) Hydrometer (D) Lectometer
(A) displacement reaction
(B) synthesis reaction 12. Which of the following is endothermic reaction ?
(C) double displacement reaction [Haryana NTSE Stage-I/14]
(D) analysis reaction (A) C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)
(B) N2(g) + O2(g)  2NO(g)
2. CH4 + Cl2  CH3 Cl + HCl reaction is an example of - (C) 2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(l)
[Raj. NTSE Stage-I/06] (D) 2CH3OH (l) + 3O2(g)  2CO2(g)+4H2O(l)
(A) Synthetic (B) Analytical
(C) Displacement (D) Neutralisation 13. In which of the following reactions H 2O 2 acts as a
reducing agent :
3. A Brown and bright element “x” when heated in [Bihar_NTSE Stage-I/15 & JEE main/14]
presence of air turns into black substance “y”. If (a) H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e–  2H2O
Hydrogen gas is passed over this heating material (b) H2O2 – 2e–  O2 + 2H+
again “x” is obtained. “x” and “y” are – (c) H2O2 + 2e–  2OH–
[Raj. NTSE Stage-I/13] (d) H2O2 + 2OH– – 2e–  O2 + 2H2O
(A) Cu & CuO (B) S & SO2 (A) (a),(c) (B) (b),(d)
(C) C & CO2 (D) Na & NaH (C) (a),(b) (D) (c), (d)

4. H2S(g) + Cl2 (g)  2 HCl(g) + S(s) 14. Precipitate formation during chemical reaction is
The reaction is interpreted as : [Delhi. NTSE Stage-I/13] indicated by this arrow :
(A) H2S is getting oxidised and Cl2 is getting reduced [Maharashtra_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(B) H2S is getting reduced and Cl2 is getting oxidised (A)  (B) 
(C) Only H2S is oxidised (C)  (D) 
(D) Both H2S and Cl2 are reduced
5. What is the oxidation number of sulphur in peroxy mono 15. BaCl 2( aq ) + Na 2SO 4 ( aq )  BaSO 4 ( s ) + 2NaCl(aq)
sulphuric acid (H2SO5) ? [Haryana. NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) 8 (B) 6 [Maharashtra_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(C) 5 (D) 4 The types of reaction are :
(a) Displacement (b) Precipitation
6. Oxidation is defined as : [M.P. NTSE Stage-I/13] (c) Combination (d) Double displacement
(A) loss of electron (B) gain of electron (A) (a) & (c) (B) (a), (b), & (c)
(C) loss of proton (D) gain of proton (C) (b) & (c) (D) (b) & (d)
7. From the following metals whose nitrate produces NO2
16. The chemical reaction HNO3 + KOH  KNO3 + H2O is
gas on heating [West Bengal NTSE Stage-I/13]
an example of [Rajasthan_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) Na (B) K
(A) neutralization
(C) Pb (D) None of these
(B) double displacement
(C) neutralization and double displacement
(D) combination

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
17. In the reaction SO2(g) + 2H2S(g) , the reducing 23. Sodium carbonate is kept open in the air it looses
agent is [Jharkhand NTSE Stage-1/ 2015] crystalline water. The process is called:
(A) SO2 (B) H2O [Uttrakhand Stage-1/ 2015]
(C) H2S (D) S (A) Hygroscopy (B) Deliquescent
(C) Efflorescence (D) None of the above
18. Which of the following is Reduction reaction ?
[Andhra Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/ 2015] 24. Which out of the following solutions will give a white
(A) Bleaching of coloured objects using moist Chlorine precipitate when common salt solution is added to it :
(B) Rancidity of fats [Uttrakhand Stage-1/ 2015]
(C) Thermite process involving the reaction of (A) KNO3 solution (B) AgNO3 solution
Chromium oxide (or) Iron oxide with alumini
(C) Ba(NO3)2 solution (D) Mg(NO3)2 solution
(D) The poling process involving the removal of
impurities from a molten metal.
25. Match the given column-I with column-II and choose
the correct option :
19. Hydrolysis of water is which type of following reactions?
[Uttrakhand Stage-1/ 2015]
[Chandigarh NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Endothermic (B) Decomposition I II
(C) Both 1 and 2 (D) Combination a. 2Mg + O2 2MgO i. Exothermic reaction
b. CaO+H2OCa(OH)2 ii. Dissociation
20. W hen a burning splinter is brought near the gas jar c. 2 AgCl 2Ag +Cl2 iii. Reduction
containing hydrogen gas a popping sound is observed. d. CuO +H2 Cu+H2O iv. Oxidation
It is due to (A) a-i, b-ii, c-iii, d-iv (B) a-ii, b-i, c-iv, d-iii
[Chandigarh NTSE Stage-1/ 2015] (C) a-iv, b-iii, c-i, d-ii (D) a-iv, b-i, c-ii, d-iii
(A) exothermic
(B) endothermic
26. Identify the type of reaction for each of the following as
(C) exothermic and endothermic [Andhra Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(D) none of these
Combination – (p)
Decomposition – (q)
21. An element reacts with oxygen to give a compound Displacement – (r)
with a high melting point. This compound is also Double displacement – (s)
soluble in water. The element is likely to be or Combustion – (t)
[West Bengal NTSE Stage-1/ 2015] (i) A compound breaks apart into its elements
(ii) A metal and a non-metal react to form an ionic
(A) calcium (B) carbon compound.
(C) silicon (D) iron (iii) A compound of Hydrogen and Carbon reacts with
Oxygen to produce Carbon-dioxide and water
22. Identify the correct oxidant and reductant in the (iv) Silver ion from Ag(NO 3) (aq.) forms a precipitate
following reaction : [Delhi NTSE Stage-1/ 2015] with bromide ion from KBr aq.
PbS + 4H2O2  PbSO4 + 4H2O (A) (i) – q (ii) – p (iii) – r (iv) - s
(A) PbS – Oxidant (B) PbS – Reductant (B) (i) – q (ii) – p (iii) – t (iv) - s
H2O2 – Reductant PbSO4 – Oxidant (C) (i) – s (ii) – r (iii) – q (iv) - p
(C) PbS – Reductant (D) H2O2 – Oxidant (D) (i) – p (ii) – t (iii) – q (iv) – r
H2O2 – Oxidant H2O – Reductant



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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 PERIODIC TABLE & PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

DEFINITION (ii) Limitations of Dobereiner’s Classification :

(A) Atomic mass of the three elements of some triads

A periodic table may be defined as the table giving
are almost same.
the arrangement of all the known elements according
e.g. Fe, Co, Ni
to their properties so that elements with similar
properties fall within the same vertical column and (B) It was restricted to few elements, therefore
elements with dissimilar properties are separated. discarded.

(c) Newlands’ Law of Octaves :

EARLY ATTEMPTS TO CLASSIFY ELEMENTS
(a) Metals and Non-Metals :
Among the earlier classifications, Lavoisier classified
the elements as metals and non-metals. However,
this classification proved to be inadequate. In 1803,
John Dalton published a table of relative atomic
weights (now called atomic masses). This formed
an important basis of classification of elements.
(b ) Dobere iner ’s T riad s:
In 1866, an English chemist, John Newlands,
proposed a new system of grouping elements with
similar properties. He tried to correlate the properties
of elements with their atomic masses. He arranged
the then known elements in the order of increasing
atomic masses. He started with the element having
the lowest atomic mass (hydrogen) and ended at
thorium which was the 56th element. He observed
that every eighth element had properties similar to
that of the first.

(i) In 1817, J.W. Dobereiner a German Chemist gave Newlands called this relation as a law of octaves
due to the similarity with the musical scale.
this arrangement of elements.
(A) He arranged elements with similar properties in (i) Newlands’ arrangement of elements into ‘Octaves’:
the groups of three called triads. Notes of
Music sa (do) re (re) ga (mi) ma (fa) pa (so) dha (la) ni (ti)
(B) According to Dobereiner the atomic mass of the
H Li Be B C N O
central element was merely the arithmetic mean of
F Na Mg Al Si P S
atomic masses of the other two elements. Elements Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe

e.g. Co and Ni Cu Zn Y In As Se
Br Rb Sr Ce and La Zr – –
Elements of
the triad Symbol Atomic mass (ii) Limitations of law of octaves : The law of octaves
has the following limitations :
Lithium Li 7
(A) The law of octaves was found to be applicable
Sodium Na 23
only upto calcium. It was not applicable to elements
Potassium K 39 of higher atomic masses.

Atomic mass of sodium = (B) Position of hydrogen along with fluorine and
Atomi c mass of lithium  Atomic mass of potassium chlorine was not justified on the basis of chemical
2 properties.
7  39 (C) Newlands placed two elements in the same
= = 23
2 slot to fit elements in the table. He also placed some
Some examples of triads are given in the table : unlike elements under the same slot. For example,
cobalt and nickel are placed in the same slot and in
the column of fluorine, chlorine and bromine. But
cobalt and nickel have properties quite different from
fluorine, chlorine and bromine. Similarly, iron which
has resemblances with cobalt and nickel in its
properties has been placed far away from these
elements.

Thus, it was realized that Newlands’ law of octaves

worked well only with lighter elements. Therefore,
this classification was rejected.

PAGE # 78
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (i) Mendeleev’s periodic law : This law states that
(d) Lother Meyer’s Classification :
the physical and chemical properties of the elements
In 1869, Lother Meyer studied the physical properties
are the periodic function of their atomic masses.
like volume, melting point, boiling point etc. of different
elements. This means that when the elements are arranged in
He plotted a graph between atomic masses against the order of their increasing atomic masses, the
their respective atomic volumes for a number of elements with similar properties recur at regular
elements. He found the following observations -
intervals. Such orderly recurring properties in a cyclic
(i) Elements with similar properties occupied
fashion are said to be occurring periodically. This is
similar positions on the curve.
responsible for the name periodic law or periodic
(ii) Alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs etc.) having larger table.
atomic volumes occupied the crests .
(ii) Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table : Mendeleev’s
(iii) Transition elements (V, Fe, Co, Cu etc.) occupied
periodic table was one of the greatest achievements in
the troughs.
the development of chemistry. Some of the important
(iv) The halogens (F, Cl, Br,  etc.) occupied the contributions of his periodic table are given below :
ascending portions of the curve before the inert
gases. (A) Systematic study of elements : He arranged
known elements in order of their increasing atomic
(v) Alkaline earth metals (Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba etc.)
masses considering the fact that elements with
occupied positions at about the mid points of
similar properties should fall in the same vertical
descending portions of the curve.
column.

(B) Correction of atomic masses : The Mendeleev’s

70 Cs
• periodic table could predict errors in the atomic
60 masses of elements based on their positions in the
Atomic Volume (cm per mole of atoms)

Rb
50
• table. Therefore atomic masses of certain elements
K • were corrected. For example, atomic mass of
40 • • • Sr • Ba beryllium was corrected from 13.5 to 9. Similarly, with
Li
30 • Na
• Br • I• the help of this table, atomic masses of indium, gold,
3

• Cl • •
Ca
20 •
F • • platinum etc. were corrected.
• •Be •• • •• VFe Co ••••Zn • • ••
Mg

10 ••• •••• ••••Cu •• • • (C) Mendeleev predicted the properties of those

••• ••• •••• •••
0
20 40 60 80 100 120
Atomic mass
Change of Atomic Volume with Atomic Mass.
Drawback of Lother Meyer’s classification : This
was a hypothetical classification and it was difficult to
remember the positions of different elements.
(e) Mendeleev’s Periodic Table :
The major credit for a systematic classification of
elements goes to Mendeleev. He tried to group the
elements on the basis of some fundamental property
of the atoms. When Mendeleev started his work, only
63 elements were known. He examined the
relationship between atomic masses of the elements
and their physical and chemical properties.
Among chemical properties, Mendeleev concentrated
mainly on the compound formed by elements with
oxygen and hydrogen. He selected these two
elements because these are very reactive and formed
compound with most of the elements known at that
time. The formulae of the compounds formed with
these elements (i.e. oxides and hydrides) were
regarded as one of the basic properties of an element
for its classification.
missing elements from the known properties of the
140 other elements in the same group. Eka-boron, eka -
aluminium and eka -silicon names were given for
scandium , gallium and germanium (not discovered
at the time of Mendeleev ).
(D) Position of noble gases : Noble gases like helium
(He), neon (Ne) and argon (Ar) were mentioned in
many studies. However, these gases were discovered
very late because they are very inert and are present
in extremely low concentrations. One of the
achievements of Mendeleev’s periodic table was that
when these gases were discovered, they could be
placed in a new group without disturbing the existing
order.
(iii) Limitations of Mendeleev’s periodic table :
Inspite of many advantages, the Mendeleev’s periodic
table has certain defects also. Some of these are
given below -
(A) Position of hydrogen : Position of hydrogen in
the periodic table is uncertain. It has been placed in
1A group with alkali metals, but certain properties of
hydrogen resemble those of halogens. So, it may be
placed in the group of halogens as well.

PAGE # 79
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (B) Position of isotopes : Isotopes are the atoms of
the same element having different atomic masses.
Therefore, according to Mendeleev’s classification
these should be placed at different places depending
upon their atomic masses. For example, hydrogen
isotopes with atomic masses 1, 2 and 3 should be
placed at three places. However, isotopes have not
been given separate places in the periodic table
because of their similar properties.
(C) Anomalous pairs of elements : In certain pairs
of elements, the increasing order of atomic masses
was not obeyed. In these, Mendeleev placed
elements according to similarities in their properties
and not in increasing order of their atomic masses.
 For example :
• The atomic mass of argon is 39.9 and that of
potassium 39.1. But argon is placed before
potassium in the periodic table. 51
Zr = 90
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
• The positions of cobalt and nickel are not in proper
order. Cobalt (at. mass = 58.9) is placed before nickel
( at. mass = 58.7).
• Tellurium (at. mass = 127.6) is placed before
iodine (at. mass = 126.9).
(D) Some similar elements are separated, in the
periodic table. For example copper (Cu) and mercury
(Hg). On the other hand, some dissimilar elements
have been placed together in the same group.
e.g. Copper (Cu), silver (Ag) and gold (Au) have been
placed in group 1 along with alkali metals. Similarly,
manganese (Mn) is placed in the group of halogens.
(E) Cause of periodicity : Mendeleev could not
explain the cause of periodicity among the elements.
PAGE # 80
 (e) Long Form of Periodic Table :
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
(i) The long form of periodic table is based upon
Modern periodic law. Long form of periodic table is
(a) Introduction : the contribution of Range, Werner, Bohr and Bury.
In 1913, an English physicist, Henry Moseley showed (ii) This table is also referred to as Bohr’s table since
that the physical and chemical properties of the atoms it follows Bohr’s scheme of the arrangement of
of the elements are determined by their atomic elements into four types based on electronic
configuration of elements.
number & not by their atomic masses. Consequently,
the periodic law was modified. (iii) Long form of periodic table consists of horizontal
rows (periods) and vertical columns (groups).
(b ) Mode rn Pe ri od ic La w (M ose le y’ s
(f) Description of Periods :
Periodic Law) :
(i) A horizontal row of periodic table is called a period.
“Physical and chemical properties of an element are (ii) There are seven periods numbered as 1, 2 , 3 , 4,
the periodic function of its atomic number’’.The 5, 6 and 7.
atomic number gives us the number of protons in
(iii ) Each period consists of a series of elements
the nucleus of an atom and this number increases having the same outermost shell.
by one in going from one element to the next.
(iv) Each period starts with an alkali metal having
Elements, when arranged in the order of increasing
outermost shell electronic configuration ns1.
atomic number Z, lead us to the classification known
as the Modern Periodic Table. Prediction of properties (v) Each period ends with a noble gas with outermost
shell electronic configuration ns2 np 6 except helium
of elements could be made with more precision when
having outermost electronic configuration 1s2.
elements were arranged on the basis of increasing
(vi) Each period starts with the filling of a new energy
atomic number.
level.
(c) Periodicity : (A) 1st period : This period is called very short period
because this period contains only 2 elements H and
The repetition of elements with similar properties after
He.
certain regular intervals, when the elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic number, is (B) 2nd and 3rd periods : These periods are called
short periods because these periods contain 8
called periodicity.
elements. 2nd period starts from 3Li to 10Ne and 3rd
(d) Cause of Periodicity : period starts from 11Na to 18Ar.
(C) 4th and 5 th periods : These periods are called
The periodic repetition of the properties of the
long periods because these periods contain 18
elements is due to the recurrence of similar valence elements. 4 th period starts from 19K to 36Kr and 5 th
shell (outermost shell) electronic configuration after period starts from 37Rb to 54Xe.
certain regular intervals. (D) 6th period : This period is called very long period.
e.g. Alkali metals have similar electronic configuration This period contains 32 elements. Out of the 32
elements 14 elements belong to Lanthanoid series
(ns1) and therefore, have similar properties.
(58Ce to 71Lu). 6th period starts from 55Cs to 86Rn.
Alkali Metals (E) 7th period : This period is called as incomplete
Electronic period. It contains 25 elements. Out of the 25
Atomic Symbol
number
Element configuration elements 14 elements belong to Actinoid series (90Th
to 103Lr). 7th period starts from 87Fr to 111Rg.
3 Lithium Li 2,1
 Note : Modern periodic table consists of seven periods
and eighteen groups.
11 Sodium Na 2,8,1
No. of
Periods Called as
Elements
19 Potassium K 2,8,8,1 st
(1 ) n = 1 2 Very short period
nd
(2 ) n = 2 8 Short period
37 Rubidium Rb 2,8,18,8,1 rd
(3 ) n = 3 8 Short period
(4th) n = 4 18 Long period
55 Caesium Cs 2,8,18,18,8,1
(5 th) n = 5 18 Long period
th
(6 ) n = 6 32 Very long period
87 Francium Fr 2,8,18,32,18,8,1 th
(7 ) n = 7 25 Incomplete period

PAGE # 81
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Different elements belonging to a particular period
have different electronic configurations and have
different number of valence electrons. That is why
elements belonging to a particular period have
different properties.
(g) Description of Groups :
(i) A vertical column of elements in the periodic table
is called a group.
(ii) There are eighteen groups numbered as 1, 2 , 3,
4, 5, ------------ 13, 14, 15, 16,17,18.
(iii) A group consists of a series of elements having
similar valence shell electronic configuration and
hence exhibit similar properties.
e.g. Li, Na, K belong to the same group and have 1
electron in their valence shell.
(iv) The group 18 is also known as zero group because
the valency of the elements of this group is zero.
 Note : The elements of 18th or zero group are called
noble gases.
(v) The elements present in groups 1,2,13 to 17 are
called normal or representative elements.
(vi) Elements of group 1 and 2 are called alkali metals
and alkaline earth metals respectively.
(vii) Elements present in group 17 are called
halogens.
 Note : Elements present in a period have different
properties, while elements present in a group have
similar properties.
 Note : Modern periodic table is based on atomic
number, not on atomic mass.
(h) Merits of Modern Periodic Table :
(i) Anomalous pairs : The original periodic law based
on atomic masses is violated in case of four pairs of
elements in order to give them positions on the basis
of properties. The elements having higher atomic
masses have been assigned position before the
elements having lower atomic masses at four places
as shown below -
(a) (b) (c)
Ar K Co Ni Te
At. Mass 40 39 60 59 128 127 232 231
At. No. 18 19 27 28 52 53 90 91
The discrepancy disappears, if the elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(ii) Position of isotopes : Isotopes are atoms of the
same element having different atomic masses, but
same atomic number. All the isotopes of an element
will be given different positions, if atomic mass is
taken as a basis. This shall disturb the symmetry of
the table. In modern table, one position is fixed for
one atomic number and since all the isotopes of an
element have the same atomic number, these are
assigned only one position.
(iii) Elements with similar properties were placed
together and elements with dissimilar properties were
separated in modern periodic table.
(iv) Cause of periodicity : Modern periodic table
explains the cause of periodicity among the elements.
(i) Demerits of Modern Periodic Table :
Following are the demerits of modern periodic table -
(i) Position of hydrogen : Position of hydrogen was
uncertain in the periodic table.
(ii) Position of lanthanides and actinides : The
positions of lanthanides and actinides were also
uncertain in the periodic table.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE ELEMENTS
It is based on the type of subshells which receives
the differentiating electron (i.e. last electron).
(a) s- Block Elements :
W hen last electron enters the s- orbital of the
outermost (n th) shell, the elements of this class are
called s- block elements.
Characteristics :
(i) Group 1 & 2 elements constitute the s - block.
(ii) General electronic configuration is ns1–2 .
(iii) s - block elements lie on the extreme left of the
periodic table.
(iv) This block includes metals only, except H.
 Note : The total number of elements in s-block is 13
(including hydrogen).
(b) p-Block Elements :
When differentiating electron enters the p - orbital of
the nth orbit, elements of this class are called p - block
elements.
(d)
 Characteristics :
I Th Pa (i) Elements of group 13 to 18 constitute the p - block.
(ii) General electronic configuration is ns2np1-6 .
(iii) p - block elements lie on the extreme right of the
periodic table.
(iv) This block includes some metals, all non-metals
and metalloids.
 Note : The total number of elements in p-block is 31.
PAGE # 82
 (c) d - Block Elements:
When differentiating electron enters the (n–1)d orbital,
then elements of this class are called d - block
elements.
 Characteristics :
(i) Elements of group 3 to 12 constitute the d - block.
(ii) General electronic configuration is (n – 1)d1–10 ns0- 2.
(iii) d - block elements lie in the centre of the periodic
table.
(iv) All the d - block elements are metals and most of
them form coloured complexes or ions.
 Note : The total number of elements in d-block is 39.
(d) f - block elements :
When last electron enters into f - orbital of (n – 2)th
shell, elements of this class are called f - block
elements.
Division of the periodic table into various blocks :
Different Types of Elements :
(i) Noble gases : The elements belonging to group
18 are called noble gases or aerogenous. They are
also known as inert gases because their outermost
orbitals are completely filled. Helium (He) is an
exception. It has only two electrons which are present
in s-orbital.
(ii) Representative elements : Elements in which
atoms have all shells complete except outermost shell
which is incomplete. Except 18th group, all s - block
and p - block elements are collectively called normal
or representative elements.
(iii) Transition elements : Those elements which
have partially filled d - orbitals in neutral state or in
any stable oxidation state are called transition
elements.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Characteristics :
(i) All f - block elements belong to 3rd group.
(ii) General electronic configuration is (n – 2)f 1 – 14
(n– 1)d0-1 ns2.
(iii) f-block elements are present in two separate
rows below the periodic table.
(iv) All f-block elements are metals only.
The elements of f- block have been classified into
two series :
(A) Lanthanides : 14 elements present after element
lanthanum ( 57La) are called lanthanides.1 st inner
transition series of metals or 4f - series, contains 14
elements i.e. 58Ce to 71Lu .
(B) Actinides : 14 elements present after element
actinium (89Ac) are called actinides. 2nd inner transition
series of metals or 5f- series, also contains 14 elements
i.e. 90Th to 103Lr.
 Note : The total number of elements in f-block is 28.
 Note : Zn, Cd and Hg are d-block elements , but not
transition elements, because they do not contain
partially filled d-orbitals.
(iv) Inner transition elements :- They contain three
incomplete outermost shell and were also referred
to as rare earth elements, since their oxides were
rare in earlier days.
(v) Diagonal relationship : Some elements of 2nd
and 3 rd period show diagonal relationship among
them. They represent the same properties of two
periods. This relation is known as diagonal relation.
(vi) Transuranium elements : The elements with
atomic number greater than 92 (Z > 92) are known as
transuranium elements.
PAGE # 83
 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
Relative atomic mass

s–Block Elements Group IUPAC

p–Block Elements
13 IIIA
Atomic number 5 10.811
Group Symbol B

Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division

1 IA Boron 18 VIIIA
1 1.0079 2 4.0026
Element name
Period 1 H He
Hydrogen 2 IIA 13 IIIA 14 IVA 15 VA 16 VIA 17 VIIA Helium
3 6.941 4 9.0122 5 10.811 6 12.011 7 14.007 8 15.999 9 18.998 10 20.180
Transition Metals (d –Block Elements)
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
11 22.990 12 24.305 13 26.982 14 28.086 15 30.974 16 32.065 17 35.453 18 39.948
3 Na Mg VIIIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium 3 IIIB 4 IVB 5 VB 6 VIB 7 VIIB 8 9 10 11 IB 12 IIB Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
19 39.098 20 40.078 21 44.956 22 47.867 23 50.942 24 51.996 25 54.938 26 55.845 27 58.933 28 58.963 29 63.546 30 65.39 31 69.723 32 72.64 33 74.922 34 78.96 35 79.904 36 83.80
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 85.468 38 87.62 39 88.906 40 91.224 41 92.906 42 95.94 43 (98) 44 101.07 45 102.91 46 106.42 47 107.87 48 112.41 49 114.82 50 118.71 51 121.76 52 127.60 53 126.90 54 131.29
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 132.91 56 137.33 57 138.91 72 178.49 73 180.95 74 183.84 75 186.21 76 190.23 77 192.22 78 195.08 79 196.97 80 200.59 81 204.38 82 207.2 83 208.98 84 (209) 85 (210) 86 (222)
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
87 (223) 88 (226) 89 (227) 104 (261) 105 (262) 106 (266) 107 (264) 108 (277) 109 (268) 110 (281) 111 (272)
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg
Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium

Inner - Transition Metals (f-Block Elements)

58 140.12 59 140.91 60 144.24 61 (145) 62 150.36 63 151.96 64 157.25 65 158.93 66 162.50 67 164.93 68 197.26 69 168.93 70 173.04 71 174.97
LANTHANOIDES Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium

90 232.04 91 231.04 92 238.03 93 (237) 94 (244) 95 (243) 96 (247) 97 (247) 98 (251) 99 (252) 100 (257) 101 (258) 102 (259) 103 (262)
ACTINOIDES Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Md No Lr
Th Pa U Np Fm
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium

PAGE # 84
 (c) Melting and Boiling Points :
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
The melting points of the elements exhibit some
(a) Atomic Volume : periodicity with rise of atomic number. It is observed
Atomic volume increases in a group from top to that elements with low values of atomic volumes have
bottom. The increase is due to the increase in the high melting points, while elements with high values
number of energy levels. of atomic volumes have low melting points. In general,
In a period from left to right, atomic volume varies melting points of elements in any period at first
cyclically, i.e. it decreases at first for some elements, increase and become maximum somewhere in the
becomes minimum in the middle and then increases. centre and thereafter begin to decrease. Values in
The following two factors explain this trend -
the table are in ºC.
(i) atomic radii decrease due to increase of nuclear
charge. Period/
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Group
(ii) the number of valence electrons increases in a
period. Li Be B C N O F Ne
2
As to accommodate all the valence electrons, the volume 181 1287 2180 3727 –210 –219 –220 –249
increases. These two factors oppose each other. The
effect of first factor is more on the left hand side and that Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3
of the second factor is more on the right hand side in the 98 650 660 1420 44 119 –101 –189
periodic table . The volumes are in cm3.
Tungsten has the maximum melting point (3410ºC)
Period/ amongst metals and carbon has the maximum
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Group melting point (3727ºC) amongst non-metal. Helium
Li Be B C N O F Ne has the minimum melting point (–270ºC) amongst
Increases

2 all elements . The metals Cs (m.p. = 28.5ºC), Ga

13 5 5 5 14 11 15 17
(m.p. = 30ºC) and Hg (m.p. = –39ºC) are known in
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
liquid state at 30ºC.
24 14 10 12 17 16 19 24
The boiling points of the elements also show similar
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr trends, however, the regularities are not striking as
4
46 26 12 13 16 16 23 33 noted in the case of melting points.

 Note : The maximum value of atomic volume (87 (d) Atomic Radius :
cm3) is observed in the case of francium. (i) Covalent radius : It may be defined as one - half of
(b) Density : the distance between the centres of the nuclei of two
similar atoms bonded by a single covalent bond.
The density of the elements in solid state varies
X X
periodically with their atomic numbers . At first, the
density increases gradually in a period and becomes
maximum somewhere for the central members and A B
then starts decreasing afterwards gradually. The value
of densities in the table are in g/cc.
Period/ 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 AB = rcovalent
Group (of element X)
Li Be B C N O F e.g. The internuclear distance between two hydrogen
2
0.54 1.85 2.35 2.26 – – – atoms in H 2 molecule is 74 pm. Therefore, the
covalent radius of hydrogen atom is 37 pm.
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
3  Note : Covalent radius is generally used for
0.97 1.74 2.70 2.34 1.82 2.1 –
non - metals.
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br (ii) Vander Waal’s radius : It may be defined as half
4
0.86 1.55 5.90 5.32 5.77 4.19 3.19 of the internuclear distance between two adjacent
atoms of the same element belonging to two nearest
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I neighbouring molecules of the same substance.
5
1.53 2.63 7.31 7.27 6.70 6.25 4.94
X X X X
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At
6
1.90 3.62 11.85 11.34 9.81 9.14 –
E H

 Note : In solids, Iridium (Ir) has the highest density

(22.61 g/cc) and in liquids, mercury (Hg) has the
1 EH = r
highest density (13.6 g/cc). 2 vander Waals

PAGE # 85
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Characteristics : Periodicity in atomic radii (covalent radii)
Period/
(A) Covalent radius of the elements is shorter than 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Group
its Vander Waal’s radius. H
1
0.32
(B) The formation of covalent bond involves
overlapping of atomic orbitals, as a result of this, the 2 Li Be B C N O F
internuclear distance between the covalently bonded 1.23 0.89 0.80 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.72
atoms is less than the internuclear distance between
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

Increases
the non bonded atoms. 1.54 1.36 1.20 1.17 1.10 1.04 0.99

e.g. Vander Waals radius of helium is 1.20 Å 4 K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br

2.03 1.74 1.26 1.22 1.20 1.16 1.14
(iii) Metallic radius (Crystal radius) : Metallic radius
may be defined as half of the internuclear distance 5 Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I
between two adjacent atoms in a metallic lattice. 2.16 1.91 1.44 1.41 1.40 1.36 1.33
X X
6 Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po
2.35 1.98 1.48 1.47 1.46 1.46
C D
Decreases
Atoms of zero group elements do not form chemical
bonds among themselves. Hence for them Vander
1 W aals radii are considered.
CD = rcrystal
2
(of element X)
Element He Ne Ar Kr Xe
• The metallic radius of an atom is always larger
than its covalent radius. Vander Waals
1.20 1.60 1.91 2.00 2.20
radii (in Aº )
 Note : The order of different radius is - r Vander Waals > rMetallic
> rCovalent The sudden increase in atomic radii in comparison
to the halogens (the elements of 7th group) in case
(iv) Variation of atomic radii in a period : As we move of inert gases, is due to the fact that, Vander Waals
from left to right across a period, there is a regular radii are considered which always possess higher
decrease in atomic radii of the representative values than covalent radii.
elements. This is due to the fact that number of energy The decrease in the size of transition elements is
small since the differentiating electrons enter into
shells remains the same in a period, but nuclear
inner ‘d’ levels. The additional electrons into (n–1)d
charge increases gradually as the atomic number
levels effectively screen much of increased nuclear
increases. This increases the force of attraction charge on the outer ns electrons and therefore, size
towards nucleus which brings contraction in size. remains almost constant.
This can also be explained on the basis of However, in vertical columns of transition elements,
effective nuclear charge which increases gradually there is an increase in size from first member to
in a period i.e. electron cloud is attracted more strongly second member as expected, but from second
towards nucleus as the effective nuclear charge member to third member, there is very small change
in size and sometimes sizes are same. This is due
becomes more and more as we move in a period.
to Lanthanide contraction (in the lanthanide
The increased force of attraction brings contraction
elements differentiating electrons enter into 4f-levels).
in size. Since these electrons do not effectively screen the
(v) Variation of atomic radii in a group : Atomic radii valence electrons from the increased nuclear charge,
in a group increase as the atomic number increases. the size gradually decreases. This decrease is termed
The increase in size is due to extra energy shells lanthanide contraction.

which outweigh the effect of increased nuclear charge. Conclusions

The following table illustrates the periodicity in atomic
radii (covalent radii) of representative elements. The
radii given in the table are in angstrom (Å).
(i) The alkali metals which are present at the extreme
left of the periodic table have the largest size in a
period.
(ii) The halogens which are present at the extreme
right of the periodic table have the smallest size.

PAGE # 86
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (iii) The size of the atoms of inert gases are, however, (i) Characteristics :
larger than those of preceding halogens because in (A) The energy required to remove the outermost
inert gases van der W aals' radii are taken into electron from an atom is called first ionisation energy
consideration. (IE)1.
(iv) In a group of transition elements, there is an After removal of one electron, the atom changes into
increase in size from first member to second member monovalent positive ion.
as expected but from second member to third M(g) + IE1  M+ (g) + e–
member, there is very small change in size and
(B) The minimum amount of energy required to
sometimes sizes are same. This is due to Lanthanide
remove an electron from monovalent positive ion of
contraction.
the element is known as second ionisation energy
(iv) Ionic radius : It is the distance between the nucleus (IE)2.
and outermost shell of an ion or it is the distance M+(g) + IE2  M2+(g) + e–
between the nucleus and the point where the nucleus (C) The first, second etc. ionisation energies are
exerts its influence on the electron cloud. collectively known as successive ionisation energies.
(A) The radius of the cation is always smaller than M2+(g) + IE3  M3+(g) + e–
the atomic radius of its parent atom. This is due to In general (IE)1 < (IE)2 < (IE)3 so on, because, as the
the fact that nuclear charge in the case of a cation is number of electrons decreases, the attraction
acting on a lesser number of electrons and pulls them between the nucleus and the remaining electrons
closer. increases considerably and hence subsequent
ionisation energies increase.
(B) The radius of the anion is always larger than the
atomic radius of its parent atom. In an anion as (D) Units : Ionisation energy is expressed either in
electron or electrons are added to the neutral atom, terms of electron volts per atom (eV/atom) or Kilojoules
the nuclear charge acts on more electrons so that per mole of atoms (KJ mol – 1) or K cal mol – 1.
each electron is held less tightly and thereby the 1 eV/atom = 96.49 KJ/mol = 23.06 Kcal/mol = 1.602 × 10–19
electron cloud expands. J/atom
Comparative sizes of atoms and their cations (ii) Factors influencing ionisation energy :
(A) Size of the atom : Ionisation energy decreases with
Atomic radii Corresponding
increase in atomic size. As the distance between the
Atom (crystal, Å) cations Ionic radii (Å)
+ outermost electrons and the nucleus increases, the force
Li 1.52 Li 0.59 of attraction between the valence shell electrons and the
+
Na 1.86 Na 0.99 nucleus decreases. As a result, outermost electrons are
+
K 2.31 K 1.33 held less firmly and lesser amount of energy is required
2+ to knock them out.
Mg 1.60 Mg 0.65
Ba
2+ For example, ionisation energy decreases in a group
Ba 2.22 1.35
3+ from top to bottom with increase in atomic size.
Al 1.43 Al 0.50
2+
Pb 1.75 Pb 1.32 (B) Nuclear charge : The ionisation energy
increases with increase in the nuclear charge. This
Conclusions is due to the fact that with increase in the nuclear
charge, the electrons of the outermost shell are more
• The radius of cation (positive ion) is always smaller firmly held by the nucleus and thus greater amount of
than that of the parent atom. energy is required to pull out an electron from the atom.
For example, ionisation energy increases as we move
• The radius of anion (negative ion) is always larger
from left to right along a period due to increase in nuclear
than that of the parent atom.
charge.
• The ionic radii in a particular group increase in
(C) Shielding effect : The electrons in the inner shells
moving from top to bottom.
act as a screen or shield between the nucleus and
• In a set of species having the same number of the electrons in the outermost shell. This is called
electrons (isoelectronic), the size decreases as the shielding effect or screening effect. Larger the number
charge on the nucleus increases. of electrons in the inner shells, greater is the
screening effect and smaller the force of attraction
• The size of the cations of the same element and thus ionisation energy decreases.
decreases with the increase of positive charge.

(e) Ionisation Energy (IE) :

Ionisation Energy (IE) of an element is defined as the
amount of energy required to remove an electron from
These electrons This electron does
an isolated gaseous atom of that element resulting shield the outer not feel the full inward pull
in the formation of a positive ion. electrons from the of the positive charge of
nucleus the nucleus

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (D) Penetration effect of the electrons : The
ionisation energy increases as the penetration effect
of the electrons increases. It is a well known fact that
the electrons of the s-orbital have the maximum
probability of being found near the nucleus and this
probability goes on decreasing in case of p, d and f
orbitals of the same energy level.
Greater the penetration effect of electrons more firmly
the electrons will be held by the nucleus and thus
higher will be the ionisation energy of the atom.
For example, ionisation energy of aluminium is
comparatively less than magnesium as outermost
electron is to be removed from p-orbital (having less
penetration effect) in aluminium, whereas in
magnesium it will be removed from s-orbital (having
larger penetration effect) of the same energy level.
 Note : With in the same energy level,the penetration
effect decreases in the order s > p > d > f
(E) Electronic Configuration : If an atom has exactly
half-filled or completely filled orbitals, then such an
arrangement has extra stability.The removal of an
electron from such an atom requires more energy
than expected. For example,
E1 of Be > E1 of B
1s 2 , 2s 2
   energy has to be supplied for the addition of second
Be (Z = 4) Completely filled
orbital (more stable )
2 2 1
1s , 2s , 2 p
 
B (Z = 5) Partially filled
orbital (less stable )
As noble gases have completely filled electronic
configurations, they have highest ionisation energies
in their respective periods.
(iii) Variation of ionisation energy in a period :
In general, the value of ionisation energy increases
with increase in atomic number across a period. This
can be explained on the basis of the fact that on
moving across the period from left to right-
(A) nuclear charge increases regularly.
(B) addition of electrons occurs in the same shell.
(C) atomic size decreases.
(iv) Variation of ionisation energy in a group :
In general, the value of ionisation energy decreases
while moving from top to bottom in a group.This is
because -
(A) effective nuclear charge decreases regularly.
(B) addition of electrons occurs in a new shell.
(C) atomic size increases.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(v) Conclusions :
(i) In each period, alkali metals show lowest first
ionisation enthalpy. Caesium has the minimum value.
(ii) In each period, noble gases show highest first
ionisation enthalpy. Helium has the maximum value
of first ionisation enthalpy.
(iii) The representative elements show a large range
of values of first ionisation enthalpies, metals having
low while non-metals have high values.
(iv) Generally. ionisation enthalpies of transition
metals increase slowly as we move from left to right
in a period. The f-block elements also show only a
small variation in the values of first ionisation
enthalpies.
(f) Electron Affinity (EA) :
Electron affinity is defined as the energy released in
the process of adding an electron to a neutral atom in
the gaseous state to form a negative ion.
X(g) + e–  X–(g) + Energy (E.A.)
Cl(g) + e–  Cl– (g) + 349 KJ/mol
The electron affinity of chlorine is 349 KJ/mol.
The addition of second electron to an anion is
opposed by electrostatic repulsion and hence the
electron.
O(g) + e–  O– (g) + Energy (EA -)
O–(g) + e–  O2– (g) – Energy (EA-)
(EA -) is exothermic whereas, (EA-) is endothermic.
(i) Units : Kilo joules per mole (KJ/mol) of atoms or
electron volts per atom (eV/atom).
(ii) Factors affecting electron affinity:
(A) Nuclear charge : Greater the magnitude of
nuclear charge greater will be the attraction for the
incoming electron and as a result, larger will be the
value of electron affinity.
Electron affinity  Nuclear charge.
(B) Atomic size : Larger the size of an atom is, more
will be the distance between the nucleus and the
incoming electron and smaller will be the value of
electron affinity.
 1 
 
E.A.  Atomic size 
 
(C) Electronic configuration : Stable the electronic
configuration of an atom lesser will be its tendency to
accept the electron and lower will be the value of its
electron affinity.
PAGE # 88
 (iii) Variation of electron affinity in a period : On
moving across the period the atomic size decreases
and nuclear charge increases. Both these factors
result into greater attraction for the incoming electron,
therefore electron affinity in general increases in a
period from left to right.
(iv) Variation of electron affinity in a group : On
moving down a group, the atomic size as well as
nuclear charge increase, but the effect of increase in
atomic size is much more pronounced than that of
nuclear charge and thus, the incoming electron feels
less attraction consequently, electron affinity
decreases on going down the group.
(v) Some irregularities observed in general trend:
(A) Halogens have the highest electron affinities in
their respective periods. This is due to the small size
and high effective nuclear charge of halogens.
Halogens have seven electrons in their valence shell.
By accepting one more electron they can attain stable
electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas. Thus
they have maximum tendency to accept an additional
electron.
(B) Due to stable electronic configuration of noble
gases electron affinities are zero.
(C) Be, Mg, N and P also have exceptionally low
values of electron affinities due to their stable
electronic configurations.
Be = 1s2, 2s2 N = 1s2, 2s2, 2p3
Mg = 1s2, 2s2 , 2p6, 3s2 P = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p3
 Conclusion
(i) The electron gain enthalpies, in general, become
less negative in going down from top to bottom in a
group. This is due to increase in size on moving down
a group. This factor is predominant in comparison to
other factor, i.e., increase in nuclear charge.
Na K Rb Cs
–1
–53 –48 –47 –46 KJ mol
Cl Br I At
–1
–349 –325 –295 – 270KJ mol
(ii) The electron gain enthalpies of oxygen and fluorine,
the members of the second period, have less
negative values than the elements sulphur and
chlorine of the third period. This is due to small size
of the atoms of oxygen and fluorine. As a result, there
is a strong inter-electronic repulsion when extra
electron is added to these atoms, i.e., electron density
is high and the addition of electron is not easy. Thus,
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
the electron gain enthalpies of third period elements,
sulphur and chlorine, have more negative values than
corresponding elements oxygen and fluorine.
–1 –1
O –141 kJ mol F –328 kJ mol
–1 –1
S –200 kJ mol Cl –349 kJ mol
Similar trend is observed in nitrogen & phosphorous
N +31 kJ mol–1
P – 74 kJ mol–1
(iii) In general, electron gain enthalpy becomes more
and more negative from left to right in a period. This
is due to decrease in size and increase in nuclear
charge as the atomic number increases in a period.
Both these factors favour the addition of an extra
electron due to higher force of attraction by the nucleus
for the incoming electron.
(iv) Electron gain enthalpies of some of the members
of alkaline earth metals, noble gases and nitrogen
are positive.
This is because they have stable configurations.
Alkaline earth metals have stable configurations due
to completely filled ns orbital while nitrogen has extra
stability due to half filled p-orbitals (1s2, 2s2, 2p3) i.e.,
symmetrical configuration. These atoms resist the
addition of extra electron as they do not want to disturb
their stability.
Noble gases have ns2np6 configuration, i.e., no place
for incoming electron. In case the extra electron is to
be accommodated, it will occupy its position on a
new principal shell, i.e., it will be weakly attracted
towards nucleus. Such anion will be extremely
unstable. Helium has also stable 1s2 configuration
and cannot accommodate the incoming electron.
(v) Halogens have highest negative electron gain
enthalpies.
Following two factors are responsible for this:
• Small atomic size and high nuclear charge of
halogens in a period.
• Halogens have the general electronic configuration
of ns2 np 5, i.e., one electron less than stable noble
gas (ns2 np 6) configuration.
Thus, halogens have very strong tendency to accept
an additional electron and their electron gain
enthalpies are, therefore, high.
• Importance of Electron Gain Enthalpy : Certain
properties of the elements can be predicted on the
basis of values of electron gain enthalpies.
PAGE # 89
 (i) The elements having high negative values of (g) Electronegativity :
electron gain enthalpy are capable of accepting
electron easily. They form anions and thus form ionic Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an
(electrovalent) compounds. These elements are element to attract electrons towards itself in a
electronegative in nature. covalently bonded molecule .
(ii) The elements having high negative electron gain
enthalpies act as strong oxidising agents, for example, (i) Factors influencing electronegativity :
F, CI, Br, O, S, etc.
(A) The magnitude of electronegativity of an element
On the basis of the general trend of ionisation
enthalpy and electron gain enthalpy, the following depends upon its ionisation potential & electron
properties can be predicted: affinity. Higher ionisation potential & electron affinity
(i) Metallic nature decreases in a period while non- values indicate higher electronegativity value.
metallic nature increases. Metallic nature increases
in a group while non-metallic nature decreases. The (B) W ith increase in atomic size the distance
arrow () represents a group and () represents a between nucleus and valence shell electrons
period. increases, therefore the force of attraction between
Metallic the nucleus and the valence shell electrons
decreases and hence the electronegativity values
Metallic Decreases also decrease.
(Electro + ve)
(C) In higher oxidation state, the element has higher
Increases
magnitude of positive charge. Thus, due to more
Non-metallic positive charge on element, it has higher polarising
power. Thus, with increase in the oxidation state of
Non-metallic (Electro-ve) Increases
element, its electronegativity also increases.
Decreases
 Note :
(ii) Reducing nature decreases in a period while
oxidising nature increases. The reducing nature Polarising power is the power of an ion (cation) to
increases in a group while oxidising nature
distort the other ion.
decreases.
(D) With increase in nuclear charge, force of attraction
Reducing nature
between nucleus and the valence shell electrons
increases and, therefore electronegativity value
Reducing Decreases
nature ; increases.
Increases (E) The electronegativity of the same element
increases as the s-character in the hybrid orbitals
Oxidising nature
increases.
Oxidising Increases Hybrid orbital sp 3 sp 2 sp
nature
Decreases s-character 25% 33% 50%
(iii) Stability of metal increases while activity of the
metal decreases in a period and in a group stability Electronegativity increases
decreases.
(ii) Variation of Electronegativity in a group : On
Stability of the metal
moving down the group atomic number increases,
Stability of the metal Increases so nuclear charge also increases. Number of shells
also increases, so atomic radius increases.
Decreases
Therefore electronegativity decreases on moving
down the group.
; Activity of the metal
(iii) Variation of Electronegativity in a period : While
Activity of the metal Decreases
moving across a period left to right atomic number,
Increases nuclear charge increases & atomic radius decreases.
Therefore electronegativity increases along a period.

PAGE # 90
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Differences between Electron gain enthalpy and Electronegativity

S.No. Electron gain enthalpy Electronegativity

It is the tendency of an atom in a combined
It is the tendency of an isolated atom to
1 state, i.e., in a molecule to attract the shared
attract electron.
pair of electrons.
It is a relative number and cannot be
2 It can be measured experimentally.
determined experimentally.
Its units are electron volts per atom
3 or kilo joules per mole or kilo calories per It has no units but merely a number.
mole.
It is a constant quantity for a
4 It has no units but merely a number.
particular element.
Electronegativity of an element is not constant.
It depends on a number of factors such as
Its periodicity is not regular in a
5 hybridised state. Oxidation state, etc. The
period or a group.
periodicity is regular in a period but not
so regular in groups.

(h) Nature of Oxides :

In a group, the strength of the oxy-acids of non-metals
In a period, the nature of the oxides varies from basic decreases.
to acidic.
V group strength decreases
Na2O MgO AI2O3 SiO2 P2O5 Cl2O7
Strongly Basic Amphoteric Weakly Strongly VII group strength decreases
basic acidic acidic
If a non-metal forms a number of oxy-acids, the
In a group, basic nature increases or acidic nature strength increases with the increase of percentage
decreases. Oxides of the metals are generally basic of oxygen.
and oxides of the non-metals are acidic. The oxides
of the metalloids are amphoteric. The oxides of AI, Sulphur forms two oxy-acids H2SO3 and H2SO4.H2SO4
Zn, Sn, As and Sb are amphoteric. We can summarise is stronger acid than H2SO3.
that as the electronegativity of element increases, Chlorine forms a number of oxy-acids:
acidic character of oxides increases. W hen an
element forms a number of oxides, the acidic nature
increases as the percentage of oxygen increases.
Acidic nature

N2 O Neutral P2 O3 MnO Basic

increases

Acidic nature

NO oxide P2 O4 Mn2O3 Basic

increases

P2 O5 MnO2 Neutral
Acidic nature

N2O3 MnO3 Acidic

increases

NO2 Mn2O7 Acidic Greater is the oxidation state of central atom more
N2O5 will be the acidic strength.
CO, N2O, NO and H2O are neutral oxides. The oxides
( j ) Nature of Hydrides :
CO2, N2O5, P2O3, P2O5, SO2, SO3, Cl2O7, etc., are called
acid anhydrides as these combine with water to form The nature of the hydrides changes from basic to
oxy-acids. acidic in a period from left to right.
CO2  H2CO3 P2O3  H3PO3 NH 3 H2O HF
SO3  H2SO4 N2O5  HNO3 weak base neutral weak acid
P2O5  H3PO4 Cl2O7  HClO4
PH 3 H 2S HCl
N2O3  HNO2 SO2  H2SO3
very weak weak acid strong acid
(i) Nature of Oxy-Acids : base

In a period, the strength of the oxy-acids formed by In a group, the acidic nature of the hydrides of non-
non-metals increases from ieft to right. metals increases. The reducing nature also increases
but stability decreases from top to bottom
II Period strength increases

III Period strength

increases

PAGE # 91
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
• Anomalous behaviour of the elements of second 8.
period :
It has been observed that in the case of representative
elements, the first element in each, i.e. lithium in the
first group, beryllium in the second group and boron
to fluorine in the group 13 to 17, differ in many respect
from the other member of their respective group. The
anomalous behaviour of the first member of each
group is attributed to following reasons :
(a) small atomic radius of the atom and ionic radius
of its ion.
(b) high electronegativity
(c) non-availability of d-orbitals in their valence shell.
9.
(d) tendency to form multiple bonds by carbon,
nitrogen and oxygen
(e) high charge/radius ratio
Which of the following statement is False?
(A) In modern periodic table each block contains a
number of columns equal to the number of elec-
trons than can occupy that sub-shell.
(B) The greatest increase in ionization enthalpy is
experienced on removal of electron from core
noble gas configuration.
(C) In 13th group, values of electronegativity increases
regularly from top to bottom
(D) Anything that influences the valence electrons will
affect the chemistry of the element and the va-
lence shell is not affected by nuclear mass.
The element with atomic number 56 is likely to have
the same outer shell configuration as the element
with atomic number :
(A) 12 (B) 18
(C) 14 (D) 30

EXERCISE-1 10. If aufbau rule is not followed, 20Ca will be placed in

_________ block.
MODE RN P ER IODI C TA BLE (A) s- (B) p-
(C) d- (D) f-
1. The atomic number of an element x is 12. The
element left to it and right to it in same period of
11. W hat is the position of the element in the periodic
periodic table are -
table satisfying the electronic configuration (n – 1) d1
(A) Be, Ca (B) Al, P
ns2 for n = 4
(C) K, Li (D) Na, Al
(A) 3rd period and 3rd group
2. An element has atomic number 13. Which of the fol- (B) 4th period and 4th group
lowing statements concerning this element is wrong? (C) 3rd period and 2nd group
(A) the atom has 13 protons
(D) 4th period and 3rd group
(B) the element is placed in the third period of the
periodic table
12. Hydrogen has the tendency to gain one electron to
(C) the element is placed in group IV in the periodic
acquire helium configuration. In this respect it
table.
resembles -
(D) the formula of its oxide is X2O3
(A) alkali metals (B) carbon
3. W hich of the following represents the electronic (C) alkaline earth metals (D) halogens
configuration of d-block elements ?
(A) (n–1)s2 nd1–10 (B) (n–1)d1–10ns1-2 13. Elements in the same vertical group of the periodic
1–10 2 4
(C) (n–1)d ns p (D) (n–1)p 4ns2 table have generally the same -
(A) atomic number
4. Transition metals are characterised by the proper-
ties except : (B) electronic configuration
(A) variable valency (C) atomic mass
(B) form coloured compounds (D) number of electrons in the outermost shell of their
(C) high melting and boiling points atoms
(D) no tendency to form complexes
5. Which of the following is a noble gas ? 14. Elements A, B, C, D and E having the following elec-
(A) He (B) N2 tronic configuration -
(C) H2 (D) O2 (i) 1s2, 2s2, 2p1
(ii) 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p1
6. Which one of the following belongs to representative (iii) 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p3
group of elements in the periodic table ? (iv) 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5
(A) Lanthanum (B) Argon (v) 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6
(C) Chromium (D) Aluminium
Electronic configurations belonging to same group
7. W hich of the following pairs of elements does not are -
belong to same group ? (A) (i) and (iii) (B) (i) and (iv)
(A) Cl, Br (B) N, P (C) (i) and (ii) (D) (i) and (v)
(C) Mg, Ca (D) Al, Si

PAGE # 92
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
TR EN DS I N DI FFER EN T PR OP ERTI ES OF 22. The incorrect statement among the following is :
ELEM EN T IN P ER IODI CI TY (A) the first ionisation potential of Al is less than first
ionisation potential of Mg
15. The most electropositive element in periodic table
is : (B) the second ionisation potential of Mg is greater
than the second ionisation potential of Na
(A) F (B) Na
(C) K (D) Cs (C) the first ionisation potential of Na is less than the
first ionisation potential of Mg
16. W hich of the following statement is false ? (D) the third ionisation potential of Mg is greater than
(A) The metallic character on moving from left to third ionisation potential of Al
right in a period, decreases.
(B) Metallic character increases on going down a 23. The element with highest electronegativity is -
group. (A) carbon (B) chlorine
(C) atomic radius decreases on moving from left (C) fluorine (D) oxygen
to right in a period.
(D) The chemical reactivity of metals, on moving 24. Elements of which group form anions most readily ?
from left to right in a period increases. (A) Oxygen family (B) Nitrogen family
(C) Halogens (D) Alkali metals
17. The ionisation energy of isotopes of an element will be -
(A) same 25. The process(es) requiring the absorption of energy
(B) different is/are :
(A) Cl – Cl– (B) S  S2–
(C) dependent on atomic masses
(C) Ar  Ar – (D) Both (B) and (C)
(D) dependent on the number of neutrons present in
the nucleus 26. Which of the following is smallest in size -
2– 4–
(A) O (B) C
– 3–
18. W hich of the following is the increasing order of (C) F (D) N
electron affinity of halogens ?
27. The correct order of radii is:
(A) Cl < Br <  < F (B)  < Br < F < Cl
(A) Li < Be <Mg (B) Be+2 < Li+ < H–
(C) F < Cl < Br <  (D) Br < F <  < Cl
(C) Mn3+ < Mn2+ < Mn+7 (D) K+ >Cl– > S2–
19. In which of the following arrangements, the order is
28. Which of the following is the incorrect statement ?
not according to the property indicated against it ?
(A) The first ionisation potential of Al is lesser than
(A) Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na+ < F– - Increasing ionic size
the first ionisation potential of Mg
(B) B < C < N < O - Increasing first ionisation energy
(B) Atomic radius of Li is less than that of Cs
(C)  < Br < F < Cl - Increasing electron affinity
(C) The formation of S2- from S– is an endothermic
(D) Li < Na < K < Rb - Increasing metallic radius
process
20. The most basic oxide among MnO, Mn2O3, MnO2 and (D) All of these are incorrect statements.
Mn2O7 is -
(A) MnO (B) MnO2 29. The first ionisation energy of Na, Mg, Al and Si are in
(C) Mn2O3 (D) Mn2O7 the order of :
(A) Na < Mg > Al < Si (B) Na > Mg > Al > Si
21. The first (IE 1) and second (IE 2) ionisation energies (C) Na < Mg < Al > Si (D) Na > Mg > Al < Si
(KJmol–1) of a few elements are shown below :
30. Which one of the following statements is correct ?
IE 1 IE 2
(A) The elements like F, Cl, Br etc having high values
(i) 2372 5251
of electron affinity act as strong oxidising agent.
(ii) 520 7300
(B) The elements having low values of ionisation
(iii) 900 1760 energies act as strong reducing agent.
(iv) 1680 3380 (C) The formation of Be–(g) from Be(g) is an endot-
hermic process
Which of the above elements is likely to be a noble (D) All of these
gas ?
(A) (i) (B) (ii)
31. For the element 'A', (given in previous question) the
(C) (iii) (D) (iv) first ionisation energy will be numerically equal to :
(A) EA of A+ (B) EA of A2+
(C) E of A2+ (D) None of these

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 9. Which of the following elements belong to Lanthanide
series ? [Maharashtra NTSE Stage-I/13]
EXERCISE-2 (A) Ce (B) Hg
(C) Th (D) Mn
NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS
10. d-block elements are : [M.P. NTSE Stage-I/14]
1. Correct order of ionisation potentials of B, C, Al, Si is (A) Representative elements
: [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/06] (B) Transition elements
(A) B < Al < Si< C (B) B < Si < Al < C (C) Inner transition elements
(C) Al < B < Si < C (D) Al < Si < B < C (D) Inert gases
2. Element “X” which is solid and having high melting
11. On going from left to right in a period, the size of atom
point, form a Chloride “X Cl3”. This element “X” would decreases but the size of the nobel gas atom is
be in which group of Periodic table ? greater than the size of other elements of same
[Raj. NTSE Stage-I/13] period, why ? [M.P. NTSE Stage-I/14]
(A) Na (B) Mg (A) Less reactivity
(C) Al (D) Si (B) Measurment of Vander Waals radius
3. Arrange the following elements in order of their (C) Absence of any valence electron
increasing ionisation energies. O, S Se, Te, Po : (D) Effective nuclear charge in greater
[Delhi NTSE Stage-I/13] 12. Which of the following oxide of nitrogen is ionic?
(A) Se, Te, S, Po, O (B) O, S, Se, Te, Po [Bihar_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(C) Po, Te, Se, S, O (D) Te, O, S, Po, Se (A) NO (B) N2O3
(C) N2O5 (D) NO2
4. Electron affinities of O, S, F and Cl are in the order :
[Delhi NTSE Stage-I/13] 13. Which of thefollowing group belongs to actinide se-
ries ? [Maharashtra_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) O<S<F<Cl (B) S<O<Cl<F
(A) Th, Pa, U (B) Ce, Pr, Nd
(C) S<Cl<O<F (D) S<O<F<Cl
(C) Ba, La, Hf (D) Pt, Au, Ag
5. In periodic table generally following similarity is found
in elements of same group. [M.P. NTSE Stage-I/13] 14. Among LiCl, RbCl, BeCl2 and MgCl2 which two are
(A) Atomic number the heighest and lowest ionic compounds ?
(B) Number of electrons in outermost orbit of an atom [West Bengal_NTSE Stage-I/15]

(C) Number of isotopes (A) LiCl & RbCl (B) RbCl & BeCl2
(D) Atomic volume (C) RbCl & MgCl2 (D) MgCl2 & BeCl2

15. The bond, in compound formed from combination of

6. The correct order of increasing acidic nature of SO2,
14 group and 17 group elements of Periodic table
SiO2, P2O3and Al2O3 is-[West Bengal NTSE Stage-I/13] will be ............ [M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) SO2< P2O3 < SiO2 < Al2O3 (A) Electrovalent bond (B) Co-ordinate bond
(B) Al2 O3 < SiO2 < SO2 < P2O3 (C) Van der Waals bond (D) Covalent bond
(C) Al2 O3 < SiO2 < P2O3 < SO2
16. W hich of the following orders of atomic radii is
(D) SiO2 < SO2 < Al2O3 < P2O3 correctly represented ? [Delhi_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) B < Al < Ga (B) B < Ga  Al
7. W hich one among the following is not a periodic
(C) Al < B < Ga (D) B > Ga  Al
property ? [West Bengal NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) Electronegativity 17. An element A belongs to third period and second
(B) Atomic volume group of periodic table. The number of valence
electron / electrons of element A is
(C) Ionization potential
[Rajasthan_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(D) Radioactivity (A) one (B) two
(C) three (D) four
8. In modern periodic table; arrange the third row
elements Na, Mg, AI and Si in the increasing order of 18. Which pair of atomic numbers represents elements
their atomic size: [Maharashtra NTSE Stage-I/13] in same group ? [Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) Na > Mg > AI > Si (B) AI > Si > Na > Mg (A) 11, 19 (B) 6, 12
(C) Si > Al > Mg > Na (D) Na > AI > Si > Mg (C) 4, 16 (D) 8, 17

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
19. Which of the following is considered to be an anoma- 24. W hich of the following statement is incorrect state-
lous pair of elements in Mendeleev's periodic table ment about the trends when going from left to right
based on atomic weights ? across the periods of modern periodic table?
[Telangana NTSE Stage-1/ 2015] [Delhi NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Na/K (B) H/He
(A) The number of valence electrons in creases
(C) Te/I (D) Fe/Co
(B) The atoms lose their electrons more easily
20. Periodicity in the properties of elements in modern (C) The oxides become more acidic
periodic table is due to : (D) The elements become less metallic in nature
[Andhra Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) A regular increase in atomic weight of elements. 25. The correct order of acidic strength of the following
(B) Periodicity in the electronic configuration of atom oxides is : [Delhi NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
of elements. (A) CaO < Na2O < CO2 < ZnO
(C) Successive increase in the atomic number of el-
(B) Na2O < CaO < ZnO < CO2
ements.
(C) ZnO < CO2 < CaO < Na2O
(D) Existence of families of elements.
(D) CO2 < ZnO < Na2O < CaO
21. X, Y and Z are the three elements, each one belongs
to any one of the groups IA, IIIA and VA. The oxide of X 26. W hich of the following compound can be
is amphoteric, the oxide of Y is highly acidic, and the decomposed in presence of sunlight.
oxide of Z is highly basic. Identify the groups to which
these elements X, Y, Z belong to ? [Uttrakhand Stage-1/ 2015]
XYZ
(A) NaCl (B) CuCl
[Andhra Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/ 2015] (C) AgCl (D) KCl
(A) VA IA IIIA (B) IA VA IIIA
(C) IIIA IA VA (D) IIIA VA IA
27. An element X forms a solid chloride havin formula
22. The noble gas which occurs most abundantly in the XCl2 The solid chloride has hig melting point (m.p.).
atmosphere is : [Haryana NTSE Stage-1/ 2015] To which group of the periodic table will X belongs to
: [Uttrakhand Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) He (B) Ne
(C) Ar (D) Kr (A) I group
(B) II group
23. Which of the following orders of ionic radii is correctly (C) XIII group
represented? [West Bengal NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(D) XVI group
– +
(A) H > H > H (B) Na+ > F– > O2–
(C) F– > Na+ > O2– (D) H– > H > H+ 28. W hich one of the following is the smallest in
size ? [Raj. NTSEStage-1/2016]
(A) N3– (B) O2–
–1
(C) F (D) Na+



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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 ACIDS AND BASES

(a) Classification of Acids :

ACIDS
(i) Classification of acids on the basis of their
Substances with sour taste are regarded as acids.
Source
Lemon juice, vinegar, grape fruit juice and spoilt milk
On the basis of their source, acids can be classified
etc. taste sour since they are acidic. Many substances
in two categories :
can be identified as acids based on their taste but (A) Organic acids (B) Inorganic acids
some of the acids like sulphuric acid have very strong
(A) Organic acids
action on the skin which means that they are corrosive
The acids which are usually obtained from
in nature. In such cases it would be according to
organisms are known as organic acids. Oxalic acid
modern definition -
[(COOH)2 ], acetic acid (CH 3 COOH) etc. are very
An acid may be defined as a substance which
common examples of organic acids. Some other
releases one or more H+ ions in aqueous solution.
organic acids with their natural sources are given in
Acids are mostly obtained from natural sources.
the following Table.

Some Organic Acids with Their Natural Sources

S .No. O rga nic a cid Na tu ra l sou rce s S .No . O rg a nic a ci d Na tura l so urce s
1 A c etic ac id M ic ro-organis m 7 O leic ac id O live oil
(bac teria)
2 Citric ac id Citrus fruits (lik e 8 S tearic ac id Fats
orange and lem on)
3 B uty ric ac id Ranc id butter 9 A m ino ac id P roteins
4 F orm ic ac id S ting of bees and ants 10 Uric ac id Urine
5 Lac tic ac id S our m ilk 11 Tartaric ac id Tam arind
6 M alic ac id A pples 12 O x alic ac id Tom atoes

It may be noted that all organic acids contain carbon
as one of their constituting elements. These are weak
acids and, therefore, do not ionise completely in their
aqueous solutions. Since these acids do not ionise
completely in their aqueous solutions, therefore, their
solutions contains both ions as well as
undissociated molecules. For example, formic acid’s
aqueous solution contains H3O+, HCOO– as well as
undissociated HCOOH molecules.
HCOOH + H2O H3O+ + HCOO–
Formic acid Hydronium ion Formate ion
(B) Inorganic Acids.
The acids which are usually obtained from minerals
are known as inorganic acids. Since the acids are
obtained from minerals, therefore, these acids are
also called mineral acids. Some common examples
of inorganic acids are : Hydrochloric acid (HCl),
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3) etc.
It may be pointed out that except carbonic acid
(H 2CO 3 ), these acids do not contain carbon. Acids
like HCl, H 2 SO 4 and HNO 3 are strong acids which
ionise completely in their aqueous solutions and,
therefore, their aqueous solutions do not contain any
undissociated molecules.
(ii) Classification of acids on the basis of their
Basicity :
The basicity of an acid is defined as the number of
hydronium ions [H3O+ (aq.)] that can be produced by
the complete ionisation of one molecule of that acid
in aqueous solution.
For example, basicity of HCl, H2SO 4, H3PO4 is 1, 2
and 3 respectively because one molecule of these
acids, on ionisation, produces 1, 2 and 3 hydronium
ions in aqueous solution respectively.
It may be pointed out here that the basicity of an acid
is determined by number of hydronium ions produced
per molecule of an acid on ionisation and not the
number of hydrogen atoms present in one molecule
of an acid. For example, basicity of acetic acid
(CH3COOH) is 1 because one molecule of acetic acid,
on ionisation in aqueous solution, produces one
hydronium ion although one molecule of acetic acid
contains four hydrogen atoms.
CH3COOH + H2 O H3O+ + CH3COO–
Acetic acid Hydronium ion Acetate ion
On the basis of basicity, the acids can be classified
as under :

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (A) Monobasic Acids : (C) Tribasic Acids :
When one molecule of an acid on complete ionisation
When one molecule of an acid on complete ionisation
produces one hydronium ion (H 3 O + ) in aqueous
produces three hydronium ions (H 3 O +) in aqueous
solution, the acid is said to be a monobasic acid.
solution, the acid is said to be a tribasic acid.
Examples of Monobasic Acids. An example of tribasic acids is Phosphoric acid
Some examples of monobasic acids are : (H3PO4).
(i) Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
(D) Tetrabasic Acids :
(ii) Hydrobromic acid (HBr)
(iii) Nitric acid (HNO3) When one molecule of an acid on complete ionisation
(iv) Acetic acid (CH3COOH) produces four hydronium ions (H 3 O + ) in aqueous
(v) Formic acid (HCOOH) solution, the acid is said to be a tetrabasic acid.
An example of tetrabasic acids is silicic acid (H4SiO4).
Characteristics of Monobasic Acids.
Two important characteristics of monobasic acids (iii) Classification of acids on the basis of their
are : strength :
(i) A monobasic acid ionises in one step in aqueous We know that acids ionise in the aqueous solution to
solution. For example, produce hydronium ions. So, the strength of an acid
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl– depends upon the degree of ionisation, usually
(Single step ionisation) denoted by the letter alpha ().
Degree of ionisation of an acid ()
(ii) A monobasic acid forms only single salt or a normal
salt. For example, Number of molecules of the acid undergoing ionisation
=  100
Total number of acid molecules
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
Sodium chloride More the degree of ionisation () of an acid, more stronger
(Normal salt) it will be. Generally, if the degree of ionisation () for an
acid is greater than 30%, it is considered to be a strong
(B) Dibasic Acids :
acid. If it is less than 30%,it is considered to be a weak
When one molecule of an acid on complete ionisation
acid.
produces two hydronium ions (H 3 O + ) in aqueous On the basis of degree of ionisation, the acids can be
solution, the acid is said to be a dibasic acid. classified as under:
Examples of Dibasic Acids : (A) Strong Acids :
Some examples of dibasic acids are : The acids which undergo almost complete ionisation
(i) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) in a dilute aqueous solution, thereby producing a high
(ii) Sulphurous acid (H2SO3) concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+) are known as
(iii) Carbonic acid (H2CO3) strong acids.
(iv) Oxalic acid [(COOH)2]
(v) Hydrofluoric acid (HF) Examples of strong acids :
Some examples of strong acids are :
Characteristics of Dibasic Acids :
(i) Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Two important characteristics of dibasic acids are :
(ii) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
(i) A dibasic acid ionises in two steps in aqueous (iii) Nitric acid (HNO3)
solution. For example, sulphuric acid which is a dibasic
All these three mineral acids are considered to be
acid ionises to produce bisulphate ion (HSO4–) in the
strong acids because they ionise almost completely
first step which further ionises to produce sulphate ion
in their dilute aqueous solutions.
(SO42–) in the second step.
H2SO4 + H2O H3O+ + HSO4– (B) Weak Acids :
Sulphuric acid Bisulphate ion The acids which undergo partial or incomplete
ionisation in a dilute aqueous solution, thereby
HSO4– + H2O H3O+ + SO42–
producing a low concentration of hydronium ions
Sulphate ion
(H3O+) are known as weak acids.
\ (ii) Because of the presence of two replaceable
hydrogen ions, a dibasic acid forms two series of salts Examples of weak acids :
i.e., an acid salt and a normal salt. For example, H2SO4 Some examples of weak acids are :
reacts with NaOH to form NaHSO4 (an acid salt) and (i) Acetic acid (CH3COOH)
Na2SO 4 (a normal salt) (ii) Formic acid (HCOOH)
NaOH + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + H2O (iii) Oxalic acid [(COOH)2]
Sodium hydrogen (iv) Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
sulphate (v) Sulphurous acid (H2SO3)
(An acid salt) (vi) Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
(vii) Hydrocyanic acid (HCN)
2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Sodium sulphate The aqueous solution of weak acids contain both ions
(Normal salt) as well as undissociated molecules.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (iv) Classification on the basis of Concentration of
the Acid :
By the term concentration, we mean the amount of
water present in the given sample of acid solution in
water.
(A) Concentrated Acid :
The sample of an acid which contains very small or no
amount of water is called a concentrated acid.
(B) Dilute Acid :
The sample of an acid which contains far more amount
of water than its own mass is known as a dilute acid
CHEMICAL FORMULAE, TYPES AND USES OF SOME COMMON ACIDS
Name Type
It must be mentioned here that concentration of an
acid simply tells the amount of water in the acid. It may
not be confused with strength of an acid, which is a
measure of concentration of hydronium ion it produces
in aqueous solution.
A concentrated acid may not necessarily be a strong
acid while a dilute acid may not necessarily be a weak
acid. A strong acid will remain strong even if it is dilute
because it produces a large concentration of hydronium
ions in aqueous solution. On the other hand, a weak
acid will remain weak even when concentrated
because it will produce lesser concentration of
hydronium ions in aqueous solution.
Chemical Formula Where found or used

Carbonic acid Mineral acid H2CO3 In soft drinks and lends fizz.

Used in the manufacture of explosives (TNT,

Nitric acid Mineral acid HNO3 Nitroglycerine) and fertilizers (Ammonium nitrate,
Calcium nitrate, Purification of Au, Ag)

In purification of common salt, in textile industry

Hydrochloric acid Mineral acid HCl as bleaching agent, to make aqua regia, in
stomach as gastric juice, used in tanning industry

Commonly used in car batteries, in

the manufacture of fertilizers (Ammonium
Sulphuric acid Mineral acid H2SO4 sulphate, super phosphate) detergents etc, in
paints, plastics, drugs, in manufacture of artificial
silk, in petroleum refining.
Phosphoric acid Mineral acid H3PO4 Used in antirust paints and in fertilizers.
Found in the stings of ants and bees, used in
Formic acid Organic acid HCOOH
tanning leather, in medicines for treating gout.
Found in vinegar, used as solvent in the
Acetic acid Organic acid CH3COOH
manufacture of dyes and perfumes.
Lactic acid Organic acid CH3CH(OH)COOH Responsible for souring of milk in curd.
Benzoic acid Organic acid C6H5COOH Used as a food preservative.
Citric acid Organic acid C6 H8 O 7 Present in lemons, oranges and citrus fruits.
Tartaric acid Organic acid C4 H6 O 6 Present in tamarind.

(b) Chemical Properties of Acids : (ii) Action with metal oxides :

(i) Action with metals : Acids react with metal oxides to form salt and water.
Dilute acids like dilute HCl and dilute H2SO4 react with These reactions are mostly carried out upon heating.
certain active metals to evolve hydrogen gas. e.g.
ZnO(s) + 2HCl (aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2O()
2Na(s) + 2HCl (dilute)  2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2SO4 (dilute)  MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2O()
Metals which can displace hydrogen from dilute acids CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq.)  CuCl2(aq) + H2O()
are known as active metals. e.g. Na, K, Zn, Fe, Ca, Mg
(Black) (Bluish green)
etc.
(iii) Action with metal carbonates and metal
Zn(s) + H2SO4 (dilute)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
bicarbonates : Both metal carbonates and bicarbonates
The active metals which lie above hydrogen in the react with acids to evolve CO2 gas and form salts.
activity series are electropositive and more reactive in e.g.
nature. Their atoms lose electrons to form positive ions CaCO3(s)+ 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O() + CO2(g)
and these electrons are accepted by H + ions of the
Calcium Calcium
acid. As a result, H2 is evolved.
carbonate chloride
e.g.
Zn(s)  Zn2+ (aq) + 2e–
2NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(aq) + 2CO2(g)
Sodium Sodium
2H+(aq) + SO42– (aq) + 2e–  H2(g) + SO42–(aq) bicarbonate sulphate
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq)  Zn++(aq) + H2(g)
(iv) Action with bases :
Acids react with bases to give salt and water.
HCl (aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl + H2O

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division

BASE
Substances with bitter taste and soapy touch are
regarded as bases. Since many bases like sodium
hydroxide and potassium hydroxide have corrosive
action on the skin and can even harm the body, so
according to the modern definition -
A base may be defined as a substance capable of
releasing one or more OH¯ ions in aqueous solution.
Name Commercial Name
Sodium hydroxide Caustic soda
Potassium hydroxide Caustic potash
Calcium hydroxide Slaked lime
Magnesium hydroxide Milk of magnesia
Aluminium hydroxide – Al(OH)3
Ammonium hydroxide – NH4OH
(b) Chemical Properties :
1. Action with metals :
Metals like zinc, tin and aluminium react with strong
alkalies like NaOH (caustic soda), KOH (caustic
potash) to evolve hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium zincate
Sn(s) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2SnO2(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium stannite
2Al(s)+ 2NaOH + 2H2O  2NaAlO2(aq) + 3H2(g)
Sodium meta
aluminate
2. Action with non-metallic oxides :
Acids react with metal oxides, but bases react with
oxides of non-metals to form salt and water.
e.g.
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g)  Na2CO3(aq) + H2O()
Ca(OH)2(s) + SO2(g)  CaSO3(s) + H2O()
Ca(OH)2(s) + CO2(g)  CaCO3(s)
CONDUCTING NATURE OF ACID
AND BASE SOLUTIONS
Acids are the substances which contain one or more
hydrogen atoms in their molecules which they can
release in water as H + ions. Similarly, bases are the
substances which contain one or more hydroxyl groups
in their molecules which they can release in water as
OH¯ ions . Since the ions are the carrier of charge
therefore, the aqueous solutions of both acids and
bases are conductors of electricity.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(a) Alkalies :
Some bases like sodium hydroxide and potassium
hydroxide are water soluble. These are known as
alkalies. Therefore water soluble bases are known as
alkalies eg. KOH, NaOH.
Bases like Cu(OH)2, Fe(OH)3 and Al(OH)3 these are
not alkalies.
A list of a few typical bases along with their chemical
formulae and uses is given below-
Chemical
Uses
Formula
In manufacture of soap, paper, pulp, rayon,
NaOH
refining of petroleum etc.
In alkaline storage batteries, manufacture of
KOH
soap, absorbing CO2 gas etc.
In manufacture of bleaching powder,
Ca(OH)2
softening of hard water etc.
Mg(OH)2 As an antacid to remove acidity from stomach.
As foaming agent in fire extinguishers.
In removing grease stains from clothes and in
cleaning window panes.
Experiment :
In a glass beaker, take a dilute solution of hydrochloric
acid (HCl). Fix two small nails of iron in a rubber cork in
the beaker as shown in the figure. Connect the nails to
the terminals of a 6 volt battery through a bulb. Switch
on the current and bulb will start glowing. This shows
that the electric current has passed through the acid
solution. As the current is carried by the movement of
ions, this shows that in solution HCl has ionised to
give H+ and Cl– ions. Current will also be in a position
to pass if the beaker contains in it dilute H2SO4 (H+ ions
are released in aqueous solution). Similarly, aqueous
solutions containing NaOH or KOH will also be
–
conducting due to release of OH ions.
Battery Bulb in
circuit
Switch
+ H2O()
Dilute HCl
Iron Nails
Rubber cork
Bulb will not glow if glucose (C6H12O6) or ethyl alcohol
(C2H5OH) solution is kept in the beaker. This means
that both of them will not give any ions in solution.
PAGE # 99
 THEORIES OF ACIDS AND BASES
(a) Arrhenius Theory :
This concept was given in 1884 .
Acids Bases
According to this theory all substances which give H+
Sour in taste. Bitter in taste.
ions when dissolved in water are called acids, while
Change Colours of indicators Change colours of indicators e.g.
e.g. litmus turns from blue to litmus turns from red to blue those which ionise in water to give OH– ions are called
red, phenolphthalein remains phenolphthalein turns from bases.
colourless. colourless to pink. The main points of this theory are -
Show electrolytic conductivity Show electrolytic conductivity in
in aqueous solution. aqueous solution (i) An acid or base when dissolved in water, splits into
Acidic properties disappear ions. This is known as ionisation.
Basic properties disappear when
when react with bases (ii) Upon dilution, the ions get separated from each other.
react with acids (Neutralization)
(Neutralization) This is known as dissociation of ions.
Acids decompose carbonate No decomposition of carbonate
salts. salts by bases (iii) The fraction of the acid or base which dissociates
into ions is called its degree of dissociation and is
denoted by alpha  which can be calculated by the
ROLE OF WATER IN THE IONISATION following formula :
OF ACIDS AND BASES No. of molecules dissociate d at equilibriu m
=
Substances can act as acids and bases only in the total no. of molecules
presence of water (in aqueous solution). In dry state (iv) The degree of dissociation depends upon the nature
which is also called anhydrous state, these characters of acid or base. Strong acids and bases are highly
cannot be shown. Actually, water helps in the ionisation dissociated, while weak acids and bases are
dissociated to lesser extent.
of acid or base by separating the ions. This is also
known as dissociation and is explained on the basis (v) The electric current is carried by the movement of
ions. Greater the ionic mobility more will be the
of a theory called Arrhenius theory of acids and bases.
conductivity of the acid or base.
In the dry state, hydrochloric acid is known as hydrogen
(vi) The H + ions do not exist as such and exist in
chloride gas i.e. HCl(g). It is not in the position to give combination with molecules of H 2O as H 3O + ions
any H + ions. Therefore, the acidic character is not (known as hydronium ion).
shown. Now, let us pass the gas through water taken
H+ + H2O H3O+
in a beaker with the help of glass pipe. H2O molecules
are of polar nature which means that they have partial HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl–
negative charge (–) on oxygen atom and partial positive e.g.
charge ( ) on hydrogen atoms. They will try to form a
+ HA + H2O H3O+ + A¯
sort of envelope around the hydrogen atoms as well Acid
as chlorine atoms present in the acid and thus help in H2SO4 + 2H2O 2H3O+ + SO4–2
their separation as ions. These ions are said to be Acid
hydrated ions. Water
BOH B+ + OH¯
HCl(g) + H2O  H3O+ + Cl–(aq) Base
(Hydrated ions)
Water
NaOH Na+ + OH¯
The electrical current is carried through these ions. Base
The same applies to other acids as well as bases. Water
NH4OH NH4+ + OH¯
Thus we conclude that -
Base
(i) acids can release H+ ions only in aqueous solution.
(ii) base can release OH– ions only in aqueous solution. (A) Limitations of Arrhenius theory :
(iii) hydration helps in the release of ions from acids • It is applicable only to aqueous solutions. For the
and bases. acidic or basic properties, the presence of water is
absolutely necessary.
DILUTION OF ACIDS AND BASES • The concept does not explain the acidic or basic
properties of acids or bases in non - aqueous solvents.
Acids and bases are mostly water soluble and can be • It fails to explain the basic nature of compounds like
diluted by adding the required amount of water. W ith
NH 3, Na2CO 3 etc., which do not have OH– in their
the addition of water the amount of acid or base per
unit volume decrease and dilution occurs. The process molecules to furnish OH– ions.
is generally exothermic in nature. When a concentrated • It fails to explain the acidic nature of non - protic
acid like sulphuric acid or nitric acid is to be diluted compounds like SO2, P2O5, CO2, NO2 etc., which do not
with water, acid should be added dropwise to water have hydrogen in their molecules to furnish H+ ions.
taken in the container with constant stirring. • It fails to explain the acidic nature of certain salts like
AlCl3 etc., in aqueous solutions.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (b ) Ac id B as e Conc ep t of B rons te d and
Lowr y :
This theory was given by Bronsted, a Danish chemist
and Lowry, an English chemist independently in 1923.
According to it, an acid is a substance, molecule or ion
which has a tendency to release the proton
(protogenic) and similarly a base has a tendency to
accept the proton (protophilic).
e.g.
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl–
In this reaction, HCl acts as an acid because it donates
a proton to the water molecule. Water, on the other
hand, behaves as a base by accepting a proton.
 Note :
Bronsted and Lowry theory is also known as proton
donor and proton acceptor theory.
Other examples :
(i) CH3COOH + H2O H3O+ + CH3COO–
(ii) NH4+ + H2O H3O+ + NH3
(iii) NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH–
In the reactions (i) and (ii) water is acting as a base,
while in reaction (iii) it is acting as an acid.Thus water
can donate as well as accept H+ and hence can act as
both acid and base.
 Note :
The species like H2O, NH3, CH3COOH which can act
as both acid and base are called amphiprotic.
Moreover according to theory, an acid on losing a
proton becomes a base, called conjugate base, while
the base by accepting proton changes to acid called
conjugate acid.
Here CH3COO– ion is conjugate base of CH3COOH,
while H3O+ ion is conjugate acid of H2O.
(i) Merits :
(A) Besides water any other solvent, which has the
tendency to accept or lose a proton may decide the
acidic or basic behaviour of the dissolved substance.
(B) This theory states that the terms acid and base are
comparative. A substance may act as an acid in one
solvent, while as a base in another solvent.
e.g. Acetic acid acts as an acid in water while as a
base in HF.
(ii) Demerits :
(A) Many acid - base reactions proceed without H +
transfer.
e.g. SO2 + SO3 SO2+ + SO42-
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(c) Lewis theory :
The theory was given by G.N. Lewis in 1938. According
to it, an acid is a species which can accept a pair of
electrons, while the base is one which can donate a
pair of electrons.
 Note :
It is also known as electron pair donor and electron
pair acceptor theory.
e.g.
(i) FeCl3 and AlCl3 are Lewis acids, because the central
atoms have only six electrons after sharing and need
two more electrons.
(ii) NH3 is a Lewis base as it has a pair of electrons
which can be easily donated.
Lewis acids :- CH3+, H+, BF3, AlCl3, FeCl3 etc.
Lewis base :- NH3, H2O, R–O–R, R – OH, CN¯, OH¯
etc.
(i) Characteristics of species which can act as Lewis
acids :
(A) Molecules in which the central atom has
incomplete octet : Lewis acids are electron deficient
molecules such as BF3, AlCl3, GaCl3 etc.
H3N •• + AlCl 3 [H3N AlCl3]
(B) Molecules in which the central atom has empty
d-orbitals : The central atom of the halides such as
TiCl4, SnCl4, PCl3, PF5, SF4, TeCl4. etc., have vacant d-
orbitals. These can, therefore, accept an electron pair
and act as Lewis acids.
(C) Simple cations : All cations are expected to act as
Lewis acid, since they are electron deficient in nature.
(D) Molecules having a multiple bond between
atoms of dissimilar electronegativity : Typical
examples of molecules belonging to this class of
Lewis acids are CO 2, SO 2 and SO 3.
(ii) Characteristics of species which can act as Lewis
bases :
(A) Neutral species having at least one lone pair of
electrons : For example, ammonia amines, alcohols
etc, act as Lewis bases as they contain a pair of
electrons.
(B) Negatively charged species or simple anions :
For example chloride (Cl–), cyanide (CN –), hydroxide
(OH–) ions etc. act as Lewis bases.
(C) Multiple bonded compounds : The compounds
such as CO, NO, ethylene, acetylene etc. can act as
Lewis bases.
 Note :
It may be noted that all Bronsted bases are also Lewis
bases, but all Lewis acids are not Bronsted acids.
(iii) Limitations of Lewis theory :
(A) Lewis theory fails to explain the relative strength of
acids and bases.
PAGE # 101
 e.g .
INDICATORS HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O () + 57.1 KJ

, An indicator indicates the nature of a particular solution Strong Strong

whether acidic, basic or neutral. Apart from this, indicator acid base

also represents the change in nature of the solution
from acidic to basic and vice versa. Indicators are
basically coloured organic substances extracted from
different plants. A few common acid base indicators are-
(a) Litmus :
Litmus is a purple dye which is extracted from ‘lichen’
a plant belonging to variety Thallophyta. It can also be
applied on paper in the form of strips and is available
as blue and red strips. A blue litmus strip, when dipped
in an acid solution acquires red colour. Similarly a red
strip when dipped in a base solution becomes blue.
APPLICATIONS OF NEUTRALISATION
(b) Phenolphthalein :
It is also an organic dye and acidic in nature. In neutral
or acidic solution, it remains colourless while in the
basic solution, the colour of indicator changes to pink.
(c) Methyl Orange :
Methyl orange is an orange or yellow coloured dye and
basic in nature. In the acidic medium the colour of
indicator becomes red and in the basic or neutral
medium, its colour remains unchanged.
(d) Red Cabbage Juice :
It is purple in colour in neutral medium and turns red
or pink in the acidic medium. In the basic or alkaline
medium, its colour changes to green.
HNO3 (aq) + KOH (aq)  KNO3 (aq) + H2O () + 57.1 KJ
Strong Strong
acid base
Strong acids and strong bases are completely ionised
of their own in the solution. No energy is needed for
their ionisation. Since the cation of base and anion of
acid on both sides of the equation cancel out
completely, the heat evolved is given by the following
reaction -
H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)  H2O () + 57.1 KJ
(i) People particularly of old age suffer from acidity
problems in the stomach which is caused mainly due
to release of excessive gastric juices containing HCl.
The acidity is neutralised by antacid tablets which
contain sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda),
magnesium hydroxide etc.
(ii) The stings of bees and ants contain formic acid. Its
corrosive and poisonous effect can be neutralised by
rubbing soap which contains NaOH (an alkali).
(iii) The stings of wasps contain an alkali and its
poisonous effect can be neutralised by an acid like
acetic acid (present in vinegar).

(e) Turmeric Juice :
It is yellow in colour and remains as such in the neutral
and acidic medium. In the basic medium its colour
becomes reddish or deep brown.
(iv) Farmers generally neutralize the effect of acidity in
the soil caused by acid rain by adding slaked lime
(Calcium hydroxide) to the soil.

 Note :
Litmus is obtained from LICHEN plant.
NEUTRALISATION
It may be defined as a reaction between acid and
base present in aqueous solution to form salt and
water.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O()
Basically neutralisation is the combination between
–
H+ ions of the acid with OH ions of the base to form H2O.
e.g.
– –
H+(aq) + Cl (aq) + Na+(aq) + OH (aq)  Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + H2O()
–
H+(aq) + OH (aq)  H2O()
Neutralisation reaction involving an acid and base is
of exothermic nature. Heat is evolved in all
neutralisation reactions. If both acid and base are
strong, the value of heat energy evolved remains same
irrespective of their nature.
According to Arrhenius theory, an acid releases H+ ion
in aqueous solution. The concentration of these ions
is expressed by enclosing H+ in square bracket i.e. as
[H+ ]. Thus, greater the [H+] ions, stronger will be the
acid. However, according to pH scale, lesser the pH
value, stronger will be the acid. From the above
discussion, we can conclude that pH value and H+ ion
concentration are inversely proportional to each other.
The relation between them can also be expressed as-
 1 
pH = – log [H+] = log  
 H 
So, negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration
is known as pH.
e.g.
Let the [H+] of an acid solution be 10–3 M. Its pH can be
calculated as -
pH = – log [H+]
= – log [10–3]
= (–) (–3) log 10
= 3 ( log 10 = 1)

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Note : (a) Classification of Salts :
Just as the [H+] of a solution can be expressed in terms (i) It is based on their Mode of Formation :
of pH value, the [OH–] can be expressed as pOH.
1 (A) Normal Salts :
Mathematically , pOH = – log [OH–] = log
[ OH – ] The salts which are obtained by complete replacement
Moreover, pH + pOH = 14. of the ionisable hydrogen atoms of an acid by a metallic
Thus, if pH value of solution is known, its pOH value or an ammonium ion are known as normal salts. For
can be calculated. example, normal salts NaCl and Na2 SO 4 are formed
by the complete replacement of ionisable hydrogen
 Note : atoms of HCl and H2SO4 respectively
There are some solutions which have definite pH i.e.,
their pH do not change on dilution or on standing for HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
long. Such solutions are called buffer solutions. Sodium chloride
(Normal salt)
Ex.1 Calculate the concentration of H3O+ ions and OH– ions H2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO 4 + 2H2O
in (a) 0.01 M solution of HCl (b) 0.01 M solution of Sodium sulphate
NaOH at 298 K, assuming that HCl and NaOH are (Normal salt)
completely ionized under the given conditions. Some of the salts are given below in the table.
Sol. (a) HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H 3O +(aq) + Cl–(aq) Some Examples of Norm al Salts w ith their Parent Acids :
Since HCl is completely ionized S.No. Parent Acid Norm al Salts
 [H 3O +] = [HCl] = 0.01 M
Hydrochloric acid NaCl, KCl, MgCl 2, AlCl 3, ZnCl 2,
or 1 × 10 –2 mol L –1 1
(HCl) CaCl 2 and NH 4Cl.
[K w ] Nitric acid NaNO3, KNO 3, Mg(NO 3) 2,Al(NO 3) 3,
2
[OH –] =  (HNO 3) Zn(NO 3) 2, Ca(NO 3) 2.
[H3 O ]
Sulphuric acid Na 2SO4 , K 2SO4, MgSO 4, Al 2(SO 4) 3,
3
–14 (H 2SO4) ZnSO 4, CaSO 4.
1 10
= 1 × 10 –12 mol L–1 4
Acetic acid CH 3COONa, CH 3COOK, (CH 3COO)2Ca,
1 10 – 2 (CH 3COOH) (CH 3COO) 2 Pb, CH 3COONH 4.
(b) NaOH(aq)  Na+(aq) + OH–(aq) 5
Carbonic acid Na 2CO3, K 2CO3, MgCO3, ZnCO3,
Since NaOH is completely ionized (H 2CO3) CaCO3, (NH 4) 2CO3.
[OH–] = [NaOH] = 0.01 M Sulphurous acid Na 2SO3, K 2SO3, MgSO3, ZnSO3,
6
(H 2SO3) CaSO 3, (NH 4) 2 SO3.
or 1 × 10–2 mol L–1
Phos phoric acid Na 3PO4, K 3PO4, Mg 3(PO4) 2,
7
–14 (H 3PO4) Zn 3(PO 4) 2, Ca 3(PO4) 2, (NH 4) 3PO4.
Kw 1 10
[H3O+] = =
[OH– ] 1 10 – 2 (B) Acid Salts : The salts which are obtained by the
= 1× 10–12 mol L–1. partial replacement of ionisable hydrogen atoms of a
polybasic acid by a metal or an ammonium ion are
Ex-2 Calculate the concentration of H3O+ ions and pH in known as acid salts.
0.005 M solution of Ba(OH)2 at 298 K, assuming that
These are usually formed when insufficient amount of
Ba(OH) 2 is completely ionized under the given
the base is taken for the neutralisation of the acid. For
conditions. example, when insufficient amount of NaOH is taken
Sol. Ba(OH)2(aq)  Ba2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) to neutralise H2SO4, we get an acid salt NaHSO4.
Since Ba(OH)2 is completely ionized and on ionization H2SO4 + NaOH  NaHSO4 + H2 O
its one molecule gives two OH– ions. (Insufficient amount) Sodium hydrogensulphate
 [OH–] = 2[Ba(OH)2 ] (Acid salt)
= 2 × 0.005 = 0.01 mol L–1
In this case, only one hydrogen atom out of two has
= 1 × 10–2 mol L–1
been replaced by sodium atom. Since there is one
more hydrogen atom in NaHSO 4 which can be
Kw 1 10 –14
[H3O+] = – = replaced, therefore, it further reacts with another
[OH ] 1 10 – 2 molecule of NaOH to produce Na2 SO 4 which is a
= 1 × 10–12 mol L–1 normal salt.
pH = 12 NaHSO 4 + NaOH  Na2SO4 + H2 O
Sodium Sodium
SALTS hydrogensulphate sulphate
(Acid salt) (Normal salt)
A substance formed by neutralization of an acid
with a base is called a salt. Acid salts ionise in aqueous solution to produce
e.g. hydronium ions (H3O+), therefore, they exhibit all the
Ca(OH)2(aq)+ H2SO4(aq)  CaSO4(aq) + 2H2O() properties of acids.

Cu(OH)2(aq) + 2HNO3(aq)  Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O()

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O()

PAGE # 103
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Some other examples of acid salts are given in Table. Ca(OCI)Cl is also a mixed salt containing two acid
radicals OCI– and Cl– .
SOME ACID SALTS WITH THEIR PARENT ACIDS
Some other important examples of mixed salts are :
Sodium potassium sulphate (NaKSO4) (containing two
S.No. Parent Acid Acid Salts basic radicals), Disodium potassium phosphate
Sulphuric acid NaHSO4, KHSO4, (Na2KPO4) (containing two basic radicals).
1 (H2SO4) Ca(HSO4)2
(ii) Classification of salt solutions based on pH
Carbonic acid NaHCO3, KHCO3, values :
2 (H2CO3) Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(HCO3)2 Salts are formed by the reaction between acids
Sulphurous acid NaHSO3, KHSO3, and bases. Depending upon the nature of the acids
3 (H2SO3) Ca(HSO3)2, Mg(HSO3)2 and bases or upon the pH values, the salt solutions
Phosphoric acid NaH2PO4, Na2HPO4, KH2PO4, are of three types.
4 (H3PO4) K2HPO4, Ca(H2PO4)2, CaHPO4 (A) Neutral salt solutions : Salt solutions of strong
acids and strong bases are neutral and have pH equal
(C) Basic Salts : The salts which are formed by partial
to 7. They do not change the colour of litmus solution.
replacement of hydroxyl (–OH) groups of a di or a e.g. NaCl, KCl, NaNO3, Na2SO4 etc.
triacidic base by an acid radical are known as basic
salts. (B) Acidic salt solutions : Salt solutions of strong ac-
ids and weak bases are of acidic nature and have pH
These are usually formed when an insufficient amount less than 7. They change the colour of blue litmus
of acid is taken for the neutralisation of the base. For solution to red.
example, when insufficient amount of HCl is added to e.g. (NH4)2SO4, NH4Cl etc.
Lead hydroxide, Basic lead chloride [Pb(OH)Cl] is
In both these salts, the base NH4OH is weak while the
formed acids H2SO4 and HCl are strong.
Pb(OH)2 + HCl  Pb (OH)Cl + H2O (C) Basic salt solutions : Salt solutions of strong bases
Lead hydroxide Basic Lead chloride and weak acids are of basic nature and have pH more
(Diacidic base) (Basic salt) than 7. They change the colour of red litmus solution to
Basic salts, for example, Pb(OH)Cl further reacts with blue.
e.g. Na2CO3, K3PO4 etc.
HCl to form normal salts
In both the salts, bases NaOH and KOH are strong
Pb (OH) Cl + HCl  PbCl2 + H2O while the acids H2CO3 and H3PO4 are weak.
Basic Lead Chloride Lead chloride Some Important Chemical Compounds :
(Basic salts) (Normal salt)
Some other important examples of basic salts are :
Common name : Table Salt
(i) Basic copper chloride, Cu(OH)Cl. Chemical name : Sodium chloride
(ii) Basic copper nitrate, Cu(OH)NO3 Chemical formula : NaCl
(iii) Basic lead nitrate, Pb(OH)NO3 .
Sodium chloride (NaCl) also called common salt or
(D) Double Salts : The salts which are obtained by the table salt is the most essential part of our diet. Chemi-
crystallisation of two simple salts from a mixture of cally it is formed by the reaction between solutions of
their saturated solutions are known as double salts. sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid. Sea water is
For example, a double salt potash alum [K 2 SO 4 . the major source of sodium chloride where it is present
Al2 (SO 4 )3 . 24H 2 O] is prepared by mixing saturated in dissolved form along with other soluble salts such
solutions of two simple salts, K2SO4 and Al2(SO4)3 and as chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magne-
crystallization of the mixture. sium. It is separated by some suitable methods. De-
posits of the salts are found in different parts of the
Crystallisation world and is known as rock salt. W hen pure, it is a
K2SO4 + Al2(SO4)3+ 24H2O  K2SO4. Al2(SO4)3. 24 H2O
white crystalline solid, however, it is often brown due to
Potassium Potash alum the presence of impurities.
sulphate (Double salt)
Us es :
(i) Essential for life : Sodium chloride is quite essen-
Some other examples of double salts are :
tial for life. Biologically, it has a number of functions to
(i) Mohr’s Salt, FeSO4 .(NH4)2SO4. 6H2O,
perform such as in muscle contraction, in conduction
(ii) Dolomite, CaCO3. MgCO3, of nerve impulse in the nervous system and is also
(iii) Carnallite, KCl. MgCl2.6H2 O converted in hydrochloric acid which helps in the di-
(E) Mixed Salts : The salts which contain more than gestion of food in the stomach. When we sweat, there
one type of acidic or basic radicals are called mixed is loss of sodium chloride along with water. It leads to
salts. For example, Sodium potassium carbonate muscle cramps. Its loss has to be compensated suit-
(NaKCO3) is a mixed salt containing two basic radicals ably by giving certain salt preparations to the patient.
Electrol powder is an important substitute of common
sodium and potassium. Similarly, calcium oxy chloride,
salt.

PAGE # 104
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (ii) Raw material for chemicals : Sodium chloride is (b) Uses :
also a very useful raw material for different chemicals. (i) It is used as cleansing agent for domestic purposes.
A few out of these are hydrochloric acid (HCl), washing
soda (Na2CO 3.10H 2O), baking soda (NaHCO 3) etc. (ii) It is used in softening of hard water and controlling
Upon electrolysis of a solution of the common salt the pH of water.
(brine), sodium hydroxide, chlorine and hydrogen are (iii) It is used in the manufacture of glass.
obtained.
(iv) Due to its detergent properties, it is used as a con-
Electrolysis of aqueous solution of NaCl :
stituent of several dry soap powders.
Electrolysis
2NaCl(aq)    2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g)+ H2 (g) (v) It also finds use in photography, textile and paper
Reaction takes place as follows - industries etc.
• NaCl  Na+ + Cl–
(vi) It is used in the manufacture of borax (Na2B4O7. 10H2O).
• 2Cl–  Cl2 (g) + 2e– (anode reaction)
• 2H2O + 2e–  H2 + 2OH– (cathode reaction) BAKING SODA
• Na+ + OH–  NaOH
Baking soda is sodium hydrogen carbonate or sodium
(iii) In leather industries : It is used in leather industry bicarbonate (NaHCO 3).
for the leather tanning.
(a) Preparation :
(iv) In severe cold, rock salt is spread on icy roads to
It is obtained as an intermediate product in the prepa-
melt ice.
ration of sodium carbonate by Solvay process. In this
(v) It is also used as a fertilizer for sugar beet. process, a saturated solution of sodium chloride in
water is saturated with ammonia and then carbon di-
CAUSTIC SODA oxide gas is passed into the solution. Sodium chlo-
ride is converted into sodium bicarbonate which, be-
Chemical name : Sodium hydroxide ing less soluble, separates out from the solution.
Chemical formula : NaOH
2NH3 (g) + H2O () + CO2 (g)  (NH4)2CO3(aq)
Preparation : Sodium hydroxide is prepared by
(NH4)2CO3(aq)+2NaCl(aq) Na2CO3 (aq) + 2NH4Cl (aq)
electrolysing a concentrated solution of sodium chloride.
This process is done in Castner - Kellner cell. Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O () + CO2 (g)  2NaHCO3 (s)
+ –
2NaCl  2Na + 2Cl (b) Properties :
–
 Cl2 + 2e–
2Cl (i) It is a white, crystalline substance that forms an
–
2Na+ + 2Hg + 2e  2NaHg alkaline solution with water. The aqueous solution of
Sodium amalgam sodium bicarbonate does not change the colour of
2NaHg + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2 + 2Hg methyl orange but gives pink colour with
phenolphthalein.
Us es : (Phenolphthalein and methyl orange are dyes used
(i) It is used in soaps, detergents, paper and silk as acid-base indicators.)
industries. (ii) W hen heated above 543 K, it is converted into
(ii) It is used in refining of petroleum. sodium carbonate.
(iii) It is used as a laboratory reagent. 
2NaHCO3 (s)  Na2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O ()
(iv) It is used in dye industry.
(v) It is used in concentration of bauxite ore. (c) Uses :

(i) It is used in the manufacture of baking powder. Bak-

WASHING SODA ing powder is a mixture of potassium hydrogen
tartarate and sodium bicarbonate. During the prepa-
Chemical name : Sodium carbonate decahydrate
ration of bread the evolution of carbon dioxide causes
Chemical formula : Na2CO3.10H2O
bread to rise (swell).
Recrystallization of sodium carbonate :

Sodium carbonate is recrystallized by dissolving in

water to get washing soda.

(ii) It is largely used in the treatment of acid spillage

and in medicine as soda bicarb, which acts as an
antacid.

(iii) It is an important chemical in the textile, tanning,

paper and ceramic industries.

PAGE # 105
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (iv) It is also used in a particular type of fire extinguisher.
The following diagram shows a fire extinguisher that PLASTER OF PARIS
uses NaHCO 3 and H 2SO 4 to produce CO 2 gas. The
extinguisher consists of a conical metallic container (a) Preparation :
(A) with a nozzle (Z) at one end. A strong solution of It is prepared by heating gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) at about
NaHCO3 is kept in the container. A glass ampoule (P) 373 K in large steel pots with mechanical stirrer, or in
containing H2SO4 is attached to a knob (K) and placed a revolving furnace.
inside the NaHCO3 solution. The ampoule can be bro-
373 K
ken by hitting the knob. As soon as the acid comes in 2(CaSO 4.2H2O) (CaSO 4)2.H2O + 3H2O
contact with the NaHCO3 solution, CO2 gas is formed. Gypsum Plaster of Paris
When enough pressure is built up inside the container, 1
or CaSO4 .2H2O H O + 3 H2O
CaSO4.
CO2 gas rushes out through the nozzle (Z). Since CO2 2 2 2
does not support combustion, a small fire can be put The temperature is carefully controlled, as at higher
out by pointing the nozzle towards the fire. The gas is temperature gypsum is fully dehydrated. The proper-
produced according to the following reaction. ties of dehydrated gypsum are completely different from
2NaHCO3 (aq) + H2SO 4 (aq)  Na2SO 4 (aq) + those of Plaster of Paris.
CO 2H2O() + 2CO2(g)2 (b) Properties :
(Z) (i) Action with water : When it is dissolved in water, it gets
crystallized and forms gypsum.

NaHCO3 (c) Uses :

When finely powdered Plaster of Paris is mixed with
(A) water and made into a paste, it quickly sets into a hard
mass. In the process, its volume also increases
•
••• H2SO4 slightly. These properties find a number of uses. Addi-
(P) •••••••
•
•••••••• tion of water turns Plaster of Paris back into gypsum.
••
(i) It is used in the laboratories for sealing gaps where
air tight arrangement is required.
(ii) It is used for making toys, cosmetics and casts of
statues.
Knob (K)
(iii) It is used as a cast for setting broken bones.
(iv) It also finds use in making moulds in pottery.
Soda-Acid Fire Extinguisher (v) It is used for making surfaces smooth and for mak-
ing designs on walls and ceilings.
BLEACHING POWDER
HYDRATED SALTS - SALTS CONTAINING
Bleaching powder is commercially called ‘chloride of
WATER OF CRYSTALLISATION:
lime or ‘chlorinated lime’. It is principally calcium oxy-
chloride having the following formula : Certain salts contain definite amount of some water
molecules loosely attached to their own molecules.
These are known as hydrated salts and are of crystal-
line nature. The molecules of water present are known
Bleaching powder is prepared by passing chlorine over as ‘water of crystallisation’.
slaked lime at 313 K. In coloured crystalline and hydrated salts, the
313 K molecules of water of crystallisation also account for
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Cl2 (g) Ca(OCl)Cl (s) + H2 O (g)
Slaked lime Bleaching their characteristic colours. Thus, upon heating of hy-
powder drated salt, its colour changes since molecules of
Actually bleaching powder is not a compound but a water of crystallisation are removed and the salt be-
mixture of compounds : comes anhydrous.
CaOCl2.4H2O, CaCl2.Ca(OH)2.H 2O For example, take a few crystals of blue vitriol i.e. hy-
(a) Uses : drated copper sulphate in a dry test tube or boiling
tube. Heat the tube from below. The salt will change to
(i) It is commonly used as a bleaching agent in paper
a white anhydrous powder and water droplet will ap-
and textile industries.
pear on the walls of the tube. Cool the tube and add a
(ii) It is also used for disinfecting water to make it free few drops of water again. The white anhydrous pow-
from germs. der will again acquire blue colour.
(iii) It is used to prepare chloroform. CuSO4. 5H2O

 CuSO4 + 5H2O
(iv) It is also used to make wool shrink-proof. Copper sulphate Copper sulphate
(Hydrated) (Anhydrous)

PAGE # 106
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 10. pH of pure water is -
EXERCISE-1 (A) 0 (B) 1
(C) 7 (D) 14
PROPE RTIES OF ACIDS & BASES
11. pH of a 1 × 10 –8 M HCl solution is :
1. In the reaction HCO 3¯ + H 2O H3 O+ + CO 3 2– , (A) 6
(B) slightly more than 7
HCO3 is the conjugate acid of the base :
(C) 8
(A) H 3O+ (B) H 2CO 3 (D) slightly less than 7
(C) CO 3–2 (D) H 2O
12. pH of Blood is -
2. Which of the alkali hydroxides is most basic ? (A) 6.4 (B) 7.4
(A) KOH (B) NaOH (C) 4.7 (D) 6.4
(C) LiOH (D) CsOH
13. If pH of solution is 13, means that it is -
3. The order of decreasing basicity in the four halide ions (A) weakly acidic (B) weakly basic
is : (C) strongly acidic (D) strongly basic
(A) I– > Br– > CI– > F– (B) CI– > Br– > I– > F–
(C) F– > Cl– > Br– > I– (D) CI– > F– > Br– > I– 14. 10 mL of 0.1 N HCl is added to 990 mL solution of
NaCl. The pH of the resulting solution is-
4. Metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates react with (A) zero (B) 3
acids to give - (C) 7 (D) 10
(A) Carbon dioxide gas
(B) Hydrogen gas 15. The pH of 0.1M solution of the following increases in
(C) Sulphur dioxide gas the order of :
(D) Carbon monoxide gas. (A) NaCl < NH4Cl < NaCN < HCl
(B) HCl < NH4Cl < NaCl < NaCN
5. Most of the metals combine with dilute acids - (C) NaCN < NH4Cl < NaCl < HCl
(A) To produce carbon di oxide gas (D) HCl < NaCl < NaCN < NH4Cl
(B) To form a base.
(C) To liberate hydrogen gas by displacing hydrogen 16. Universal indicator is -
from the acids (A) the indicator that changes its colours at different
(D) To form acidic salt. iodide ion concentration.
(B) the indicator that shows different colours at
6. Alkali is a base that is - different hydrogen ion concentrations.
(A) soluble in alcohol. (C) is effective only at low hydrogen ion concentration.
(B) insoluble in alcohol. (D) gives same colour at different pH.
(C) soluble in water.
(D) insoluble in water. 17. The pH of a compound is found to be 9. The com-
pound can be -
7. When CO2 is passed through lime water, it turns milky. (A) HCl. (B) NaOH.
The milkiness is due to the formation of - (C) Na2CO3. (D) CH3COOH.
(A) CaCO3 (B) Ca(OH)2
(C) H2O (D) CO2 18. Fresh milk has a pH of 6. On changing into curd, its pH
becomes -
8. Which of the following is not a monobasic acid ? (A) more than 6. (B) less than 6.
(A) Hydroiodic acid (B) Hypochlorous acid (C) remains 6. (D) 7.
(C) Formic acid (D) Oxalic acid
19. The amount of energy released in neutralisation
I NDICAT OR S, N EU TR ALIS AT ION & p H reaction between strong acid and strong base is -
9. Behaviour of hydrogen gas towards litmus paper is - (A) 57.8 kJ/mol (B) 57.1 kJ/mol
(A) neutral behaviour (C) 57.9 kJ/mol (D) 56.1 kJ/mol
(B) turns red litmus to blue
20. pH of an aqueous solution is 5.5. The hydroxyl ion
(C) turns blue litmus to red
conc. in the solution would be -
(D) litmus paper starts burning
(A) –5.5 M (B) – 8.5 M
–8.5
(C) 10 M (D) 108.5 M

PAGE # 107
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
21. Which is an acidic indicator ? S A LT S
(A) phenolphthalein (B) methylorange 31. The raw materials required for the manufacture of
(C) A) & (B) both (D) none of these
NaHCO3 by Solvay process are -
22. W hich of the following aqueous solutions will have (A) CaCl2, (NH4)2 CO3, NH3
highest pH ? (B) NH4Cl, NaCl, Ca(OH)2
(A) Sodium acetate (C) NaCl, (NH4)2CO3, NH3
(B) Sodium chloride (D) NaCl, NH3, CaCO3, H2O
(C) Ammonium phosphate
32. The difference in number of water molecules in gyp-
(D) Calcium chloride
sum and plaster of paris is -
23. Which of the following has the highest pH ? (A) 5/2 (B) 2
(A) Distilled water (C) 1/2 (D) 3/2
(B) 1 M NH3
33. Which of the following is not a property of an acid ?
(C) 1 M NaOH
(A) Acids are sour in taste.
(D) Water saturated with chlorine
(B) Acids turn blue litmus red.
24. Ba(OH)2 is a strong base. The pH of its 0.005 solution (C) Acids don't react with active metals to give
would be - hydrogen.
(A) 11.31 (B) 11.7 (D) Acids show neutralization reaction with bases.
(C) 12 (D) None of these
34. W hich of the following salts when dissolved in
25. [OH–] in a solution is 1 mol L–1. The pH of the solution water would give acidic solutions (s) ?
is - (A) Na2SO 4 (B) (NH 4)2SO 4
(A) 1 (B) 0 (C) CH 3COONa (D) KCl
(C) 14 (D) 10–14
35. The chemical formula of 'Rock salt' is -
26. Match the approximate pH values given in column I [Raj NTSE Stage-I/07]
with appropriate solutions given in column II. (A) Na2CO3 (B) NaCl
(C) NaHCO3 (D) KCl
Column I Column I
A. 6.98 (p) 1M NaOH 36. The bleaching action of bleaching powder is due to
B.7.4 (q) 1M HCl [Raj NTSE Stage-I/07]
C.Zero (c) 1 × 10–8 HCl (A) Cl2 gas (B) nascent oxygen
D.14 (s) Blood (C) nascent chlorine (D) Cl–
(A) A-(s), B-(c), C-(p), D-(q)
(B) A-(c), B-(s), C-(q), D-(p) 37. On passing CO 2 in excess in aqueous solution of
(C) A-(q), B-(s), C-(c), D-(p) sodium carbonate the substance obtained is:
(D) A-(p), B-(q), C-(s), D-(c) [M.P. NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) NaOH (B) NaHCO3
27. pH of any neutral solution is – (C) Na2CO3.10H2O (D) Na2CO3.H2O
[Raj NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) 0 (B) 1
(C) 14 (D) 7 EXERCISE-2
28. The pH of a solution which turns red litmus blue will be –
NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS
[Raj NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) 1 (B) 9 1. The chemical composition of plaster of paris is :
(C) 4 (D) 5 [Karnataka NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) CaSO4 . 2H2O (B) CaSO4. H2O
29. The pH of 10–7 M HCl solution is -
(C) CaSO4. ½ H2O (D) CaSO4. 3H2O
[Haryana NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) 7 (B) Between 6 and 7 2. The pair of the solutions which have pH value less
(C) Between 5 and 6 (D) Between 7 and 8 than 7, is - [Karnataka NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) solution of washing soda and solution of vinegar
30. Nature of methyl orange indicator is - (B) solution of soap and solution of washing soda
(A) acidic (B) basic (C) solution of copper sulphate and solution of
(C) neutral (D) strong electrolyte washing soda
(D) solution of copper sulphate and vinegar

PAGE # 108
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
3. Salt made of non-metallic elements only is : 13. Electric current is passed through a concentrated
[Rajasthan NTSE Stage-I/14] aqueous solution of sodium chloride by means of a
(A) NaCl (B) NH4Cl battery. After disconnecting the circuit the solution thus
obtained is divided into two equal parts by volume. In
(C) AlN (D) MgCl2
one part phenolphthalein and in another part methyl
orange indicator was added. The colour of the
4. pH of soda water is : [Rajasthan NTSE Stage-I/14]
solutions will be respectively -
(A) 7 (B) < 7 [West Bengal_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(C) > 7 (D) 0 (A) Pink and Red
(B) Colourless and Yellow
5. Common name of Sodium Carbonate is- (C) Pink and Yellow
[Madhya Pradesh NTSE Stage-I/14] (D) Colourless and Red
(A) Baking Soda (B) Washing Soda
14. An acid, obtained by destructive distillation of wood ,
(C) Bleaching Powder (D) Quick Lime
which in turn give acetic acid is ............
[M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15]
6. Strength of caustic soda solution is 2g/litre, pH of this
(A) Oxalic acid (B) Pyroligneous acid
solution will be (log2 = 0.30)
(C) Chloro acetic acid (D) Citric acid
[Madhya Pradesh NTSE Stage-I/14]
(A) 11.9 (B) 9.7 15. Which of the following is a double salt ?
[West Bengal_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(C) 10.8 (D) 12.7
(A) Blue Vitriol
(B) Glauber’s salt
7. What is the Molecular formula of Gypsum ?
(C) Potash Alum
[Gujrat NTSE Stage-I/14]
(D) Potassium Ferrocyanide
(A) CaCO3 (B) CaSO4 • 2H2O
(C) CaO (D) Ca(OH)2 16. The reagent obtained by dissolving Copper sulphate
in aqueous solution of Citric acid and Sodium
8. The pH value of 100 litre aqueous solution containing carbonate is...................
4 gram NaOH is : [Haryana NTSE Stage-I/14] [M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) 3 (B) 9 (A) Bayer’s reagent (B) Tollen’s reagent
(C) 11 (D) 14 (C) Fehling reagent (D) Benedict reagent

17. When Sodium carbonate (Na2CO 3) reacts with Silica

9. About (i) CsOH, (ii) KOH, (iii) Be (OH) 2 the correct
(SiO2) gives.................[M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15]
statement is : [Haryana NTSE Stage-I/14]
(A) Soda Glass (B) Water glass
(A) All are bases
(C) Crook’s glass (D) Pyrex glass
(B) (ii) and (iii) are bases, (i) is acidic
(C) (i) is acidic, (ii) is basic , (iii) is amphoteric 18. In order to decrease the role of setting of Cement, which
compound is mixed in it ?
(D) (ii) and (iii) are basic, (i) is amphoteric
[M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) Ca(OH)2 (Slaked lime)
10. In which of the following AgCl is maximum soluble ?
(B) CaCO3 (Calcium Carbonate)
[Haryana NTSE Stage-I/14]
(C) CaSO4.2H2O (Gypsum)
(A) water (B) 0.1 M HCl (D) Al2O3 (Alumina)
(C) ammonia (D) 0.2 M AgNO3
19. Which one of the following is not base ?
[Delhi_NTSE Stage-I/15]
11. Sodium Bicarbonate on decomposition forms :
(A) B(OH)3 (B) KOH
[Maharashtra_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(C) Ca(OH)2 (D) NH4OH
(A) NaHCO3 (B) Na2CO3
(C) Na2CO3. H2O (D) Na2CO3. 10H2O 20. W hich of the following solution has the lowest pH
value ? [Delhi_NTSE Stage-I/15]
12. Salt of strong acid and weak base have pH value : (A) 0.1 Molar NaCl solution
[Maharashtra_NTSE Stage-I/15] (B) 0.01 Molar NaHCO3 solution
(A) Less than 7 (B) More than 7 (C) 0.001 Molar Na2CO3 solution
(D) 0.01 Molar NaOH solution
(C) Only 7 (D) Only 14

PAGE # 109
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
21. The nature of solution when sodium carbonate is 28. The correct order of acid strength Is:
dissolved in water will be [Gujrat NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) HCOOH>C6H5COOH>CH3COOH
[Rajasthan_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(B) C6HCOOH > HCOOH>CH3COOH
(A) acidic (B) basic (C) CH3COOH > HeOOH > C6H5COOH
(C) neutral (D) amphoteric (D) C6H5COOH > CH3COOH > HCOOH

22. Which of the following has the greatest concentration 29. The substance which is chemically resistant and can
of H+ – ion ? [Delhi_NTSE Stage-I/15]
hold aqua regia [Karnataka NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Ceramics (B) Glass
(A) 1 mol L–1 HCl solution
(C) Fibre (D) Thermosetting plastic
(B) 1 mol L–1 H3PO2 solution
(C) 1 mol L–1 H2SO4 solution 30. Identify the wrong statement
(D) 1 mol L–1 H2CO3 solution [Karnataka NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Higher the hydronium ion concentration lower is
23. pH of a solution is zero. The nature of this solution is the pH value
(B) Universal Indicator is used to judge how strong a
[Rajasthan_NTSE Stage-I/15]
given acid or base is
(A) acidic (B) basic (C) As the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it represents
(C) neutral (D) amphoteric increase in H+ ion concentration in the solution
(D) Values loss than 7 on the pH scale represent an
24. The difference in number of crystalline water molecules acidic solution
in a molecule of gypsum and a molecule of plaster of
Paris is [Rajasthan_NTSE Stage-I/15] 31. Skin becomes yellow in conc. HNO3 as
[Chandigarh NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
5 (A) HNO3 acts as an oxidizing agent
(A) (B) 2 (B) HNO2 acts as a dehydrating agent
2
(C) Nitro-cellulose is formed
1 3 (D) The proteins are converted into xantho proteins
(C) (D)
2 2
32. Match the items of column I with the items of column II
25. Match the following : [Delhi NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
[Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/15] Column – I (Polymers) Column – II
(a) formic acid (i) dehydrating agent a. aq. NaCl solution i. Acidic
(b) Nitric acid (ii) organic acid b. aq. Na2CO3 solution ii. Basic
c. aq. NH4Cl solution iii. Neutral
(c) Electrolyte (iii) Mineral acid
d. aq. CaO solution iv. Amphoteric
(d) Conc. H2SO4 (iv) Nacl (A) c-i, d-iii, b-ii, a-i (B) d-i, b-iv, a-iii c-iv
(A) (a) (ii), (b) (iii), (c) (iv), (d) (i) (C) a-iii, b-ii, c-i, d-iii (D) b-ii, a-iii, d-ii, c-i
(B) (a) (i), (b)(ii), (c) (iii), (d) (iv)
33. The pH of pure water at 25°C is 7. If water is heated
(C) (a) (iii), (b)(i), (c) (iv), (d) (ii)
to boil, then [Delhi NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(D) (a) (iv), (b)(iii), (c) (i), (d) (ii) (A) pH will decrease and water will become acidic
(B) pH will increase and water will become basic
26. A milkman added a small pinch of baking soda to (C) pH will decrease but water will remain natural
fresh milk which had pH close to 6. As a result, pH of (D) pH will remain 7
the medium [Jharkhand NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) became close to 2
(B) became close to 4 34. Which of the following is pH of basic solution ?
(C) did not undergo any change [Raj. NTSEStage-1/2016]
(D) became close to 8 (A) 7 (B) 4.2
(C) 6.9 (D) 10.2
27. Which of the following salts does not contain any
water of crystallisation ?
[Jharkhand NTSE Stage-1/ 2015] 35. Which reagent is able to dissolve gold and platinum ?
(A) blue vitriol (B) washing soda [Raj. NTSEStage-1/2016]
(C) baking Soda (D) gypsum
(A) Nitric acid (B) Aqua-regia
(C) Hydrochloric acid (D) Sulphuric acid.



PAGE # 110
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

INTRODUCTION

Organic compounds : The compounds like urea,

sugars, fats, oils, dyes, proteins vitamins etc., which
were isolated directly or indirectly from living
organisms such as animals and plants were called
organic compounds.The branch of chemistry which
deals with the study of these compounds is called According to Lewis notation, the electrons in the
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. valence shell are represented by dots and crosses.
This method was proposed by G.N. Lewis and is
known as Lewis representation or Lewis structure.
BONDING IN CARBON-THE COVALENT BOND
The shared pair of electron (shown x/•) is said to
constitute a single bond between the two hydrogen
Most carbon compounds are poor conductors of
atoms and is represented by a line between the two
electricity. The boiling and melting points of the carbon
atoms. Pictorially, the molecule can be represented
compounds are low. Forces of attraction between
by drawing two overlapping circles around the
these molecules of organic compounds are not very
symbols of the atoms and showing the shared pair
strong. As these compound are largely non conductors of electrons in the overlapping part.
of electricity hence the bonding in these compound
does not give rise to any ions. (ii) Chlorine molecule : Each chlorine atom has seven
The reactivity of elements is explained as their electrons in its outermost shell. W hen the two
chlorine atoms come close together, an electron of
tendency to attain a completely filled outer shell, that
both the atoms is shared between them.
is, attain noble gas configuration. Element forming
ionic compounds achieve this by either gaining or
losing electrons from the outermost shell. In the case
of carbon, it has four electrons in its outermost shell
and needs to gain or lose four electrons to attain
noble gas configuration. If it were to gain or lose
electrons -
(iii) Hydrogen chloride molecule : It may be noted
(i) it could gain four electrons forming C4– anion. But it
that a covalent bond is not only formed between two
would be difficult for the nucleus with six protons to
similar atoms, but it may be formed between
hold onto ten electrons, that is, four extra electrons.
dissimilar atoms also. For example, hydrogen and
(ii) it could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But chlorine form a covalent bond between their atoms.
it would require a large amount of energy to remove In HCl, hydrogen atom (1) has only one electron in its
four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with six valence shell and chlorine atom (2,8,7) has seven
protons in its nucleus holding onto just two electrons. electrons in its valence shell. Therefore, by mutual
sharing of electron pair between a hydrogen and a
Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its chlorine atom, both the atoms acquire nearest noble
valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with gas configuration.
atoms of other elements.The shared electrons belong
to the outer shell of both the atoms and lead to both
atoms attaining the noble gas configuration.

(a) Some Simple Molecules Formed by the

Sharing of Valence Electrons are as Follows :

(i) Hydrogen molecule : This is the simplest molecule

formed by sharing of electrons. The atomic number
of hydrogen is 1 and it has only one electron in its
outermost K shell. It requires only one more electron
to complete the K shell. So, when two hydrogen atoms
approach each other, the single electron of both the
atoms form a shared pair.
This may be represented as :
(iv) Formation of water molecule (H 2O) : Each
hydrogen atom has only one electron in its outermost
shell. Therefore, each hydrogen atom requires one
more electron to achieve the stable configuration of
helium (nearest noble gas). The oxygen atom has
the electronic configuration 2,6 and has six electrons
in its outermost shell. It needs two electrons to
complete its octet.

PAGE # 111
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Therefore, one atom of oxygen shares its electrons
with two hydrogen atoms.
(v) Formation of methane molecule (CH4) : Methane
(CH 4) is a covalent compound containing covalent
bonds. Carbon atom has atomic number 6. Its
electronic configuration is 2,4. It has four electrons in
its valence shell and needs 4 more electrons to get
the stable noble gas configuration. Each hydrogen
atom has one electron and needs one more electron
to get stable electronic configuration of nearest noble
gas, helium. Therefore, one atom of carbon shares its
four electrons with four atoms of hydrogen to form four
covalent bonds.
(b) Different Kinds of Covalent Bonds :
Electron pair shared between two atoms results in the
formation of a covalent bond. This shared pair is also
called bonding pair of electron.
• If two atoms share one electron pair, bond is known
as single covalent bond and is represented by one
dash (–).
• If two atoms share two electron pairs, bond is known
as double covalent bond and is represented by two
dashes (=).
• If two atoms share three electron pairs, bond is known
as triple covalent bond and is represented by three
dashes ().
(i) Formation of double bond (oxygen molecule) :
Two oxygen atoms combine to form oxygen molecule
by sharing two electron pairs. Each oxygen atom (2,6)
has six electrons in the valence shell. It requires two
electrons to acquire nearest noble gas configuration.
Therefore, both the atoms contribute two electrons each
for sharing to form oxygen molecule. In the molecule,
two electron pairs are shared and hence there is a
double bond between the oxygen atoms.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(ii) Formation of triple bond (Nitrogen molecule) :
Nitrogen atom has five electrons in its valence shell. In
the formation of a nitrogen molecule, each of the
nitrogen atoms provide three electrons to form three
electron pairs for sharing. Thus, a triple bond is formed
between two nitrogen atoms.
(c ) Char ac te ri st ic P rope rt ie s of Cov al ent
Comp ound s :
The important characteristic properties of covalent
compounds are :
(i) Covalent compounds consist of molecules : The
covalent compounds consist of molecules. They do
not have ions. For example - water, hydrogen chloride,
methane consist of H 2O, HCl, CH 4 molecules
respectively.
(ii) Physical state : Weak Vanderwaal’s forces are
present between the molecules of covalent compounds.
So, covalent compounds are in solid, gaseous or liquid
state at normal temperature and pressure.
For example : Hydrogen chloride , methane are gases
while carbon tetrachloride, ethyl alcohol, ether etc. are
liquids. Glucose, sugar, urea etc. are some solid
covalent compounds.
(iii) Crystal structure - Covalent compounds exhibit
both crystalline and non crystalline structure.
(iv) Melting point and boiling point : Energy required to
break the crystal is less due to the presence of weak
Vanderwaal’s force, so their melting and boiling points
are less.
(v) Electrical conductivity - Covalent compounds are
bad conductors of electricity due to the absence of free
electrons or free ions.
(vi) Solubility : Due to the non - polar nature of covalent
compounds they are soluble in non - polar solvents
like benzene, carbon tetrachloride etc. and insoluble
in polar solvents like water etc.
ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF CARBON
Allotropy is the property by virtue of which an element
exists in more than one form and each form has
different physical properties but identical chemical
properties. These different forms are called allotropes.
Carbon exists in two different allotropic forms :
(i) Crystalline form.
Examples : diamond, graphite and fullerene.
(ii) Non - crystalline or Amorphous form.
Examples : coal, lampblack and charcoal.
PAGE # 112
 Various allotropic forms of carbon are
There are three crystalline allotropes of carbon. These
are diamond, graphite and fullerene. Diamond and
graphite are familiar allotropes of carbon but fullerene
is a recently (1985) discovered allotrope of carbon.
Each one of diamond, graphite and fullerene is
composed of carbon atoms. But the C atoms are
arranged in different ways in each allotrope of carbon.
Therefore, the three allotropes of carbon have different
crystal structures.
(a) Diamond :
Diamond is a beautiful crystalline allotrope of carbon.
Its atomic symbol is C. The name ‘diamond’ has been
taken from Greek words diaphanes (which means
transparent) and adamas (which means indomitable
or invincible) with reference to its extreme hardness.
(i) Structure of Diamond :
In a crystal of diamond, each carbon atom is bonded
very strongly to four other carbon atoms in tetrahedron
manner. The valency of each carbon atom is completely
satisfied in diamond and there is no free electron. This
arrangement of C-atoms makes diamond very hard,
unreactive and bad conductor of electricity. The given
figure depicts a portion of the diamond crystal. Smaller
circles are representing C-atoms.
(ii) Properties of Diamond :
(A) Diamond is a transparent and colourless solid.
(B) Suitably cut and polished diamond sparkles brightly
because it reflects most of the light (Refractive index of
diamond is 2.45).
3
(C) The density of diamond is 3.51 g per cm at 20°C.
(D) Diamond is the hardest natural substance known.
Only a diamond can cut another diamond.
(E) It is a bad conductor of electricity.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(F) Diamonds are not attacked by acids, alkalis and
solvents like water, ether, benzene or carbon
tetrachloride. But diamond is attacked by fluorine when
heated to 750°C. The reaction results in the formation
of carbon tetrafluoride.
C (diamond) + 2F2  750 C CF4

Carbon Fluorine Carbon tetrafluoride
(iii) Uses of Diamond :
(A) They are used in jewellery because of their ability
to reflect and refract light.
(B) Diamonds are used in cutting glass and drilling
rocks.
(C) Diamond has an extraordinary sensitivity to heat
rays and due to this reason, it is used for making high
precision thermometers.
(D) Diamond has the ability to cut out harmful radiations
and due to this reason it is used for making protective
windows for space probes.
(E) Diamond dies are used for drawing thin wires. Very
thin tungsten wires of diameter less than one-sixth of
the diameter of human hair have been drawn using
diamond dies.
(F) Surgeons use diamond knives for performing
delicate operations.
(b) Graphite :
Graphite is an allotrope of carbon. Its atomic symbol is
C. The name ‘graphite’ has been taken from the Greek
word “graphein” (which means to write) in reference to
its use as ‘lead’ in pencils.
(i) Structure of Graphite :
In a crystal of graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged
in hexagonal patterns in parallel planes. In a layer of
graphite, each carbon atom is strongly bonded to three
carbon atoms by covalent bonds. Thus, one valence
electron of each carbon atom is free in every layer of
graphite crystal. The free electron makes graphite a
good conductor of electricity. Any two adjacent layers in
graphite are bonded by comparatively weak forces
(shown by dotted lines) which makes graphite soft and
slippery. Fig. shows a portion of graphite crystal.
PAGE # 113
 (ii) Properties of Graphite (B) It is used as dry lubricant for heavy machinery.
Graphite is an opaque and dark grey solid. It is soft
(C) It is used in making crucibles for melting
and has a soapy touch. It leaves marks on paper.
substances.
Graphite is not attacked by acid, alkali, water or alcohol.
It has shine like metals (but graphite is a nonmetal). (D) It is used as an electrode in batteries and electric
Graphite melts at a very high temperature of 3730°C. furnaces.
3
The density of graphite is 2.26 g per cm at 20°C.
(E) It is used in nuclear reactors as moderator to
Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
regulate nuclear reactions.
(iii) Uses of graphite :
(F) It is also used in making artificial diamonds .
(A) It is used for making pencil lead, printer’s ink, black
paint etc.
COMPARISON OF DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE

Properties Diamond Graphite

Transparent and colourless Dark grey and opaque
1. Appearance when pure

2. Crystal form Tetrahedral giant structure Hexagonal plates

Hardest natural substance Soft and slippery
3. Hardness known
Does not mark paper Leaves impression
4. Impression
on paper
5. Conductivity
(a) Electrical Bad conductor Good conductor
(b) Thermal Good conductor Good conductor
3 3
6. Density at 20 °C 3.51 g per cm 2.26 g per cm

7. Melting point About 3550 °C About 3730 °C

Burns in air at above 900 °C Burns in air at about

8. Combustion and gives CO2 700 °C and gives CO2

(c) Fullerene :
form of carbon since they do not have any free valencies
Fullerenes represent the recently prepared allotropic or surface bonds to attract other atoms. However, such
form of carbon. These were formed for the first time by free valencies are present on the surface of diamond
H.W. Kroto, Smalley and Robert Curt by the action of and graphite and these are therefore, not as pure as
laser beam on a sample of graphite in the vapour state. fullerenes.
They were awarded Noble prize for the same in 1996.
Later on, these were prepared by heating graphite by
striking an electric arc in the presence of inert gas
such as helium or argon. Fullerenes have also been
found to be present in the chimney where soot gets
deposited and in candle flame.
Chemically, fullerenes are formed by the combination
of a large number of carbon atoms (Cn). Most commonly
known fullerene contains sixty carbon atoms (C60) with
smaller proportion of C 70 allotrope and traces of
compounds containing even upto 370 carbon atoms.
C60 and C 70 fullerenes have been isolated from the
Shape of C60 fullerene
soot by extracting with toluene in which they dissolve
to form purple and orange-red coloured compounds. (i) Formula of fullerene
From the extract, the individual fullerenes can be The formula of popular form of fullerene is C60· That is,
isolated with the help of adsorption chromatography a molecule of fullerene is composed of 60 carbon
carried on the surface of alumina (Al2O3). atoms.
Out of the different fullerenes that are known, only the
structure of C 60 has been established. This is often (ii) Uses of Fullerene
called Buckminster Fullerene after the architect (A) Fullerenes in pure state act as insulators but can
Buckminster Fuller, the inventor of the Geodesic dome, be converted to semiconductors and super conductors
which resembles the molecular structure of C 60. Its under suitable conditions.
shape resembles that of a soccer ball with six (B) Buckyball’s ability of fullerenes to trap different
membered as well as five membered rings as shown atoms or molecules makes them useful in the medical
in the figure. There are twelve five membered and field. For example, radioactive C60 can be used in cancer
twenty six membered rings. These are often called
as well as AIDS therapy.
Bucky Balls. Fullerenes represent the purest allotropic
(C) Fullerenes help in improving antiwear and
antifriction properties of lubricating oils.

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 COMPARISON OF GRAPHITE AND FULLERENE

Graphite
1. Graphite has extended crystal structure
in which C-atoms are bonded in hexagonal
layers. These layers are held by weak van
der waal forces.
2. Graphite is good conductor of electricity.
3. An impression is created on paper by
graphite.
Fullerene
Fullerene is a spherical molecule like a
cage in which the C atoms are arranged
in mixed hexagons and pentagons. In
solid state these molecules are attached
to each other by weak van der waal forces.
Crystalline fullerene has semiconducting
properties. Compounds of fullerene with alkali
metals are called fullerides and they are
superconductors.
Fullerene doesn't leave any impression on
paper.

VITAL FORCE THEORY OR VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

BERZELIUS HYPOTHESIS
Organic compounds cannot be synthesized in the About 3 million organic compounds are known today.
laboratory because they require the presence of a The main reasons for this huge number of organic
mysterious force (called vital force) which exists only compounds are -
in living organisms.
(i) Catenation : The property of self linking of carbon
atoms through covalent bonds to form long straight or
WOHLER’S SYNTHESIS branched chains and rings of different sizes is called
catenation. Carbon shows maximum catenation in the
In 1828, Friedrich W ohler synthesized urea (a well
periodic table due to its small size, electronic
known organic compound) in the laboratory by heating
configuration and unique strength of carbon-carbon
ammonium cyanate.
bonds.
(NH4)2 SO 4 + 2 KCNO 2NH 4CNO + K 2SO 4
Ammonium Potassium Ammonium Potassium
(ii) Tetravalency of carbon : Carbon belongs to group
sulphate cyanate cyanate sulphate 14 of the periodic table. Since the atomic number of
carbon is 6, the electronic configuration of carbon atom
is 2,4. It has four electrons in the outermost shell.
Therefore, its valency is four. Thus, carbon forms four
covalent bonds in its compounds. A methane molecule
 Note : (CH 4) is formed when four electrons of carbon are
Urea is the first organic compound synthesized in the shared with four hydrogen atoms as shown below.
laboratory.

MODERN DEFINITION OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic compounds may be defined as hydrocarbons
and their derivatives and the branch of chemistry which
deals with the study of hydrocarbons and their (iii) Tendency to form multiple bonds : Due to small
derivatives is called ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. size of carbon it has a strong tendency to form multiple
bonds (double & triple bonds) by sharing more than
Organic chemistry is treated as a separate branch
one electron pair. As a result, it can form a variety of
because of following reasons-
compounds. For example -
(i) Organic compounds are large in number.
(ii) Organic compounds generally contain covalent
bond.
(iii) Organic compounds are soluble in non polar solvents. ,
(iv) Organic compounds have low melting and boiling
points.
(v) Organic compounds show isomerism .
(vi) Organic compounds exhibit homology.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
or Cyclobutane
The organic compounds are very large in number on
account of the self -linking property of carbon called
catenation. These compounds have been further
classified as open chain and cyclic compounds.
or Cyclopentane
Organic compounds

Open chain Closed chain

compounds compounds

Alicyclic Aromatic
compounds compounds or Cyclohexane

(a) Open Chain Compounds :

These compounds contain an open chain of carbon
atoms which may be either straight chain or branched
chain in nature. Apart from that, they may also be
saturated or unsaturated based upon the nature of
bonding in the carbon atoms. For example.
(ii) Aromatic compounds : Organic compounds which
contain one or more fused or isolated benzene rings
are called aromatic compounds.

e.g.
, ,

Benzene Toluene Ethyl benzene

Phenol Aniline
 Note :
Benzene is the parent compound of majority of aromatic
organic compounds.

n-Butane is a straight chain alkane
2-Methylpropane is branched alkane.
(b) Closed Chain or Cyclic Compounds :
Apart from the open chains, the organic compounds
can have cyclic or ring structures. A minimum of three
atoms are needed to form a ring. These compounds
have been further classified into following types.
(i) Alicyclic compounds : Those carbocyclic
compounds which resemble to aliphatic compounds
in their properties are called alicyclic compounds .
e.g. or
HYDROCARBONS
The organic compounds containing only carbon and
hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. These are the
while simplest organic compounds and are regarded as
parent organic compounds. All other compounds are
considered to be derived from them by the replacement
of one or more hydrogen atoms by other atoms or
groups of atoms. The major source of hydrocarbons
is petroleum.
Types of Hydrocarbons :
The hydrocarbons can be classified as :
(i) Saturated hydrocarbons :
(A) Alkanes : Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons
containing only carbon - carbon and carbon - hydrogen
single covalent bonds.
Cyclopropane
General formula- CnH2n + 2(n is the number of carbon atoms)
e.g. CH4 ( Methane)
C2H6 (Ethane)

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 (ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons :
(A) Word roots for carbon chain lengths :
(A) Alkenes : These are unsaturated hydrocarbons
which contain carbon - carbon double bond. They Chain Word Chain Word
contain two hydrogen less than the corresponding length root length root
alkanes.
C1 Meth- C6 Hex-
General formula - C nH 2n C2 Eth - C7 Hept-
e.g. C 2H 4 (Ethene) C3 Prop - C8 Oct-
C 3H 6 (Propene) C4 But - C9 Non-
C5 Pent- C10 Dec-
(B) Alkynes : They are also unsaturated hydrocarbons
which contain carbon-carbon triple bond. They contain
(B) Primary suffix :
four hydrogen atoms less than the corresponding
alkanes.
General formula - C nH 2n–2
e.g. C 2H 2 (Ethyne)
C 3H 4 (Propyne)

NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Nomenclature means the assignment of names to

organic compounds . There are two main systems of
nomenclature of organic compounds - Examples :
(1) Trivial system
(2) IUPAC system (International Union of Pure and a
Applied Chemistry) M
Eth - E
( a) B as ic rul es of IU PAC nome nclature of P
orga nic compound s : B
E
For naming simple aliphatic compounds, the normal Propene
saturated hydrocarbons have been considered as the
parent compounds and the other compounds as their  Note :
derivatives obtained by the replacement of one or more The name of the compound, in general , is written in
hydrogen atoms with various functional groups. the following sequence-
Each systematic name has the following parts : (Position of substituents )-(prefixes ) (word root)-(p -
suffix).
(i) Prefix : Prefix is a part of the IUPAC name which
appears in the beginning. It denotes the substituent (iii) Names of branched chain hydrocarbon : The carbon
group if present in the organic compond. atoms in branched chain hydrocarbons are present as
side chain . These side chain carbon atoms constitute
(ii) Word root : The basic unit is a series of word root the alkyl group or alkyl radicals. An alkyl group is obtained
which indicate the number of carbon atoms present in from an alkane by removal of a hydrogen.
parent chain. General formula of alkyl group = CnH2n+1
An alkyl group is represented by R.
(iii) Primary suffix : Primary suffixes are added to the e.g.
word root to show saturation or unsaturation in a carbon
chain. H
(iv) Secondary suffix : Suffixes added after the primary –H
(A) H C
suffix to indicate the presence of a particular functional
H
group in the carbon chain are known as secondary Methyl
suffixes.

(ii) Names of straight chain hydrocarbons : The name H H

of straight chain hydrocarbon may be divided into two –H
(B) H C C
parts-
(A) Word root (B) Primary suffix H H
Ethyl

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 e.g.

2–Methylbutane 3–Methylbutane
(Correct) (Wrong)

(C) e.g.

2–Methylpentane 4–Methylpentane
(Correct) (W rong)

e.g.

A branched chain hydrocarbon is named using the

following general IUPAC rules :
3–Methylbut–1– ene 2–Methylbut – 3 – ene
Rule1: Longest chain rule : Select the longest possible (Correct) (W rong)
continuous chain of carbon atoms. If some multiple
bond is present , the chain selected must contain the
multiple bond. CH3 CH3
4 3
| 2 1 1 2
| 3 4
e.g.
(i) The number of carbon atoms in the selected chain 2-Methylbut-3-yne
3-Methylbut-1-yne
determines the word root . (Correct) (Wrong)
(ii) Saturation or unsaturation determines the primary
suffix (P. suffix). Rule 3 : Use of prefixes di, tri etc. : If the compound contains
(iii) Alkyl substituents are indicated by prefixes. more than one similar alkyl groups,their positions are
Prefix : Methyl indicated separately and an appropriate numerical
e.g. CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH2 – CH3
Word root : pent-
P. Suffix: - ane prefix di, tri etc. , is attached to the name of the
CH3 substituents. The positions of the substituents are
separated by commas.
e.g. CH3 – CH – CH2 – CH – CH3 Prefix : Methyl
CH3
Word root : Hept-
CH3 CH2 – CH2 – CH3 5 4 3 2 1
P. Suffix : -ane e.g. CH3 – CH2– C – CH – CH3

CH3 CH3
e.g. CH3 – CH2 – C – CH3 Prefix : Methyl 2,3 - Dimethylpentane 2,3,3 - Trimethylpentane
Word root : But-
CH2 P. Suffix : –ene

e.g.
e.g. CH3 – CH 2– CH – CH2– CH 3 Prefixes : Ethyl, Methyl
Word root : Pent-
P. Suffix : -ane
CH – CH3
2,3,5 -Trimethylhexane 2,2,4 - Trimethylpentane
CH3
Rule 4 : Alphabetical arrangement of prefixes: If there
Rule 2 : Lowest number rule: The chain selected is
are different alkyl substituents present in the
numbered in terms of arabic numerals and the position
compound their names are written in the alphabetical
of the alkyl groups are indicated by the number of the
carbon atom to which alkyl group is attached . order. However, the numerical prefixes such as di, tri
etc. , are not considered for the alphabetical order.
(i) The numbering is done in such a way that the
substituent carbon atom has the lowest possible
number.
e.g.
(ii) If some multiple bond is present in the chain, the
carbon atoms involved in the multiple bond should get
lowest possible numbers. 3-Ethyl - 2,3-dimethylpentane

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Rule 5 : Naming of different alkyl substituents at the
equivalent positions :
(iii)
Numbering of the chain is done in such a way that the
alkyl group which comes first in alphabetical order gets
the lower position.
Word root : Hex -
P. Suffix : - yne
Substituent : one methyl group
e.g.
IUPAC name : 4 - Methylhex - 2 - yne
3-Ethyl-4-methylhexane
Rule - 6 : Lowest sum rule FUNCTIONAL GROUP
According to this rule numbering of chain is done in
such a way that the sum of positions of different An atom or group of atoms in an organic compound or
substituents gets lower value. molecule that is responsible for the compound’s
e.g. characterisltic reactions and determines its properties
is known as functional group. An organic compound
generally consists of two parts -
(i) (i) Hydrocarbon radical (ii) Functional group

e.g.

Hydrocarbon radical Functional group

• Functional group is the most reactive part of the
molecule.
• Functional group mainly determines the chemical
properties of an organic compound.
• Hydrocarbon radical mainly determines the physical
properties of the organic compound.

(a) Main Functional Groups :

Word root : Hex -
Primary suffix : - ane (i) Hydroxyl group (– OH) : All organic compounds
Substituent : two methyl & one ethyl groups containing - OH group are known as alcohols .
IUPAC name : 4-Ethyl - 2, 4 - dimethylhexane e.g. Methanol (CH3OH) , Ethanol (CH3 – CH2 – OH) etc .
Some other example :
(ii) Aldehyde group (–CHO) : All organic compounds
containing –CHO group are known as aldehydes.
e.g. Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH3CHO) etc.
(i)
(iii) Ketone group (–CO–) : All organic compounds
containing –CO– group are known as ketones.
Word root : Prop - e.g. Propanone (CH 3 COCH 3), Butanone
P. Suffix : -ane (CH3COCH2CH3) etc.
Substituent : two methyl groups
(iv) Carboxyl group ( – COOH) : All organic compounds
IUPAC name : 2, 2 - Dimethylpropane
containing carboxyl group are called carboxylic acids.
e.g. CH3COOH (Ethanoic acid)
(ii) CH 3CH 2COOH(Propanoic acid)

(v) Halogen group (X = F, Cl, Br, I) : All organic

compounds containing –X (F, Cl, Br or I) group are
Word root : But - known as halides.
P. Suffix : - ene e.g. Chloromethane (CH3Cl), Bromomethane (CH3Br)
Substituent : two methyl groups etc .
IUPAC name : 2, 3 - Dimethylbut - 1 - ene

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 (b) Nomenclature of Compounds Containing only one Functional Group :

In case functional group (other than C = C and C  C) is present, it is indicated by adding secondary suffix after the
primary suffix. The terminal ‘e’ of the primary suffix is removed if it is followed by a suffix beginning with ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘i’, ‘o’,
‘u’. Some groups like–F, – Cl,O– Br and –  are considered as substituents and are indicated by the prefixes.

Some groups like – CHO, – C – , – COOH, and – OH are considered as functional groups and are indicated by
suffixes.

Functional General
Class Group Formula Prefix Suffix IUPAC Name

Carboxylic
Carboxy - oic acid Alkanoic acid
acid
(R = CnH2n+1)

Ester Carbalkoxy alkyl (R’) - oate Alkyl alkanoate

Formyl
Aldehyde – CHO R – CHO - al Alkanal
or oxo

Ketone oxo - one Alkanone

Alcohol – OH R – OH Hydroxy - ol Alkanol

Alkenes C=C CnH2n – - ene Alkene

Alkynes C C CnH2n–2 – - yne Alkyne

–X
Halides R–X Halo – Haloalkane
(X = F,Cl,Br,I)

Steps of naming of an organic compound Step 4 :

containing functional group :
Step 1:
Select the longest continuous chain of the carbon
atoms as parent chain. The selected chain must
include the carbon atoms involved in the functional
groups like – COOH, – CHO, – CN etc, or those which
The carbon atoms of the parent chain are numbered
in such a way so that the carbon atom of the functional
group gets the lowest possible number . In case the
functional group does not have the carbon atom, then
the carbon atom of the parent chain attached to the
functional group should get the lowest possible
number.

carry the functional groups like – OH, – NH2,– Cl, – NO2

Step 5 :
etc.
The name of the compound is written as -

Prefixes - word root - primary suffix - secondary suffix

Step 2 :
 Note :
The presence of carbon - carbon multiple bond decides

the primary suffix. The number of carbon atoms in the parent chain

decides the word root.

Step 3 :
The secondary suffix is decided by the functional group.

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 S.No. Compound Common name Derived name IUPAC Name Structure

Methyl alcohol
1 CH3 – OH Carbinol Methanol
or Wood spirit

2 CH3 – CH2 – OH Ethyl alcohol Methyl carbinol Ethanol

3 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – OH n-Propyl alcohol Ethyl carbinol 1- Propanol

H H
4 Isopropyl alcohol Dimethyl carbinol 2 - Propanol H – C – C – O – H
H C H3

5 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – OH n-Butyl alcohol n-Propyl carbinol 1- Butanol

6 HCOOH Formic acid – Methanoic acid

7 CH3COOH Acetic acid – Ethanoic acid

methyl acetic
8 CH3 – CH2 – COOH Propionic acid Propanoic acid
acid

ethyl acetic
9 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – COOH Butyric acid Butanoic acid
acid

O
n-Propyl acetic
10 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – COOH Valeric acid Pentanoic acid
acid

Some more examples : (iii) CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – NH2

Word root : Prop -
Primary suffix : - ane
Secondary suffix : - amine
(i) IUPAC name : Propan - 1 - amine
Word root : Hept-
Primary suffix : – ane (iv)
Functional group : – OH
Word root : Prop-
Secondary suffix : – ol
Primary suffix : - ane
IUPAC Name : 2, 5-Dimethylheptan–1– ol Substituent : nitro(prefix)
IUPAC name : 1 - Nitropropane

(ii)
(v)
Word root : Pent -
Primary suffix : – ene
Secondary suffix : – oic acid Word root : But -
Position of double bond : 2nd position Primary suffix : – ane
IUPAC name : Pent-2-en-1-oic acid/Pent-2-enoic acid Prefix : – chloro
IUPAC name : 2 - Chlorobutane

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(vi)

W hen an organic compound contains two or more

Word root : But - different functional groups, then one out of these is
Primary suffix : – ane selected as principal functional group while the others
Secondary suffix : – one are called secondary functional groups and are treated
Prefix : Methyl as substituents. The choice of the principal functional
group is made on the basis of the following order of
IUPAC name : 3 - Methylbutan - 2- one
preferences.

Priority order of functional groups :

Functional General
Class Prefix Suffix IUPAC Name
Group Formula

Carboxylic
Carboxy - oic acid Alkanoic acid
acid
(R = CnH2n+1)

Acid
– - oic anhydride Alkanoic anhydride
Anhydride

Ester Carbalkoxy alkyl (R’) - oate Alkyl alkanoate

(R  R ' )

Acid halide Haloformyl - oyl halide Alkanoyl halide

O
||
Amides R – C – NH2 Carbamoyl - amide Alkanamide

Cyanides – CN R – CN Cyano - nitrile Alkane nitrile

Formyl
Aldehyde – CHO R – CHO - al Alkanal
or oxo

R– C – R'
Ketone oxo - one Alkanone
O

Alcohol – OH R – OH Hydroxy - ol Alkanol

Amines – NH2 R – NH2 Amino - amine Alkanamine

Alkenes C=C CnH2n – - ene Alkene

Alkynes C C CnH2n–2 – - yne Alkyne

–X
Halides R–X Halo – Haloalkane
(X = F,Cl,Br,I)

Nitro – NO2 R – NO2 Nitro – Nitro alkane

R – O – R'
Ether –O–R Alkoxy – Alkoxy alkane

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 In writing the IUPAC name of a poly functional group (b) Homologues :
compound, the functional group with the maximum
The different members of a homologous series are
perference (principal functional group) is represented
known as homologues.
by the secondary suffix which is added to the word root
along with the primary suffix. All other secondary e.g.
functional groups, if present, are indicated by suitalble (i) Homologous series of alkanes
prefixes which are added to the root word. General formula : CnH2n+2
Thus, a functional group can act either as a secondary
suffix or a prefix depending upon its priority in the priority Value of n Molecular formula IUPAC name
sequence. A functional group, in fact, has two names : n=1 CH 4 Methane
one while acting as secondary suffix and the other n=2 C 2H 6 Ethane
while acting as a prefix. n=3 C 3H 8 Propane
for e.g.
(ii) Homologous series of alkenes
General formula :C nH2n

Value of n Molecular IUPAC Common

formula name name
n=2 C 2H 4 Ethene Ethylene
n=3 C 3H 6 Propene Propylene
n=4 C 4H 8 But-1-ene  - Butylene

(iii) Homologous series of alkynes

General formula : CnH2n–2

Value of n Molecular IUPAC Common

formula name name
n=2 C 2H 2 Ethyne Acetylene
n=3 C 3H 4 Propyne Methyl acetylene
n=4 C 4H 6 But -1-yne Ethyl acetylene

ISOMERISM

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES Such compounds which have same molecular formula

Homologous series may be defined as a series of similarly but different physical and chemical properties are
constituted compounds in which the members possess known as isomers and the phenomenon is known as
similar chemical characteristics and the two consecutive isomerism.
members differ in their molecular formula by – CH2.

(a) Characteristics of Homologous Series :

(i) All the members of a series can be represented by

the same general formula.
e.g. General formula for alkane series is CnH2n+2 .
(ii) Any two consecutive members differ in their formula
(a) Chain Isomerism :
by a common difference of – CH2 and differ in molecular
mass by 14. The isomerism in which the isomers differ from each
other due to the presence of different carbon chain
(iii) Different members in a series have a common
skeletons is known as chain isomerism.
functional group.
e.g.
e.g. All the members of alcohol family have –OH group .
(iv) The members in any particular family have almost (i) C4H10
identical chemical properties. Their physical properties
such as melting point, boiling point, density etc, show
,
a regular gradation with the increase in the molecular
mass.
(v) The members of a particular series can be prepared 2 - Methylpropane
almost by the identical methods.
(Isobutane)

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 (ii) C5H12
ALKANES

Alkanes are aliphatic hydrocarbons having only

2 - Methylbutane C – C single covalent bonds. These are also known

(Isopentane) as saturated hydrocarbon as they contain single bond
only. These compounds are open chain compounds
which are also addressed as Acyclic compounds.
Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2 .The carbon
atoms in alkanes are in a state of sp3 hybridization, i.e.
the carbon atoms have a tetrahedral geometry.

2, 2 -Dimethylpropane
(a) Physical Properties :
(neo pentane)
(i) Alkanes of no. of carbon atoms C1 to C4 are gases.
(iii) C4H8
Carbon atoms C5 to C17 are liquids and C18 & onwards
are solids.
CH3 – CH2 – CH = CH2 , (ii) Alkanes are colourless and odourless.

But - 1 - ene Methylpropene (iii) They are non-polar in nature, hence they dissolve
only in non-polar solvents like benzene, carbon
(b) Position Isomerism : tetrachloride etc.

In this type of isomerism, isomers differ in the structure (iv) Boiling point of alkanes increases as their molecular

due to difference in the position of the multiple bond or weight increases.

functional group.  Note :
e.g.
Alkanes are unaffected by most chemical reagents and
(i) C4H8 hence are known as paraffins (parum-little, affinis
CH3 – CH2 – CH = CH2 , CH3 – CH = CH – CH3
affinity).
But -1 - ene But -2 - ene

(ii) C3H8O

CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – OH , CH3 – CH – CH3

Propan-1-ol
OH
Propan-2-ol

(c) Functional Group Isomerism :

In this type of isomerism, isomers differ in the structure
due to the presence of different functional groups.
e.g.

(i) C3H8O

CH3 – CH2 – O – CH3 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – OH

Methoxy ethane Propan-1-ol

(ii) C4H6
CH3 – CH2 – C  CH CH2 = CH – CH = CH2
But - 1- yne Buta - 1, 3 - diene
[or 1, 3 - Butadiene ]

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 SOME COMMON EXAM PLES OF ALKANES

Molcular Formula Structure Trivial Name IUPAC Name

CH4 CH4 Methane Methane

C2H6 CH3–CH3 Ethane Ethane

C3H8 CH3–CH2–CH3 Propane Propane

C4H10 CH 3 – CH 2 – CH 2 – CH 3 n-Butane Butane

Isobutane 2–Methylpropane
CH 3 – CH – CH 3
|
CH
3

C5H12 CH – CH – CH – CH – CH n-Pentane Pentane

3 2 2 2 3

CH 3 – CH – CH 2 – CH 3 Isopentane 2–Methylbutane
|
CH
3
CH 3
| Neopentane 2,2–Dimethylpropane
CH – C – CH
3 | 3
CH 3

C6H14 CH 3 – CH 2 – CH 2 – CH 2 – CH 2 – CH 3 n-Hexane Hexane

CH 3 – CH – CH 2 – CH 2 – CH 3
Isohexane 2–Methylpentane
CH 3

CH 3 – CH2 – CH – CH 2 – CH 3 – 3–Methylpentane
CH 3

CH 3 – CH – CH – CH 3 – 2,3–Dimethylbutane
CH 3 CH 3

CH 3
CH 3 – C – C H 2 – CH3 Neohexane 2,2–Dimethylbutane
CH 3

 Note : (b) Structure :

The C – C bond distance in alkanes is 1.54 Å and the
H
bond energy is of the order of 80 Kcal per mole.
C
METHANE H
H H
Tetrahedral
It is a product of decomposition of organic matter in
absence of oxygen. It is found in coal mines (hence (c) Preparation of Methane :
the name damp fire), marshy places (hence the name
(i) Direct synthesis :
marsh gas) and the places where petroleum is found. Ni
C + 2H2 CH4
500ºC
 Note :
Carbon Hydrogen Methane
Methane is a major constituent of natural gas.
(ii) Sabatier and Senderens reductive method :
Methane can be prepared by passing carbon monoxide
(a) Properties :
or carbon dioxide and hydrogen over finely powdered
Methane is a colourless gas with practically no smell nickel catalyst at 300ºC.
and is almost insoluble in water. It melts at – 183º C
and boils at –162ºC. Methane has tetrahedral geometry Ni powder
CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O
in which H–atoms are situated at four corners of the 300ºC
regular tetrahedron. Bond angle is 109º28’. It has sp3 Ni powder
hybridisation. CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + 2H2O
300ºC

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (iii) Hydrolysis of aluminium carbide : Fluorine forms similar substitution products in the
Al4 C3 + 12H2O 3CH4 + 4Al(OH)3
presence of nitrogen which is used as a diluent
Aluminium Water Methane Aluminium because of high reactivity of fluorine. Bromine vapours
carbide hydroxide react very sluggishly while iodine vapours do not react
at all.
(iv) Reduction of methyl iodide :
Zn–Cu Couple
(iii) Nitration :
CH3–  + 2H CH4 + H 400ºC
H2O Methane Hydrogen CH4 + HO–NO2 CH3–NO 2 + H2O
Methyl 10 atm.
iodide iodide Methane Nitric acid Nitromethane

(v) Reduction of methanol or formaldehyde or formic (iv) Catalytic Air oxidation : This is a method for
acid with H commercial production of methanol.
When a mixture of methane and oxygen in a ratio of 9: 1
CH3OH + 2H
Red P by volume is passed through a heated copper tube at
CH4 + + H 2O
200ºC and at a pressure of 100 atmospheres,
Methanol Methane methanol is formed.
Red P CH4 + 1/2 O2 CH3OH
HCHO + 4H CH4 + 2+ H2O
Methane Methanol
Methanal Methane
(e) Uses :
(i) Alkanes are used directly as fuels .
(ii) Certain alkanes, such as methane, are used as a
source of hydrogen.
(vi) Laboratory Method : Methane is prepared in the (iii) The carbon obtained in decomposition of alkanes
laboratory by heating a mixture of dry sodium acetate is in very finely divided state and is known as carbon
black. This is used in making printer’s ink, paints, boot
and soda lime in a hard glass tube as shown in figure. polish and blackening of tyres.
It is a decarboxylation reaction.
(iv) Alkanes are used as starting materials for a number
of other organic compounds e.g. methanol, methyl
chloride, methylene dichloride etc.
Hard glass tube
Delivery ALKENES
tube
Sodium acetate
and soda lime Gas jar
Alkenes are the simplest unsaturated aliphatic
Cork
Burner
Bubbles of hydrocarbons with one carbon - carbon double bond.
methane gas
Alkenes have general formula CnH2n. The carbon atoms
Trough
Iron
Beehive shelf connected by the double bond are in a state of sp 2
Gas stand
Water hybridisation and this part of molecule is planar. A
double bond is composed of sigma ( ) and a pi ()
Preparation of methane gas
bond. Alkenes are also called olefines (oil forming)
Methane, so formed is collected by downward becuase they form oily products with halogens.
displacment of water. This gas contains some
R – CH = CH2 + Br2 R – CH – CH2
hydrogen, ethylene etc. as impurities which can be
Br Br
removed by passing the impure gas through alkaline
(Oily liquid)
potassium permanganate solution.
(a) Properties :
(d) General Reactions :
(i) Alkenes of C2 to C4 are gases. Alkenes of carbon
(i) Combustion : atoms C5 to C14 are liquids and C14 and onwards are
(A) Methane burns with explosive violence in air forming solids.
carbon dioxide and water. (ii) Ethene is colourless gas with faint sweet smell. All
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + Heat other alkenes are colourless and odourless.
(B) In the presence of insufficient supply of oxygen.
(iii) Alkenes are insoluble in polar solvents like water,
2CH4 + 3O2 2CO + 4H2O + Heat but fairly soluble in non-polar solvents like benzene,
(ii) Halogenation : carbon tetrachloride etc.
(A) In direct sunlight (iv) Boiling point of alkenes increases with increase in
h molecular mass.
CH4 + 2Cl2 C + 4HCl
Bond length of C = C is 1.34 Å . The energy of the
(B) In diffused light double bond is 142 Kcal mol–1, which is less than
Cl2 Cl2 Cl2 Cl2
twice the energy of a single bond i.e. 80 Kcal mole-1.
CH4 CH3Cl CH2Cl2 CHCl3 CCl4
Methane Methyl Methylene Chloroform Carbon This indicates that a pi () bond is weaker than a sigma
chloride dichloride tetrachloride
() bond.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 SOME COM MON EXAMPLES OF ALKENES (c) Preparation of Ethene :

(i) By dehydration of alcohol (Lab. method) :

Molecular Structure Trivial IUPAC
formula Name Name Conc. H2SO4
CH3 – CH2 – OH 165 – 170ºC CH2 = CH2 + H2O
C2H4 H2C = CH2 Ethylene Ethene
Ethanol Ethene
C3H6 CH3 – CH = CH2 Propylene Propene
C4C8 CH3 – CH2 – CH = CH2 1-Butene (ii) By cracking of kerosene :
CH3 – C – H 2-Butene Cracking
(cis) CH3 – (CH2)4 – CH3 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 + CH2 = CH2
CH3 – C – H
n-Hexane Butane Ethene
CH3 – C – H 2-Butene
(trans)
H – C – CH3 (iii) From alkyl halides (Dehydrohalogenation) :
CH3 – C = CH2 Isobutylene 2-Methyl propene
CH2 – CH2 + KOH CH2 = CH2 + KX + H2O (Here X = Halogen)
(Alcoholic) Ethene
CH3 H X
C5H10 CH2 = CH (CH2)2CH3 – 1-Pentene Ethyl halide

CH3CH = CHCH2CH3 – 2-Pentene

(cis and (d) General Reactions :
trans)
(i) Addition of halogens :
CH3 – CH – CH = CH2 – 3-Methyl-1-butene
CCl4
CH3 CH2 = CH2 + Cl2 CH2– CH2
CH3 – C = CH – CH3 – 2-Methyl-2-butene Ethene Chlorine
Cl Cl
CH3 1,2-Dichloroethane
(Ethylene dichloride)
CH2 = C – CH2 – CH3 – 2-Methyl-1-butene
CH3
CCl4
CH2 = CH2 + Br2 CH2– CH2
(b) Uses : Bromine
Ethene
(red-brown colour) Br Br
(i) Ethylene is mainly used in the manufacture of
1,2-Dibromoethane
ethanol, ethylene oxide and higher 1-alkenes. Ethylene (colourless)
is used for ripening of fruits. It is also used for
preparation of mustard gas.  Note :
[Cl – CH2 – CH2 – S – CH2 – CH2 – Cl] Addition of bromine on alkenes in presence of CCl4 is
(ii) Polythene from ethylene, teflon from tetra the test for unsaturation.
fluoroethylene and polystyrene from styrene are used
as plastic materials. Acrilon or orlon obtained from vinyl (ii) Addition of halogen acids (Hydrohalogenation) :
cyanide is used for making synthetic fibres.
CH2 = CH2 + HCl CH2 – CH2
Ethene
ETHENE H Cl
Chloroethane
Ethene occurs in natural gas, coal gas and wood gas.
It is also formed during the cracking of high boiling (iii) Hydrogenation :
petroleum fractions. Ni or Pt
CH2 = CH2 + H2 CH3 – CH3
(a) Properties : High T& P
Ethene Ethane
Ethene is a colourless gas (B.P. = –105ºC). It is very
sparingly soluble in water but dissolves in acetone, (iv) Combustion :
alcohol etc. It burns with smoky flame. Ethene has
trigonal planar geometry. Bond angle is 120º. It has C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O + Heat
sp 2 hybridisation. Ethene

(b) Structure : (v) Addition of oxygen :

(vi) Polymerisation :
High T
nCH2 = CH2 – (CH2– CH2 –)n
& High P
Ethene Polyethene

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division

ALKYNES
Alkynes are unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons having
a carbon-carbon triple bond. Alkynes have general
formula CnH2n–2. Thus, they have two hydrogen atoms
less than an alkene and four hydrogen atoms less
than an alkane with same number of carbon atoms. A
triple bond is composed of one sigma () and two pi
() bonds. The carbon atoms connected by a triple
bond are in state of sp hybridisation.
(a) Properties :
 Note :
(i) Alkynes of carbon atoms C2 to C4 are gases. Alkynes
of carbon atoms C5 to C12 are liquids.Alkynes of C13 &
onwards are solids.
(ii) Alkynes are colourless and odourless, but ethyne
has characteristic odour.
(iii) Boiling point and solubilities in water are relatively
higher than those of alkanes and alkenes.
(iv) Alkynes are weakly polar in nature.
(v) Alkynes are lighter than water and soluble in non-
polar solvents.
(vi) Boiling point of alkynes increases with the increase
in molecular mass.
The bond energy of a triple bond is 190.5 Kcal per
mole, which is less than thrice the energy of a single
() bond.

SOME COMMON EXAMPLES OF ALKYNES :

Mole cula r form ula Structure De rive d Na m e IUPAC na m e

C2 H2 H –C C–H Acetylene Ethyne

C3 H4 Methyl acetylene Propy ne

CH 3 – C C –H

C4 H6 CH3 –CH2 – C  CH Ethyl acetylene 1–Butyne

CH3 – C  C – CH3
Dimethyl acetylene 2– Butyne

C5 H8 CH 3 – CH 2 – CH 2 – C  CH n-Propy l acetylene 1–Pentyne

Ethyl methyl acety lene 2-Pentyne

C H 3 – CH – C  C H Isopropyl acetylene 3-Methyl- 1-butyne

C H3

ETHYNE  Note :
It is also known as acetylene. Acetylene is the first
member of alkyne series and has a linear geometry. It
has sp hybridisation.The carbon-carbon triple bond
distance and carbon-hydrogen bond distance have
been found to be 1.20 Å and 1.06 Å respectively. The
carbon-carbon hydrogen bond angle is 180º.
(a) Structure :
The temperature of oxyacetylene flame is about 3000ºC
and is used for welding and cutting steel.
(c) Preparation :
(i) From carbon and hydrogen (Direct synthesis ) : When
an electric arc is struck between carbon (graphite) rods in
an atmosphere of hydrogen, acetylene is formed.
1200ºC
2C + H2 C2H2

180º (ii) From calcium carbide (Lab. Method) :

H C C H
CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
Calcium Calcium Ethyne
carbide hydroxide
Linear
(iii) Dehydrohalogenation of dihaloalkanes :
(b) Properties :
It is a colourless gas which is slightly soluble in water.
Pure ethyne has ethereal odour. Acetylene burns with
luminous flame like aromatic compounds. This is a
highly exothermic reaction.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (d) Chemical Properties : (c) Alkynes :

(i) Addition of halogens : (i) Bromine water test : It decolourises the Br2 water.

H H H
H Br2
H – C  C – H + Br2 C=C Br – C – C – Br
Ethyne Br Br
Bromine Br Br
water 1,2-Dibromoethene 1,1,2,2-Tetrabromoethane
(Colourless)

(ii) Addition of Halogen acid :

Cl (ii) Baeyer’s test : It also decolourises the purple colour
HCl of alkaline KMnO4 .
HC  CH + HCl H2C = CH H3C – CH

Ethyne Cl Cl
Chloroethene 1,1-Dichloroethane
(Vinyl chloride) (Gem dihalide)
(iii) Hydrogenation :

HC  CH
H2
H2C = CH2
H2/Ni
CH3 – CH3
(iii) Silver nitrate Test : It gives white precipitate
Ni
Ethene Ethane H – C  C – H + 2 [Ag (NH3)2 ]NO3 Ag – C C – Ag + 2NH4NO3 + 2NH3
Ethyne
Ethyne Tollen's reagent White ppt.

H2
HC  CH H2C = CH2
Pd/BaSO4
Ethene
:
Ethyne
Alcohols are the simplest organic compounds which
(iv) Combustion :
contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. An alcohol may
2C2H2 + 5O2 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat
be defined as follows :
Ethyne
(v) Polymerisation : An organic compound in which a hydroxyl (– OH) group
H is attached to an alkyl group (R) is called an alcohol. If
H H R is an alkyl group, then the corresponding alcohol is
Fe
3HC  CH or (C6H6) represented by the formula ROH.
 H H
Ethyne
H An alcohol may also be considered as a hydroxy
Benzene derivative of an alkane. So, an alcohol can be obtained
by replacing a hydrogen atom of an alkane (RH) by a
TEST FOR ALKANES, ALKENES AND ALKYNES
hydroxyl (– OH) group. Thus,
(a) Alkanes :
H
Alkane 
 Alcohol
(i) Bromine water test: It does not decolourise the  OH
bromine water.
H
(ii) Baeyer’s test: It does not, react with Baeyer’s or, RH 
 ROH
 OH
reagent (alkaline solution of KMnO4).
H
(iii) Silver nitrate Test: No reaction or, CnH 2n+2 
 CnH 2n+1OH
 OH
(b ) Al kene s: Therefore, simple alcohols can be described by the
(i) Bromine water test: It decolourises the orange general formula C nH 2n+1OH.
colour of Bromine water.
For example, when a hydrogen atom of methane is
H H H H replaced by –OH group, methyl alcohol is obtained.
CCl
C=C + Br2 4
C–C
H H Bromine water H Br Br H
Ethene (red-brown colour) H
1,2-Dibromoethane CH4 
 CH3OH
(Colourless)  OH
methane methyl alcohol
(ii) Baeyer’s test: It decolourises the purple colour of
Baeyer’s reagent. (alkane) (alcohol)

H H Similarly, from ethane one gets ethyl alcohol.

H H H2O + [O]
C=C H–C–C–H H
H H C2H6 
 C2H5OH
OH OH  OH
Ethene Ethylene glycol ethane ethyl alcohol
(alkane) (alcohol)
(iii) Silver nitrate Test: No reaction

PAGE # 129
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (a) Classification : When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in presence of
concentrated sulphuric acid, ethyl ethanoate and water
are formed .
CH 3CH 2OH

Ethanol Ethane-1,2-diol Propane-1,2,3-triol

(Ethyl alcohol) (Ethylene glycol) (Glycerol)
(Monohydric) (Dihydric) (Trihydric)
Monohydric alcohols are classified as primary,
secondary or tertiary alcohols depending upon whether
the hydroxyl group is attached to a primary, secondary
or tertiary carbon atom.
 Esters are sweet smelling substances and thus are
used in making perfumes.
• Action with concentrated sulphuric acid : Ethanol
reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to
produce ethylene. This reaction is known as acidic
dehydration of ethanol because in this reaction, water
molecule is removed from ethanol.

Conc. H SO4
(a) Properties of Ethanol : CH3CH2OH    2   CH2 = CH2 + H2O
443 K
(i) Physical properties Ethanol Ethene
• Ethanol is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell. The concentrated sulphuric acid may be regarded as
a dehydrating agent because it removes water from
• Ethanol boils at 351 K. ethanol.
• It is miscible with water in all proportions.
(iii) Some Important Terms :
• It is a non-conductor of electricity (it does not contain
ions).
• Denatured alcohol : To prevent the misuse for
drinking purpose, the alcohol supplied for industrial
• It is neutral to litmus.
purpose is rendered unfit by mixing it with some
(ii) Chemical properties : poisonous substances like methanol, pyridine, copper
sulphate etc. It is known as denatured alcohol.
• Combustion : Ethanol burns in air with a blue flame
to form CO2 & H2O.
• Rectified spirit : Ethanol containing 5 percent water
is known as rectified spirit.
C2H5OH + 3O2  2CO2 + 3H2O + heat & light
• Absolute alcohol : Rectified spirit is heated under
• Oxidation : reflux over quicklime for about 5 to 6 hours and then
allowed to stand for 12 hours. On distillation, pure alcohol
By mild oxidizing agent CrO3 (Chromic anhydride). (C2H5OH = 100%) is obtained. This is called absolute
CrO alcohol.
CH3CH2OH     3   CH3CHO + H2O
In glacial acetic acid • Power alcohol : Alcohol, which is used for generating
Ethanol Ethanal
power is called power alcohol. It consists of a mixture
 By strong oxidizing agent (K 2Cr2O 7 + H 2SO 4 or of absolute alcohol and petrol roughly in the ratio 20 :
alkaline KMnO4). 80. Since alcohol itself, does not mix with petrol ,
therefore, a third solvent such as benzene, ether etc. is
added as a co-solvent.

(iv) Uses of Ethanol :

• Reaction with sodium : Ethanol reacts with sodium
to produce hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide. • Ethanol is a constituent of beverages like beer, wine,
whisky and other liquors.
Beer = 3 – 6% Ethanol
Whisky = 50% Ethanol
• Reaction with carboxylic acids : [ESTERIFICATION] W ine = 10 – 20% Ethanol
The process of formation of an ester by the combination • Ethanol is used to sterilize wounds and syringes.
of an alcohol with carboxylic acid is known as
esterification. • Antifreeze : It is a mixture of ethanol and water which
has a much lower freezing point than that of water. It is
used in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.
• It is used in manufacture of paints, dyes, medicines,
soaps and synthetic rubber. Solution of ethanol
prepared in pharmaceutical industry are known as
tinctures.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (v) Harmful effects of drinking alcohol :
• If ethanol is mixed with CH 3OH and consumed, it
may cause serious poisoning and loss of eyesight.
• It causes addiction (habit forming) and mixes with
blood. It damages liver if taken regularly.
• Higher amount of consumption of ethanol leads to
loss of body control & consciousness. It may even
cause death.
(vi) Test of alcohol :
The presence of ethanol or alcoholic group in an
organic compound can be tested by the following tests:
• Sodium metal test :
Add a small piece of sodium metal to the organic
compound (to be tested) in a dry test tube. If the bubbles
of hydrogen gas are produced, it indicates the
presence of alcohol.
• Ester formation test :
Warm the organic compound with acetic acid and a
few drops of conc. H2SO4. A sweet smell (due to the
formation of ester) indicates the presence of alcohol
ALDEHYDES & KETONES
Aldehydes and ketones are the compounds containing
carbonyl (>C=O) group . Thus they are also known as
carbonyl compounds.
(i) In aldehydes, carbon of (>C=O) group is attached to
an alkyl group and a hydrogen atom. Methanal is an
exception in which R = H
Aldehyde Methanal
(ii) In ketones, carbon of carbonyl group is attached to
two alkyl groups. The two alkyl groups may be same or
different.
e.g. or
 Note :
W hen the two alkyl groups are different in ketones,
then the ketones are called mixed ketones. If both alkyl
group are same then the ketones are called simple
 Note :
ketones
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(a ) Ge ne ra l Pr ope rt ie s of Al de hy de s &
Ketones :
(i) Physical properties :
(A) Both aldehydes and ketones contain the carbonyl
group due to which they are polar in nature.
(B) The B.P of aldehydes and ketones are higher than
those of the hydrocarbons of comparable molecular
masses.
(C) The lower members of aldehydes and ketones (up
to four carbon atoms) are soluble in water. As the
number of carbon atoms increases, solubility
decreases.
(ii) Chemical properties :
The reactions of aldehydes & ketones can be divided
into three categories -
(A) reactions due to the carbonyl group
(B) reactions due to the alkyl group attached to the
carbonyl group
(C) oxidation, reduction and halogenation reaction
(A) Reactions due to the carbonyl group :
• Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) : Aldehydes and
ketones contain a double bond between carbon &
oxygen atoms ( ). As the compounds
containing C = O bond undergo addition reactions,
hydrogen cyanide (HCN) also adds to these
compounds to form cyanohydrin.
• Addition of sodium hydrogen sulphite (NaHSO3) :
O OH
||
CH3 – C – CH3 + NaHSO3 CH3 – C – CH3
Propanone SO3Na
Propanone sodium
hydrogen sulphite
This reaction is used to purify aldehydes and ketones.
PAGE # 131
 • Reaction with Phosphorous pentachloride (PCl5) :

O Cl
|| (a) Formula : HCHO
CH3 – C – H + PCl 5 CH3 – C – H + POCl3
Phosphorus (b) Structural formula :
Cl oxychloride
1,1 - Dichloroethane (c) Methods of preparation :

(i) By dry distillation of calcium formate :

(B) Reactions due to alkyl group attached to carbonyl

group :

• Aldol condensation : Aldehydes & ketones must

contain at least one  – H atom. In this reaction the  –
H containing aldehydes & ketones undergo (ii) By controlled oxidation of methanol :
condensation reaction in the presence of an alkali.
873  923 K
• 2CH3OH + O2      2HCHO + 2H2O
 Note : Ag or iron oxide
molybdenum oxide
Hydrogen atom present on carbon which is attached
to functional groups is called -hydrogen atom.
•
Reaction :
O O (Dehydrogenation i.e. removal of H2)
|| ||
CH3 – C – H + H – CH2 – C – H (d) Properties :
NaOH

O
(i) Physical properties :
OH H
 ||
CH3 – CH = CH – CHO – H2O CH3 – CH – CH – C – H • Methanal is a colourless gas.
But-2-enal 3-Hydroxybutanal
• Its b.p. is 252 K.
(C) Oxidation reaction :
• It is highly soluble in water.
• Aldehydes are readily oxidized by acidic K2Cr2O 7 or
(ii) Chemical properties : In methanal – CHO group is
acidic KMnO4 into the carboxylic acid group,– COOH attached to a hydrogen atom while in other aldehydes
it is attached to an alkyl group. Aldehydes generally
give following important chemical reactions

(A) Oxidation Reactions :

Thus, aldehydes behave as reducing agents
HCHO + [O]  HCOOH.
• Ketones are not easily oxidised. They are oxidized by Methanal Methanoic acid
strong oxidizing agents like alkaline KMnO4, HNO3 or
A number of oxidising agents are used for oxidation :
H2CrO4.
• Ammonical silver nitrate solution or Tollen’s reagent
O O
|| || • Fehling’s reagent.
CH3 – C – CH3 + [O] CH3 – C – OH + CO2 + H2O
Propanone Ethanoic acid • Potassium dichromate + sulphuric acid
The reducing properties of aldehydes can be • Oxidation using Tollen’s reagent : Tollen’s reagent
demonstrated by the following tests. is ammonical silver nitrate solution. It can be prepared
by adding NH4OH to the AgNO3 till the black precipitate
All aldehydes reduce fehling’s solution to red cuprous
first formed is dissolved. The solution thus prepared
oxide (Cu2O).
is called ammonical silver nitrate.
All aldehydes reduce tollen’s reagent to liberate silver
AgNO3 + 2NH4OH  [Ag(NH3)2] NO3 + 2H2O
(Positive silver mirror test).
Ammonical silver nitrate
(Tollen’s reagent)

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 W hen methanal is warmed with tollen’s reagent in a (e) Uses of Methanal :
test tube, methanoic acid is formed and silver is
(A) 35 - 40 percent aqueous solution of formaldehyde
liberated,which gets deposited on the inner walls of
the test tube. is known as formalin, which is a powerful disinfectant
and an antiseptic. It is used for preserving dead bodies
Silver thus deposited gives a mirror like appearance
and biological specimens.
hence this test is also called silver mirror test.
(B) It is used in manufacture of paints & dyes and for
2[Ag(NH3)2] NO3 + HCHO + 2NH4OH  HCOOH
+ 2Ag + 2NH4NO3 + 4NH3 + H2O. making plastics.

• Oxidation using Fehling’s reagent :
Fehling’s reagent = Fehling Solution A + Fehling
Solution B
Fehling solution A = Aqueous CuSO4 solution
Fehling solution B = Alkaline Rochelle salt solution
(Sodium potassium tartarate)
(C) Bakelite is used to make electrical switches, it is a
polymer of methanal & phenol.
(D) Hexamethylene tetramine is used as a medicine
for urinary infections, gouts and rheumatism under the
trade name Urotropine.

W hen methanal is heated with Fehling’s reagent , a

red precipitate of cuprous oxide (Cu 2O) is formed & (a) Propanone is the first member of ketone series .
methanal is oxidized to methanoic acid.
(b) It is commonly known as acetone. It occurs in
HCHO + 2Cu(OH)2 + NaOH  HCOONa + Cu2 O + 3H2 O
Methanal Fehling's Sodium (red ppt) human blood and urine.
reagent methanoate
(c) Chemical formula : CH3COCH3
(B) Reaction with ammonia -
(d) Structural formula :
6HCHO + 4NH3 (CH2)6 N4 + 6H2O
Methanal Ammonia Hexamethylene
tetramine
(urotropine)

• Structure :

(e) Methods of preparation :

(i) From 2 - Propanol :

O OH
|| Cu |
CH3 – C – CH3 Dehydrogenation CH3 – CH – CH3
2-Propanol
Propanone
Oxidation [O]

 Note :
Other aldehydes do not take part in such reactions .
O
• Reaction with NaOH solution (Cannizzaro reaction) : ||
CH3 – C – CH3
H O–Na+ H
Propanone
2 H – C = O + NaOH H – C = O + H – C – OH
Methanal Sodium Methanol (ii) From cumene (commercial method) : Cumene is
methanoate H
a hydrocarbon with molecular formula,
• Condition for Cannizzaro reaction :- The aldehyde C 6H 5 – CH(CH 3) 2 .It is formed by the alkylation of
should lack  – H atom. benzene with propene in liquid phase in the presence
• Other aldehydes like CH3CHO do not give Cannizzaro of aluminium chloride catalyst.
reaction while aldehydes like CCl3 – CHO, C6H5–CHO CH3
(CH3)3 C–CHO give cannizzaro reaction. AlCl 3
C6H6 + CH3 – CH = CH2 C6H5 – C – H
 Note :
In the above reaction one of the two molecules of CH3
methanal is oxidized while other is reduced. 1- Methyl ethyl benzene
(Cumene)

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Cumene is oxidized in air to form cumene hydro- (B) Oxidation : Propanone is not easily oxidized,
peroxide & then decomposed with warm dil. H2SO4 to however, with alkaline KMnO4 or hot HNO3, it is oxidized
to ethanoic acid in which the number of carbon atoms
give propanone.
is less than that of propanone.
CH3 CH3 O
C6H5 – C – O – O – H
||
C6H5 – CH + O 2
CH3 – C – CH3 + 4 [O]
CH3 CH3 +
Cumene H

Alkaline
Cumene
hydroperoxide
O
C6H5OH + CH3COCH3 ||
CH3 – C – OH + CO2 + H2O
Phenol Propanone
Ethanoic acid
(iii) From calcium acetate (laboratory method) :
(C) Reaction with Conc. H2SO4 : When propanone is
distilled with conc. H 2 SO 4, its three molecules
condense to form an aromatic hydrocarbon mesitylene.

CH3
C

||
3 CH3 COCH3 H–C C–H
|| + 3H2O
C C

||
C
CH3 CH3
H Mesitylene
(f) Properties :
(g) Uses of propanone :
(i) Physical properties :
• It is used as a solvent for acetylene, cellulose acetate
(A) Propanone is a colourless, pleasant smelling liquid & nitrate etc.
. • It is used in preparation of some medicinal
compounds such as chloroform, iodoform etc.
(B) It is highly inflammable.
• It is used in synthesis of rubber.
(C) Its b.p. is 329.5 K.
• It is an essential ingredient of nail polish.
(D) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether in all
proportions. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
(ii) Chemical Properties : Carboxylic acids are a class of organic compounds
which contain carboxyl group (– COOH) as the
(A) Substitution reactions : functional group. Formerly, higher members of the
carboxylic acids were obtained from fats. Hence, these
• With chlorine : acids are also called fatty acids.
(a) Classification of Carboxylic Acids :
HO H Cl O H
|| Basic
|| On the basis of the number of – COOH group present
H – C – C – C – H + 3Cl2 Cl – C – C – C – H + 3HCl in a molecule these can be classified in the following
Catalyst
H H Cl H categories -
Trichloro propanone
(i) Monocarboxylic acids (Containing one – COOH
• With bleaching powder & water : group)
O
CaOCl2 + H2O  Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 ||
, CH3 – C – OH
CH3COCH3 + 3Cl2  CCl3.COCH3 + 3HCl Acetic acid
(ii) Dicarboxylic acids (Containing two - COOH group)

O – H CCl3 – CO – CH3 COOH COOH CH2 – COOH

Ca +
O – H CCl3 – CO – CH3 COOH CH2 CH2 – COOH
Oxalic acid COOH Succinic acid
Malonic acid
O – CO – CH3 (iii) Tricarboxylic acid : (Containing three COOH group)
2CHCl3 + Ca CH2 – COOH
O – CO – CH3
Chloroform Calcium ethanoate CH – COOH
CH2 – COOH
Propane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (b) Methods of Preparation : (iii) Action of phosphorus pentachloride : Ethanoic acid
reacts with phosphorus pentachloride to produce acetyl
(i) By oxidation of ethanol: Ethanoic acid is prepared chloride.
in the laboratory by the oxidation of ethanol with
CH3COOH + PCl5  CH3COCl + HCl + POCl3
potassium dichromate and concentrated sulphuric
Ethanoic acid Acetyl chloride
acid.
(iv) Dehydration : When ethanoic acid is heated with a
K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4  K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 4H2O + 3[O] dehydrating agent such as phosphorus pentoxide
(P2O5), ethanoic anhydride is formed. In this reaction,
two molecules of ethanoic acid combine together and
one molecule of water is eliminated.
PO
(ii) By the fermentation of ethanol : W hen a CH3 COOH  HOOCCH3 
(CH3 CO)2 O
2 5
 H2 O
Ethanoic anhydride
12–15% solution of ethanol is allowed to ferment in
presence of bacterium acetobacter aceti which
contains an enzyme, a 8 – 10% solution of ethanoic (v) Decarboxylation of calcium ethanoate : When
calcium ethanoate is heated (dry distilled), propanone
acid is produced .
is produced.
CH3CH2OH + O2  CH3COOH + H2O
O
Ethanoic acid || O
The fermentation is carried out in a wooden vessel CH3 – C – O ||
Ca CH3 – C – CH3 + CaCO3
fitted with perforated lids at the top and the bottom. The CH3 – C – O Propanone
vessel is filled with wood shavings wetted with vinegar. ||
O
The solution of alcohol is sprayed over the wood
shavings through the top lid of the vessel. Air is allowed (vi) Electrolytic decarboxylation (Kolbe’s method) :
to enter the vessel. W hen a aqueous solution of sodium ethanoate is
electrolysed, ethane is formed.
An exothermic reaction occurs inside the vessel which –
2CH3COO Na+ + 2H2O  C2H6 + 2CO2 + 2NaOH + H2
raises the temperature to about 308 K. This
–
temperature is most favourable for the enzyme to act • At anode : The ethanoate ion (CH3COO ) releases
.
effectively. The liquid collected at the bottom is one electron to form the free radical CH3COO . This
recirculated into the vessel. This process continues .
free radical forms a methyl radical (CH3. ) and CO2 .Two
for a week. At the end of period, the vinegar collected at
methyl free radicals combine to form C2H6.
the bottom contains 8 – 10% ethanoic acid. •
CH3COO–  CH3COO + e
The dilute acid so obtained is distilled to get pure • •
CH3COO  CH3 + CO2
ethanoic acid which is called glacial ethanoic acid. •
2CH3  C2H6
(iii) From methanol : Ethanoic acid is also prepared
• At cathode : Here Na+ and H + ions (from water)
commercially by the reaction between methanol and compete for discharge. Ultimately, it is the H + ion,
carbon monoxide using iodine-rhodium as catalyst. attracts the free electron and gets discharged to
produce the hydrogen gas.
H+ + e–  H
2H  H2
(c) Chemical Properties :

(i) Reduction : Reduction of ethanoic acid with lithium

aluminium hydride (LiAIH 4) gives ethanol. (a) Molecular formula : CH3COOH

LiAlH4
CH3 – COOH + 4[H] CH3 – CH2 – OH + H2 O
Ether (b) Structural formula :

(ii) Reaction with ammonia: W hen treated with

ammonia ethanoic acid gives ammonium ethanoate (c) The IUPAC name of acetic acid is ethanoic acid .
which on heating gets converted into acetamide. (d) Occurrence :
CH3COOH + NH3 CH3COONH4 Ethanoic acid is known as vinegar, from ancient times.
Ammonium Vinegar is essentially a dilute solution of ethanoic acid
in water. The acid is also present in some fruit juice . In
ethanoate

the combined form, it is also present in many perfumed
CH 3COONH 4  CH3CONH2 + H2O
oils. Ethanoic acid was first prepared in the pure state by
Acetamide Stahl in 1720 .

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (e) Physical properties :
(i) Ethanoic acid is a colourless, viscous liquid but
has a pungent and irritating smell of vinegar.
(ii) Its boiling point is 391 K.
(iii) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether. Its
dissolution in water takes place with the evolution of
heat and decrease in volume of the solution.
(iv) The melting point of ethanoic acid is 290 K and
hence it often freezes during winter in cold climates.
Therefore, it is named as glacial acetic acid.
(f) Chemical properties :
(A) Acidic character : Ethanoic acid is a monobasic
acid. It has a replaceable hydrogen atom in its – COOH
group. Therefore, it neutralizes alkalies.
(1) It reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form
sodium ethanoate and water.
CH3COOH+ NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
Sodium
ethanoate
Sodium ethanoate is an ionic compound which
dissolves in polar solvents such as water, but does
not dissolves in non polar solvents such as alcohol,
propanone etc. The aqueous solution of sodium
ethanoate is alkaline due to hydrolysis .
(2) It reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium
bicarbonate with the evolution of CO2 gas.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3  2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2 
CH3COOH + NaHCO3  CH3COONa + H2O + CO2 
(3) It reacts with metals like sodium, zinc and
magnesium to liberate hydrogen gas.
2CH3COOH + 2Na  2CH3COONa + H2 
2CH3COOH + Zn  (CH3COO)2Zn + H2 
(B) Ester formation : When ethanoic acid is heated
with ethanol in presence of small quantity of conc.
H 2SO 4 ethyl ethanoate, a sweet smelling ester, is
formed.
CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
Ethyl ethanoate
This process of ester formation is called esterification.
(C) Decarboxylation :
W hen sodium ethanoate is heated with soda lime,
methane is formed.
CaO
CH3COONa + NaOH  CH4 + Na2CO3
Sodium Methane
ethanoate
 The term‘ decarboxylation ‘ is used when the elements
of carbon dioxide are removed from a molecule.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(g) Uses :
(A) Dilute aqueous solution (5–8%) of ethanoic acid is
called vinegar, which is used to preserve food
(sausage, pickles, etc).
(B) Pure ethanoic acid is used as a solvent and
chemical reagent.
(C) As cellulose ethanoate, it is used in making
photographic films and rayon.
(D) Ethanoic acid also finds application in the preparation
of propanone, chloroethanoic acid, ethanoates of metals
etc.
(E) It is widely used in the manufacture of textiles.
(F) It is used in the preparation of white lead.
(h) Tests for Carboxylic Acid :
(A) Litmus test : Add small amount of blue litmus
solution to the given compound. If the blue litmus
solution turns red, it indicates that the organic
compound is acidic in nature.
(B) Sodium bicarbonate test : Take a small portion of
the organic compound in a test tube and add a pinch
of solid sodium bicarbonate. Evolution of carbon
dioxide with brisk effervescence shows that the organic
compound is acidic in nature.
(C) Ester formation: W hen a mixture of given
compound and ethanol is heated in the presence of
concentrated sulphuric acid, a fruity smelling ester, ethyl
ethanoate, is produced which shows that the organic
compound is acidic in nature.
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
The word ‘detergent’ means’ cleansing agent and so
the detergents are substances which remove dirt and
have cleansing action in water. According to this
definition of detergents, soap is also a detergent and
has been used for more than two thousand years.
There are two types of detergents :
(a) Soapy detergents or soaps
(b) Non - soapy detergents or soapless soaps.
(a) Soap :
A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of some long
chain carboxylic acids (fatty acid). Sodium salts of fatty
acids are known as hard soaps and potassium salts
of fatty acid are known as soft soaps. A soap has a
large non-ionic hydrocarbon group and an ionic COO–
Na+ group.The structure of soap can be represented
as :
– Na
+
, where represents the hydrocarbon group
and – represents negatively charged carboxyl group.
Some examples of soaps are sodium stearate,
C17H35COO– Na+, sodium palmitate, C 15H31COO – Na+
and sodium oleate, C17H33COO–Na+ .
 Hard water, which contains salts of magnesium and
calcium, reacts with soap to form magnesium and
calcium salts of fatty acid.
PAGE # 136
 (i) Preparation of soap : Soap is prepared by heating (B) W hen hard water is used, soap forms insoluble
oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin with concentrated precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts, which
sodium hydroxide solution (caustic soda solution). stick to the cloth being washed . Therefore, it interferes
Hydrolysis of fat takes place and a mixture of sodium with the cleaning ability of the soap and makes the
salt of fatty acids and glycerol is formed. Since the salt cleaning process difficult.
of fatty acids thus formed are used as soap so alkaline
hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly known as  These calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acid are
saponification. insoluble in water and separate as curdy white
precipitate.
CH2O. COC15H31 CH2OH
(b) Detergents :
CHO. COC15H31 + 3NaOH CHOH + 3C15H31COONa
Soap These are also called synthetic detergents or soapless
(sodium palmitate)
CH2O. COC15H31 CH2OH soaps. A synthetic detergent is the sodium salt of a
Fat or oil Glycerol
(Tripalmitin) long chain benzene sulphonic acid or the sodium salt

(ii) Limitation of soaps : Soap is not suitable for of a long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate.

washing clothes with hard water because of the

(i) Preparation of Synthetic Detergents : Synthetic
following reasons.
detergents are prepared by reacting hydrocarbons from
(A) Hard water contains salts of calcium and
petroleum with conc. sulphuric acid and converting the
magnesium. W hen soap is added to hard water,
calcium and magnesium ions of hard water react with product into its sodium salt.

soap forming insoluble calcium and magnesium salts Examples :

of fatty acids.
– + –+
2C17H35COONa + MgCl2  (C17H35COO)2 Mg + 2NaCl C12H25 SO3Na , C12H25 – O – SO2 – ONa
Sodium p-dodecyl Sodium lauryl
Soap (White ppt) benzenesulphonate sulphate

2C17H35COONa + CaCl2  (C17H35COO)2 Ca + 2NaCl

 W ashing powders available in the market contain
(White ppt) about 15 to 30 percent detergents by weight.

Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if water is hard.  Alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly known
as saponification.

(c) Comparison Between Properties of Soaps and Detergents :

S.No. Soaps Synthetic detergents

Synthetic detergents are sodium alkyl sulphates
Soaps are sodium salts of higher
1 or sodium alkyl benzene sulphonates with alkyl
fatty acids
group having more than ten carbon atoms.
Soaps are prepared from Synthetic detergents are prepared from the
2
natural oils and fats. hydrocarbons of petroleum.
Soaps form insoluble salts (curdy
Calcium and magnesium salts of detergents are soluble in
white ppt.) with calcium and
water and, therefore, no curdy white precipitates are
3 magnesium which are present in hard
obtained in hard water and hence, can be used even in
water and hence, cannot be used in
hard water.
hard water.
Soaps cannot be used in acidic
They can be used in acidic medium as they are the salt of
4 medium as they are decomposed into
strong acids and are not decomposed in acidic medium.
carboxylic acids in acidic medium.

5 Soaps are biodegradable. Some of the synthetic detergents are not biodegradable.

PAGE # 137
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 ( d) A dv anta ge s of S ynthet ic Det er ge nt s
Ove r Soap s :
Synthetic detergents are widely used as cleaning
agents these days. Some of their advantages over
soaps are :
(i) Synthetic detergents can be used for washing even
in hard water. On the other hand, soaps are not suitable
for use with hard water.
(ii) Synthetic detergents can be used even in acidic
solutions because they are not readily decomposed
in acidic medium. On the other hand, soaps cannot be
used in acidic medium because they are decomposed
into carboxylic acids in acidic medium.
(iii) Synthetic detergents are more soluble in water than
soaps.
(iv) Synthetic detergents have a stronger cleaning action
than soaps.
(e ) Cl ea ns ing Ac ti on
De terg ents :
A molecule of soap is made up of two parts : a non
polar part consisting of a long chain of 12 - 18 carbon
atoms and a polar part, –COO–Na+. The polar end is
water soluble and is thus hydrophilic whereas
hydrocarbon part is insoluble in water and is thus
hydrophobic.
In a soap solution, the hydrocarbon portions of several
soap molecules huddle together to form aggregates
of molecules (or ions) called micelles. The soap
micelles are negatively charged due to the presence
of carboxylate ions at the surface. Repulsion between
similarly charged micelles keeps them dispersed in
the solution.
 The hydrocarbon part is however soluble in non-polar
solvents and is sometimes called lipophilic.
Cleansing action of soap : Mostly the dirt is held to any
surface such as cloth by the oil or grease which is
present there. Now since the oil and grease are not
soluble in water, the dirt particles cannot be removed
by simply washing the cloth with water. However, when
soap is applied, the non polar hydrocarbon part of the
soap molecules dissolves in oil droplets while the polar
– COO – Na + groups remain attached to water
molecules. In this way, each oil droplet gets
surrounded by negative charge.
Na+
Na+
Na+ – –
– –
Na+ – Oil
droplet
Na+
–
– Na+
–
+
– Na+
Na
These negatively charged oil droplets cannot coalesce
and continue breaking into small droplets .These oil
droplets (containing dirt particles) can be washed
away with water along with dirt particles. So, the action
of soap or detergents is to emulsify oil or grease, this
loosens the solid particles of dirt and they are removed.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 In a soap molecule hydrophilic polar end is water
soluble and hydrophobic hydrocarbon part is insoluble
in water.
Soap or detergent helps in cleansing in another way.
Not only it emulsifies oil or grease but it also lowers
the surface tension of water. As a result of this water
wets things more effectively.
When water is added on to the surface of the cloth then
water molecules tend to stay as close to each other as
possible because of the strong forces of attraction
(hydrogen bonding) for each other and do not wet the
cloth properly. If some soap solution is added to this
water then polar end of soap dissolves in water and
non polar hydrocarbon end remains away from the
water. Thus, soap molecules arrange themselves
between the water molecules on the surface of water
and decrease the forces of attraction between the
water molecules. Water can now spread on the surface
of cloth and can make it wet effectively.
of Soap s and
(f) Synthetic Detergents : A Serious Problem :
It may be noted that in the past, the widespread use of
detergents caused pollution of rivers and other water
bodies. Earlier the synthetic detergents were made
from long chain of hydrocarbons having a lot of
branched chains in them. These branched chain
detergent molecules were degraded very slowly by the
micro organisms present in water bodies like lakes or
rivers.
Therefore, they tend to remain in water bodies for a
long time and make water unfit for aquatic life. For
example, detergents containing phosphates can cause
rapid growth of algae and therefore, deplete the
dissolved oxygen present in the water of lakes and
rivers. As a result of lack of oxygen, fish and other
aquatic animals may die.
To solve these problems, now-a-days, the detergents
are prepared from hydrocarbons which have minimum
branching. These are degraded more easily than
branched chain detergents. Therefore, these are
biodegradable and create less problems.
EXERCISE-1 Z
IN TR ODUCTI ON OF OR GA NI C CH EM IS TR Y &
A LLOT ROPE S OF CAR BON
Water
1. W hich of the following is not an use of graphite ?
Na+ (A) dry lubricant
(B) electrodes
– Na+ (C) black paints
(D) high precision thermometers
2. Which of the following is the chemically inactive allot-
ropic form of carbon ?
(A) diamond (B) coal
(C) charcoal (D) animal charcoal
3. Which of the following properties is not true regarding
organic compounds ?
(A) They are generally covalent compounds.
(B) They have high melting and boiling points.
(C) They are generally insoluble in water.
(D) They generally show isomerism
PAGE # 138
4. The scientist who gave vital force theory was - 14. Which of the following is an unsaturated compound ?
(A) Berzelius (B) Avogadro (A) C6H14 (B) CH3OH
(C) Wohler (D) Lavoisier (C) C3H7OH (D) C4H8

5. Which one of the following is not an organic compound ? 15. The functional group, present in CH3COOC2H5 is -
(A) Hexane (B) Urea (A) ketonic (B) aldehydic
(C) Ammonia (D)Ethyl alcohol (C) ester (D) carboxylic

6. The values of bond energies of single, double and 16. C  C bond length is -
triple bonds are in the order - (A) 1.54 Å (B) 1.20 Å
(A) C – C > C = C > C  C (C) 1.34 Å (D) 1.39 Å
(B) C = C > C – C > C  C
(C) C  C > C = C > C – C 17. Which of the following hydrocarbon does not exhibit
(D)C = C > C  C > C – C position isomerism ?
(A) C2H4 (B) C3H6
7. W hich of the following statements is/are true for
(C) C3H4 (D) All of these
fullerene ?
(A) It is a non-crystalline form of carbon. 18. Which alkane would have only the primary and tertiary
(B) It was discovered by Buckminster fuller. carbon ?
(C) All the fullerenes have even number of atoms. (A) Pentane
(D) All of these
(B) 2-Methylbutane
8. Which of the following substances are crystalline allo- (C) 2, 2-Dimethylpropane
trope of carbon ? (D) 2, 3-Dimethylbutane
(i) Diamond (ii) Charcoal (iii) Graphite
(iv) Lamp black (v) Coal (vi) Fullerene 19. The common and IUPAC names for the group,
(A) (i) to (vi) all (B) (i), (ii) & (iv) (CH3)2CHCH2 – respectively are
(C) (i), (iii) & (vi) (D) (iv), (ii), (v) (A) lsobutyl, 2-Methylpropyl
(B) lsobutyl, 1-Methylpropyl
9. In diamond, the bonding between carbon atoms is -
(A) Co - ordinate (B) Ionic (C) teri-Butyl, 1, 1-Dimethylethyl
(C) Electrostatic (D) Covalent (D) sec-Butyl, 2-Methylpropyl

10. Graphite is used as a lubricant in machines because 20. Which of the following forms a homologus series -
it has a very high melting point and also it – (A) Ethane, ethylene, acetylene
(A) is crystalline (B) Ethane, propane, butanol
(B) has layer structure (C) methanal, ethanol, propanoic acid
(C) is a giant molecule (D) Butane, 2-Methylbutane, 2,3-Dimethyl butane
(D) is a liquid at room temperature 21. Which of the following pairs of homologous series is
represented by the general molecular formula CnH2n–2 ?
11. Graphite is a soft solid lubricant extremly difficult to
(A) Alkene and alkyne
melt. The reason for this anomalous behaviour is that
(B) Alkyne and alkadiyne
graphite -
(C) Alkane and alkadiene
(A) has carbon atoms arranged in large plates of rings (D) Alkyne and alkadiene.
of strongly bound carbon atoms with weak
interplate bonds. 22. The third member of methyl ketone homologous series
(B) is a non-crystalline substance is -
(C) is an allotropic form of carbon (A) Acetone (B) 2 – Butanone
(D) has molecules of variable molecular masses like (C) 2 – Pentanone (D) 3 – Pentanone.
polymers.
23. The compound which can show chain iosmerism is -
12. The number of sigma and pi bonds in the structure, (A) CH4 (B) CH3CH 3
CH2 = CH – C  CH (C) CH3CH 2CH 3 (D) CH 3CH 2CH 2CH 3
(A) 7 and 3 (B) 6 and 2
ALKANE S, ALKENE & ALKYNE
(C) 4 and 3 (D) All are sigma bonds
24. W hich of the following statement is/are true about
CLAS SI FI CATI ON OF OR GA NI C COMP OU NDS characteristic properties of alkanes ?
& N OM EN CL AT UR E
(A) Boiling point increases with molecular mass.
13. Number of  &  bonds in benzene are : (B) All alkane are saturated hydrocarbons.
(A) 6 , 3 (B) 3 , 3 (C) They mostly show substitution reactions with
(C) 12 , 3 (D) 6 , 6 halogens.
(D) All of these

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
25. 1-Alkyne and Alkene can be distinguished by which of 35. W hich of the following reagents may be used to
the following reagents. distinguish between ethene and ethyne ?
(A) Ammonical AgNO3 (B) Ammonical CuCl (A) Ammoniacal AgNO3 (B) KMnO4
(C) Br2 in CCl4 (D) Both (A) and (B)
(C) Br2/CCl4 (D) AlCl3
26. W hich of the following is a primary alcohol ?
(A) Butan-2-ol 36. Acetylene on treatment with alkaline KMnO4 yields -
(B) 2-Methylpropan-1-ol (A) Oxalic acid (B) Ethanol
(C) 2-Methylpropan-2-ol
(C) Glyoxal (D) 1,2-Ethanediol
(D) none of the above

27. W hich of the following reagent can distinguish be- 37. On mixing a certain alkane with chlorine and irradiating
tween aldehydes and ketones? it with ultraviolet light, it forms only one
(A) Fehling's Solution (B) H 2SO 4 Solution monochloroalkane. This alkane could be -
(C) Grignard Reagent (D) Fenton's Reagent (A) Neopentane (B) Propane
28. Ammonical silver nitrate solution is called - (C) Pentane (D) Isopentane
(A) tollen’s reagent (B) fehling solution
(C) (A) & (B) (D) None of these SOAP & DE TE RGEN TS
38. Soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids, RCOONa;
29. Methane is insoluble in -
e.g. C 17H 35COO Na+ . It gives an insoluble precipitate/
(A) ether
layer with
(B) water
(A) Ca2+ (aq) (B) Mg 2+ (aq)
(C) alcohol
(C) HCl (aq) (D) All of these
(D) carbon tetrachloride
39. W hich one of the following statements is incorrect
30. Ethyne is isoelectronic with- about soaps ?
(A) chlorine (B) oxygen (A) Soaps are biodegradable.
(C) nitrogen gas (D) CO2 (B) Soaps are sodium salts of higher fatty acids.
(C) Soaps are prepared from natural oils & fats.
31. Which compound gives 2-butene on dehydrohalogen (D) Soaps can be used in acidic solutions
ation ?
(A) CH3 – CH2 – CH –CH2
EXERCISE-2
Br Br

(B) CH3 – CH – CH2 –CH2 NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS

Br Br 1. Detergents are salts of - [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/07]

(A) strong acid and strong base
(C) CH3 – CH2 – CH –CH3
(B) strong acid and weak base
Br (C) weak acid and strong base
(D) BrCH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2Br (D) weak acid and weak base

32. Aluminium carbide reacts with water to form - 2. Methane with the Molecular formula “CH4” has –
(A) methane (B) ethane [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/13]
(C) ethene (D) ethyne (A) 4 Covalent bonds (B) 8 Covalent bonds
(C) 6 Covalent bonds (D) 2 Covalent bonds
CaO
33. In the reaction CH 3COONa + NaOH  X +
Heat 3. In the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid, acetic
Na2CO3 product 'X' would be - acid reacts with alcohol to produce –
(A) CH3CHO (B) CH3COOH [Delhi. NTSE Stage-I/13]
(C) CH4 (D) None of these (A) aldehyde (B) alcohol
(C) ester (D) carboxylic acid
34. W hich of the following reactions will yield 2,2-
dibromopropane ? 4. W hich of the following is the representation for
functionalgroup carboxylic acids ?
(A) CH  CH + 2HBr 
[Delhi NTSE Stage-I/13]
(B) CH3 – CH = CH2 + HBr 
O
(C) CH3 – C  CH + 2HBr  (A) C=O (B) –C =
H
(D) CH3CH = CHBr + HBr  O
(C) –OH (D) –C =
OH

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
5. Which of the following gases is known as tear gas ? 14. W hich compound is obtained when formaldehyde
[Delhi NTSE Stage-I/13] reach with phenol in alkaline medium -
(A) Methyl isocyanide (B) Sulphur dioxide [Madhya Pradesh NTSE Stage-I/14]
(C) Chloropicrin (D) Nitrous oxide (A) Paraformaldehyde (B) Farmamint
6. Fullerence, an allotrope of carbon contains - (C) Urotropin (D) Bakelite
[Haryana NTSE Stage-I/13]
15. In the biolumine scence process in firefly the main
(A) 30 six membered rings
substance involved for the glow is -
(B) 24 five membered rings and 10 six membered rings.
[Madhya Pradesh NTSE Stage-I/14]
(C) 12 five membered rings and 20 six membered
rings (A) Diphenylamine (B) Resorcinol
(D) 18 five membered rings and 15 six membered (C) Anisole (D) Luciferrin
rings.
16. W hich of the following is represented by general
7. The IUPAC name of (CH3)3C–OH is - formula CnH2n+2O ? [Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/14]
[Haryana NTSE Stage-I/13] (A) Alcohols only
(A) 2 – Methylpropan–2–ol (B) Both alcohols and ethers
(B) 2–Methylpropan–1–ol. (C) Aldehydes only
(C) 1,1–Dimethylethanol
(D) Both Aldehydes and ketones
(D) Butan–1–ol
17. Which of the following series represent only unsatur-
8. Unsaturated hydrocarbon is -
ated hydrocarbons ? [Karnataka_NTSE Stage-I/14]
[M.P. NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) C2H6, C3H8, C4H10 (B) C2H6, C3H6, C4H10
(A) CH4 (B) C2H6
(C) C2H4 (D) C2H5OH (C) C2H4 , C3H6, C4H6 (D) C2H4, C3H8, C4H6

9. How many isomers are possible for an alkane having 18. On heating an aliphatic primary amine with chloroform
molecular formula C 6H14 ? and ethanoic potassium hydroxide the organic com-
[West Bengal NTSE Stage-I/13] pound formed is : [Bihar_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) 3 (B) 4 (A) an alkyl cyanide (B) an alkyl isocyanide
(C) 5 (D) 6 (C) an alkanol (D) an alkanediol

10. Which test can be used to distinguish between acety- 19. The IUPAC name of C6H5CN is :
lene and ethylene gases ? [Bihar_NTSE Stage-I/15]
[West Bengal NTSE Stage-I/13] (A) Phenyl Cyanide (B) Phenylacetonitrile
(A) Reaction with Br2 in CCl4 solvent (C) Benzene Cyanide (D) Benzonitrile
(B) Conc. H2SO4
(C) Ammoniacal cuprous chloride solution 20. W hich of the following formulae represents
(D) Hydrogen gas in presence of Pt. cycloalkanes ? [Maharashtra_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) C6H12 (B) 64H10
11. The light producing gas in the lamps of the hawkers is:
(C) C6H6 (D) C5H14
[West Bengal NTSE Stage-I/13]
(A) Butane (B) Ethylene 21. Which of the following is not a straight chain hydrocar-
(C) Acetylene (D) Methane bon ? [Maharashtra_NTSE Stage-I/15]

12. What is IUPAC name of the following compound ? (A) CH3–CH2

CH 3—CH 2—CH 2—OH
[Maharashtra NTSE Stage-I/13] CH2–CH2–CH3
(A) Propan-1-ol (B) Propan-2-ol
(C) Ethan-1-ol (D) Ethan-2-ol (B) CH3–CH–CH2–CH2–CH3

13. The action of cleaning of oily dirt by soap is based on CH3

[Rajasthan NTSE Stage-I/14]
(A) solubility in water CH3
(B) hydrophilic property (C) CH2–CH2–CH2–CH2
(C) hydrophobic property
CH3
(D) presence of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups
(D) CH3–CH2–CH2–CH2–CH2

C 2H 5

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
22. W hich statement is correct regarding ethane ethene 30. Identify the functional group present in the following
and ethyne ? [West Bengal_NTSE Stage-I/15] compound
(A) Ethyne is weakest acid and C–H bond length is O
longest.
(B) Ethyne is strongest acid and C–H bond length is
CH3–CH–CH3–C–OH
shortest Br
(C) Ethane is strongest acid and C–H bond length is [Jharkhand NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
longest. (A) Aldehyde
(D) Ethene is the strongest acid and C–H bond length (B) Bromine
is shortest (C) Carboxyl
(D) both bromine and carboxyl group
23. 1 mole of a hydrocarbon ‘X’ undergoes complete satu-
ration with 1 mole of hydrogen in presence of a heated 31. The compound which shows keto-enol
catalyst. What would be the formula of ‘X’ ? [Bihar NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
[West Bengal_NTSE Stage-I/15] tautomerism is
(A) C2H6 (B) C2H2 (A) C6H5CHO
(C) C5H10 (D) C7H16 (B) CH3COCH3
(C) CH3COOC2H 5
24. Which of the following are isomers ? (D) CH3COCH2 COOC2H5
[West Bengal_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) Butane and Isobutene 32. Methane is obtained when
(B) Ethane and Ethene [Bihar NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(C) Propane and Propyne (A) sodium acetate is heated with soda lime.
(D) Butane and Isobutane (B) methyl iodide is reduced.
(C) Al4 C3 is reacted with water.
25. W hich of the following has shortest carbon-carbon (D) All of the above
bond length ? [Delhi_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) C2H2 (B) C2H4
33. Benzene on nitration and sulfonation respectively gives
(C) C2H6 (D) C6H6
[Bihar NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
26. W hich of the following may be isomer of aldehyde (A) NO2 and SO3
having general formula CnH 2nO ? (B) NO2 and SO2
[Delhi_NTSE Stage-I/15] (C) NO+ and SO2
(A) Alcohol (B) Ether (D) NO+2 and SO3
(C) Ester (D) Ketone
34. Reaction of water with aluminium carbide gives a
27. IUPAC name of the first member of homologous series colourles. gas. The gas is:
of ketones is [Rajasthan_NTSE Stage-I/15] [Gujrat NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Ethanone (B) Propanol (A) Methane (B) Acetylene
(C) Methanone (D) Propanone (C) Ethane (D) Propane

28. An alkyne has 4 numbers of hydrogen atoms. What 35. In saponification process, the fatty acid present in the
will be the number of carbon atoms in it ? oils is neutralised by adding
[Rajasthan_NTSE Stage-I/15] [Karnataka NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Two (B) Three (A) Sodium hydroxide
(C) Four (D) Five (B) Aluminium hydroxide
(C) Calcium hydroxide
29. Which of the following solution of acetic acid in water is (D) Magnesium hydroxide
used as preservative ?
[Telangana NTSE Stage-1/ 2015] 36. Diabetic patients sometimes use this artificial
(A) 15–20% sweeteners [Karnataka NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(B) 5–8% (A) Glycerol
(C) 100% (B) Cane Sugar
(D) 50% (C) Brown Sugar
(D) Molasses

PAGE # 142
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
37. This is not true regarding the micelle. 43. The path of light gets illuminated when passed
[Karnataka NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
through the solution: [Delhi NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) The micelle stay in solution as a colloid
(B) Micelle will not come together to precipitate (A) Blood solution(aq)
(C) There is ion-ion repulsion (B) Brine solution (aq)
(D) The dirt suspended in the micelles is very difficult
to get rinsed oil (C) Copper sulphate solution(aq)
(D) Acetic acid solution(aq)
38. This is not a characteristic of members of a
homologous series. [Karnataka NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
44. The number of structural isomers of the compound
(A) They possess varying chemical properties
(B) Their properties vary in regular and predictable having molecular formula C4H 9Br is :
manner [NTSE Stage-2/ 2015]
(C) Their formulae fit the general molecular formula
(D) Adjacent members differ by one carbon and two (A) 3 (B) 5
hydrogen atoms
(C) 4 (D) 2

39. Temporary hardness of water is due to compound 'A'

and can be removed by adding compound 'B'. A and B
45. The total number of electrons and the number of
respectively can be : [Haryana NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Mg(HCO3)2, CaCO3 electrons involved in the formation of various bonds
(B) CaSO4, HCl present in one molecule of propanal (C 2H5CHO) are
(C) CaCl2, MgSO4 respectively : [NTSE Stage-2/ 2015]
(D) Ca(HCO3)2,Ca(OH)2
(A) 32 and 20 (B) 24 and 20
40. A gas on passing through ammonical AgNO3 does not (C) 24 and 18 (D) 32 and 18
give any precipitate but decolourises alkaline KMnO4
The gas may be : [Haryana NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) C2H6 (B) C2H4 46. Ethanol is made unfit for drinking by adding
(C) C2H2 (D) C3H8 [Raj. NTSEStage-1/2016]
(A) Propanol (B) Methanal
41. Acetic acid, with the molecular formula CH3 COOH has
(C) Methanol (D) Ethanal
[West Bengal NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) 8 covalent bonds (B) 7 covalent bonds
47. Identify X in the following reaction -
(C) 9 covalent bonds (D) 10 covalent bonds.
Hot,conc.
CH3-CH2-OH   
 (X) + H2O
H2SO 4
42. Consider the chemical formulae CH3COOH and
HCOOCH3 and choose the incorrect statement:
[Raj. NTSEStage-1/2016]
(A) Both have the equal boiling point
(A) Ethane (B) Methane
(B) Both have the equal molecular weight
(C) Ethene (D) Ethanol
(C) Both have the equal number of covalent bonds
(D) Both are not the same compound



PAGE # 143
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 METALS AND NON-METALS
INTRODUCTION
There are 118 chemical elements known at present.
On the basis of their properties, all these elements
can be broadly divided into two main groups: Metals
and Non-Metals. A majority of the known elements
are metals. All the metals are solids, except mercury,
which is a liquid metal at room temperature. There
are 22 non-metals, out of which, 10 non-metals are
solids, one non-metal (bromine) is a liquid and the
remaining 11 non-metals are gases at room
temperature.
POSITION OF METALS AND NON-METALS
IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
The metals are placed on the left hand side and in
the centre of the periodic table. On the other hand, the
non-metals are placed on the right hand side of the
periodic table. This has been shown in the figure. It
may be noted that hydrogen (H) is an exception
because it is non-metal but is placed on the left hand
side of the periodic table.
Metals and non-metals are separated from each other
in the periodic table by a zig-zag line. The elements
close to zig-zag line show properties of both the
metals and the non-metals. They show some
properties of metals and some properties of non-
metals. These are called metalloids. The common
examples of metalloids are boron (B), silicon (Si),
germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), tellurium
(Te) and polonium (Po).
In general, the metallic character decreases on going
from left to right side in the periodic table. However,
on going down the group, the metallic character
increases.
 Note :
The elements at the extreme left of the periodic table
are most metallic and those on the right are least
metallic or non-metallic.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
AND NON-METALS
(a) Electronic Configuration of Metals :
The atoms of metals have 1 to 3 electrons in their
outermost shells. For example, all the alkali metals
have one electron in their outermost shells (lithium -
2, 1 ; sodium-2, 8, 1; potassium-2, 8, 8, 1 etc.).
Sodium, magnesium and aluminium are metals
having 1, 2 and 3 electrons respectively in their
valence shells. Similarly, other metals have 1 to 3
electrons in their outermost shells.
It may be noted that hydrogen and helium are
exception because hydrogen is a non-metal having
only 1 electron in the outermost shell (K shell) of its
atom and helium is also a non-metal having 2
electrons in the outermost shell (K shell).
(b) Physical Properties of Metals :
The important physical properties of metals are
discussed below :
(i) Metals are solids at room temperature: All metals
(except mercury) are solids at room temperature.
 Note :
Mercury is a liquid at room temperature.
(ii) Metals are malleable :
Metals are generally malleable. Malleability means
that the metals can be beaten with a hammer into
very thin sheets without breaking. Gold and silver are
among the best malleable metals. Aluminium and
copper are also highly malleable metals.
(iii) Metals are ductile :
It means that metals can be drawn (stretched) into
thin wires. Gold and silver are the most ductile metals.
Copper and aluminium are also very ductile and
therefore, these can be drawn into thin wires which
are used in electrical wiring.
(iv) Metals are good conductors of heat and
electricity :
All metals are good conductors of heat. The conduction
of heat is called thermal conductivity. Silver is the best
conductor of heat. Copper and aluminium are also
good conductors of heat and therefore, they are used
for making household utensils. Lead is the poorest
conductor of heat. Mercury metal is also a good
conductor of heat.
Metals are also good conductors of electricity. The
electrical and thermal conductivities of metals are
due to the presence of free electrons in them. Among
all the metals, silver is the best conductor of electricity.
Copper and aluminium are the next best conductors
of electricity. Since silver is expensive, therefore,
copper and aluminium are commonly used for
making electric wires.
 Note :
Silver is best conductor of heat and electricity.
PAGE # 144
 (v) Metals are lustrous and can be polished :
Most of the metals have shine and they can be polished.
The shining appearance of metals is also known as
metallic lustre. For example, gold, silver and copper metals
have metallic lustre.
 Activity :
To demonstrate action of air, moisture and other
gases on the metal surface.
Take a piece of Magnesium ribbon, Aluminium wire
and a sheet of Copper and note their appearance. Now
rub the surface of each metal with a sand paper and
observe their appearance again. You will observe that
the metal articles, which had a dull appearance,
become bright on rubbing. This can be explained as
follows :
When a metal has been kept exposed to air for a long
time, its appearance becomes dull as it loses most of
its shine or brightness. This is due to formation of a
thin layer of oxide, hydroxide, carbonate or sulphide of
the metal by slow action of the moisture and gases
present in the air with the metal. This process of
deposition of a layer of metal oxides or other such metal
compounds is termed as corrosion of metal. For
example, the surface of aluminium on exposure to air
is covered with a thin layer of aluminium oxide which
prevents further reaction between aluminium
underneath and air. Similarly, copper is coated with a
green layer when kept in moist air due to formation of
Basic copper carbonate while silver articles acquire
blackish colour due to formation of silver sulphide on
its surface.
On rubbing the dull metal surface with a sand paper,
the outer corroded layer can be removed and the metal
surface again becomes lustrous and bright.
(vi) Metals have high densities :
Most of the metals are heavy and have high densities.
For example, the density of mercury metal is very high
(13.6 g cm –3). However, there are some exceptions.
Sodium, potassium, magnesium and aluminium have
low densities. Densities of metals are generally
proportional to their atomic masses.
(vii) Metals are hard :
Most of the metals are hard. But all metals are not
equally hard. Metals like iron, copper, aluminium etc.
are quite hard. They cannot be cut with a knife. Sodium
and potassium are common exceptions which are soft
and can be easily cut with a knife.
(viii) Metals have high melting and boiling points :
Most of the metals (except Na, K, Rb, Cs, Ga) have
high melting and boiling points.
 Note :
Tungsten has highest melting point (34100C) among
all the metals.
(ix) Metals are rigid : Most of the metals are rigid and
they have high tensile strength.
(x) Metals are sonorous : Most of the metals are
sonorous i.e, they make sound when hit with an object.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(c) Electronic Configuration of Non-Metals :
The atoms of non-metals have usually 4 to 8 electrons
in their outermost shells. For example, Carbon (At. No.
6), Nitrogen (At. No. 7), Oxygen (At. No. 8), Fluorine (At.
No. 9) and Neon (At. No. 10) have respectively 4,5,6,7,8
electrons in their outermost shells.
(d) Physical Properties of Non-Metals :
The important physical properties of non-metals are
listed below:
(i) Non-metals are brittle.
(ii) Non-metals are not ductile.
(iii) Non-metals are bad conductor of heat and
electricity. (Exception: Graphite is a good conductor
because of the presence of free electrons.)
(iv) Non-metals are not lustrous and cannot be
polished. (Exception: Graphite and Iodine are lustrous
non-metals.)
(v) Non-metals may be solid, liquid, or gases at room
temperature.
(vi) Non-metals are generally soft. (Exception:
Diamond, an allotropic form of non-metal Carbon, is
the hardest natural substance known).
(vii) Non-metals have generally low melting and boiling
points. (Exception: Graphite, another allotropic form of
Carbon, has a melting point of about 3730°C).
(viii) Non-metals have low densities. (Exception: Iodine
has high density).
 Note :
Graphite is a good conductor of electricity, lustrous and
has very high melting point.
(e) Chemical Properties of Metals :
The atoms of the metals have usually 1, 2 or 3
electrons in their outermost shells. These outermost
electrons are loosely held by their nuclei. Therefore,
the metal atoms can easily lose their outermost
electrons to form positively charged ions. For example,
sodium metal can lose outermost one electron to form
positively charged ion, Na+. After losing the outermost
electron, it gets stable electronic configuration of the
noble gas (Ne : 2, 8). Similarly, magnesium can lose
two outermost electrons to form Mg 2+ ion and
aluminium can lose its three outermost electrons to
form Al3+ ion.
Na Na+ + e–
(2, 8, 1) (2, 8)
Mg Mg2+ + 2e–
(2, 8, 2) (2, 8)
Al Al3+ + 3e–
(2, 8, 3) (2, 8)
 Note :
The metal atoms lose electrons and form positively
charged ions, therefore, the metals are called
electropositive elements.
PAGE # 145
 Difference between the physical properties of metals & nonmetals

PAGE # 146
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Some of the important chemical properties of metals are (D) Metals like iron and copper do not burn in air even
discussed below : on strong heating. However, they react with oxygen only
(i) Reaction with oxygen : on prolonged heating.
3Fe(s) + 2O2(g) Fe3O4(s)
Metals react with oxygen to form oxides. These oxides
are basic in nature. For example, sodium metal reacts Iron Oxygen Iron (II, III) oxide
with oxygen of the air and form sodium oxide. 2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s)
4 Na(s) + O2(g) 2 Na2O(s) Copper Oxygen Copper (II) oxide
Sodium oxide (ii) Reaction with water :
Sodium oxide reacts with water to form an alkali called
Metals react with water to form metal oxide or metal
sodium hydroxide. Therefore, sodium oxide is a basic
hydroxide and hydrogen. The reactivity of metals
oxide.
towards water depends upon the nature of the metals.
Na2O(s) + H2O() 2NaOH(aq)
Some metals react even with cold water, some react
Sodium hydroxide
with water only on heating while there are some metals
Due to the formation of sodium hydroxide (which is an
which do not react even with steam. For example,
alkali), the solution of sodium oxide in water turns red
litmus blue (common property of all alkaline solutions). (A) Sodium and potassium metals react vigorously
 Note : with cold water to form their respective hydroxides and
W hen metal oxides are dissolved in water, they give hydrogen gas is liberated.
alkaline solutions. 2 Na(s) + 2H2O() 2NaOH (aq) + H2(g)
Similarly, magnesium is a metal and it reacts with oxygen
Sodium Cold water Sodium Hydrogen
to form magnesium oxide. However, magnesium is less
hydroxide
reactive than sodium and therefore, heat is required
for the reaction. 2K (s) + 2H2O() 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2 MgO(s) Potassium Cold water Potassium Hydrogen
Thus, when a metal combines with oxygen, it loses its hydroxide
valence electrons and forms positively charged metal  Note :
ion. We can say that oxidation of metal takes place. The reaction between sodium and water is so violent
Reactivity of metals towards oxygen : that the hydrogen evolved catches fire.

All metals do not react with oxygen with equal case. (B) Calcium reacts with cold water to form calcium
The reactivity of oxygen depends upon the nature of hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The reaction is less
the metal. Some metals react with oxygen even at room violent.
temperature, some react on heating while still others Ca(s) + 2H2O() Ca (OH)2 (aq) + H2(g)
react only on strong heating. For example :
Calcium Cold water Calcium hydroxide
(A) Metals like sodium, potassium and calcium react
with oxygen even at room temperature to form their (C) Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water but
oxides. reacts rapidly with hot boiling water forming
magnesium oxide and hydrogen.
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
Sodium Oxygen Sodium Mg (s) + H2O () MgO(s) + H2(g)
oxide Magnesium Boiling Magnesium
4K(s) + O2(g) 2K2O(s) water oxide
Potassium Oxygen Potassium oxide
(D) Metals like zinc and aluminium react only with steam
2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2 CaO(s) to form their respective oxides and hydrogen.
Calcium Oxygen Calcium oxide Zn (s) + H2O(g) ZnO (s) + H2(g)
Zinc Steam Zinc oxide
(B) Metals like magnesium do not react with oxygen at
room temperature. They burn in air on heating to form 2Al (s) + 3H2O (g) Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g)
corresponding oxides. Aluminium Steam Aluminium
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) oxide
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium oxide
(E) Iron metal does not react with water under ordinary
(C) Metals like zinc do not react with oxygen at room conditions. The reaction occurs only when steam is
temperature. They burn in air only on strong heating passed over red hot iron and the products are iron
to form corresponding oxides.
(II,III) oxide and hydrogen.
2 Zn(s) + O2 (g) 2 ZnO(s) 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
Zinc Oxygen Zinc oxide Iron Steam Iron (II,III) Hydrogen
(Red hot) oxide

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 (F) Metals like copper, silver and gold do not react with (C) Iron reacts slowly with dilute HCl or dil. H2SO4 and
water even under strong conditions. The order of therefore, it is less reactive than zinc and aluminium.
reactivities of different metals with water is : Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeCl2(aq) + H 2(g)
Iron Hydrochloric Ferrous Hydrogen
Na > Mg > Zn > Fe > Cu
acid chloride
Reactivity with water decreases Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(iii) Reaction with dilute acids : Iron Sulphuric Ferrous Hydrogen
acid sulphate
Many metals react with dilute acids and liberate
(D) Copper does not react with dil. HCl or dil H2SO4 .
hydrogen gas. Only less reactive metals such as Cu(s) + HCl (aq) No reaction
copper, silver, gold etc. do not liberate hydrogen from Cu(s) + H2SO4(aq) No reaction
dilute acids. The reactions of metals with dilute
Therefore copper is even less reactive than iron.
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and dilute sulphuric acid
(H 2SO 4) are similar. W ith dil. HCl, they give metal The order of reactivity of different metals with dilute
acid:
chlorides and hydrogen whereas with dil. H2SO4, they
give metal sulphates and hydrogen. Na > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Cu
Reactivity with dilute acids decreases from sodium to
 Note :
copper.
Dilute nitric acid (HNO 3) is an oxidising agent which (iv) Reactions of metals with salt solutions :
oxidises metals,but does not produce hydrogen. When a more reactive metal is placed in a salt solution
But Mg & Mn produce hydrogen on reacting with dilute of less reactive metal, then the more reactive metal
displaces the less reactive metal from its salt solution.
HNO3.
For example, we will take a solution of copper sulphate
The reactivity of different metals is different with the (blue coloured solution) and put a strip of zinc metal in
same acid. For example : the solution. It is observed that the blue colour of copper
sulphate fades gradually and copper metal is deposited
(A) Sodium, magnesium and calcium react violently
on the zinc strip. This means that the following reaction
with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) or dilute sulphuric occurs :
acid (H 2 SO 4) liberating hydrogen gas and
corresponding metal salt. Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Zinc Copper Zinc sulphate Copper
2Na(s) + 2HCl (aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g) sulphate (Colourless solution)
Sodium Hydrochloric Sodium Hydrogen (Blue solution)
acid chloride
2Na(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + H2(g) Here, zinc displaces copper from its salt solution.
However, if we take zinc sulphate solution and put a
Sodium Sulphuric Sodium Hydrogen
strip of copper metal in this solution, no reaction occurs.
acid sulphate ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s) No reaction
Similarly, Zinc Copper
Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) sulphate
Magnesium Hydrochloric Magnesium Hydrogen
acid chloride This means that copper cannot displace zinc metal
from its solution. Thus, we can conclude that zinc is
Mg(s) + H2SO4 (aq) MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
more reactive than copper. However, if we put gold or
Magnesium Sulphuric Magnesium Hydrogen platinum strip in the copper sulphate solution, then
acid sulphate copper is not displaced by gold or platinum. Thus, gold
and platinum are less reactive than copper.
(B) Aluminium and zinc react with dilute hydrochloric
acid (HCl) or dilute sulphuric acid (H 2SO 4) liberating REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS
hydrogen gas and corresponding metal salt.
(a) Introduction :
2Al(s) + 6HCl (aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g) We have learnt that some metals are chemically very
Aluminium Hydrochloric Aluminium Hydrogen reactive while others are less reactive or do not react at all.
acid chloride On the basis of reactivity of different metals with oxygen,
2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) Al2(SO4)3(aq)+ 3H2(g) water and acids as well as displacement reactions,
Aluminium Sulphuric Aluminium Hydrogen the metals have been arranged in the decreasing order
acid sulphate of their reactivities.
Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) The arrangement of metals in order of decreasing
reactivities is called reactivity series or activity series
Zinc Hydrochloric Zinc Hydrogen
of metals.
acid chloride
The activity series of some common metals is given in
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
Table. In this table, the most reactive metal is placed at
Zinc Sulphuric Zinc Hydrogen
the top whereas the least reactive metal is placed at
acid sulphate
the bottom. As we go down the series the chemical
reactivity of metals decreases.

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 REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS

Lithium Li Most reactive metal

Potassium K
Barium Ba
Metals
more reactive Sodium Na
than hydrogen Calcium Ca

Reactivity decreases
Reactivity increases Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
Zinc Zn
Iron Fe
Nickel Ni
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H
Copper Cu

Metals Mercury Hg
less reactive Silver Ag
than hydrogen
Gold Au
Platinum Pt Least reactive metal

(b) Reasons for Different Reactivities : ( d) R ea ct iv it y Se ri es a nd Dis pl ac em ent

In the activity series of metals, the basis of reactivity is
the tendency of metals to lose electrons. If a metal can
lose electrons easily to form positive ions, it will react
readily with other substances. Therefore, it will be a
reactive metal. On the other hand, if a metal loses
electrons less readily to form a positive ion, it will react
slowly with the other substances. Therefore, such a
metal will be less reactive. For example, alkali metals
such as sodium and potassium lose electrons very
readily to form alkali metal ions, therefore, they are
very reactive.
(c ) Di sp la ce me nt of Hy dr og en from Ac id s
by Metals :
All metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series (i.e.
more active than hydrogen) like zinc, magnesium, nickel
etc. can liberate hydrogen from acids like HCl and H2SO4.
These metals have greater tendency to lose electrons
than hydrogen. Therefore, the H+ ions in the acids will
accept electrons and give hydrogen gas as :
M M+ (aq) + e–
Metal
H+ (aq) + e– H hydrogen from its compounds like water and acids.
(From acid)
H+ H H2 
The metals which are below hydrogen in the reactivity
series (i.e. less reactive than hydrogen) like copper,
silver, gold cannot liberate hydrogen form acids like
HCl, H2SO4 etc. These metals have lesser tendency to
lose electrons than hydrogen. Therefore, they cannot
give electrons to H+ ions.
Reacti ons :
The reactivity series can also explain displacement
reactions. In general, a more reactive metal (placed
higher in the activity series) can displace the less
reactive metal from its salt solution. For example, zinc,
displaces copper from its salt solution.
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
(e) Usefulness of Activity Series :
The activity series is very useful and it gives the
following informations :
(i) The metal which is higher in the activity series is
more reactive than the others. Lithium is the most
reactive and platinum is the least reactive metal.
(ii) The metals which have been placed above hydrogen
are more reactive than hydrogen and these can
displace hydrogen from its compounds like water and
acids to liberate hydrogen gas.
(iii) The metals which are placed below hydrogen are
less reactive than hydrogen and these cannot displace
(iv) A more reactive metal (placed higher in the activity
series) can displace the less reactive metal from its salt
solution.
(v) Metals at the top of the series are very reactive and,
therefore, they do not occur free in nature. The metals
at the bottom of the series are least reactive and,
therefore, they normally occur free in nature. For
example, gold, present in the reactivity series is found
in free state in nature.

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 (f) Chemical Properties of Non-metals : Phosphorus also forms an oxide, phosphorus trioxide,
which dissolves in water to give phosphorous acid.
Non-metals have usually 4 to 8 electrons in the
P4 (s) + 3O2 (g)  2P2O3 (s)
outermost shells. They have the tendency to accept
Phosphorous trioxide
electrons to complete their octets. By accepting the
electrons, they form negatively charged ions and, P2O3 (s) + 3H2O (l)  2H3PO3 (aq)
therefore, they are electronegative elements. For Phosphorous acid
example, nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine can accept 3, 2
The acidic oxides of non-metals neutralise bases to
and 1 electrons respectively to complete their octets form salt and water. For example,
as :
SO2 + 2NaOH  Na2SO3 + H2O
N + 3e–  N3– gains 3 electrons
Sodium sulphite
O + 2e–  O2– gains 2 electrons
Neutral Oxides
F + e–  F– gains 1 electron Some oxides of non-metals are neutral. For example,
Some of the important properties of non-metals are carbon monoxide (CO), nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide
discussed below : (N2O), water (H2O) etc.
(i) Reaction of non-metals with oxygen : For example :

Non-metals react with oxygen to form acidic or neutral 2C (s) + O2 (g)  2CO (g)
oxides. These oxides are covalent in nature and are Carbon monoxide
formed by sharing of electrons. The acidic oxides (Neutral oxide)
dissolve in water to give acids. 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)  2H2O (l)
Acidic oxides Water
The oxides of carbon, sulphur, phosphorus etc., are (Neutral oxide)
acidic and therefore, they turn blue litmus solution red. These oxides do not turn blue litmus solution red.
For example :
(ii) Reaction with hydrogen :
(i) Carbon reacts with oxygen of air to form carbon
dioxide. Non-metals react with hydrogen under different
conditions to form corresponding covalent hydrides.
C (s) + O2 (g)  CO2(g) For example, H 2 O, H 2 S, NH 3 , HCl, CH 4 etc., are
Carbon Carbon dioxide common hydrides of oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, chlorine
Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form an acid called and carbon respectively.
carbonic acid. Electric
2H2 (g) + O2 (g)   2H O (l)
spark 2
CO2 (g) + H2O (l)  H2CO3 (aq)
H2 (g) + S (s) 715 K
Carbonic acid   H2S (g)
(an acid) Fe / Mo, 775K
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)     2NH3 (g)
(ii) Sulphur burns in air to give sulphur dioxide. 200 atm

S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g) Diffused

H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)   2HCl (g)
sunlight
Sulphur dioxide
(iii) Reaction of non-metals with water : Non-metals
Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water to form an acid called do not react with water or steam to give hydrogen gas.
sulphurous acid. This is because non-metals cannot give electrons to
SO2 (g) + H2O (l)  H2SO3 (aq) reduce the hydrogen ions of water into hydrogen gas.
(iv) Reaction with acids : Non-metals do not react
Sulphurous acid
with dilute acids and therefore, hydrogen gas is not
Sulphur also forms an oxide, sulphur trioxide, which liberated when non-metals are treated with dilute
dissolves in water to give sulphuric acid. acids. Therefore, non-metals do not displace hydrogen
(iii) W hen phosphorus is burnt in air, it reacts with from dilute acids. For example, carbon, sulphur or
phosphorus do not react with dilute acids such as dil
oxygen of air to form phosphorus pentoxide (P 2 O5 ).
HCl or dil H2SO4 to produce hydrogen gas. We have
This is also an acidic oxide and dissolves in water to
seen that hydrogen can only be displaced from dilute
give an acid, phosphoric acid. acids if electrons are supplied to H+ ions of the acids.
P4 (s) + 5O2 (g)  2P2O5 (s) H2SO4 (aq)  2H+ (aq) + SO42– (aq)
Phosphorous pentoxide +
2H (aq) + 2e –
 H2 (g)
P2O5 (s) + 3H2O (l)  2H3PO4 (aq) But the non-metals are electron acceptors and,
Phosphoric acid therefore, they cannot give electron to H+ ions of an
acid. Hence, hydrogen gas is not liberated.

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 (v) Reaction with chlorine : Non-metals react with 2NaBr (aq) + Cl2  2NaCl (aq) + Br2
chlorine to form covalent chlorides such as HCl, PCl3, Sodium chloride
CCl4 etc. For example,
However, bromine cannot displace chlorine from its
Diffused salt solution.
H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)   2HCl (g)
sunlight
2NaCl (aq) + Br2  No reaction.
Hydrogen chloride
(vi) Reaction with salt solution : Therefore, chlorine is a more reactive non-metal than
, A more reactive non-metal displaces a less reactive bromine.

non-metal from its salt. For example, when chlorine is Comparison of reactivities of halogens is : F > Cl > Br > I
passed through a solution of sodium bromide, then
bromine is liberated.
Comparison of the Chemical Properties of Metals & Non Metals

Chemical Properties Metals Non-Metals

1. Nature of oxides Metals form basic oxides, some
are amphoteric also.
2. Displacement of Metals displace hydrogen from
hydrogen from acids acids and form salts.
3. Reaction with chlorine Metals react with Cl2 to form
electrovalent chlorides.
4. Reaction with hydrogen With hydrogen, only a few
metals combine to form
electrovalent hydrides.
5. Electropositive or Metals are electropositive in
electronegative character nature.
6. Oxidising and reducing Metals act as reducing agents.
agent character
Non-metals form acidic
or neutral oxides.
Non-metals do not displace
hydrogen from acids.
Non-metals react with Cl2
to form covalent chlorides.
With hydrogen, non-metals
form many stable hydrides
which are covalent.
Non-metals are
electronegative in nature.
Non-metals act as oxidising
agents.

Atoms combine with one another to achieve the inert

HOW METALS REACT WITH NON-METALS
Octet Rule : Octet rule was given by G.N. Lewis and W.
Kossel in 1916.
According to octet rule “an atom whose outermost shell
contains 8 electrons (octet) is stable.”
This rule, however, does not hold good in case of certain
small atoms like helium (He) in which presence of 2
electrons (duplet) in the outermost shell is considered
to be the condition of stability.
Examples of elements whose atoms have fully filled
or 8 electrons in their outermost shell are -
gas electron arrangement and become stable. Atoms
form chemical bonds to achieve stability by acquiring
the inert gas configuration or by completing their octet
or duplet ( in case of small atoms) in outermost shell.
An atom can achieve the inert gas electron
arrangement in three ways -
(i) by losing one or more electrons.
(ii) by gaining one or more electrons.
(iii) by sharing one or more electrons.
 Note : Noble gases do not usually form bonds with other
elements, because they are stable. So, atoms of elements
have the tendency to combine with one another to achieve
the inert gas configuration.

Atomic Electronic No. of valence CONCEPT OF BOND

Element Symbol
Number configuration electrons
Except the elements of group 18 of the periodic table
Neon Ne 10 2,8 8
all the elements of the remaining group, at normal
Argon Ar 18 2,8,8 8
Krypton Kr 36 2,8,18,8 8
temperature and pressure, are not stable in
independent state. These elements form stable
 Note : compounds either by combining with the other atoms
All noble gases contain 8 valence electrons (except or with their own atoms. W hen in gross electronic
He in which 2 valence electrons are present) and are configuration of the elements there are 8 electrons
stable. They do not usually form bonds with other present then these elements do not take part in the
chemical reaction because atoms containing 8
elements.
electrons in their outermost shell are associated with
extra stability and less energy.

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 Atoms with other electronic configuration, which do not (a) Properties of Ionic Compounds :
contain eight electrons in their outermost shell, are (i) Ionic compounds consist of ions : All ionic
unstable and to achieve the stability they chemically compounds consist of positively and negatively
combine in such a manner that they achieve eight charged ions and not molecules. For example, sodium
electrons in their outermost shell. chloride consists of Na+ and Cl– ions, magnesium
Two or more than two types of atoms mutually combine fluoride consists of Mg2+ and F– ions and so on.
with each other to achieve stable configuration of eight
(ii) Physical nature : Ionic compounds are solid and
valence electrons. Attempt to achieve eight electrons
relatively hard due to strong electrostatic force of
in the outermost orbit of an element is the reason
attraction between the ions of ionic compound.
behind its chemical reactivity or chemical bonding.
(iii) Crystal structure : X-ray studies have shown that
ionic compounds do not exist as simple single
IONIC OR ELECTROVALENT BOND molecules as Na+ Cl–. This is due to the fact that the
This bond is formed by the atoms of electropositive forces of attraction are not restricted to single unit such
and electronegative elements. Electropositive as Na+ and Cl– but due to uniform electric field around
elements lose electrons in chemical reaction and an ion, each ion is attracted to a large number of other
ions. For example, one Na+ ion will not attract only one
electronegative elements gain electrons in chemical
Cl– ion but it can attract as many negative charges as it
reaction. When an atom of electropositive element come
can. Similarly, the Cl– ion will attract several Na+ ions.
in contact with that of an electronegative element then
As a result, there is a regular arrangement of these
the electropositive atom loses electron & becomes
ions in three dimensions as shown in diagram. Such
positively charged, while the electronegative atom a regular arrangements is called crystal lattice.
gains the electron to become negatively charged.
Electrostatic force of attraction works between the
positively and negatively charged ions due to which
both ions are bonded with each other. As a result, a
chemical bond is produced between the ions, forming
Ionic or Electrovalent compound.
 Note :
Number of electrons donated or accepted by any
element is called Electrovalency.
In an ionic compound every cation is surrounded by a
fixed number of anions and every anion is surrounded
by a fixed number of cations and they are bonded in a
fixed geometry in a three dimensional structure.
Example : Sodium chloride compound.
Sodium atom (Electropositive element) by losing an
electron from its outermost orbit, gets converted into a
cation and attains noble gas like stable configuration.
Energy required for this process is called “ionization
(iv) Melting point and boiling point : Strong electrostatic
energy.”
force of attraction is present between ions of opposite
Na + IE  Na+ + e– charges. To break the crystal lattice more energy is
(2,8,1) (2,8) required so their melting points and boiling points are
Chlorine atom (Electronegative element) accepts the high.
electron donated by sodium atom in its outermost (v) Solubility : Ionic compounds are generally soluble
orbit and forms chloride anion. in polar solvents like water and insoluble in non - polar
In this process energy is released which is known as solvents like carbon tetrachloride, benzene, ether,
“electron affinity.” alcohol etc.
(vi) Brittle nature : Ionic compounds on applying
+ e–  + EA external force or pressure are broken into small pieces,
(2,8,7) (2,8,8) such substances are known as brittle and this property
is known as brittleness. When external force is applied
Due to the opposite charges on the Na+ and Cl¯ ions, on the ionic compound, layers of ions slide over one
they are bonded by electrostatic force of attraction to another and particles of the same charge come near
form NaCl compound. to each other as a result due to the strong repulsion
force, crystals of compounds are broken.
Na+ + Cl–  or NaCl
Here electrovalency of sodium and chlorine atom is –
+ + – + + – + – +
one.
– + – + – – + – + –
For the formation of ionic bond, it is necessary that the
+ – + – +
ionization energy of electropositive element should be + – + – +
– + – + –
less and the electron affinity of electronegative element – + – + –
should be high.
Brittle nature of ionic compounds

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 (vii) Electrical conductivity : Electrical conductivity in
any substance is due to the movement of free electrons
or ions. In metals electrical conductivity is due to the
free movement of valency electrons. An ionic compound
exhibits electrical conductivity due to the movement of
ions either in the fused state or in the soluble state in
the polar solvent. But in the solid state due to strong
electrostatic force of attraction free ions are absent so
they are insulator in the solid state.
OCCURRENCE OF METALS
All metals are present in the earth’s crust either in the
free state or in the form of their compounds. Aluminium Nature of
is the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust. The
second most abundant metal is iron and third one is
(a) Types of Ores :
The most common ores of metals are oxides,
sulphides, carbonates, sulphates, halides, etc. In
general, very unreactive metals (such as gold, silver,
platinum etc.) occur in elemental form or free state.
(i) Metals which are only slightly reactive occur as
sulphides (e.g., CuS, PbS etc.).
(ii) Reactive metals occur as oxides (e.g., MnO2, Al2O3
etc.).
(iii) Most reactive metals occur as salts as carbonates,
sulphates, halides etc. (e.g., Ca, Mg, K etc.).
Some common ores are listed in the table
Metal Name of the ore Composition
ore
Aluminium Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O

calcium. Oxide Copper Cuprite Cu2O

ores Magnetite Fe3O4
(a) Native and Combined States of Metals : Iron
Haematite Fe2O3
Metals occur in the crust of earth in the following two Copper pyrites CuFeS2
states - Copper
Copper glance Cu2S
Sulphide
ores Zinc Zinc blende ZnS
(i) Native state or free state : A metal is said to occur in Lead Galena PbS
a free or a native state when it is found in the crust of Mercury Cinnabar HgS
the earth in the elementary or uncombined form. Carbonate Calcium Limestone CaCO3
ores Zinc Calamine ZnCO3
The metals which are very unreactive (lying at the
Sodium Rock salt NaCl
bottom of activity series) are found in the free state.
Halide Magnesium Carnallite KCl.MgCl2.6H2O
These have no tendency to react with oxygen and are ores Calcium Fluorspar CaF2
not attacked by moisture, carbon dioxide of air or other Silver Horn silver AgCl
non-metals. Silver, copper, gold and platinum are Calcium Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
some examples of such metals. Sulphate Magnesium Epsom salt MgSO4.7H2O
ores Barium Barytes BaSO4
(ii) Combined state : A metal is said to occur in a
Lead Anglesite PbSO4
combined state if it is found in nature in the form of its
compounds. e.g. Sodium , magnesium etc.
METALLURGY
 Note : The process of extracting metals from their ores and
Copper and silver are metals which occur in the free then refining them for use is called metallurgy.
state as well as in the combined state. The ores generally contain unwanted impurities such
as sand, stone, earthy particles, limestone, mica etc.,
these are called gangue or matrix.
MINERALS AND ORES
The process of metallurgy depends upon the nature of
The natural substances in which metals or their the ore, nature of the metal and the types of impurities
compounds occur either in native state or combined present. Therefore, there is not a single method for the
state are called minerals. extraction of all metals. However, most of the metals
can be extracted by a general procedure which involves
The minerals are not pure and contain different types
the following steps.
of other impurities. The impurities associated with Various steps involved in metallurgical processes are -
minerals are collectively known as gangue or matrix.
(a) Crushing and grinding of the ore.
The mineral from which the metal can be conveniently
and profitably extracted, is called an ore. (b) Concentration of the ore or enrichment of the ore.
For example, aluminium occurs in the earth’s crust in (c) Extraction of metal from the concentrated ore.
the form of two minerals, bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O) and clay (d) Refining or purification of the impure metal.
(Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O). Out of these two, aluminium can
These steps are briefly discussed below -
be conveniently and profitably extracted from bauxite .
So, bauxite is an ore of aluminium. (a) Crushing and Grinding of Ore :
Note : Oxygen is the most abundant element in earth’s Most of the ores occur as big rocks in nature. They are
crust. broken into small pieces with the help of crushers.
These pieces are then reduced to fine powder with the
help of a ball mill or a stamp mill.

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 (A) Crushing in a hammer mill (B) Pulverisation in a stamp mill
Crushing and pulverisation of an ore

(b ) Concentra tion of Ore or Enr ichm ent of

Ore :

The process of removal of unwanted impurities

(gangue) from the ore is called ore concentration or
ore enrichment.

(i) Hydraulic washing (washing with water) :

Principle : This method is based upon the difference
in the densities of the ore particles and the impurities
(gangue).
Ores of iron, tin and lead are very heavy and, therefore,
they are concentrated by this method.
A hydraulic classifier

(ii) Froth floatation process :

Principle : This method is based on the principle of difference in the wetting properties of the ore and gangue
particles with oil and water respectively.
This method is commonly used for sulphide ores.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (iii) Magnetic separation : (ii) Roasting: It is the process of heating the concentrated
Principle : This method depends upon the difference ore strongly in the presence of excess air.
in the magnetic properties of the ores and gangue. This process is used for converting sulphide ores to
metal oxide. In this process, the following changes
This method is used for the concentration of haematite,
take place :
an ore of iron.
• the sulphide ores undergo oxidation to their oxides.
• moisture is removed.
Ore • volatile impurities are removed.

For example :
Electromagnet Roasting
2ZnS(s) + 3O2 (g)    2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
Zinc Oxygen Zinc oxide Sulphur
Nonmagnetic
particles sulphide (from air) dioxide
Moving belt
(Zinc blende)
Magnetic
particles 4FeS2(s) + 11O2(g)    2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)
Roasting

Iron Oxygen Ferric Sulphur

Magnetic separation method
pyrites oxide dioxide
 Note :  Note :
The froth floatation process is commonly used for the Calcination is used for hydrated and carbonate ores
sulphide ores of copper, zinc, lead etc. and roasting is used for sulphide ores.
(b) Conversion of Metal Oxide into Metal :
EXTRACTION OF METAL FROM The metal oxide formed after calcination or roasting is
THE CONCENTRATED ORE converted into metal by reduction. The method used
for reduction of metal oxide depends upon the nature
Metal is extracted from the concentrated ore by the and chemical reactivity of metal.
following steps : The metals can be grouped into the following three
categories on the basis of their reactivity :
(a) Conversion of the concentrated ore into its oxide :
• Metals of low reactivity.
The production of metal from the concentrated ore
mainly involves reduction process. This can be usually
• Metals of medium reactivity.
done by two processes known as calcination and • Metals of high reactivity.
roasting . The method depends upon the nature of the These different categories of metals are extracted by
ore. different techniques. The different steps involved in
separation are as follows :
(b) Conversion of oxide to metal by reduction process
(i) Reduction by heating : Metals placed low in the
(a) Conversion of Ore into Metal Oxide : reactivity series are very less reactive. They can be
obtained from their oxides by simply heating in air.
These are briefly discussed below :
Roasting
(i) Calcination: It is the process of heating the concentrated 2HgS(s) + 3O2(g)      2HgO(s) + 2SO2(g)
Mercuric Oxygen Mercuric Sulphur
ore in the absence of air.
sulphide oxide dioxide
The calcination process is used for the following
 2Hg()
2HgO(s) Heat + O2(g)
changes :
Mercuric Mercury metal Oxygen
• to convert carbonate ores into metal oxide. oxide
• to remove water from the hydrated ores. (ii) Chemical Reduction (For metals in the middle of
• to remove volatile impurities from the ore. the reactivity series) :
The metals in the middle of the reactivity series, such
For example : as iron, zinc, lead, copper etc. are moderately reactive.
Calcinatio n
ZnCO3(s)     ZnO(s) + CO2(g) These are usually present as sulphides or carbonates.
Calamine Zinc oxide Carbon dioxide Therefore, before reduction the metal sulphides and
carbonates must be converted to oxides. This is done
Calcinatio n by roasting and calcination. The oxides of these metals
FeCO3(s)    
 FeO(s) + CO2(g)
cannot be reduced by heating alone. Therefore, these
Siderite Iron (II) Carbon metal oxides are reduced to free metal by using
oxide dioxide chemical agents like carbon, aluminium, sodium or
calcium.

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 For example, aluminium oxide is very stable and
(A) Reduction with carbon : The oxides of moderately
aluminium cannot be prepared by reduction with
reactive metals (occurring in the middle of reactivity carbon. It is prepared by the electrolysis of molten
series) like zinc, copper, nickel, tin, lead etc. can be alumina (Al2O 3).
reduced by using carbon as reducing agent. Heat
Al 3+ + 3e–  Al
Heat Aluminium ion Electrons Aluminium
ZnO(s) + C(s)  Zn (s) + CO(g)
(From molten (From cathode) (At cathode)
Zinc Carbon Zinc Carbon
alumina)
oxide (Reducing agent) metal monoxide It may be noted that during electrolytic reduction of
molten salts, the metals are always obtained at the
Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) 2Fe(s) + 3CO(g)
cathode (negative electrode).
Ferric Carbon Iron Metal Carbon
oxide monoxide  Note :
The process of extraction of metals by electrolysis
PbO(s) + C(s) Pb(s) + CO(g) process is called electrometallurgy.
Lead oxide Carbon Lead metal Carbon
monoxide
PURIFICATION OR REFINING OF METALS
One disadvantage of using carbon as reducing agent
The metal obtained by any of the above methods is
is that small traces of carbon are added to metal as usually impure and is known as crude metal. The
impurity. Therefore, it contaminates the metals. process of purifying the crude metal is called refining.
 Note : (a) Liquation :
Coke is very commonly used as a reducing agent
This is based on the principle that the metal to be
because it is cheap. refined is easily fusible (melt easily) but the impurities
(B) Reduction with carbon monoxide : Metals can be do not fuse easily. The impure metal is placed on the
sloping hearth of a furnace and gently heated. The
obtained from oxides by reduction with carbon
metal melts and flows down leaving behind the
monoxide in the furnace. impurities on the hearth. This method is used for
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g)   2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
Heat refining the metals having low melting points, such as
tin, lead, bismuth etc.
Ferric Carbon Iron Carbon
oxide monoxide dioxide (b) Distillation :
This method is used for the purification of volatile
(C) Reduction with aluminium : Certain metal oxides metals (which form vapours readily). Impure metal is
are reduced by aluminium to metals. heated and its vapours are separately condensed in a
Heat receiver. The non-volatile impurities are left behind.
3MnO2 (s) + 4Al(s)  3Mn() + 2Al2O3 (s)
This is used for mercury, cadmium and zinc.
Manganese Aluminium Manganese Aluminium
dioxide oxide (c) Electrolytic Refining :

Heat This is most general and widely used method for the
Cr2O3 (s) + 2Al (s)  2Cr() + Al2O3 (s)
refining of impure metals. Many metals such as copper,
Chromium Aluminium Chromium Aluminium zinc, tin, nickel, silver, gold etc. are refined electrolytically.
oxide oxide It is based upon the phenomenon of electrolysis. In
this method, the crude metal is cast into thick rods and
Heat
Fe2O3 (s) + 2Al (s)   2Fe() + Al2O3 (s)
are made as anodes, while the thin sheets of pure
Iron Aluminium Iron Aluminium metal are made as cathodes. An aqueous solution of
oxide oxide salt of the same metal is used as an electrolyte. On
passing current through the electrolyte, the pure metal
 Note : from the anode dissolves into the electrolyte. An
Reduction of metal oxides with aluminium is known equivalent amount of pure metal from the electrolyte is
as aluminothermy or thermite process. deposited on the cathode. The soluble impurities go
in the solution whereas the insoluble impurities settle
(iii) Reduction by electrolysis or electrolytic reduction: down at the bottom of the anode and are known as
The oxides of active metals (which are high up in the anode mud. In this way, the pure metal from anode
activity series) are very stable and cannot be reduced goes into electrolyte and from electrolyte it goes to the
cathode.
by carbon or aluminium. These metals are commonly
extracted by the electrolysis of their fused salts using At anode : Cu Oxidation
  Cu+2 + 2e–
suitable electrodes. This is also called electrolytic Copper Copper
reduction i.e. reduction by electrolysis. (from impure anode) ion

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 At cathode : Cu2+ + 2e– Reduction
   Cu (iii) Reduction :
Copper Copper
ion (deposited at cathode)

 Note :
In electrolytic refining impure metal is made anode
The concentrated ore is mixed with calculated
and pure metal is made cathode.
quantities of coke and limestone to form a mixture.
 Note : The mixture is called charge. The charge is then
Zone refining and Van Arkel method are used for introduced into the blast furnace from the top. The blast
obtaining metals (Si, Ge etc.) of very high purity for furnace is a tall cylindrical furnace made of steel. At the
certain specific applications. base of the furnace, it is provided with -

(i) an arrangement for the introduction of hot air,

METALLURGY OF IRON
(ii) a tapping hole for withdrawing molten iron, and
(iii) an outlet for slag.
Iron is the second most abundant metal. It is the most
widely used of all the metals. A blast of hot air is blown into the furnace from near the
bottom. The air provides oxygen for burning of coke.
(a) Occurrence of Iron : Chemical changes occurring in the blast furnace. The
Iron is quite reactive and therefore, it is not found in main chemical reactions occurring in the blast furnace
free state in nature. The main ores of iron are : are :
Ores of iron (A) Formation of carbon dioxide : Near the bottom of
(i) Haematite - Fe2O 3 the furnace, coke burns in air to form carbon dioxide.
(ii) Magnetite - Fe3O 4 This reaction is highly exothermic and a large amount
(iii) Limonite - Fe2O3. 3H2O of heat is evolved.
(iv) Iron Pyrites - FeS2
C (s) + O2(g) CO2(g) + Heat
(v) Siderite - FeCO 3
Carbon Oxygen Carbon
Iron is usually extracted from its oxide ore (haematite). It is (From coke) (From air) dioxide
mostly iron (III) oxide mixed with some sand (silica, SiO2).
(B) Decomposition of limestone :
(b) The Process of Extra ction I nvolves the
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Following Steps : Calcium Calcium
carbonate oxide
(i) Concentration : The ore is crushed in crushers. (Limestone)

The crushed ore is concentrated by hydraulic washing. (C) Formation of carbon monoxide : As the carbon
In this process it is washed in stream of water to remove dioxide rises up it comes in contact with layers of coke
clay, sand etc. It may be noted that the concentrated and get reduced to carbon monoxide by carbon.
ore still contains silica. This is removed during the C (s) + CO2(g) 2CO (g)
extraction of iron. Coke Carbon monoxide

(ii) Calcination : The ore is then calcined (heated (D) Reduction of ferric oxide or haematite to iron :
strongly in the absence of air). During calcination, the The region of the furnace where this reaction occurs is
moisture sticking to the ore is expelled. The carbonates called Reduction Zone.
present in the ore are decomposed into their oxides. Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe ( )+ 3CO2 (g)
Ferric oxide Iron

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(E) Formation of slag :
Calcium Silicate
The molten slag flows down the furnace. It is lighter
than molten iron. It does not mix with iron. Therefore,
the slag floats on the surface of molten layer of iron in
the blast furnace. It thus protects the freshly prepared
iron from oxygen, which otherwise would be converted
into its oxide. It is also drawn off through a separate
opening at the bottom of the furnace. The molten iron
is allowed to solidify in casts or moulds. It is called Pig
Iron or Cast Iron.
 Note :
The function of adding limestone in the extraction of
iron is to remove earthy impurities like sand from the
blast furnace by forming fusible slag.
Flux is the chemical substance used to remove impu-
rity from an ore and slag is the chemical substance
formed by the combination of flux with impurity.
(c) Commercial forms of Iron :
Iron is commonly known in three varieties. These
varieties are:
(i) Cast iron. It contains 2 - 4.5% of carbon along with
 Note :
traces of other impurities such as sulphur,
phosphorus, manganese etc. It is also known as Pig
Iron.
(ii) Wrought iron. It is the purest form of iron and
contains carbon to the extent of 0.25%.
(iii) Steel. It contains 0.5-1.5% of carbon along with
varying amounts of other elements.
METALLURGY OF COPPER
Copper is being used since ancient times. Two alloys
of copper, brass (copper and zinc) and bronze (copper
and tin), are used for making utensils, for the last many
centuries. Copper is a good conductor of electricity,
hence copper wires are widely used in electricity
distribution, in electric motors and other equipments.
(a) Ores of Copper :
Copper is found in free state between rocks. In
combined state, main ores of copper are as follows -
(i) Sulphide ores - Copper glance (Cu2S) and copper
pyrites (CuFeS2).
(ii) Oxide ores : Cuprite or ruby copper (Cu2O).
(iii) Carbonate ores :
Malachite green [Cu(OH) 2 .CuCO 3 ] and Azurite
[Cu(OH)2. 2CuCO3].
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(b) Extraction of Copper :
(i) From oxide or carbonate ore : The powdered ore is
treated with dilute sulphuric acid to obtain copper
sulphate solution. On electrolysis of this solution, pure
copper is obtained on cathode.
In another process, copper ore is calcined and
converted into oxide. This oxide on smelting, in
presence of carbon, gives pure copper.
(ii) From sulphide ore :
(A) Concentration : Copper pyrites or copper glance is
concentrated by froth floatation method.
(B) Roasting : Concentrated ore is roasted in a
reverberatory furnace. Following reactions take place
during roasting -
2CuFeS2 + O2  Cu2S + 2FeS + SO2
2Cu2S + 3O2  2Cu2O + 2SO2.
Along with this, ferrous sulphide and cuprous sulphide
are partially converted into their oxides.
2FeS + 3O2  2FeO + 2SO2.
2Cu2S + 3O2  2Cu2O + 2SO2.
Calcination and roasting are done in reverberatory
furnace.
(C) Smelting : The matter obtained after roasting of
ore contains mainly Cu 2 S and FeS and in lesser
amount FeO and Cu2O. Some coke and silica is mixed
into this mixture and smelting is done in blast
furnace.This furnace is made up of steel sheets and a
layer of fire resistant bricks present inside the furnace
prevents loss of heat. The reaction starts when a
stream of hot air is blown through tyeres fixed in lower
parts of furnace and since these reactions are
exothermic, as such, the process is completed by
mixing small amount of coke and proper temperature
is maintained in the inner part of furnace.
During smelting, ferrous sulphide and cuprous
sulphide get converted into their oxides (this process
starts partially during roasting). The affinity of iron for
oxygen being more than of copper, FeS reacts with
Cu2O and produces FeO.
Cu2O + FeS  Cu2S + FeO
This FeO is unwanted gangue, it reacts with flux SiO2
and forms FeSiO3. Ferrous silicate gets collected on
the surface of molten matter in the form of slag and is
removed from time to time. In the molten matter FeS
and CuS are present in fused state. This liquid is called
copper matte.
PAGE # 158
 (iii) Bessemerization (Production of blister copper):
METALLURGY OF ALUMINIUM
Copper matte is transferred from the blast furnace to
bessemer converter. In this furnace the tuyeres are at
greater height than in blast furnace so that the reduced
liquefied copper does not get reoxidised due to air
current.
Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the earth’s
crust. It is a malleable and ductile metal. It is a very
good conductor of heat and electricity. Aluminium metal
was first extracted from aluminium chloride (AlCl3) by
using sodium as the reducing agent.
AlCl3(s) + 3Na(s) Al(s) + 3NaCl(s)
Aluminium Sodium Aluminium
chloride
However, this method of extraction was very expensive.
In 1886, two scientists working independently, Heroult
in France and Mark Hall in the United States of America
developed simultaneously electrolytic method for the
extraction of aluminium. This discovery gave a cheap
method for the manufacture of aluminium and
aluminium became quite cheap.

Bessemer Converter (a) Occurrence of Aluminium :

To begin the action, air mixed with silica (sand) is Aluminium is a quite reactive metal, so it does not
introduced in the matte in the form of a blast (strong occur in free state in nature. In the combined state,
aluminium occurs as oxide and fluoride. The important
current) through tuyeres. Unwanted FeS is oxidised to
ores of aluminium are :
FeO which reacts with SiO2 to form slag FeSiO3 .
(i) Bauxite - Al2O3.2H2O
Copper sulphide is oxidized to cuprous oxide which
reduces the remaining sulphide and converts it to (ii) Cryolite - Na3AlF 6
copper metal. (iii) Diaspore - Al2O3. H2O
2Cu2S + 3O2  2Cu2O + 2SO2
(iv) Corundum - Al2O3
Cu2S + 2Cu2O  6Cu + SO2
(v) Alunite - K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.4Al(OH)3
Copper in the fused state is poured into sand frames.
On cooling, dissolved SO 2 moves out. Due to this The most important ore of aluminium is bauxite.
evolution of SO2, blisters are produced on the surface  Note :
of the metal. As such this metal is known as blister Aluminium is now-a-days the second most widely
copper. used metal after iron.
 Note : (b) Extraction of Aluminium :
Blister copper contains nearly 98 percent copper . Aluminium is extracted from bauxite by the following
steps :
(iv) Refining of copper :
(i) Purification of bauxite : The bauxite ore usually
(A) Poling : In blister copper some metal oxides are contains certain impurities such as iron (III) oxide, silica
present. To purify this, blister copper is fused (melted) (sand) etc. The purification of bauxite is done by a
and is churned with green poles. The gaseous method known as Baeyer’s process.
hydrocarbons present in green poles reduce copper It involves the following steps :
oxide to copper .
(A) The ore is crushed and finely powdered. It is then
(B) Electrolytic refining : Pure copper is obtained by heated with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.
electrolytic refining process. Acidic copper sulphate The aluminium oxide present in the ore goes into the
solution is taken in an electrolytic cell. Impure copper solution forming sodium meta aluminate.
rod acts as an anode and pure copper plate acts as a 
Al2O3 (s) + 2NaOH(aq)  2 NaAlO2(aq) + H2O()
cathode. On passing electric current, pure copper is Aluminium Sodium meta
collected on cathode and the impurities remain at oxide aluminate
bottom of the anode which are called anode mud. (From bauxite) (Soluble)

 Note : Iron (III) oxide present in the bauxite ore does not dissolve
Copper obtained by electrolytic refining method is nearly in sodium hydroxide solution. It is, therefore, separated

100 percent pure. by filtration. Silica present in bauxite ore reacts with
sodium hydroxide to form water soluble sodium silicate.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (B) The filtrate (containing sodium meta aluminate and The impurity of silica remains dissolved as sodium
sodium silicate) is then stirred with a small amount of
silicate in the solution.
freshly precipitated aluminium hydroxide. The small
amount of aluminium hydroxide acts as a seeding (C) The precipitate of aluminium hydroxide is separated
agent and helps in quick precipitation.
by filtration, washed, dried and then heated strongly to
Under these conditions, sodium meta aluminate gets
hydrolysed to form a precipitate of aluminium hydroxide. get pure aluminium oxide. It is called alumina.
2 Al(OH)3 Al2O3 + 3 H2O
Al (OH)3(s) + NaOH (aq)
Alumina
Sodium meta Aluminium
aluminate hydroxide
(White ppt.)

(ii) Electrolysis of Aluminium Oxide

The alumina is dissolved in molten cryolite (Na3AlF6) SOME IMPORTANT METAL COMPOUNDS
and electrolysed in an iron tank lined inside with
graphite at 1175 K. Cryolite is added to lower the melting (a) Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) or Caustic
point of alumina and makes it a good conductor of Soda :
electricity. Some fluorspar (CaF2) is also added to the (i) Preparation : Sodium hydroxide is prepared by
mixture to further reduce its melting point. electrolysing a concentrated solution of sodium
The iron tank is lined inside with graphite which serves chloride. This process is done in Castner - Kellner
cell.
as cathode. The anode is made up of a number of + –
NaCl  Na + Cl
graphite rods which dip into the molten mass of – –
2Cl  Cl2 + 2e
aluminium oxide and cryolite. On passing current,
–
aluminium is produced at the cathode and oxygen is Na+ + Hg + e  NaHg
Sodium amalgam
liberated at the anode.
2NaHg + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2 + 2Hg
(A) Reactions Occurring during Electrolysis : When
(ii) Properties :
aluminium oxide melts, it produces free aluminium
ions and oxide ions : (A) Sodium hydroxide is a white, crystalline solid having
3+ 2– melting point of 591K.
Al2O3 2Al + 3O
(B) It is soluble in water and its aqueous solution is
Alumina
alkaline. It is smooth like soap water.
The positively charged aluminium ions go to the
negative electrode (cathode) and produce aluminium (C) It is very corrosive and burns the skin. That is why it
is called caustic soda.
metal on reduction.
(D) It absorbs moisture when allowed to remain open
in atmosphere. This solution absorbs carbon dioxide
from atmosphere and forms Na2CO3.
2NaOH + CO2  Na2CO3 + H2O

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (E) It is strong alkali and forms salt on reaction with (ii) Properties :
acid. (A) It is a colourless, transparent, crystalline solid. Its
melting point is 485K and it is highly soluble in water.
NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O + Heat
(B) Aqueous solution of silver nitrate blackens skin,
(F) It decomposes on heating at 1600 K. cloth or paper.
2NaOH  2Na + O2 + H2 (C) It decomposes on heating at 700 K.
2AgNO3  2Ag + 2NO2 + O2
(G) It reacts with few metals to liberate hydrogen gas. (D) A white precipitate of silver chloride is obtained
Zn + 2NaOH   Na2ZnO2 + H2 when it reacts with HCl or other metallic halides.
Sodium AgNO3 + HCl   AgCl + HNO3
zincate
AgNO3 + NaCl  AgCl + NaNO3
(H) Few compounds of metals like AlCl3, ZnCl2, SnCl2 In the same way, yellow precipitate of silver bromide
etc. react with NaOH to form hydroxide which dissolve and silver iodide is obtained on reaction with sodium
in excess of NaOH. bromide & sodium iodide respectively.

3NaOH + AlCl3  Al(OH)3 + 3NaCl (E) On reaction with ammonium hydroxide a brown
precipitate of silver oxide is obtained which forms a
Al(OH)3 + NaOH  NaAlO2 + 2H2O complex with excess of ammonia.
Sodium meta 2AgNO3 + 2NH4OH  Ag2O + 2NH4NO3 + H2O
aluminate  2[Ag(NH3)2] NO3 + 3H2O
Ag2O + 2NH4NO3 + 2NH4OH

(I) It reacts with ammonium salts to give ammonia. Ammoniacal silver

nitrate solution
NH4Cl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O + NH3
 Note :
(J) Chlorine gas reacts with cold solution of NaOH to Ammoniacal silver nitrate solution is also known as
tollen's reagent.
produce sodium hypochlorite.
(iii) Uses :
Cl2 + 2NaOH NaCl + NaOCl + H 2O
(A) It is used as a laboratory reagent.
Sodium
hypochlorite (B) It is used for preparing other compounds of silver.
But with hot and concentrated NaOH solution following (C) It is used in photography.
reactions takes place. (D) It is used for preparing silver mirror.
6NaOH + 3Cl2 5NaCl + NaClO3 + 3H2O
Sodium (c) Silver Bromide (AgBr) :
chlorate
(i) Preparation : Silver bromide can be obtained by the
(K) It reacts with white phosphorus to give phosphine. reaction of silver nitrate with other metal bromides.
P4 + 3NaOH + 3H 2O PH 3 + NaH 2PO 2 AgNO3 + NaBr  AgBr + NaNO3
White Phosphine Sodium
hypophosphite AgNO3 + KBr  AgBr + KNO3

(iii) Uses : (ii) Properties : It is a light yellow coloured, crystalline

compound. Its melting point is 707K. Silver bromide
(A) It is used in soaps, detergents, paper and silk
is less soluble in water. It is soluble in concentrated
industries. solution of ammonium hydroxide.
(B) It is used in refining of petroleum.
(iii) Uses : It is used in photography.
(C) It is used as a laboratory reagent.
(D) It is used in dye industry. (d) Lime
(E) It is used in concentration of bauxite ore. It is chemically known as calcium oxide or quicklime
(CaO).
(b) Silver Nitrate (AgNO 3 ) :
(i) Preparation : Lime is prepared by heating calcium
(i) Preparation : It is also known as “ Lunar Caustic”. It
in oxygen or by the thermal decomposition of calcium
is obtained by crystallization of a solution obtained by
carbonate.
dissolving Ag in hot dilute HNO3.

3Ag + 4HNO3  3AgNO3 + NO + 2H2O 2Ca(s) + O2 (g)  2CaO (s)

CaCO3 (s)  CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (ii) Manufacture : On a large scale, lime is produced
by heating limestone in a lime kiln at a temperature
above 823 K.
CaCO3(s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Limestone is charged into a kiln made of bricks. A blast
of hot gases is allowed to enter the kiln through the
fireboxes at both sides of the kiln. The temperature is
maintained above 823 K. Limestone decomposes into
lime (CaO) and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is
carried away by the upward current through the kiln.
The reverse reaction is thus prevented. Lime is
withdrawn from time to time through an outlet at the
bottom of the kiln. The process is continuous because
fresh limestone is fed from the top and quicklime is
removed from the bottom.
(iii) Physical properties :
• Lime is a white, amorphous solid.
• It has a high melting point (2273 K).
• Its boiling point is 3123 K.
(iv) Chemical properties :
(A) Action of water : It has a great affinity for water.
When water is sprayed over it, a hissing sound is heard.
A large amount of heat is produced due to which a
portion of water is converted into steam. The lime falls
to a powder that is known as slaked lime.
CaO(s) + H2O()  Ca(OH)2(s)
Lime Slaked lime
(B) Action of acids : Calcium oxide is a basic oxide. It
dissolves in acids producing calcium salt and water.
(C) It liberates ammonia from ammonium salts.
Calcium Ammonium Calcium
oxide chloride chloride
Calcium Ammonium Calcium
oxide sulphate sulphate
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(v) Uses :
• Calcium hydroxide formed by the slaking of lime is
sparingly soluble in water. The solution is known as
lime water, which is a common reagent in the laboratory.
• It is used for making mortar and for whitewashing.
• It is also used for making cement, glass, calcium
carbide etc.
• W hen heated in an oxyhydrogen flame, it emits an
intense white light (limelight). Limelight was formerly
used in theatres.
• It is very useful as a dessicating agent to dry ammonia
and alcohol.
• It is used as a cheap alkali for the treatment of acidic
soil.
• It is used in the extraction of metals to produce slag
with impurities (particularly sand) present in metal
ores.
(e) Blue Vitriol (CuSO 4 .5H 2 O) :
Copper sulphate pentahydrate is also called blue
vitriol. It is prepared by reaction of copper carbonate or
copper oxide with dilute sulphuric acid. The resulting
solution is concentrated by evaporation and on cooling,
blue crystals of copper sulphate pentahydrate are
obtained.
(i) Preparation : Industrially copper sulphate is
obtained by passage of air in a hot and conc. solution
of sulphuric acid and copper metal. Copper sulphate
is crystallised from the solution.
2Cu + 2H2SO4 + O2  2CuSO4 + 2H2O
(ii) Properties :
(A) It is a blue coloured, shining and crystalline
substance. On heating it gradually gives away water of
crystallisation.
373K 423K
CuSO4.5H2O   CuSO4.H2O   CuSO4
Blue Bluish white White
(B) If anhydrous salt is heated at 993K, it decomposes
into cupric oxide and sulphur trioxide.
993K
CuSO4    CuO + SO3
(iii) Uses : Copper sulphate is extensively used in
electroplating, electric battery and as dye mordant.
Mixture of lime and copper sulphate is known as
bordeaux mixture and it is used as a fungicide in
agriculture. In addition to this it is used in dyeing of
clothes and in testing wool.
PAGE # 162
 (f) Alum :
General formula of alum is [M'SO4. M"(SO4)3.24H2O],
where M' is K+, Na+ or NH4+ and M" is Al+3, Fe+3 or Cr+3.
“Alum is a double salt of aluminium sulphate and
potassium or sodium sulphate. It is obtained by mixing
solutions of aluminium sulphate and potassium,
ammonium or sodium sulphate and co-crystallising
it. Alum contains large excess of water of crystallisation,
hence on warming, it expands in volume. Alum is used
mainly for softening of water.
K2SO4 + Al2(SO4)3 + 24H2O  K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O
Potash alum
Double salts : The addition compounds which are
stable in solid state only, but are broken down into
individual constituents, when dissolved in water, are
called double salts . Their solution have the same
properties as the mixture of individual compounds.
For example, when Mohr's salt [FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O]
is dissolved in water, it exhibits the properties of FeSO4
and (NH4)2SO4, i.e. , they produce Fe2+ , NH4+ and SO42–
ions in solution. Thus, each ion has its identity in double
salt.
FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O  Fe2+(aq) + 2NH4+(aq) +
Mohr's salt 2SO42–(aq) + 6H2O
Carnallite (KCl.MgCl 2 .6H 2 O), potash alum
(K 2SO 4.Al2(SO 4)3.24H 2O), etc., are the examples of
double salts.
CORROSION OF METALS
Surface of many metals is easily attacked when
exposed to atmosphere. They react with air or water
present in the environment and form undesirable
compounds on their surfaces. These undesirable
compounds are generally oxides.
Thus, corrosion is a process of deterioration of metal
as a result of its reaction with air or water (present in
environment) surrounding it.
(a) Corrosion of Iron :
Iron corrodes readily when exposed to moisture and
gets covered with a brown flaky substance called rust.
This is also called Rusting of Iron. Chemically, the rust
is hydrated iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3.xH2O. Rusting is an
oxidation process in which iron metal is slowly oxidized
by the action of air (in presence of water). Therefore,
rusting of iron takes place under the following
conditions:
• Presence of air (or oxygen)
• Presence of water (moisture)
• More the reactivity of the metal, the more will be the
possibility of the metal getting corroded.
(i) Experiment to show that rusting of iron requires
both air and water -
We take three test tubes and put one clean iron nail in
each of the three test tubes:
(A) In the first test tube containing iron nail, we put
some anhydrous calcium chloride to absorb water (or
moisture) from the damp air present in the test tube
and make it dry.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(B) In the second test tube containing iron nail, we put
boiled water. Boiled water does not contain any
dissolved air or oxygen in it. A layer of oil is put over
boiled water in the test tube to prevent the outside air
from mixing with boiled water.
(C) In the third test tube containing an iron nail, we put
unboiled water so that about two-third of the nail is
immersed in water and the rest is above water exposed
to damp air.
After one week, we observe the iron nails kept in all the
three test tubes.
Cork
A layer of oil
Test Tube
Iron nail
Anhydrous Boiled water Water
CaCl 2
Rusting of iron
(ii) We will obtain the following observations from
the experiment :
(A) No rust is seen on the surface of iron nail kept in
dry air in the first test tube. This tells us that rusting of
iron does not takes place in air alone.
(B) No rust is seen on the surface of iron nail kept in air
free boiled water in the second test tube. This tells us
that rusting of iron does not take place in water alone.
(C) Red brown rust is seen on the surface of iron nail
kept in the presence of both air and water in the third
test tube. This tells us that rusting of iron takes place
in the presence of both air and water together.
(iii) Prevention of rusting :
(A) Corrosion of metals can be prevented by coating
the metal surface with a thin layer of paint, varnish or
grease.
(B) Iron is protected from rusting by coating it with a
thin layer of another metal which is more reactive than
iron. This prevents the loss of electrons from iron
because the active metal loses electrons in preference
to iron. Zinc is commonly used for covering surface of
iron. The process of covering iron with zinc is called
galvanization. Iron is also coated with other metals
such as tin known as tin coating.
(C) By alloying : Some metals when alloyed with other
metals become more resistant to corrosion. For
example, when iron is alloyed with chromium and
nickel, it forms stainless steel. This is resistant to
corrosion and does not rust at all.
(D) To decrease rusting of iron, certain antirust
solutions are used. For example, solutions of alkaline
phosphates are used as antirust solutions.
PAGE # 163
 (b) Corrosion of Aluminium :
Due to the formation of a dull layer of aluminium oxide
when exposed to moist air, the aluminium metal loses
its shine very soon after use. This aluminium oxide
layer is very tough and prevents the metal underneath
from further corrosion (because moist air is not able to
pass through this aluminium oxide layer). This means
sometimes corrosion is useful.
(c) Corrosion of Copper :
W hen a copper object remains in damp air for a
considerable time, then copper reacts slowly with
carbon dioxide and water of air to form a green coating
of basic copper carbonate [CuCO 3.Cu(OH)2] on the
surface of the object. Since copper metal is low in the
reactivity series, the corrosion of copper metal is very,
very slow.
(d) Corrosion of Silver :
Silver is a highly unreactive metal, so it does not reacts
with oxygen of air easily. But, air usually contains a little
of sulphur compounds such as hydrogen sulphide gas
(H2S), which reacts slowly with silver to form a black
coating of silver sulphide (Ag 2S). Silver ornaments
gradually turn black due to the formation of a thin silver
sulphide layer on their surface and silver is said to be
tarnished.
For example, iron is the most widely used metal. But it
is never used in the pure form. This is because iron is
very soft and stretches easily when hot. But when it is
mixed with a small amount of carbon (about 0.5 to
1.5%), it becomes hard and strong. The new form of
iron is called steel.
(a) Objectives of Alloy Making :
Alloys are generally prepared to have certain specific
properties which are not possessed by the constituent
metals. The main objects of alloy-making are:
(i) To increase resistance to corrosion : For example,
stainless steel is prepared which has more resistance
to corrosion than iron.
(ii) To modify chemical reactivity : The chemical
reactivity of sodium is decreased by making an alloy
with mercury which is known as sodium amalgam.
(iii) To increase the hardness : Steel, an alloy of iron
and carbon is harder than iron.
(iv) To increase tensile strength : Magnalium is an
alloy of magnesium and aluminium. It has greater
tensile strength as compared to magnesium and
aluminium.
(v) To produce good casting : Type metal is an alloy of
lead, tin and antimony.

ALLOY (vi) To lower the melting point : For example, solder is

an alloy of lead and tin (50% Pb and 50% Sn). It has a
An alloy is a homogenous mixture of two or more metals
or a metal and a non-metal. low melting point and is used for welding electrical
wires together.

Composition, Properties and uses of some alloys of copper :

Alloy Composition Properties and Uses
Brass Cu (60–80%) Brass is used for decoration purposes, for making many scientific
Zn (20–40%) instruments, telescopes, microscopes, barometers etc.
Bronze Cu (75-90%) For making statues, cooking utensils and coins.
Sn (10-25%)

German silver Cu (30–60%) It is silvery white as silver, malleable and ductile. It is used as
Zn (25–35%) imitation silver, in making ornaments and utensils and also for
Ni (15–35%) decoration.
Gun metal Cu (88%) It is used for making gears and bearings, and
Sn (10%) gun barrels.
Zn (2%)

Bell metal Cu (80%) It is used for casting bells.

Sn (20%)

PAGE # 164
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES AND USES OF SOME IMPORTANT ALLOYS OF IRON :

Alloy Com position Prope rtie s a nd Use s

S tainless steel Fe (74% ) Prope rtie s : Stainless steel is hard, tenacious and corrosion resistant.
Cr (18%) Use s : For m aking cutlery, utensils, ornam ental pieces and other
Ni (8%) instrument and apparatus.
Nickel steel Fe (96–98%) Prope rtie s : Nickel steel is hard, elastic and corrosion resistant.
Ni (2–4%) Use s : For m aking electric wire cables, automobile and aeroplane
parts, watches, arm our plates, propeller shafts, etc.
A lnico Fe (60% ) Prope rtie s : Highly magnetic.
Al (12%) Use s : For m aking perm anent magnets
Ni (20-% )
Co (8% )

COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES AND USES OF SOME IMPORTANT ALLOYS OF ALUMINIUM :

Alloy Composition Properties and Uses

Duralium or Al (95%) Uses : For making aeroplane, spacecrafts, ships and pressure
Duralumin Cu (4%) cookers.
Mg (0.5%) Properties : In strength, it is as good as steel but it is very light. It is hard,
Mn (0.5%) corrosion-resistant and highly ductile.
Magnalium Al (90–95%) Uses : For making light instruments and balance beams.
Mg (5–10%) Properties : It is hard and tough.

COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES AND USES OF SOME IMPORTANT ALLOYS OF LEAD

Alloy Composition Properties and Uses

Solder Pb (50%) Properties : It has a low-melting point.
Sn (50%) Uses : Used for soldering purposes.
Type metal Pb (75–80%) Uses : For making printing type.
Sb (15–20%)
Sn (5%)

AMALGAM EXERCISE-1
Amalgams are homogenous mixtures of a metal and
PROP ERTIES OF METALS & NON-ME TALS
mercury. For example, sodium amalgam contains
sodium and mercury. 1. The carrier of oxygen in human blood is :
Different amalgams are prepared according to their (A) sodium (B) iron
uses. For example, (C) calcium (D) water
(i) Sodium amalgam is produced to decrease the 2. Valency of potassium (K) in K 4Fe (CN)6 is :
chemical reactivity of sodium metal. It is also used as (A) 2 (B) 1
a good reducing agent. (C) 2/3 (D) 
(ii) Tin amalgam is used for silvering cheap mirrors. 3. A monovalent cation which has atomic number 11 ,
(iii) The process of amalgamation is used for the m ak es a c om po u nd w ith a mo n ovalen t an io n
extraction of metals like gold or silver from their native whose atomic number is 17 . The popular name of
the compound is :
ores.
(A) plaster of paris (B) chilli salt peter
(C) common salt (D) TNT

4. Cold and dilute solution of NaOH reacts with

halogens according to the following reaction.
Cold
NaOH + Cl2   x + y + H 2O . The products
x & y are :
(A) NaCl & HCl (B) NaCl & NaOCl
(C) NaCl & NaClO 3 (D) Na2O & HCl

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
5. In the laboratory process of hydrogen production M E TA L LU R GY
we use impure zinc because :
(A) pure zinc is very costly 18. _______ is/are added in alumina at the time of
(B) there is risk of explosion with pure electrolysis.
(C) impurity in zinc act as catalyst (A) Na3AlF 6 (B) CaF 2
(D) pure zinc is not easily available (C) C (D) (A) & (B) both
6. W hich of the following statement / s is/are true ? 19. The froth floatation process is based upon -
(A) Cu metal reacts with dil H 2SO 4 to give H 2 (A) The differences in the specific gravity of ore and
(B) CO is a neutral oxide gangue particles
(C) Galvanisation means coating of Fe on Zn pipes (B) The magnetic properties of gangue and ore
(D) German silver is an alloy of iron.
(C) Preferential wetting of gangue particles by oil
7. The pair of metals which will produce hydrogen gas in (D) Preferential wetting of ore particles by oil
reaction with acid is :
(A) Mg, Cu (B) Mg, Ag 20. In the metallurgy of copper , the impure metal got
(C) Zn, Pb (D) Cu, Zn after Bessemerization is called :
(A) blister copper
8. Phosphorus is kept in - (B) wrought copper
(A) kerosene oil (B) alcohol (C) brass copper
(C) water (D) ammonia (D) pig copper

9. The non-metal having shining surface is - 21. Which oil is used as frother in froth floatation process ?
(A) sulphur (B) phosphorus (A) Mustard oil (B) Coconut oil
(C) iodine (D) carbon (C) Olive oil (D) Pine oil

10. Which of the following oxide is amphoteric in nature – 22. Chemical method used in concentration of ore is also
(A) Na2O (B) Li2O known as -
(C) K2O (D) BeO (A) bleaching (B) leaching
(C) roasting (D) calcination
11. On addition of which metal, copper sulphate solution
(blue colour) will be changed to colourless solution ? 23. The smelting of iron in a blast furnace involves all the
(A) Fe (B) Ag following processes except -
(C) Zn (D) Hg (A) combustion (B) reduction
(C) slag formation (D) sublimation
12. The anhydride of H 3PO 4 is
(A) P 2O5 (B) P 2O 3 24. Which of the following is purest form of iron ?
(C) PO 2 (D) None (A) Wrought iron (B) Pig iron
(C) Steel (D None of these
13. Which of the following is most abundant metal on the
earth’s crust ? 25. Aluminium is not present in which of the following
(A) Iron (B) Aluminium mineral .
(C) Calcium (D) Oxygen (A) Cryolite (B) Felspar
(C) Fluorspar (D) Mica
14. Which of the following will give displacement reaction ?
(A) NaCl solution and copper metal 26. Match column A with column B and select the correct
option -
(B) MgCl2 solution and silver metal
Column A Column B
(C) FeSO4 solution and silver metal (Ore) (Nature of ore)
(D) AgNO3 solution and copper metal (a) Copper glance (i) Sulphate ore
(b) Calamine (ii) Halide ore
15. Which of the following is a volatile liquid ? (c) Rock salt (iii) Sulphide ore
(A) Chlorine (B) Fluorine (d) Epsom salt (iv) Carbonate ore
(C) Bromine (D) Iodine (A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv) (B) a(iv), b(ii), c(iii), d(i)
(C) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i) (D) a(iv), b(i), c(ii), d(iii)
16. W hich one of the following statements pertaining to
the general properties of metals is WRONG ? 27. In the alumino-thermic process, aluminium acts as:
(A) An oxidizing agent (B) A flux
(A) Most of the metals form basic oxides.
(C) A reducing agent (D) A solder
(B) All metals displace hydrogen from acids.
(C) The hydroxides of heavy metals are converted to 28. Which of the following metal is found in native state ?
their oxides upon ignition. (A) Sodium (B) Zinc
(C) Gold (D) Iron
(D) Metals form alloys with other metals.
29. Ore dressing for iron is done by -
17. Beryllium shows diagonal relationship with - (A) froth floatation process
(A) Mg (B) Na (B) magnetic separation
(C) Al (D) B (C) hand picking
(D) all of the above

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
30. Copper is extracted from the ore copper pyrite by 40. Bleaching powder has strong bleaching action
smelting in a blast furnace. The flux used and the slag due to -
(A) chlorine (B) nascent chlorine
formed are as given below :
(C) nascent oxygen (D) Cl–
(A) Flux CaO, Slag CaSiO3
(B) Flux SiO2, Slag CaSiO3 41. Dolomite is mineral whose formula is -
(C) Flux FeO, Slag FeSiO3 (A) CaCO3 (B) MgCO3
(C) CaCO3.MgCO3 (D) CaSO4.2H2O
(D) Flux SiO2, Slag FeSiO3
42. A solid compound ‘X’ on heating gives CO2 gas and a
I MP ORTA NT M ETAL COM POUN D
residue. The residue mixed with water forms ‘Y’. On
31. _______ is not present in gun metal . passing an excess of CO2 through ‘Y’ in water, a clear
(A) Cu (B) Sn solution ‘Z’ is obtained . On boiling ‘Z’. compound ‘X’
is reformed. The compound ‘X’ is -
(C) Zn (D) Fe
(A) Ca(HCO3)2 (B) CaCO3
32. Baking soda is : (C) Na2CO 3 (D) K2CO3
(A) Na2CO 3 (B) Ca (OH)2
(C) NaHCO 3 (D) NaCl

33. Cl2 acts as bleaching agent because in presence

EXERCISE-2
of moisture it produces :
(A) O 2 (B) Cl NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS
(C) O (D) HCl
1. Halide ore out of the following is -
34. Molten sodium chloride conducts electricity due to [Raj. NTSE Stage - I /05]
the presence of (A) cinnabar (B) horn silver
(A) free electrons (B) free molecules
(C) limonite (D) galena
(C) atoms (D) free ions

35. The alloy used for the construction of bells is - 2. Which of the following is not a method for purification
(A) tungsten steel (B) nickel steel of metals ? [Raj. NTSE Stage - I /05]
(C) bell metal (D) duralumin (A) Calcination (B) Distillation
36. Sodium chloride is known as - (C) Liquation (D) Sublimation
(A) Rock salt (B) Common salt
(C) Table salt (D) All 3. Cu2S + 2 Cu2O  6 Cu + SO2 reaction occurs in -
[Raj. NTSE Stage - I /06]
37. In which of the following pair, both the substances are (A) calcination of copper
chemically same ?
(B) roasting of copper
(A) milk of lime and lime water
(C) smelting of copper
(B) dead burnt plaster and gypsum
(D) bessemerisation of copper
(C) alumina and gypsum
(D) gypsum and plaster of paris 4. A non metal, which is found in liquid state is –
[Raj. NTSE Stage - I /13]
38. Match the following -
(A) bromine (B) iodine
Column ( A) Column (B)
(C) oxygen (D) carbon
(a) NaHCO3 (i) Caustic soda
(b) Na2CO 3.10H2O (ii) Baking soda 5. Which one of the following metal oxides shows both
(c) NaOH (iii) Blue vitriol acidic and basic characters ?
(d) CuSO4.5H2O (iv) Washing soda
[Delhi. NTSE Stage - I /13]
(A) (a) (i), (b) (ii), (c) (iii), (d) (iv)
(A) SO2 (B) K2O
(B) (a) (ii), (b) (iv), (c) (i), (d) (iii)
(C) Cu2O (D) Al2O3
(C) (a) (i), (b) (iv), (c) (ii), (d) (iii)
(D) (a) (ii), (b) (iv), (c) (iii), (d) (ii) 6. Brass contains : [M.P. NTSE Stage - I /13]
(A) Cu and Sn (B) Cu and Ni
39. Chemical (A) is used for water softening to remove
(C) Cu and Zn (D) Mg and Al
temporary hardness. (A) reacts with Na2CO3 to generate
caustic soda. When CO2 is bubbled through (A), it turns 7. Which of the following cannot be used to extract a metal
cloudy. What is the chemical formula of (A) ? from its ore ? [Raj. NTSE Stage - I /13]
(A) CaCO3 (B) CaO (A) Electrolytic reduction
(C) Ca(OH)2 (D) Ca(HCO3)2 (B) Carbon reduction
(C) Reaction with oxygen
(D) Reaction with more electropositive metal

PAGE # 167
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
8. The composition of alloy, German silver is : 19. What is the electronic formation of sulphur ?
[Karnataka NTSE Stage - I /13] [Gujrat NTSE Stage - I /14]
(A) 2, 6, 8 (B) 2, 4, 8
(A) Copper, zinc and nickel
(C) 2, 8, 6 (D) 2, 6, 4
(B) Copper, tin and lead
(C) Copper, nickel and lead 20. Match the following [Haryana NTSE Stage - I /14]
Column I Column II
(D) Copper, lead and silver
(a) strongest reducing agent I. Thalium
in aqueous solution
9. In iron metallurgy, lime stone is used -
(b) Shows inert pair effect II. Caesium
[Karnataka NTSE Stage - I 13] (c) Forms peroxide on heating III. Lithium
(A) to obtain heat energy with excess of oxygen
(B) to reduce iron oxide into iron (d) Used in photo cells IV. Sodium
(A) a-IV, b-II, c-I, d-III (B) a-III, b-I, c-IV, d-II
(C) as an iron ore
(C) a-III, b-II, c-I, d-IV (D) a-II, b-IV, c-I, d-III
(D) to remove sand (SiO2)
21. About (i) H2O2, (ii) BaO2, (iii) CO2 the correct statement
10. Gallium is in _______ state at room temperature - is : [Haryana NTSE Stage - I /14]
[Maharashtra NTSE Stage - I /13] (A) Both (i) and (ii) are peroxides, but not (iii)
(A) plasma (B) liquid (B) All are peroxides
(C) solid (D) gaseous (C) (i) is peroxide , but not (ii) and (iii)
(D) (i) and (iii) are peroxides, but not (ii)
11. W hich metal cannot displace hydrogen from dilute
acids ? [Rajasthan NTSE Stage - I /14] 22. The composition of nicrom alloys is :
(A) Cu (B) Mg
[Karnataka NTSE Stage - I /14]
(C) Zn (D) Na
(A) Cu, Ni, Cr (B) Fe, Ni, Cr
12. At room temperature liquid non-metal is- (C) Al, Ni, Cr (D) Mn, Ni, Cr
[Rajasthan NTSE Stage - I /14]
(A) carbon (B) bromine 23. In the following equation ‘x’ stands for
(C) mercury (D) iodine 2Al + xH2SO4  Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2
[Karnataka NTSE Stage - I /14]
13. Which alloy of aluminium is used for making aircrafts (A) 2 (B) 3
[M.P. NTSE Stage - I /14] (C) 1 (D) 5
(A) Alnico (B) Y-Alloy
24. The substance which are put into the blast furnace in
(C) Duralumin (D) Aluminium Bronze
the manufacture of iron :
14. Which metal is known as ‘quick-silver’ - [Karnataka NTSE Stage - I /14]
[M.P. NTSE Stage - I /14] (A) Iron ore, CaO, Ca(OH)2 and CaSiO3
(A) Mercury (B) Aluminium (B) Iron ore, Coke, Like stone and CaSiO3
(C) Iron ore, coke, Lime stone and Hot air
(C) Antimony (D) Strontium
(D) Iron ore, CaO, Lime stone and hot air
15. Iron ore is : [M.P. NTSE Stage - I /14]
25. Match the following :[Karnataka NTSE Stage - I /14]
(A) Bauxite (B) Dolomite
a. Bleaching powder (I). CaSO4.2H2O
(C) Haematite (D) Calamine b. Washing powder (II) NaHCO3
c. Plaster of paris (III) Na2CO 3
16. Transition Temperature of Rhombic and monoclinic
d. Gypsum (IV) CaOCl2
sulphur is - [M.P. NTSE Stage - I /14]
(A) 95.6°C (B) 99.6° C 1
(V) CaSO4. HO
(C) 11.5° C (D) 444° C 2 2
17. Which are alloys of brass ? [Gujrat NTSE Stage - I /14] (A) a-IV, b-III, c-V, d-I (B) a-I, b-III, c-V, d-IV
(A) Ag + Cu (B) Cu + Zn (C) a-IV, b-V, c-III, d-I (D) a-IV, b-III, c-II, d-V
(C) Zn + Fe (D) Cu + Fe
26. The metals which liberate hydrogen gas with dilute
18. Which of the following is a relatively light metal ? hydrochloric acid as well as caustic soda solution are :
[Gujrat NTSE Stage - I /14] [Karnataka NTSE Stage - I /14]
(A) Lead (B) Tin (A) Na and K (B) Zn and Al
(C) Aluminium (D) Mercury
(C) Fe and Mn (D) Cu and Ag

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
27. W hen a metal is alloyed with mercury the resulting 36. On additon of which metal the blue coloured copper
alloy [Amalgum] will have : sulphate solution turns into colourless solution ?
[Rajasthan_NTSE Stage-I/15]
[Karnataka NTSE Stage - I /14]
(A) Ag (B) Hg
(A) Less electrical conductivity than pure mtal (C) Zn (D) Au
(B) Lower melting point than pure
(C) Both A and B are correct 37. The oxide of which of the following element is not acidic
: [Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(D) Both A and B are wrong
(A) Cl (B) S
28. The metal that can be obtained by electrolysis of an (C) K (D) C
aqueous solution of its salts is :
38. A compound 'X' green coloured solid, gets oxidised to
[Bihar_NTSE Stage-I/15]
reddish brown solid in presence of air. 'X' on heating
(A) Zn (B) Cr gives brown coloured solid 'Y' and two pungent gases
(C) Mg (D) Ca 'A' and 'B' 'A' turns acidified potassium dichromate
solution green, X, Y, A, B and type of reaction is :
29. The process of coating of zinc over iron is known as [Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/15]
................. [Maharashtra_NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) CuSO4, CuO, SO2, SO3 decomposition
(A) Calcination (B) Metallurgy
(B) FeSO4, Fe, SO2, SO3 Oxidation
(C) Tinning (D) Galvanisation
(C) FeSO4, Fe2O3, SO2, SO3 decomposition
30. Arrange the following metals in the order of their (D) FeSO4, Fe2O3, SO3, SO2 decomposition
decreasing reactivity ?
Fe, Cu, Mg, Ca, Zn, Ag 39. The purpose of smelting an ore is to...........
[Maharashtra_NTSE Stage-I/15] [Telangana NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Ca > Zn > Mg > Cu > Ag > Fe (A) oxidize (B) reduce
(B) Ca > Zn > Cu > Mg > Ag > Fe (C) neutralize (D) decomposed
(C) Ca > Mg > Zn > Fe > Cu > Ag
40. Identify the wrong sequence of the element in a
(D) Ca > Mg > Fe > Zn > Cu > Ag
group [Jharkhand NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
31. Aluminium ore is.................. (A) Ca, Sr, Ba (B) Cu, Au, Ag
[M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15] (C) N, P, As (D) Cl, Br,I
(A) Haematite (B) Dolomite
(C) Bauxite (D) Calamine 41. In which of the following electrovalent compound both
cation and anion represent the same inert gas
32. In Haber’s process of Ammonia production, the configuration ? [Andhra Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
element used as catalytic promotor to increase the (A) Calcium bromide.
activity of iron catalyst is ..................... (B) Magnesium chloride
[M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15]
(C) Strontium oxide
(A) Ni (Nickel)
(D) Potassium sulphide
(B) W (Tungston)
(C) V (Vanadium)
42. Which of the following acid molecule differ from other
(D) Mo (Molybednum) molecules regarding their total number of valence
electrons ?
33. Which element forms maximum multiple bonds ? [Andhra Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
[M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) HClO4 (B) H3 PO4
(A) N (B) P (C)HNO 3 (D)H2 SO4
(C) As (D) Bi
43. The technique through which Gold and Silver and
34. Solder is an alloy of : [Delhi_NTSE Stage-I/15] refined ? [Karnataka NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Cu + Zn (B) Pb + Sn (A) Electrolytic refining (B) Vaccum melting
(C) Pb + Sb (D) Cu + Sn (C) Liquation process (D) Zone refining
35. Which is the symbol of the element tungsten ?
[Delhi_NTSE Stage-I/15] 44. This does not possess water of crystallization
[Karnataka NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) Ta (B) Tc
(A) Potassium nitrate (B) Gypsum
(C) W (D) V
(C) Copper sulphate (D) Cobalt chloride

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
45. Read the following statement and choose the correct 49. The percentage of carbon in steel is :
option : [Haryana NTSE Stage-1/ 2015] [Uttrakhand Stage-1/ 2015]
(a) Calcium is present in the bones of animals and (A) 0.1 to 1.5% (B) 0.5 to 2.5%
human beings as sulphate
(C) 2 to 5% (D) 3 to 5%
(b) Heating Calcium carbonate to 1070K-1270K gives
quick lime.
50. While preparing CO2 in laboratory on which of the
(c) Aluminium is not affected by dry air
following substances hydrochloride acid is poured?
(A) Only (a) and (c) are true
(B) Only (a) and (b) are true [Gujrat NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(C) Only (b) and (c) are true (A) Pieces of Zinc
(D) all are true (B) The practices of copper Sulphur
(C) Pieces of marble
46. In the structure of Napthalene the difference between
(D) Ammonium Chloride
the number of sigma bonds and the number of pi
bond is [West Bengal NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
51. A metal occurs in nature as its ore X which on heating
(A) 6 (B) 7
in air converts to Y.Y reacts with unreacted X to give
(C) 12 (D) 14
the metal. The metal is : [NTSE Stage-2/ 2015]
(A) Hg (B) Cu
47. W hen a clear aluminium article is made the anode
and is electrolyzed with dil sulphuric acid to make a (C) Zn (D) Fe
thicker protective and attractive oxide layer around it,
then the process is called 52. Assertion (A) : Nitrate ores are rarely available.
[Delhi NTSE Stage-1/ 2015] Reason (R) : Bond dissociationg energy of nitrogen is
(A) Galvanisation (B) Anodising very high. [NTSE Stage-2/ 2015]
(C) Leaching (D) Thermite process (A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
explanation of A.
48. A white coloured compound ‘XY’ is used in
(B) Both A and R are correct but R is not the correct
photochromic lenses. Choose the incorrect
explanation of A.
statement from the following:
(C) A is correct and R is false
[Delhi NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(D) Both A and R are False
(A) The compound ‘XY’ decomposes into a metal
and a non-metal on exposure to sunlight
53. Which metal is most reactive ?
(B) The compound ‘XY’ is completely soluble in aq.
[Raj. NTSEStage-1/2016]
ammonia solution
(A) Na (B) Ca
(C) The metal part of ‘XY’ is grey coloured in
(C) K (D) Zn
elemental form
(D) The non-metal part of ‘XY’ is violet coloured in
54. W hich metal does not react with oxygen at high
elemental form
temperature ? [Raj. NTSEStage-1/2016]
(A) Mg (B) Al
(C) Ag (D) Zn



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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

INTRODUCTION (v) Isodiaphers :

Atoms having the same difference of neutrons and
proton.
Atoms have three fundamental particles that are
238 234
electrons, protons and neutrons. Protons and e.g. 92 U , 90 Th
neutrons are present inside the nucleus and electrons
(b) On the basis of stability :
are present in the extranuclear region. Changes
(i) Stable nuclei : Those nuclei which are perma-
occurring in the nucleus which are a source of
nent & their proton and neutron contents remain
tremendous energy are called nuclear reactions. The unchanged forever (can be changed only under
branch of science which deals with the study of atomic severe conditions of bombardment by external
nucleus and nuclear changes is called nuclear radiation) are called stable nuclei.
chemistry.
(ii) Unstable nuclei : Those nuclei in which no. of
Nucleus term was firstly introduced by Rutherford . It is protons and neutrons change with time.
defined as the central part of an atom which contain
all the protons and neutrons.
STABILITY OF NUCLEUS
rn  A1/ 3  rn = RoA1/3
Stability of a nucleus can be explained by following
Ro = 1.2 × 10–15 m two factors.
where : A =mass number, (a) On the basis of (n/p) ratio :
rn = radius of nucleus Neutrons help to hold protons together within the
R0 = Rutherford constant nucleus. The number of neutrons necessary to create
Density of nucleus = 1017 kg/m3 a stable nucleus increases rapidly as the number of
protons increases. The number of neutron to proton
ratio (n/p) of stable nuclei increases with increasing
atomic number . The area of graph in which all stable
nuclei are found is known as the belt of stability.
(a) On the basis of their Z and n values :
Radioactive nuclei occur outside this belt.
(i) Isotopes : The isotopes of an element have the
same atomic number but different atomic masses
due to the presence of different number of neutrons.
1 2 3 22 23 24
e.g. 1H , 1 H , 1 H ; 11 Na , 11 Na , 11 Na

(ii) Isobars : The atoms of different elements with

different atomic numbers, but same mass number
are called isobars.
e.g. 14 , 14 ; 40 and 40 are isobars.
6 C 7N 20 Ca 18 Ar
(iii) Isotones : The isotones may be defined as the
atoms of different elements containing same
number of neutrons.
3
e.g. 13
6C
and 14 ;
7N 1
H and 24 He
A1 A2
(iv) Mirror nuclei : z1 X & z2 Y are mirror nuclei if

Z1 = n2 and Z2 = n1
Z1 = A1 – n1 = n2 ..... (1)
Z2 = A2 – n2 = n1 ...... (2)
from equation(1) n1 = A1 – n2 The type of radioactive decay that a particular radio
by putting the value of n1 in equation (2) isotope will undergo depends to a large extent on its
A2 – n 2 = A1 – n 2 neutrons to protons ratio compared to those of nearby
nuclei that are within the belt of stability.
A1 = A2
So these are defined as those isobars in which the (i) A nucleus whose high n/p ratio places it above the
Z and n values are interchanged belt of stability emits a -particle in order to lower n/p
ratio and move towards the belt of stability.
e.g. 13 H and 32 He , 13 13
6 C and 7 N 1
0n 11 p  –10 e  –
( – is Anti neutrino)

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Note :
Antineutrino is the antiparticle of neutrino, which is
neutral particle produced in nuclear beta decay.
(ii) A nucleus which has lower n/p ratio , is placed below
the belt of stability either emits positrons or undergoes
electron capture. Both modes of decay decrease the
number of protons and increase the number of neutrons
in the nucleus and thus, positron emission or electron
capture results in an increase in n/p ratio.
e.g.
1  1
1P  0n  01 e  
(Positron emission)
1 1
 1p  –10 e  0 n  X  ray
(Electron capture)
 Note :
A positron has same mass as electron but carries
opposite charge. The positron has a very short life
because it is annihilated when it collides with
an electron, producing gamma rays. This phenomenon
is known as pair production.
(iii) The nuclei with atomic number > 83, outside the
belt of stability, undergo -emissions. Emission of an
-particle decreases both the number of protons and
neutrons and thereby increases n/p ratio.
Thus,
For lighter element if Z = n then nuclei will be stable
For nuclie Z > 20, stability condition is 1.6 n/p > 1
Unstable nuclei emit radiations to achieve stability,
this property is known as radioactivity.
(b) On the basis of even and odd nature of the
number of protons and neutrons :
(i) The number of stable nuclides is maximum when
both Z and n are even numbers. About 60% of stable
nuclides have both Z and n even.
(ii) The number of stable nuclides in which either the Z
or n is odd is about one third of those, where both are
even.
MAGIC NUMBERS
Just as certain numbers of electrons (2,10,18,36,54
and 86) correspond to stable closed shell electron
configuration, certain number of nucleons leads to
closed shell in nuclei. The protons and neutrons can
achieve closed shell. Nuclei with 2, 8, 20, 28, 50 or 82
protons or 2,8,20, 28, 50, 82, or 126 neutrons
correspond to closed nuclear shell. Closed shell nuclei
are more stable than those that do not have closed
shells. These numbers of nucleons that correspond to
closed nuclear shells are called magic numbers.
Ex-1 14
6 C nuclide undergoes  -decay. Which stable nuclide
is formed ? Give equation.
Sol. 14
6C
 147 N + –01e
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is a process in which nuclei of certain
elements undergo spontaneous disintegration
without excitation by any external means.
All heavy elements from bismuth (Bi) to uranium
and a few of lighter elements have naturally
occurring isotopes which possess the property of
radioactivity. All those substances which have the
tendency to emit these radiations are termed as
radioactive materials. Radioactivity is a nuclear
phenomenon i.e., the kind of intensity of the radiation
emitted by any radioactive substance is absolutely
the same whether the element is present as such
or in any one of its compounds.
E.g. Elements like uranium (U) , thorium (Th) ,
polonium (Po), radium (Ra) etc. are radioactive in
nature.
(a) History of the Discovery of Radioactivity :
In 1895, Henri Becquerel was studying the effect of
sunlight on various phosphorescent minerals, one
of the substance being studied was uranium ore.
He accidently left a crystal of uranium sample ;
Potassium uranyl sulphate [K2UO2 (SO4)2. 2H2O] in
a drawer along with some photographic plate
wrapped in black paper. Much to his surprise, he
discovered that the photographic plate had been
fogged by exposure to some invisible radiations
from uranium. He called this mysterious property of
the ore as ‘radioactivity’ (Radioactivity means ray-
emitting activity). A year later, in 1896, Marie Curie
found that besides uranium and its compounds,
thorium was another element which possessed the
property of radioactivity. 1898 Marie Curie and her
husband Pierrie Curie isolated two new radioactive
elements polonium and radium.
(b) Natural & Artificial Radioactivity :
If a substance emits radiations by itself it possesses
natural radioactivity but if a substance does not
possess radioactivity and starts emitting radiations
on exposure to rays from a natural radioactive
substance, it is called induced or artificial
radioactivity.
e.g.
When aluminium is bombarded with - particles , a
radioactive isotope of phosphorus is formed which
disintegrate spontaneously with the emission of
positrons (which are positively charged electron, +1e0).
 Note :
Natural radioactivity was discovered by Becquerel
while artificial radioactivity was discovered by Irene
Curie and Joliot.
PAGE # 172
 -rays -rays
(c ) Analys is of Radioa ctive Radiat ions : +

-
r ay
+

s
In 1904, Rutherford and his co-workers observed that +  -rays
+
when radioactive radiations were subjected to a +
ys
ra +
magnetic field or a strong electric field, these were -
-rays
+
split into three types, as shown in the figure. The rays +
+ Magnetic
which are attracted towards the negative plate, are field

positively charged , and called alpha () rays. The Radioactive

substances
rays which are deflected towards the positive plate
are negatively charged and are called beta () rays.
(A) (B)
The third type of rays which are not deflected on any Figure :
side but move straight are known as gamma () rays. (A) Deflection of radioactive rays in electric field and,
(B) Emission of radioactive rays and their deflection
in a magnetic field. (The direction of magnetic field is
inward perpendicular to the page).
The important properties of- rays ,  rays and -rays are as follows :

(i) When an _ particle is emitted, the new element

( d ) Units of Radioactivity :
formed is displaced two positions to the left in the
(i) SI unit is Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as periodic table than that of parent element (because
disintegration per sec (dps). the atomic number decreases by 2).
238
(ii) Earlier radioactivity was given in terms of Curie e.g. 92 U  90 Th234  2 He 4
(Ci).
1 Ci refers to the activity of Radium. (ii) W hen a  _ particle is emitted the new element
1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 dps = 3.7 × 1010 Bq. formed is displaced one position to the right in the
1 Milli Ci = 3.7 × 107 Bq. periodic table than that of parent element (because
1 Micro Ci = 3.7 × 104 Bq. the atomic number increases by 1).
e.g.
(iii) Another unit is Rutherford (Rd).
The emission of  _ particle by 6 C 14 may be
1 Rd = 106 dps
represented as follows:

6
C 14  N14 +-1e0
7
These laws were given by Soddy,Fajans and Russel
(a) Explanation :
(1911_1913).The element emitting the  or particle
is called parent element and the new element formed The results of the group displacement laws may be
is called daughter element. explained as follows:

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Since an  _ particle is simply a helium nucleus Here ZA and ZB are atomic no. of parent and daughter
(containing two neutrons and two protons) therefore, nuclei respectively.
loss of _ particle means loss of two neutrons and = 2 × 8 – (92 – 82)
two protons . Thus, the new element formed has 16 – 10
atomic number less by 2 unit and mass number less =6
by 4 unit. Thus, no. of -particles emitted out = 8
The _ particle is simply an electron and there are no No. of -particles emitted out = 6
electrons present in nucleus .However , the loss of _ Ex.3 90Th234 disintegrates to give 82Pb206 as final product .
particle is also found to be a nuclear phenomenon How many alpha and beta particles are emitted during
because the change in external conditions this process ?
(temperature etc.) has no effect on the rate of the Sol. Suppose the no. of  particles emitted = x and no. of
emission of _ particle. It is therefore, believed that _ particles emitted = y.
for emission of _ particle to occur, a neutron changes Then
to a proton and an electron i.e.
90
Th234  82
Pb206 + x 2He4 + y-1e0
Neutron  Proton + Electron (_ particle)
As a result ,the number of protons in the nucleus Equating the mass number on both sides ,we get
increases by 1 and so does the atomic number. 234 = 206 + 4x + 0y
or 4x = 28 or x=7
 Note : Equating the atomic number on both sides ,we get
(i) Increase or decrease in the number of protons in 90=82+2x-y y=6
the nucleus (due to loss of  particle or _ particle) Ans. 7 and 6  particles will be emitted.
is accompanied simultaneously by the loss or gain Alternative Method:
of electrons in the extranuclear part (from the
surroundings) so that the electrical neutrality is No. of -particles =
maintained in the new atom formed. Difference in atomic mass of reactants and products

(ii)  decay produces isodiaphers i.e.parent and the

_ 4
daughter nuclides have same isotopic mass (which 234 – 206 28
= = =7
is the difference between number of neutrons and 4 4
protons) . No. of -particle=( 2 × no. of -particles) – (ZA – ZB)
238
E.g. 92 U  90 Th234  2 He4 where , ZA = Atomic number of reactant
ZB = Atomic number of product
No. of neutrons: 146 144 = (2 × 7) – (90 – 82) = 14 – 8 = 6
No. of protons: 92 90 Ans.7 and 6  particles will be emitted.
Difference 54 54
(iii)  _ decay produces isobars i.e.parent and the RATE OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
daughter nuclides have different atomic numbers but
same mass number . Radioactive disintegration is an example of first order
E.g. reaction, i.e., the rate of decay is directly proportional
to the no. of atoms (amount) of the element present
6
C 14  7
N14 +-1e0 at the particular time.
(iv) Emission of 1  and 2  particles produces an A  Decay product
isotope of parent element. No. of atoms at t = 0  N0
e.g. No. of atoms left after t = t  N
  
92
U238   91Pa234 
 90Th 234   92U234
Hence, rate  [N 0 – N]/t because rate continuously
 Note : decreases with time. Let dN be the change in no. of
The emission of  and _ particles is also known as atoms in an infinitesimal small time dt, then rate of
decay can be written as -
_decay and _ decay.
dN
–   [N]1 = N. The negative sign indicates the
Ex-2 Calculate number of  and  - particles emitted when dt
238 decreasing trend of N with increasing time.
92 U changes into radioactive 206
82 Pb .
where  is the proportionality constant.
Change in mass number
Sol. No. of -particles = Integration of this equation finally gives -
4
238 – 206 32 2.303 N0
= = =8 or  = log10
4 4 t N
No. of -particles = 2 × -particles - (ZA – ZB)  Note :  is also known as decay or disintegration or
radioactive constant.

PAGE # 174
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Ex.5 The half -life period of a radioactive element is 27.96
CHARACTERISTICS OF RATE OF DISINTEGRATION days . Calculate the time taken by a given sample to
reduce to 1/8th of its activity.
(i) Rate of disintegration continuously decreases with Sol. The amount of substance left after ‘n’ number of half
time. lives can be given as :-
(ii) Rate of disintegration as well as  are independent  1n
of P and T. N = No  
2
(iii) (a) Unit of rate of decay : disintegration per time 1
(b) Unit of decay constant : time–1 According to question , N = N
8 0
(iv) Time required to complete a definite fraction is
1  1n
independent of initial no. of atoms (amount) of or N0 = No  
radioactive species. 8 2
1 1
HALF-LIFE PERIOD or 3 = n  n = 3
( 2) (2)
The time required for the decay of radioactive element So, time taken by the sample to reduce to 1/8th of its
to half of the original amount is called half-life period. reactivity will be -

(a) Characteristics of Half-Life Period : T= n×t½

• It is denoted by t1/2 . T= 3×27.96

• Each radioactive element has a characteristic half- = 83.88 days
life period . Ex.6 Half- life period of a radioactive element is 100
• Half-life period for an element is a constant. seconds. Calculate the disintegration constant.
Sol. t1/2 = 100 Seconds,
0.693
• t1/2 =
 0.693 0.693
–1
 = t ½ = 100 = 0.00693 s
W here  is a constant known as disintegration
constant or decay constant. It is the characteristic of
= 6.93 × 10–3 sec–1
the nature of the radioactive element.
 Note : AVERAGE LIFE
Half-life period does not depend upon initial amount
Evidently , the whole of the radioactive element can
of element.
never disintegrate or in other words
(b) Significance of Half-Life Period : , the time required for the disintegration of the whole of
a radioactive element will be infinity.
(i) Stability of nuclei : The value of half-life period can
Thus, it is meaningless to talk of the total life of a
give an idea about relative stability of radio isotopes.
radioactive element . However, sometimes another
All isotopes with longer t1/2 are more stable. term is used ,called average life ( ) which is the
(ii) The amount of substance left after ‘n’ number of reciprocal of the disintegration constant () i.e.
half lives can be given as :- 1 t
Average life ()=  0.693 ½ = 1.44 t .
1/2

 1n
N = No  
2 ISOSTERS
Where ;
(i) Molecules having same no. of atoms and same
N = Amount of the substance left after ‘n’ half-lives. no. of electrons are called isosters.
No = Initial amount of the substance. e.g., CO 2 and N 2O (There are three atoms and 22
electrons in both the molecules.)
Ex.4 The half-life period of 53I125 is 60 days .What percent
of the original radioactivity would be present after 180
NUCLEAR ISOMERS
days ?
Sol. t½ = 60 days, t = 180 days (i) Nuclides having identical atomic no. and mass
no. but differing in radioactive properties are known
Total time ( t ) 180
n= = =3 as nuclear isomers.
Half  life peiod ( t ½ ) 60
N0 (ii) Nuclear isomers differ in their energy state and
Applying the formula N= n spins.
2
1 e.g., 60Co and 60mCo, 69Zn and 69mZn, 80Br and 80mBr etc.
N0
we get N = = × 100 = 12.5% The symbol m with mass no. represents the
2n 8

PAGE # 175
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 metastable state of parent element. of fission of uranium, it is certain that neutrons are
Isomeric set free.If the conditions are so arranged that each of
60m
Co Transition
60
Co + -rays these neutrons can, in turn, bring about the fission,
the number of neutrons will increase at a continuously
(iii) Nuclear isomers, thus have different rate of decay,
accelerating rate until whole of the material is
decay constant, half life, average life and binding exhausted. Such type of reaction is called chain
energy. reaction. It takes very small time and is uncontrolled.
 Note : It ends in terrible explosion due to release of
enormous amount of energy.
In a metastable state, a system is in equilibrium (not
235 1
changing with time),but is susceptible to fall into lower 92 U + 0 n   141 92 1
56 Ba  36 Kr  3 0 n + Energy
energy states with only slight interaction. The chain reaction is shown in the figure .
Ba
NUCLEAR REACTIONS n
235 n
92 U n
Ba
The reactions in which nuclei of atoms interact with n
E
other nuclei or elementary particles such as alpha Kr
235 n
particle, proton, deutron, neutron etc. resulting in the 92 U Ba
Ba n
formation of a new nucleus and one or more n n n
E U
235

elementary particles are called nuclear reactions. Kr

92
n
n n
Nuclear reactions are expressed in the same fashion U235
92 E Kr
as chemical reactions. In a nuclear reaction ,atomic Ba Ba
E n
number and mass number are conserved. n
Kr n n
e.g. the nuclear reaction : U235
92 n
U235
92 n
14 4 E
7 N  2He  178 O  11H E n
Kr

Kr Ba
(a ) Nuclear Fission : n
235
n
92U n
The process of artificial transmutation in which heavy
nucleus is broken down into two lighter nuclei of nearly E Kr
comparable masses with release of large amount of (ii) Critical mass : The minimum mass which the
energy is termed as nuclear fission. fissionable material must have so that one of the
e.g. neutrons released in every fission hits another
238 239 239 nucleus and causes fission so that the chain reaction
(i) 92 U is converted into 93 Np and 94 Pu
continues at a constant rate is called critical mass .If
238 239 239 the mass is less than the critical mass , it is called
92 U 10 n 
– –
 93 Np 
 94 Pu sub-critical mass . If the mass is more than critical
Uranium Neptunium Plutonium mass, it is called super-critical mass.

235
(iii) Applications of Nuclear Fission : Three practical
(ii) 92 U captures slow neutron and splits up into applications of nuclear fission are as follows -
fragments. (A) Atomic bomb (B) Nuclear reactor
235 1 236 144 90 1
(C) Nuclear power plants
92 U + 0 n  92 U  56 Ba 36 Kr 2 0 n + Energy
(A) Atomic Bomb :
Unstable
During fission, there is always loss of mass, known
• The basic principle of atomic bomb is uncontrolled
nuclear fission reaction (chain reaction).
as mass defect ,which is converted into energy
according to Einstein equation i.e. • It requires several small samples of U-235 or Pu-239.
E = mc2. • An explosive like TNT (Trinitrotoluene) is placed
e.g. behind the samples which explodes to initiate the
reaction which causes the small samples to join and
235 1 144 90 1 form large mass.
92 U + 0n  56 Ba
+ 36 Kr + 20 n
• Neutron from Ra-Ba source (s) initiate the reaction
235
.118
1
 .009

 143
 .881
 89
.947
 2.018
  which starts the chain reaction finally leading to
236 .127 amu 235 .846 explosion and release of large amount of energy.
• The rapid release of energy raises the temperature
 m = 236.127 – 235.846 enormously and generates a very high pressure front
= 0.281 amu in the atmosphere.
E(in MeV) = 0.281 × 931.5 = 261.75 MeV
Energy released in one fission is equal to 261.75
MeV.

(i) Chain reaction : Whatever are the primary products Atomic Bomb
 Note :

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 The first atomic bomb dropped over Hiroshima city
during the second world war in 1945 utilized 235U and
the second atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki
made use of 239Pu. India exploded her first atomic
bomb at Rajasthan in May 1974,and used 239Pu as
the fissionable material.
(B) Nuclear reactor :
• An equipment in which nuclear chain reaction is
carried out in a controlled manner is called a nuclear
reactor.
• The energy thus liberated can be used for
constructive purposes like generation of steam to
run turbines and produce electricity.
• In a nuclear reactor, fission is controlled by controlling
the number of neutrons released.
raise or lower and control the fission process.
Because they can absorb neutrons.
• Moderator : The material used to slow down the
neutrons (without absorbing them so that they can be
easily captured by the fuel, is known as moderator.
Heavy water (D2O) or graphite is used as moderator
material in nuclear power plant.
• Coolant : To carry away the heat produced during
fission, a liquid is used. This liquid is known as coolant.
Usually heavy water is used as coolant so that it also
acts as a moderator.
• Shield : To prevent the losses of heat and to protect
the persons operating the reactor from the radiation

• In a nuclear reactor, fission is based on the fact that and heat, the entire reactor core is enclosed, in a
cadmium and boron can absorb neutrons thus heavy steel or concrete dome, called the shield.
forming corresponding isotopes which are not Steam

radioactive.
Electricity
Generator
Turbine
113 1
 114
48 Cd  0n  48 Cd    rays
10 1
 115B 
5 B  0n    rays

 Note : Heat
D2O
Reactor Primary
exchanger
coolant
The first nuclear reactor was assembled by Fermi
Condenser
and his coworkers at the University of Chicago in the
United states of America, in 1942. In India, the first D2O
nuclear reactor was put into operation at Trombay
Pump
(Mumbai) in 1956.

(C ) Nuclear Power Plants : Heavy water

Nuclear Reactor
When a nuclear reactor is used for the production of
electricity it is termed as a nuclear power plant.The (b) Nuclear Fusion :
heat produced during a nuclear reaction is utilized in
A nuclear reaction in which two lighter nuclei are fused
generating steam which runs the steam turbines.
together to form a heavier nucleus is called nuclear
The electric generator is connected to the turbine.
fusion. A fusion reaction is difficult to occur because
The electric power is then obtained from the
generator. positively charged nuclei repel each other. At very high
Thus, a nuclear power plant consists essentially of temperature of the order of 106 to 107 K, the nuclei
the following four parts: may have sufficient energy to overcome the repulsive
1. Reactor core forces and fuse.Therefore, fusion reactions are also
2. Heat exchanger called thermonuclear reactions. Fusion reaction are
3. Steam turbine highly exothermic in nature because loss of mass
4. Steam condensing system occurs when heavier nucleus is formed from the two
lighter nuclei.
Reactor core is the main part of nuclear reactor. It
2 2 4
consists of the following parts :
1 H 1 H 2 He  23.85 MeV
Fuel rod : 3 3 4
1 H 1 H 2 He  210 n  11.3 MeV
The fissionable material used in the reactor is called 4
1 3
fuel. The fuel used is enriched uranium -235 . This is 1H 1 H 2 He  20 .0 MeV
obtained from the naturally occurring U-235 2 3 4
1 H 1 H  2 He 10 n  17.6 MeV
(containing about 0.7% of U-235 ) by raising the
percentage of U-235 to about 2-3%. Hydrogen bomb is based on fusion reaction. Energy
released is so enormous that it is about 1000 times
• Control rods : Cadmium or boron rods are used to
that of an atomic bomb.
It is believed that the high temperatures of stars

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 including the sun is due to fusion reactions.
Fission (in the centre)  heat + 10 n
(i) Applications of Nuclear Fusion :
6
3 Li + 10 n  13 H + 24 He + 3.78 MeV
(A) Hydrogen bomb :
2
• Its principle is nuclear fusion. 1H + 13 H  24He + 10n + 17.6 MeV
• It consists of an arrangement of nuclear fission in 2
1H + 12 H  32 He + 10n + 3.2 MeV
the centre surrounded by a mixture of deuterium (12 H)
3
and lithium isotopes ( 36 Li) . 1H + 13 H  24 He + 2 10n + 13.14 MeV
• The nuclear fission provides heat and neutrons. (B) Fusion in sun : Among the celestial bodies in which
6
• Neutrons convert to tritium 13 H and the heat
3 Li energy is produced, the sun is relatively cooler. There
are stars with temperature around 10 8 K inside. In
liberated is used for fusion between 12 H & 13 H .
sun and other stars, where the temperature is less
• The reactions occurring are : than or around 107 K, fusion takes place dominantly
by proton-proton cycle.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR FUSION

S.No. Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion

1 This process occurs in heavy nuclei. This process occurs in lighter nuclei.

The heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei The lighter nuclei fuse together to form a
2
of comparable masses. heavy nucleus.

3 The reaction occurs at ordinary temperature. This occurs at very high temperature.

The energy liberated in one fission is about The energy liberated in one fusion is about
4
200 MeV. 24 MeV.

5 This can be controlled. This cannot be controlled.

Products of fission are usually unstable Products of fusion are usually stable and
6
and radioactive in nature. non-radioactive in nature.

7 The links of fission reactions are neutrons. The links of fusion reactions are protons.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NUCLEAR REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Some of the characteristics that differentiate between nuclear reactions and ordinary chemical reactions are
summarized ahead :

Nuclear reactions Chemical reactions

Involve conversion of one nuclide into Involve rearrangement of atoms and not
another. change in the nucleus.

Particles within the nucleus are

Only outermost electrons participate.
involved .

Often accompanied by release Accompanied by release or absorption of

of tremendous amount of energy. relatively small amount of energy.

Rate of reaction is independent of

Rate of reaction is influenced by external
external factors such as temperature,
factors.
pressure and catalyst.
No breaking or making of bonds
Involves breaking or making of bonds.
involved.
Irreversible. Can be reversible or irreversible.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY determine the age of rock sample (1g of 238 92 U
in
AND RADIOISOTOPES equilibrium with its decay products produces about
(a ) In Medicine : 10 –7 g He in a year). Also by assuming that initially
rock does not contain 206
82 Pb and it is present in rocks
Radioisotopes are used to diagnose many diseases.
E.g. arsenic - 74 tracer is used to detect the presence due to decay of 238
92 U
, we can calculate the age of
of tumour, sodium -24 tracer is used to detect the rocks and minerals by measuring the ratio of
presence of blood clots , iodine-131 tracer is used to
238 and 206 .The amount of 206
study the activity of the thyroid glands and cobalt-60 92 U 82 Pb 82 Pb is supposed
is used in the treatment of cancer . It should be noted 238
to be obtained by decay of U . Thus,
that the radioactive isotopes used in medicine have
206
very short half life periods. 238
92 U  82 Pb + 8 42 He + 6 –01e
238
(b) In Agriculture : Mole of U left = N at time t i.e., Nt
The use of radioactive phosphorus 32P in fertilizers has 206
Mole of Pb formed = N’ at time t
revealed how phosphorus is absorbed by plants. This
study has led to an improvement in the preparation of  Initial mole of
238
U = N + N’ i.e., (N0)
fertilizers. 14C is used to study the kinetics of
photosynthesis. Thus, time t can be evaluated by-
(c ) In Industry : 2.303 N0
t= log N
(i) The thickness of a material (e.g. cigarettes, metal  t

plates etc.) can be determined by placing a radioactive
source on one side of the material and a counting
device on the other. From the amount of radiation
reaching the counter, the thickness of the material
 Note :
can be calculated.
(ii) When a single pipe line is used to transfer more
than one petroleum derivative, a small amount of
radioactive isotope is placed in last portion of one
substance to signal its end and the start of another.
(d) In Geological Dating :
The age of the earth and rocks can be predicted by
geological dating. Age of a rock sample can be
calculated by finding out the amounts of the parent
radioactive element and the isotope of lead (e.g.
238 206
92 U and 82 Pb ) in rock sample.
(e ) In Radio Carbon Dating :
The age of a fallen tree or dead animal can be
predicted by measuring the amount of C-14 in dead
plants or animals.
DATING
(i) The determination of age of minerals and rocks,
an important part of geological studies involves
determination of either a species formed during a
radioactive decay or the residual activity of an isotope
which is undergoing decay. For example
238 undergoes
92 U
a decay (t1/2 =4.5 × 109 years) series
forming a stable isotope 206
82 Pb and He. Helium
obtained as a result of decay of 238
92 U
has almost
certainly been formed from  -particles. Thus, if
238 and He contents are known in a rock we can
92 U
(ii) To determine the age of animals or objects of
vegetable origin such as wood, charcoal and textiles
by radio carbon dating technique.
Radio carbon dating technique was given by Willard
Libby and was awarded Nobel Prize.
Carbon-14 has been used to determine the age of
organic material. The procedure is based on the
formation of 14C by neutron capture in the upper
atmosphere.
14 1 14 1
7 N + 0n
 6 C + 1H
This reaction provides a small, but reasonably
14
constant source of C . The 14 C isotope is
radioactive, undergoing  - decay with a half life of
5730 years.
14  14 0
6C 7 N + –1e
In using radio carbon dating, we generally assume
that the ratio of 14C to 12C in the atmosphere has been
constant for at least 50,000 years. The 14 C is
incorporated into CO2, which is in turn incorporated
through photosynthesis, into more complex carbon
containing molecules within plants. W hen these
plants are eaten by animals, the 14 C becomes
incorporated within them. Because a living plant or
animal has a constant intake of carbon compounds,
it also has to maintain 14C to 12C ratio that is identical
with that of atmosphere . However, once the organism
dies, it no longer ingests carbon compounds to
compensate 14C which is lost through radioactive
decay. The ratio of 14 C to 12 C therefore,
decreases.Thus, by knowing the equilibrium
concentration of 14C in a living matter as well as in a
dead piece of matter at a particular time, the age of
material can be determined.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 HAZARDS OF RADIATIONS EXERCISE-1
(i) Radioactive radiations cause atmospheric
pollution. I NT RODU CT ION & RA DI OA CT IVIT Y

(ii) When living organisms are exposed to radiations, 1. Radioactivity is due to -

the complex organic molecules get ionized, break up (A) stable electronic configuration.
and disrupt the normal functioning of the organisms. (B) unstable electronic configuration.
(iii) Effects of radiations : (C) stable nucleus .
(D) unstable nucleus.
(A) Pathological damage : i.e. permanent damage
to living body which causes death and development 2. The activity of radioisotope changes with -
of diseases e.g. cancers or leukemia etc. (A) temperature
(B) pressure
(B) Genetic damage : i.e. effect on chromosomes
(C) chemical environment
causing mutations.
(D) none of the above
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION 3. The rays are given off by a radioactive element from -
(A) nucleus (B) valence electrons
Radioactive pollution is a special form of physical
(C) all the orbits (D) outer orbit
pollution, relating to all systems air, water and soil.
This type of pollution is not only harmful for the present 4. Radium is a radioactive substance. It dissolves in
generation but also for future generations. The dilute H2SO 4 and forms compound radium sulphate.
radioactive substances with long half-life are usually The compound is -
the main sources of environmental concern. (A) no longer radioactive.
Neutrons released during nuclear tests make other (B) half as radioactive as radium content.
materials radioactive in the surrounding. These (C) as radioactive as the radium content.
materials include 90Sr, 137Ba and 131. The radioactive (D) twice as radioactive as the radium content.
materials are converted into gases. These gases and
fine particles are thrown high up into the air and carried 5. A radioactive disintegration differs from a chemical
away by wind to distant areas. They ultimately settle change in being -
down and cause pollution to water and soil. From (A) an exothermic change.
soil the radioactive substances enter in the food chain (B) a spontaneous process.
and thus affect all forms of life including man. Cosmic (C) a nuclear process.
radiations and explosion of a hydrogen bomb produce (D) none of these
14
C in air.
Nuclear power plants and reprocessing plants 6. In the nuclear reaction -
14 4  17
discharge 90Sr, 137Cs, 131, 140 Ba, 140La, 144Rh, etc. Coal 7 N + 2 He 8 O + ----------
based thermal power stations release radioactive
The missing particle is -
gases such as 85Kr, 133Xe and particulates such as
137
, 60Co, 54Mn and 137 Cs through chimney. (A) 24 He (B) 11H
Nuclear dumping within land or in ocean leads to
(C) 10 n (D) 
radiation pollution.
(a) Effects of Radioactive Pollution : 11 11
7. 6 C
 5 B decay produces -
(i) Radiations induce mutations and breaks in
(A) positron (B)  -particle
chromosomes particularly at the time of cell division.
(C) -particle (D) None of these
(ii) Higher doses of radiations can cause cancer,
leukaemia, anaemia and sterility. Excessive use of 210 206
8. 84 Po  82 Pb + 24 He . In this reaction predict
X-rays causes death of tissues.
the position of group of Po when lead is in the IV A
(iii) Radiations induce mutations in plants also. group.
Morphological deformities occur. (A) II A (B) IV B
(b) Control of Radiation Pollution : (C) VI B (D) VI A
(i) Manufacture and use of nuclear weapons should 9. Th a member of III group on losing -particles forms
90
be stopped. a new element belonging to -
(ii) Nuclear tests and further development should be (A) I group (B) III group
suspended. (C) II group (D) IV group
(iii) Ocean dumping of nuclear wastes should be
suspended. 10. 60
27 Co is radioactive because -
(A) its atomic no. is high
(iii) Proper handling of radio isotopes during their
(B) it has high p/n ratio
use in various fields should be done.
(C) it has high n/p ratio
(D) None of these

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
11. Which of the following isotopes is likely to be most 22. Consider the nuclear change,
stable ? 237 – – –
(A) 71 (B) 66 93 Np
 A  B 
  C
30 Zn 30 Zn
Which of the following statements is not correct ?
40
(C) 20 Ca (D) None of these (A) Mass number of B is 233.
(B) Atomic number of A is 91.
12. As compared to 12C atom, 14C atom has - (C) C is an isotope of A.
(A) two extra protons and two extra electrons. (D) B is an isobar of A.
(B) two extra protons and no extra electron.
(C) two extra neutrons and no extra electron. 23. W hen 13 Al 27 is bombarded with  -particles a
(D) two extra neutrons and two extra electrons. radioactive isotope of 15 P30 with the emission of.........
is formed.
RATE OF RA DI OACTI VE DECAY & (A) protons (B) neutrons
A PP LI CATI ON OF RA DI OACT IVIT Y (C)positrons (D)electrons
13. The half -life period of radioactive element depends 24. Energy in the sun is mainly generated by -
upon - (A) fusion of radioactive materials.
(A) the amount of the element. (B) fission of helium nuclei.
(B) the temperature. (C) fusion of hydrogen nuclei.
(C) the pressure. (D) chemical reaction .
(D) none of these.
25. In a nuclear reactor chain reaction is controlled by
14. If 2 g of an isotope has a half-life period of 7 days, the introducing -
half -life period of 1 g sample is - (A) iron rods (B) silicon rods
(A) 3.5 days (B) 7 days (C) cadmium rods (D) platinum rods
(C)14 days (D) 28 days
26. Boron rods in a nuclear reactor are used to -
15. A radioactive sample has a half-life period 1500 years. (A) absorb excess neutrons.
A sealed tube containing 1 g of the sample will contain (B) absorb alpha particles.
after 3000 year - (C) slow down the speed of neutrons .
(A) 1 g of the sample (B) 0.5 g of the sample (D) speed up the reaction.
(C) 0.25 g of the sample (D) 0.025g of the sample
27. Nuclear fusion takes place in -
16. The half-life period of a radioactive substance is 20 (A) atom bomb (B) hydrogen bomb
minutes. The time taken for 1 g of the substance to (C) neutron bomb (D) nuclear reactor
reduce to 0.25g will be:
(A) 30 minutes (B) 40 minutes 28. An example of nuclear fusion reaction is -
(C) 60 minutes (D) 10 minutes 234
(A) 233 1
90 Th  0 n  90 Th
17. Half life of a Radioactive element is 100 years its 113 1
average life will be - (B)  114
48 Cd  0n  48 Cd    rays
(A) 13.4 years (B) 1.44 years
3 1 4
(C) 144 years (D) None of these (C)
1 H 1 H  2 He
18. Which does not take place by -disintegration ? 239 239 0
(D) 92 U  93 Np  e
1
238 234
(A) 92 U  90 Th (B) 90 Th 232  88 Ra228
2 3
(C) 88 Ra
226
 86 Rn222 (D) 83 Bi
213
 84 Po213 29. The reaction 1H 12 H  2 He 10 n is called -
(A) fusion.
19. W hen one  and one  particle are emitted by an (B) fission.
element, the new element formed will have: (C) endothermic reaction.
(A)atomic number greater by 1 and mass number (D) spontaneous reaction .
greater by 4
(B) atomic number less by 1 and mass number less 30. The first nuclear explosion by India was carried out at -
by 4 (A) Puskar (B) Narora
(C)atomic number greater by 1 and mass number (C) Pokhran (D) Mumbai
less by 4 31. In treatment of cancer, which of the following is used ?
(D)atomic number less by 1 and mass number
greater by 4 (A) 131
53 I
32
(B) 15 P

20. In the nuclear reaction 92U238  82Pb206 the number (C) 60

27 Co (D) 12 H
of  and  particles emitted is :
32. Isodiaphers are atoms having -
(A) 7,5 (B)6,4 (A) p/n constant (B) (p + n) constant
(C) 4,3 (D) 8,6 (C) (n–p) constant (D) (n–p) different
234 234
21. In radioactive decay 90 Th 92 U the number 33. 23
Na is the more stable isotope of Na. By which
of  and particles emitted respectively are - 24
(A)1, 2 (B) 2, 0 process 11 Na can undergo radioactive decay ?
(C) 0, 2 (D) 2, 1 (A)  –-emission (B) -emission
(C)  +-emission (D) None of these

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
34. Number of neutrons in a parent nucleus X, which 3. 16 grams of a radioisotope reduces to one gram in
gives 14 one hour. Its half-life period in minutes is -
7 N after two successive  -emission, would
[Raj NTSE Stage - I/05]
be -
(A) 6 (B) 7 (C) 8 (D) 9 (A) 15 (B) 30
(C) 45 (D) 60
35. Two radioactive elements X and Y have half lives of 4. The number of neutrons in the nucleus of the daughter
50 and 100 minutes respectively. Initial sample of element formed by emission of one alpha particle
both the elements have same no. of atoms. The ratio
from 92X238 will be -
of the remaining number of atoms of X and Y after
[Raj. NTSE Stage - I/07]
200 minute is-
(A) 144 (B) 146
(A) 2 (B) 1/2 (C) 4 (D) 1/4
(C) 142 (D) 92
36. If 12 g of sample is taken, then 6 g of a sample decays
in 1 hour. The amount of sample showing decay in 5. In the nuclear reaction H2 + H2 He3 + X.
next hour is - X stands for - [Karnataka NTSE Stage - I/13]
(A) 6 g (B) 3 g (C) 2g (D) 1 g 0
(A) 1 e (B) 0 n1 (C) –1e 0 (D) 1H1
37. The number of neutrons in the element L in the
following nuclear changes is - 6. Which of the following statements is correct ?
x
[Karnataka NTSE Stage - I/13]
238 X A 
92 M  y N  24 He ; Y N  B L  2 (A) Fusion of 1 gram of hydrogen gives more energy
(A) 146 (B) 144 than fission of 1 gram of uranium 235
(C) 140 (D) 142 (B) Fusion of 1 gram of hydrogen gives less energy
than fission of 1 gram of uranium 235
38. Proportionality constant  is also known as - (C) Fusion of 1 gram of hydrogen gives same energy
(A) decay constant (B) disintegration constant as in fission of 1 gram of uranium 235
(C) radioactive constant (D) All of these (D) Fission of 1 gram of uranium gives less energy
39. Rate of decay- than the combustion of 1 ton of coal
(A) increases with time
7. Adding an alpha particle to nucleus of sodium atom,
(B) decreases with time
product will be- [Rajasthan NTSE Stage - I/14]
(C) remains constant
(A) Na+ (B) Mg2+
(D) first increases, then decreases with time
(C) Al2+ (D) Al
40. Unit of decay constant is-
(A) time2 (B) time–2 8. The half-life of radio active 14C is 5760 years. In how
(C) time–1 (D) time3 many years 200 mg sample will reduce to 25 mg ?
[Karnataka NTSE Stage - I/14]
41. The half-life of 60
27 Co is 5.3 years. How much of 20 g (A) 23,040 years (B) 17,280 years
(C) 11,520 years (D) 5,760 years
of 60
27 Co will remain radioactive after 21.2 years ?
(A) 10 g (B) 1.25 g 9. Which of the following statement is correct ?
(C) 2.5 g (D) 3.0 g [Karnataka NTSE Stage - I/14]
(A) All isotopes are radio active
42. The half-life period of radioactive element is 14 hours. (B) Alpha rays are negatively charged
The fraction of the radioactive element that disinte- (C) Beta rays are not reflected by an electric field
grates in 56 hours is - (D) Gamma rays are not reflected by magnetic field
(A) 0.125 (B) 0.625
(C) 0.9025 (D) 0.9375 10. Which of the following is a  + emitter :
[Bihar_NTSE Stage-I/15]
EXERCISE-2 49
(A) 20 Ca (B) 85 B
208
(C) 82 Pb (D) 94
36 Kr
NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS
1. The half-life time of a radioisotope is 5 years. Number 11. Which of the following insotope is used in treatment
of disintegrated atoms after 15 years will be- of blood cancer ? [Haryana_NTSE Stage-I/15]
[Raj NTSE Stage - I/05]
(A) P – 32 (B) I – 131
1 7 3 1 (C) Co – 60 (D) U – 235
(A) (B) (C) (D)
8 8 4 4
12. Adding an alpha particle to the nucleus of sodium
2. On adding a neutron to the nucelus of an atom, atom produces which new element ?
change will be observed in its
[Raj NTSE Stage - I/05] [West Bengal NTSE Stage-1/ 2015]
(A) atomic number (A) Mg (B) P
(B) mass number
(C) Al (D) Ne.
(C) electronic configuration
(D) chemical properties

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 COAL, PETROLEUM AND POLYMERS

NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resources indicate the potential wealth of a
(a) Types of Natural Resources :
country. The variety of substances that man gets from
earth and nature to meet his basic needs are called
Depending upon the abundance and availability, the
natural resources. The word resource means a source
of supplying a material generally held in reserve. natural resources are categorized into two types, i.e.
Natural resources are both living and non living. Some
(i) nexhaustible natural resources
of these resources are found in abundance, while
others are found in limited quantities and that too in
(ii) Exhaustible natural resources.
some restricted parts of our land. For this reason, the
natural resources have to be wisely used. However, in
reality it is not so. They are being used indiscriminately.

FOSSIL FUELS
Exhaustible natural resources like coal, petroleum
or natural gas were formed from the dead remains of
living organisms (fossils). So, these are called fossil
fuels.
Coal and petroleum are very important natural
resources and play a vital role in modern society. They
are found in the earth’s crust. Their easy availability
and specific characteristics make them very important
in the growth of industry. At present they are the chief
sources of energy worldwide.
(a) Coal :
(iii) Formation : It is believed that millions of years ago,
the ground below the forests was split open by natural
forces such as earthquakes and volcanoes. The forests
were buried in the chasms. Thus, the plants had no
contact with oxygen. Successive layers of sediments
sealed the buried plants. Over millions of years these
deposits were subjected to tremendous pressure and
heat which finally transformed them into coal.
The chemical process involved in the transformation
of plant matter into coal is called the carbonization of
plant matter.

Coal is a mineral of dark brown or black colour formed  Note :

from the remains of plants buried in the earth’s crust Coal occurs in four main varieties viz., peat, lignite,
millions of years ago. anthracite and bituminous. Peat is the most inferior
while Anthracite is the most superior quality of coal
(i) Composition : Coal is a very impure form of carbon.
among various varieties of coal.
It mainly consists of atoms of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. A small amount of sulphur is also present in it.
(ii) Deposits : The distribution of coal deposits is not Type of coal % of carbon Calorific value
uniform in the earth’s crust. To the total coal reserves content
in the world, Asia contributes about one third, whereas Peat 50–60 10.5–12.6kj/g
North and South America contribute more than half. Lignite 60–70 14.7–18.9kj/g
India has large deposits of coal. It is estimated that Bituminous 75–80 28–31 kj/g
India has about 80 billion tones of proven coal Anthracite 90–95 31–33 kj/g
deposits. The coal deposits are spread over in the states
of Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 FLOW CHART
(iv) Destructive Distillation of Coal : The process of
heating coal in the absence of air is called the
destructive distillation of coal. Coal contains a number
of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and sulphur. W hen coal is heated in the
absence of air, a number of products are obtained
Experimental set up for the destructive distillation
of coal
The main products obtained by the destructive distillation
of coal are as follows :
(A) Coke (B) Coal tar
(C) Ammoniacal liquor (D) Coal gas
(A) Coke : Coke contains 98% carbon. It is porous,
tough, black and the purest form of coal. Like
charcoal, it is a good fuel and burns without smoke.
But it is seldom employed as a fuel because it can be
put to more valuable use . It is largely employed as a
reducing agent in the extraction of metals from their
ores. It is also used in making fuel gases like water
gas and producer gas.
 Note :
Water gas is an equimolar mixture of carbon monoxide
and hydrogen.
It is obtained by passing steam over red- hot coke.
C + H2O  (CO + H2)
Coke Water Water gas
 Note :
Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and
nitrogen.
It is obtained when air is passed over red hot coke.
2C + O2 + 4N2  (2CO + 4N2)
Producer gas
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(B) Coal tar : Coal tar is a mixture of different carbon
compounds. It is a thick, black liquid with unpleasant
smell. The fractional distillation of coal tar gives many
chemical substances which are used in the
preparation of synthetic dyes, perfumes, explosives,
paints, synthetic fibres, drugs and pesticides. Some
of these chemical substances are benzene, toluene,
phenol and aniline.
Naphthalene balls used to repel moths and other
insects are also obtained from coal tar.
 Note :
Now-a-days, bitumen, a petroleum product is used
in place of coal tar in making of roads.
(C) Ammoniacal liquor : The ammonia produced
as a result of destructive distillation of coal is
absorbed in water. The aqueous solution of
ammonia, i.e. ammonium hydroxide solution, is
called ammoniacal liquor. It is used in the
preparation of fertilizers such as ammonium
sulphate and ammonium superphosphate.
(D) Coal gas : Coal gas is mainly a mixture of
hydrogen, methane and carbon monoxide. The
gases present in coal gas are combustible, and
hence it is an excellent fuel. It has high calorific
value. It was used for lighting houses, factories and
streets in Mumbai (Bombay) until 1950. It was also
used for cooking until recently.
 Note :
Coal gas was used for street lighting for the first time
in London in 1810 and in New York around 1820.
Now - a - days, it is used as a source of heat rather
than light.
(v) Uses :
(A) Coal is used as a fuel to convert water into steam
to run thermal power plants for the generation of
electricity. It is also used as a fuel in homes and
factories and to run steam engines.
(B) Coal is used in the preparation of fuel gases,
such as coal gas.
(C) Coal is used in the preparation of synthetic petrol.
(D) Coal is also used in preparation of synthetic
natural gas.
(E) The destructive distillation of coal gives coke, coal
tar, coal gas etc.
(F) Coal is the source from which a number of organic
compounds such as benzene, toluene, phenol,
aniline, naphthalene and anthracene are obtained.
PETROLEUM
Petroleum is a naturally occurring oil that consists
chiefly of hydrocarbons with some other elements
such as sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen. The unrefined
form of petroleum is called crude oil.
 Note :
Petroleum is also called rock oil i.e. petra = rock,
oleum = oil.
PAGE # 184
 (a) Deposits :
The major reserves of petroleum are in Saudi Arabia
(largest producer of petroleum), Kuwait, Iraq, Russia,
China, USA, Libya etc. The oil is obtained by drilling
an oil well. When a well is drilled, natural gas comes
out with great force. The crude oil comes out on its
own due to gas pressure. After the pressure has
subsided, it is pumped out of the well.
(b) Formation :
It is believed that petroleum was formed from
organisms living in the sea. The remains of these
organisms were deposited in shallow depressions
in the sea bed long long ago. These were covered by
layers of sand and clay which compressed these
remains. Over a period of millions of years, the organic
matter present in the dead organisms underwent a
series of processes before being finally transformed
into petroleum. The petroleum so formed migrated
from the source rock to be entrapped in large
underground reservoirs beneath impermeable rocks.
It often floats over a layer of water and is held in this
position under pressure beneath a layer of natural gas.
(c) Refining :
Petroleum is a mixture of several hydrocarbons. It is
a foul - smelling brown black liquid. It also contains
water, salt and rocky materials. It cannot be used in
this crude form either as a fuel or as a basic material
to produce other useful components. Before being
put to use, it has to be purified or refined. The process
of separating the various components of petroleum
from one another is known as the refining of
petroleum. This is done by a process called fractional
distillation which is based on the fact that the different
components of petroleum have distinctly different
boiling points.
 Note :
The first oil well was found in Pennsylvania in USA in
1859. In India ,first oil well was found in 1867 in Digboi,
Assam.
The components of petroleum are separated in a large
fractionating column. Crude oil is piped to the refinery
from a well. It is washed with acid and alkali solu-
tions to remove the basic and acidic impurities re-
spectively. Crude oil is now heated to about 673K and
fed at the base of fractionating column. All the compo-
nents except asphalt are converted in the vapour state.
As the mixture of hot vapours rises up in the column,
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
it begins to cool. The component with the highest
boiling point condenses first and is collected. Those
with low boiling points condense later. The residual
gases escape uncondensed from the upper part of
the column. The various components condensed at
different heights of the column are collected separately.
The components obtained at different heights in order
from the bottom are asphalt, lubricating oil, paraffin
wax, fuel oil, diesel, kerosene, petrol and petroleum
gas.
Fractional distillation of petroleum
(d) Products :
(i) Residual oil : The residual oil obtained from the
primary distillation of petroleum is known as reduced
crude. Reduced crude is distilled in vacuum to yield
bitumen (asphalt) as residue. Bitumen is largely used
in making road surfaces, and also for coating cables
to provide electrical insulation.
(ii) Paraffin wax : It boils at above 673K. It is obtained
by the fractionation of residual oil. It is used for making
candles, ointments, vaseline, grease, polishes etc. It
is also used for water proofing of paper cartons.
(iii) Lubricating oil : Its boiling range is 623 K to 673
K. It is obtained by the fractionation of residual oil. It is
used for lubricating machinery.
(iv) Fuel oil : The boiling range of fuel oil is 573 K to
623 K. It is used in industries to heat boilers and
furnace. It is a better fuel than coal because it burns
completely leaving behind no ash, whereas coal
burns producing a large amount of ash which has to
be removed regularly.
(v) Diesel oil : Its boiling range is 573 K to 623K. It
contains straight chain alkanes with the number of
carbon atoms varying from 16 - 20. It is used in cars,
trucks, buses and locomotives. It is also used to run
pumps in fields and in electric generators.
(vi) Kerosene : Its boiling range is 423 K to 573 K. It
contains straight chain alkanes with 11 -16 carbon
atoms. It is used for domestic purpose, for lighting
petromax, lanterns, lamps, stoves, etc. It is also used
for making oil gas. A special grade of kerosene is
used as aviation fuel in aeroplane jet engines.
(vii) Petrol : Its boiling range is 343K to 393 K. It is
also called gasoline. It contains straight chain alkanes
with 7 - 9 carbon atoms. It is used as a fuel in two -
wheelers, three - wheelers and cars. It is also used
as a solvent for the dry-cleaning of clothes.
PAGE # 185
 (viii) Petroleum Gas :
It is a mixture of ethane, propane and butane. Its main
constituent is butane which burns by giving off a lot of
heat. Butane is easily liquefied under high pressure.
In the liquid form it is supplied in cylinders and is
commonly known as Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).
It is a colourless, odourless and inflammable gas. A
domestic gas cylinder contains about 14.2 kg of LPG.
A strong smelling substance called ethyl mercaptan
(C2H 5SH) is added to LPG to detect the leakage of
gas from the cylinder. On being lighted, it burns with a
blue flame. One gram of LPG produces about 50 KJ
of heat.
FRACT IONATI ON OF PE TR OLEU M
LPG should be used with care. Any accidental leakage
can cause an explosion. If there is any leakage of gas
from the cylinder, the following precautions should be
immediately taken -
(A) Any open flame in the vicinity of the gas should
immediately be extinguished.
(B) All doors and windows of the room in which the
cylinder is kept should be opened to allow the gas to
escape.
(C) The tube and joints attached to the cylinder should
be systematically checked for defects.

Boiling range Approximate

S.No. Fraction Uses
(K) Composition

As fuel, manufacture of carbon black,

1 Gases 113-303 C1-C5
gasoline and rubber.
Crude Naphtha on
303-423 C5-C11
refractionation yields
(i) Petroleum ether 303-343 C5-C7 As a solvent for dry cleaning.
2
As motor fuel, dry cleaning, for making petrol
(ii) Petrol or gasoline 343-393 C7-C9
gas etc.
(iii) Benzine 393-423 C9-C11 For dry cleaning.
As fuel, illuminant, manufacture of oil
3 Kerosene Oil 423-573 C11-C16
gas etc.
As fuel for diesel engines, cracked
4 Fuel oil or Heavy oil 573-623 C16-C20
to yield more gasoline, furnace fuel etc.
5 Residual Oil
Above 623 C20 upwards
refractionated to give
(i) Lubricating oil 623-673 C20-C24 As lubricant.
For making candles, boot polishes,
(ii) Paraffin wax Above 673 C24 upwards
ointments, water proofing etc.
(iii) Asphalt or pitch black In paints and varnishes , for water
C30-C40
(tarry residue) proofing,tarring roads etc.
(iv) Petroleum coke On redistilling As fuel.

 Note : (a) Uses :

The Indian Petrochemical Corporation Limited (IPCL)
in Vadodara (Baroda) is one of the largest
petrochemical units in the world.
NATURAL GAS
Natural gas is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous
hydrocarbons. It is found in porous sedimentary rocks
in the earth’s crust, usually in association with
petroleum deposits.
In India natural gas has been found in Tripura,
Rajasthan, Maharastra and in Krishna-Godavari delta.
Natural gas consists mainly of methane (about 85%),
ethane (up to about 10%), propane (about 3%) and
butane. Carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen
sulphide and sometimes helium may also be
present.
Natural gas may be obtained from the earth’s crust by
digging wells in prospective areas. There are some
wells which give out only natural gas, but most wells
produce natural gas as well as petroleum. In fact,
natural gas is obtained as a co-product in petroleum
mining. Natural gas is formed from the decomposition
of organic matter buried under sea beds millions of
years ago.
(Natural gas)
1. Natural gas is used as a domestic and industrial
fuel. Natural gas burns readily to produce a lot of
heat. So, in many areas, natural gas is used as the
main fuel for domestic and industrial heating
purposes.
Natural gas is called a clean fuel because it burns
without producing smoke and causes no air pollution.
Natural gas also does not produce any poisonous
gases on burning. Moreover, it does not leave behind
any residue on burning.
2. These days natural gas is being used as a fuel in
automobiles (cars, buses and trucks) in place of
petrol and diesel. Natural gas is used as Compressed
Natural Gas (CNG) in vehicles. CNG is being used
as a fuel in automobiles to reduce air pollution.
3. Natural gas is used for the manufacture of hydrogen
gas (needed in fertiliser industry). This is done as
follows :
(i) Natural gas is heated with steam at a temperature
of 900°C in the presence of nickel catalyst to form a
mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas :
CH4 + H2O 900°C CO + 3H2
Ni
Methane Steam Carbon Hydrogen
monoxide

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (ii) This hydrogen gas is heated with nitrogen under
pressure and in the presence of finely divided iron SEMI-SYNTHETIC AND SYNTHETIC
and molybdenum as catalyst to make ammonia gas : CLOTHING MATERIALS
N2 + 3H 2 Fe + Mo; 450°C 2NH3
200 atm (a) Rayon :
Nitrogen Hydrogen Ammonia
Rayon is the first man-made (semi-synthetic) fibre. It
The combination of nitrogen and hydrogen to form
is composed of regenerated cellulose, a component
ammonia is called Haber’s process. The temperature
of green plants. It can imitate the feel and the texture
required in this reaction is 450°C and pressure is
of silk, wool, cotton and linen. Rayon was first made
200 atmospheres. The ammonia thus produced is
used for manufacturing nitrogenous fertilizers (like in the USA and later on its method of preparation was
ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate etc.) by modified in Europe. The process of making it in
treatment with suitable acids. Europe is known as viscose process. The rayon thus
obtained is known as viscose in Europe.
4. Natural gas is used as a source of carbon needed in
tyre industry. W hen natural gas is heated strongly, Preparation of Rayon :
then methane present in it decomposes to form The raw material for the preparation of rayon is wood.
carbon and hydrogen : Wood is changed into wood pulp. The wood pulp is
CH4 Strong heating C + 2H2 changed into a viscous solution, known as viscose,
Methane Carbon Hydrogen with the help of chemicals.
(Natural gas) Cellulose + Sodium Alkali cellulose
The carbon thus formed is called ‘carbon black’ and hydroxide
it is used as a ‘filler’ in the manufacture of tyres.
 Note : Alkali + Carbon Orange-coloured
Natural gas is an almost ideal fuel. It produces large Cellulose disulphide suspension like
amount of heat (calorific value 55 KJ/g) when burnt. small fragments
of beads
CONSERVATION OF FOSSIL FUELS Orange- + Sodium Viscose solution
coloured hydroxide
Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels, which took suspension
millions of years to form, will last only a few hundred
years. This is so because they are being used The viscose solution is then passed through the fine
recklessly. Moreover, burning of these fuels is a major holes of a shower head of a spinneret into an acid
cause of air pollution. It is thus necessary to use these bath. Finally, these cellulose filaments are spun into
fuels only when absolutely necessary. rayon yarn.
In India, the Petroleum Conservation Research Viscose + Sulphuric Cellulose Yarn
Association (PCRA) has provided some tips to advise solution acid filament
people how to save petrol/diesel. These tips are :
(a) drive at a constant and moderate speed as far as
Winding spool Viscose solution
possible.
(b) switch off the engine at traffic lights or at a place Spinneret
where you have to wait.
(c) ensure correct tyre pressure.
(d) ensure regular maintenance of the vehicle.

A polymer is a compound of high molecular mass

formed by combination of a large number of small
molecules.
The small molecules which constitute the repeating
units in a polymer are called monomer units. The
Sulphuric acid
process by which monomers are transformed into a
polymer is called polymerization. Production of viscose rayon yarn
Polymerisation (i) Properties :
n (monomer) (monomer)n
Polymer • It has tendency to absorb moisture. Because of its
where n is an integer. tendency to absorb moisture, rayon can absorb sweat.
In this section, we will study common synthetic Therefore, it is generally preferred over other synthetic
polymers - fabrics in summer.
(a) Fibres (b) Plastics
• It is shiny and lustrous and resembles to silk in
Plastics and synthetic fibres are categorized as a appearance. So, it is also called artificial silk.
class of substance known as polymers This is
because they consist of many repeating molecular (ii) Uses :
units or monomers.
• Shirts, ties, linings etc. are made up of rayon fabric.
 Note :
• It is used in home furnishing materials (bed sheets,
“poly” means many and “mer” means unit in Latin.
curtains, table clothes, sofa covers etc.) and bandages.

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 (b) Nylon :
It is the first fully synthetic fibre. It was prepared in
1931 using coal, water and air.
(i) Properties : Nylon is a high strength fibre. It is
elastic and so does not lose strength even after
repeated use. It is one of the light synthetic fabrics. It
is lustrous and easy to wash.
(ii) Uses :
• It is used in making sarees, socks, stockings etc.
• It is blended with wool to increase the strength.
• It is used for making tents, umbrellas, parachutes
and tarpaulins.
• Its fibers are used for making tooth brush bristles.
• Due to their high strength and elasticity, nylon threads
are used to make fishing nets, climbing ropes, seat
belts, sleeping bags and strings in badminton and
tennis racquets.
 NOTE :
Nylon is an acronym obtained from the name of the
cities Newyork (NY) and London (LON). Most
common nylon is nylon-66. It’s monomer units are
adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine.
(c) Polyester :
It is made of repeating units of a chemical called
ester which has fruit like smell. Most polyester fabrics
have excellent wash and wear characteristics and
therefore, require minimum care.
(i) Properties :
• It absorbs very little water and hence dry quickly after
washing.
• It is a strong, lightweight and elastic fabric.
• It resists wrinkling and springs back into shape when
creased.
(ii) Uses :
• Polyester fibres are widely used in textile industry
for making a variety of textiles such as sarees, dress
materials, curtains etc.
• Terrywool, a blend of Terylene (a type of polyester)
and wool, is used for making suits.
• Terrycot , a blend of Terylene and cotton is commonly
used for making skirts, shirts and other dress
materials.
• It is light weight and strong. This property makes it
suitable for making light weight sails.
• Terylene is used for making conveyor belts as it is
very elastic.
• Polyester films (commonly known as mylar) are also
used for making magnetic recording tapes in audio
cassettes, video cassettes and floppy discs.
 NOTE :
Terylene is also called Dacron or Mylar.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(d) Acrylic :
Acrylic fabric closely resembles to wool in its
properties.
(i) Properties : It is warm, soft, light and flexible fibre.
Acrylic yarn can be easily knitted. It is cheaper than
natural wool and is available in a variety of colours.
 NOTE :
Acrylic fabrics are also known as ORLON or ACRILAN
fabrics.
(ii) Uses :
• Acrylic fabric is used for making sweaters, socks
and shawls.
• It is used for making carpets and blankets.
(e) Spandex :
• These fabrics have excellent elasticity. The high
elasticity of these fabrics make them suitable for use
in clothes that require snug fitting, for example
swimming costumes.
• Spandex is mixed with other fabrics, such as cotton,
to get stretch fabrics, which are used for making
T-shirts and caps
(i) Uses :
• It is used in the making of swimming costumes,
caps, T-shirts etc.
 NOTE :
Spandex is also known as LYCRA .
(f) Koroseal :
It has a trade name of high polymer of vinyl chloride.
(i) Uses of Koroseal :
Koroseal is water proof as well as air proof. It is used
for coating fabrics of silk, rayon or cotton to make
them water proof. W ater proof fabrics so obtained
can be used on rainy days or as bathroom curtains.
(g) Blended fibres :
Mixing of two different fibres results in the formation
of blended fibres. More often, a synthetic fibre is mixed
with a natural fibre. Two similar fibres, for example,
both natural fibres, may also be mixed to form blended
fabrics. A few examples of blended fibres are given in
table 4.1 below :
Table : Examples of blended fibres :
Fibres Blended firbes
Polyester and cotton Polycot
Polyester and wool Terry wool
Cotton and wool Cotswool
Natural and synthetic fibres have their own
advantages and disadvantages. For example, natural
fibres are comfortable to wear as they retain moisture
and breathe. However, they are not very strong. Also,
they shrink when washed and are readily attacked by
moth.
Synthetic fibres are very strong, do not shrink and are
resistant to moth attack, though they are not very
comfortable to wear. Hence, the best fibres are
obtained by blending two types of fibres which
combine the advantages of both and are free from
their disadvantages.
PAGE # 188

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF SYNTHETIC FABRICS
Different properties of synthetic fabrics like moisture
absorbing capacity, tensile strength, elasticity etc.
make synthetic fabrics very advantageous but they
need great care also.
(a) Advantag es :
(i) Most synthetic fabrics can handle heavy loads
without breaking : The ability to withstand loads is
due to a property called tensile strength.
(ii) Most synthetic fabrics are elastic : Elasticity
refers to the ability of a material to regain its original
shape, after it has been stretched or compressed.
(iii) Most synthetic fabrics do not wrinkle easily : If
wrinkled and released, they retain their original
shape. Hence, people find them convenient to wash
and wear.
In addition to these properties, synthetic fibres drawn
from the spinneret can be made very fine and thin.
Thus, the texture of the synthetic fabrics produced is
generally soft.
(iv) They are less expensive and readily available :
Synthetic fibres are cheaper than natural fibre.
(b ) Disa dva nta ges :
(i) Most synthetic fabrics can absorb very little
moisture. They become sticky when the body sweat.
On the other hand, most natural fabrics absorb
moisture readily. As a result when we sweat, the sweat
is not trapped between the fabric and the skin. It keeps
on evaporating from the fabric and we feel that our
skin can breathe.
(ii) Most synthetic fabrics melt very easily thus they
should not be worn while working in the kitchen and
in laboratory. They require very careful ironing.
 Note :
Ropes made of nylon and polyester are commonly
used in cranes and elevators because of their high
elasticity and tensile strength.
PLASTICS
A plastic is a polymeric material which can be easily
moulded or set into any desired shape and size.
(a) Types of Plastics :
(I) On the basis of arrangement of monomer units.
(i) Linear plastics : The monomer units are joined
together to form long straight chains of polymer
molecules.These chains are stacked over one
another to give a well packed structure.
Ex: HDPE, PVC, polythene ,etc.
(ii) Branched chain plastics : The monomer units
not only combine to produce the linear chain but also
form branches of different length along the main
chain.
Ex : LDPE, etc.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
(iii) Cross-linked or three dimensional network
plastics : The initially formed linear polymer chains
are joined together to form a three - dimensional
network structure. These polymers are hard and rigid.
Ex : Bakelite, melamine-formaldehyde etc.
(II) On the basis of their reaction to heat :
(i) Thermoplastics : Thermoplastics can be melted
by heating and there after moulded into desired
shapes and sizes.These plastics soften on heating
and become fluids, but on cooling they become hard.
These are capable of undergoing such reversible
changes on heating and cooling repeatedly. Examples
of thermoplastics are polyethene (polyethylene),
polyvinylchloride (PVC), polystyrene etc.
(ii) Thermosetting Plastics : Thermosetting plastics
are harder and stronger than thermoplastics and can
retain their shape and size even at high
temperature.These polymers once set in a given
shape on heating cannot be softened or melted on
being reheated. These polymers undergo a
permanent change upon melting and set to a solid
which cannot be remelted. For example bakelite,
melamine.
(A) Melamine :
Melamine is a thermosetting polymer. It is hard and a
high polish polymer. Melamine is used for making
unbreakable dinner-ware, and decorative objects.
(B) Bakelite :
Bakelite is also a thermosetting polymer. Once set
into a shape, bakelite does not melt/soften and retains
its shape. Bakelite is obtained by reacting phenol
with formaldehyde in the presence of a catalyst.
Properties :
• Bakelite is hard and stiff.
• Bakelite is an insulator.
Uses :
Bakelite is used :
• for making electrical switches and plugs.
• for making gear wheels and table top laminates.
• for making combs, fountain pen bodies, phonograph
records.
 Note :
Bakelite, the first completely synthetic substance, is
a thermosetting plastic. It was created by Leo
Baekeland in 1907.
PAGE # 189
 (b) Uses of Plastics :
Plastics can be recycled, reused, coloured, melted, rolled into thin sheets or made into wires. Thus, they find a
variety of uses, some of which are listed below:

Monomer Plastic (Polymers) Uses

Ethylene glycol and PET (Poly Ethylene Containers for microwave cooking, carbonated
terephthalic acid terephthalate) beverage bottles and other food containers.
Ethylene For packaging strong and corrosive household and
HDPE (High Density
or industrial chemicals like bleaches, acids and liquid
PolyEthylene)
Ethene (C2H4) detergents.
Vinyl
Chloride PVC (PolyVinyl Chloride)
(CH2=CH-Cl) PVC pipes for sanitary fittings (such as water pipes).
Ethylene
LDPE (Low Density
or Polybags, grocery bags and packages of frozen foods
PolyEthylene)
Ethene (C2H4) and bread.
Propylene
or
PP (PolyPropylene)
Propene Ketchup bottles, yoghurt containers, medicine bottles,
(CH2=CH-CH3) automobile battery casings.
Styrene
or Thermocol, a form of PS, is used for making disposable
PS (Polystyrene)
Vinyl benzene cups and packaging material for fragile items like
(CH2=CH-C6H5) computers and televisions.

Teflon :
Teflon is the brand name of polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE). It’s monomer unit is tetrafluoro ethylene Rubber is probably the most useful polymer that we
(CF 2 = CF 2) Teflon coatings are widely used in come across. It is the backbone of our industry , auto-
nonstick cooking pans and other cookwares. Teflon
mobile industry in particular. The rubber obtained from
does not stick to materials easily and has a high
melting point which makes it effective for the use in natural sources is called natural rubber while the
pans for easy cooking and cleaning.Teflon is a type rubber which is made by man is called synthetic
of plastic discovered by US based company DuPont rubber.
in 1938.
(a) Natural Rubber :
 Note :
It is obtained in the form of colloidal suspension of
Although synthetic plastic catch fire easily, yet there
are some fire-proof synthetic plastic, like melamine, rubber in water and is called latex. Chemically natu-
which are used to coat the uniforms of firemen to ral rubber is polyisoprene in which monomer units
make them fire resistant. are of isoprene i.e. , 2 -Methyl-1,3-butadiene.
H
CH3 H3C
H CH2 CH2 C=C
Polymerisation H3C 2 3 CH2
n(CH2 = C – CH = CH2) CH2
1 H
Isopropene CH2 CH2 CH
4 3

Cis-polyisoprene

(b) Vulcanisation of Rubber : Chemically, vulcanisation has resulted in the cross

Rubber as such is used in temperature range of 283 linking in the linear chains of natural rubber through
to 335 K. At higher temperature, it becomes very soft sulphur atoms. The carbon atoms involved in the
and below this temperature, it tends to become brittle. double bonds and the allylic methylene (–CH 2 )
To make it more useful, natural rubber is subjected groups which are at positions -to the double bond
to vulcanisation. act as reactive sites. Sulphur atoms can link at these
positions and cause cross-linking as shown :
Vulcanised rubber is better than natural rubber in the
sense that it is more elastic, has less water absorb-
ing tendency and is more resistance to oxidation and
towards organic solvents. Cross-linking of chains
also makes synthetic rubber more stiff as compared
to natural rubber. In nut shell, vulcanised rubber can
withstand, wear and tear better than natural rubber.

PAGE # 190
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 Because of cross linking , stiffness is introduced and (iii) Buna-N (Nitrile rubber) : It is a co-polymer of buta-
other physical properties of rubber ore also influenced. 1,3-diene and acrylonitrile. It is formed as follows :
The extent of stiffness depends upon amount of sul-
phur added. For example, rubber containing about 5 nCH2 = CHCH = CH2 + nCH = CH2

Polymerisation
per cent sulphur is used making rubber tyres. Simi- Buta-1,3-diene
larly, vulcanised rubber containing about 30 per cent CN
sulphur is employed for making cases of batteries Acrylonitrile
etc.
Vulcanized rubber has the following improved prop- ( CH2CH = CHCH2CHCH2 )n
erties over natural rubber.
CN
(i) It is hard and non-sticky
Buna-N
(ii) It has higher elasticity which remains over wide
range of temperature.
(iii) It is not oxidised readily and exhibits the same (A) Properties and uses : Buna - N is resistant to the
behaviours in all weathers. action of petrol lubricating oil and organic solvents
(iv) It is quite resistant to attack by organic acids. and is used in making oil seals, tank linings etc.

(c) Synthetic Rubber :

Natural rubber cannot meet ever increasing demand
of industry . A few varieties of synthetic rubber and
their utility are briefly discussed.
(i) Neoprene :
It is prepared by the polymerisation of chloroprene
(2-Chloro-1,3-butadiene ) in the presence of traces
of oxygen.
Polymerisation
nCH2 = C – CH = CH2
Cl
Chloroprene
(A) Properties and uses : Neoprene is a thermo-
plastic polymer and is a synthetic rubber. Though it is
inferior to natural rubber in some of its characteris-
tics, it is superior in its stability to aerial oxidation and
in its resistance to oils, gasoline and other solvents.
Neoprene is used :
• in the manufacture of containers for storing petrol
,oil and other solvents.
• in making neoprene belts to be used in coal mines
as they do not catch fire.
• in making hoses, shoe-heels, stoppers etc.
(ii) Buna- S : It is a co-polymer of 1,3 butadiene and
styrene and is prepared by the polymerisation of these
components in the ratio of 3 : 1 in the presence of
sodium.
CH = CH2
(Na) heat – CH 2CH = CHCH 2CHCH 2 –
nCH 2 = CH – CH = CH2 +
1,3-Butadine Styrene
Freons are the commonly refrigerants in air condi-
tioners and refrigerators and are, in fact, fluoro
chlorohydrocarbons.
CF4 (Freon-14), CF3Cl(Freon-13), CF2Cl2 (Freon-12),
CFCl3 (Freon-11)
CH2 – C = CH – CH2 Out of the various freons mentioned, Freon-12, Freon
n
is most common refrigerant. It is prepared by pass-
Cl
Neoprene ing hydrogen fluoride through carbon tetrachloride in
the presence of antimony trichloride catalyst.
3 SbCl
CCl 2F2
CCl4 + 2HF  
  + 2HCl
Dichlorodi fluorometh ane
( Freon 12 )
In addition to their use as refrigerants, freons are
also used as propellants in aerosols and foams. But
these have been found to be very harmful since they
cause the destruction of the ozone layer and their
use as aerosols has been banned in U.S.A. and other
developed countries.
Actually freons are chemically inert under ordinary
conditions. However, as they reach the upper atmo-
sphere, they react with ozone (O 3) and destroy the
ozone layer. Moreover, they also absorb radiations
emitted by earth and contribute towards green house
effect leading to global warming.
n

Buna-S

(A) Properties and uses : Buna-S is a synthetic poly-

mer and is popularly know as S.B.R. i.e. styrene buta-
diene rubber. It is quite tough and less tensile than
natural rubber. It is used :
• in the manufacture of tyres for automobiles
• for making rubber soles, belts, hoses, floor tiles
etc.)

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 14. The petroleum product that has replaced coal-tar
EXERCISE-1 for metalling the road is :
(A) peat (B) bitumen
FOSSIL FUELS (C) lignite (D) anthracite

15. Coal is a fossil fuel and it cannot be prepared in a

1. C orrect o rd er of p ro du c ts in wh ich they are
extracted from crude oil in fractional distillation laboratory or industry because the formation of coal.
column from top to bottom is - a. is very slow process.
(A) Natural gas , Petrol , Diesel , Paraffin b. needs very low pressure and low temperature.
(B) Natural gas , Diesel , Petrol , Paraffin c. needs very high pressure and high temperature.
(C) Natural gas , Parafin , Diesel , Petrol
(D) Parafin , Natural gas , Petrol , Diesel d. causes air pollution.
Select the correct alternative.
2. Main constituents of coal gas are -
(A) H2O, C2H6, O2 (B) CH4, CO2, O2 (A) a and b (B) b and d
(C) CH4, H2, CO (D) C2H6, N2, O2 (C) c and a (D) d and c
3. Producer gas is a mixture of : 16. Which of the following products obtained by destructive
(A) CO and H2 (B) CO and N2
distillation of coal is not properly matched ?
(C) Co and H2 (D) none of these
(A) Coal tar - Dyes, explosives, paints.
4. The head of a safety match contains
(B) Coal gas - Fuel.
(A) antimony trisulphide and potassium chlorate.
(B) antimony chloride and potassium sulphide. (C) Coke - Drinking purposes.
(C) antimony carbonate. (D) Ammoniacal liquor - Fertilizers.
(D) potassium sulphide.
P OLY M E R S
5. W hich of the following substances is used in
refining of petroleum ? 17. Natural rubber is heated with an element X to make
(A) NaCl (B) NaOH it hard , strong and more elastic . X is :
(C) Na2CO 3 (D) NaHCO3 (A) zinc (B) sulphur
6. Which of the following is used as an anti - knocking (C) lead (D) H 2
compound ?
18. Which of the following are linear polymers ?
(A) TEL (B) C2H5OH
(A) Cellulose (B) Natural Rubber
(C) Glyoxal (D) Freon
(C) Both (A) & (B) (D) None of these
7. Separation of fractions of petroleum is done by-
(A) simple distillation (B) destructive distillation 19. The structure of isoprene is :-
(C) fractional distillation (D) sedimentation (A) CH2= C (C2H5) – CH = CH2
(B) CH2= C (OCOCH3) – CH = CH2
8. Out of the different types of fuels the one which is (C) CH2= C (CH3) – CH = CH2
excellent is : (D) CH2 = CH – C  CH
(A) the solid fuel (B) the liquid fuel
(C) the gaseous fuel (D) none of these 20. Pick out the incorrect statement amongst the following
(A) Nylon clothing can stand high temperature and
9. W hen a well is drilled through the rock, ________
are therefore good to wear in summers.
comes out first.
(B) Thermosetting plastics do not become soft on
(A) petroleum (B) natural gas
heating.
(C) crude oil (D) residual oil
(C) Addition polymers are formed without the
10. Which of the following is correct ? elimination of by- product molecules.
(A) LPG is liquefied isobutane (D) Natural rubber is obtained as latex from rubber
(B) LPG is liquefied methane trees.
(C) LPG is liquefied methane and propane
(D) LPG is mixture of methane and ethane 21. Rubber is heated with sulphur and the process is
known as -
11. While leakage in L.P.G. gas cylinders which gas gives
(A) galvanization (B) vulcanization
fowl smell -
(C) bessemerization (D) sulphonation
(A) butane (B) propane
(C) methane (D) ethyl mercaptan 22. Thermoplastics are -
(A) linear polymers.
12. W hich of the following names represents the foul
(B) soften or melt on heating.
smelling, black, thick, viscous liquid obtained from
(C) molten polymer can be moulded in desired shape.
destructive distillation of coal ?
(D) All of these
(A) Coke (B) Coal tar
(C) Coal gas (D) None of these 23. Which of the following acids is used in preparation of
13. Kerosene is a mixture of - Nylon -66 ?
(A) Acetic acid (B) Ascorbic acid
(A) alkanes (B) aromatic compounds
(C) Adipic acid (D) Amino acid
(C) alcohols (D) aliphatic acid

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
24. When formaldehyde is heated with phenol in the pres- 2. Buna–S is - [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/06]
ence of an alkali, the product formed is - (A) artificial fibre (B) plastic
(A) rubber (B) bakelite (C) synthetic rubber (D) synthetic detergent
(C) chloroprene (D) neoprene
3. Fuel which contains 90 % methane is -
25. Synthetic fibres are obtained from -
[Raj. NTSE Stage-I/06]
(A) plants (B) animals
(A) oil gas
(C) petroleum (D) minerals
(B) Biogas
26. The monomer of Buna-S are - (C) liquefied petroleum gas
(A) styrene and butadiene (D) natural gas
(B) isoprene and butadiene
(C) vinyl chloride and sulphur 4. Formula of Freon-11 is - [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/06]
(D) butadiene. (A) CCl3 F (B) CCl2 F2
27. Natural rubber is a polymer of - (C) Cl3C–CCl2 F (D) CCl2F CCl2F
(A) butadiene (B) ethene
(C) styrene (D) isoprene 5. The Freon containing two carbon atoms, two fluorine
atoms and four chlorine atoms is -
28. Match the terms of column A correctly with the phrases [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/07]
given in column B.
(A) Freon- 112 (B) Freon- 114
Column-A Column-B
(C) Freon- 113 (D) Freon- 111
(i) Polyester (a) Prepared by using
wood pulp 6. Method used for purifying petroleum is -
(ii) Teflon (b) Used for making
[M.P. NTSE Stage-I/13]
parachutes and stockings
(A) simple distillation
(iii) Rayon (c) Electrical switches
(iv) Nylon (d) Fabrics do not wrinkle (B) steam distillation
easily (C) vacuum distillation
(v) Bakelite (e) Fire - resistant clothes (D) fractional distillation
(vi) Melamine (f) Used to make
non-stick cookwares 7. Among the following compounds which one is used
(A) (i) (d), (ii) (f), (iii) (a), (iv) (b), (v) (c), (vi) (e). for cooling refrigerator ?
(B) (i) (f), (ii) (d), (iii) (a), (iv) (b), (v) (c), (vi) (e). [West Bengal NTSE Stage-I/13]
(C) (i) (d), (ii) (f), (iii) (b), (iv) (a), (v) (c), (vi) (e). (A) NH4 Cl (B) CO
(D) (i) (a), (ii) (f), (iii) (d), (iv) (b), (v) (c), (vi) (e). (C) NH4OH (D) Liquid NH3

8. In the process of vulcanization -

29. Match the column A and B
[Karnataka. NTSE Stage-I/13]
Column A Column B
(A) natural rubber is heated with sulphur
i. Thermoplastics a. Handles of (B) natural rubber is heated with carbon
utensils, floor tiles (C) natural rubber is heated with phosphorus
ii. Thermosetting plastics b. Melamine (D) natural rubber is heated with sodium
iii. Biodegradable c. Teflon
iv. Fire proof plastic d. Wood 9. Which gas will probably be important energy source
for future ? [Gujrat. NTSE Stage-I/14]
v. Oil and water do not stick. e.Combs,containers
(A) Methane (B) Natural Gas
(A) i-d, ii-e, iii-a, iv-b, v-c
(C) Dihydrogen (D) Nitrogen
(B) i-e, ii-a, iii-d, iv-b, v-c
(C) i-a, ii-d, iii-b, iv-c, v-e 10. Which is the important constituent (95%) of natural
(D i-c, ii-b, iii-a, iv-e, v-d gas ? [M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) Methane (B) Propane
30. Condensation polymer among the following is -
(C) Ethane (D) Chlorine
(A) teflon (B) polystyrene
(C) PVC (D) dacron 11. W hich of the following is thermoresistant
polymer ? [M. P._NTSE Stage-I/15]
(A) Orlon (B) Polythene
EXERCISE-2 (C) Teflon (D) Bakelite

NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS 12. Which of the following is known as Freon ?
[Bihar_NTSE Stage-I/15]
1. Which of the following is not an example of synthetic (A) CCl2F2 (B) CHCl3
fibre ? [Raj. NTSE Stage-I/05] (C) CH2F2 (D) CF4
(A) Rayon (B) Nylon
(C) Polyacrylonitrile (D) Fullerene

PAGE # 193
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 ANSWER KEY

1. MATTER
EXERCISE#1
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans C D C A A B A A C B B A D C C
Ques 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans A D D C B C C A A D B C B C B
EXERCISE#2
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans D C A B D D C C B C B B C B C
Ques 16 17 18 19 20 21
Ans A D B C A B
2. STRUCTURE OF ATOM
EXERCISE#1
Que s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans D C C C B B A C A D A D B B A
Que s 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans C C B D A C D A C D B B D B B
Que s 31 32 33 34
Ans B B B A

EXERCISE#2
Que s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans D B C C A A B A C A C C C D B
Que s 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans C C A C C C A C C B C A C B A
Que s 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
Ans D A A C A C B C D D A

3.MOLE CONCEPT
EXERCISE#1
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans B A D C D A D D B D C C A D D
Ques 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans B B A B A D D D C B C B A D A

EXERCISE#2
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans C C A B D A B B C D D B B C B
Ques 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans D D B B A B B B D C B C D B C
Ques 31 32 33 34 35 36
Ans B B D D A C

4.CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

EXERCISE#1
Qu e s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans D C B D D A C D A A C C D D B
Qu e s 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans B A A D A A D B B D D B B D C
Qu e s 31 32 33 34
Ans B B D D

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 EXERCISE#2
Que s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans C C A A B A C D A,B ,C,D B A B B C D
Que s 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Ans C D C C A A C C B D B

5. PERIODIC TABLE
EXERCISE#1
Q ue s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
An s D C B D A D D C A C D D D C D
Q ue s 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
An s D A B B A A B C C D C B D A D
Q ue s 31
An s A

EXERCISE#2
Que s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
An s D C C A B C D A A B B C A B D
Que s 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
An s B B A C B D C D B C C B D

6. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

EXERCISE#1

Que s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans C D A A C C A D A C D B D B B
Que s 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans B C B B C A A C C C B D B B B
Que s 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Ans D D C B B C B

EXERCISE#2
Que s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans C D B B B D B C A C B A C B C
Que s 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans D B C A A B C A D A D C B B C
Que s 31 32 33 34 35
Ans A D C D B

7. CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

EXERCISE#1
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans D A B A C C C C D B A A C D C
Ques 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans B D D A D D C D D D B A A B C
Ques 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Ans C A C C A A A D D

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
 EXERCISE#2
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans A A C D C C A C C C C A D D D
Ques 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans B C B D A B,D B C D A D D B B D
Ques 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans C D C A A B D A D C A A C C A
Ques 46 47
Ans C C

8. METALS AND NON-METALS

EXERCISE#1
Que s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans B B C B C B C C C D C A B D C
Que s 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans B C D D A D B D A C C C C B D
Que s 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
Ans D C C D C D A B C B C B

EXERCISE#2
Que s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans B A D A D C C A D C A B C A C
Que s 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans A B C C B A B B C A B C B D C
Que s 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans C D A B C C C C B B D C C D C
Que s 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Ans D B D A A B B C C
9. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
EXERCISE#1
Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. D D A C C B A D C C C C D B C
Que s. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. B C D B D C C B C C A B C A C
Que s. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
Ans. C C A D D B A D B C B D
EXERCISE#2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ans. B B A A B A D B D D C C

10. COAL, PETROLEUM AND POLYMERS

EXERCISE#1
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans A C B A B A C C B A D B A B C
Ques 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans C B C C A B D C B C A D A B D

EXERCISE#2
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ans D C D A A D D A B A D A

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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division