2

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPICS
1) INTRODUCTION
PAGE NO.
3
2) PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION 2.1)ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMPARISION 3) SAMPLING THEORY 3.1) ALISING 4) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF PAM 5) COMPONENT REQUIRED 5.1) REGISTER 5.2) CAPACITOR 5.3) DIODE 5.4) IC 7805 4) REFERENCE
3 5
10 15 18 18 22 29 31 38
ACERC/DOECE/2010-11/PTS/1
CHAPTER NO.-1 INTRODUCTION

PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
THEORY Pulse amplitude modulation is a scheme, which alters the amplitude of regularly space rectangular pulses in accordance with the instantaneous values of a continuous message signal. Then amplitude of the modulated pulses represents the amplitude of the intelligence. A train of very short pulses of constant amplitude and fast repetition rate is chosen the amplitude of these pulse is made to vary in accordance with that of a slower modulating signal the result is that of multiplying the train by the modulating signal the envelope of the pulse height corresponds to the modulating wave .the Pam wave contain upper and lower side band frequencies. Besides the modulating and pulse signals. The demodulated PAM waves, the signal is passed through a low pass filter having a cut off frequencies equal to the highest frequency in the modulating signal. At the output of the filter is available the modulating signal along with the DC component PAM has the same signal to noise ratio as AM and so it is not employed in practical circuits.
In PAM scheme, the amplitude of the pulse train produced carries the analog information. Essentially, a sample and hold circuit samples the input analog waveform at regular intervals and holds that value for the sample interval. Then each pulse is an instantaneous sample of the input analog waveforms amplitude.
The first waveform shown is the input analog waveform that is sampled. The second is the pulse clock that drives the sample and hold circuit. The third is the resultant PAM waveform; the amplitude of each pulse matches the amplitude of the input analog waveform at the moment of sampling. As can be seen from the figure, connecting the samples of the PAM waveform would reproduce the original input waveform. A typical analog circuit implementation of this type of modulator is shown in Figure 10.6.
Use a little precaution to make sure that no frequencies get into the sampled data system that are higher than expected. One simple way is to put in a LPF just prior to sampling the waveform. An LPF, when used in this manner, is called an anti-aliasing filter because that is the function it is performing.
The original signal is recovered at the other end with another low-pass filter. This second filter removes all the high-frequency harmonics of the pulse train to form a smoothly varying continuous waveform that closely represents the original. An illustrative PAM modulator and demodulator.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMPARISON

The modulation of analog waveforms into digital pulses and recovering and reconverting them back into analog waveforms is the main focus of this chapter. This activity takes place in many digital communications systems. Remember, all real-life systems are analog in nature. Digital techniques may be used to move digitized replicas of them from one place to another, because digital techniques offer several advantages over analog techniques of transmission and
reception, but in the end and at the beginning, analog waveforms are required. As you might have guessed from the above discussion on sampling theory, A/D and D/A converters are key components. However, a simpleminded approach of just doing the conversion does not yield the best overall system. The first thing to capture here is that when a comparison between analog and digital is made, the subject is not analog inputs versus digital inputs. The difference of interest is in using analog modulation schemes such as AM, FM, and PM compared to digital modulation schemes studied in this chapter. These modulation schemes can be used to transmit digital or analog data from source to destination. The key item is the relative advantages and disadvantages of these two basic approaches. Analog modulation and demodulation has only one real advantage
today: It consumes less bandwidth for a given input bandwidth than digital techniques. Virtually every other advantage lies with digital transmission techniques. Much of this advantage is due to the technology available today. Thirty years ago, the story would have been much different, and it may be different again in 30 years if optical techniques evolve in certain ways. The technology that makes such a difference is the availability of digital ICs in large numbers and at low cost. These devices are very reliable as compared to analog components and lack the periodic tuning that many analog designs inherently require for optimum performance.
One other major advantage of digital techniques is that much larger dynamic ranges are possible when using large numbers of bits to store amplitude values. If you have a CD player and cassette player, you can compare the specifications between the two for dynamic range. The CD player, utilizing 16 bit PCM far outperforms the analog cassette player.
The only real disadvantage that digital implementations have that analog ones avoid is the requirement that for digital signals to be recovered accurately at the demodulator, the demodulator must accurately sample the signal. This accuracy means that it must sample the signal at the same time for each sample, relative to its position. Because the time delay between each sample can vary during transmission, synchronization is required at the demodulator. This generally means that of some kind of a PLL circuit being required.
Although analog systems may use some form of synchronous demodulation that also requires this type of circuitry, for digital modulation systems it is a definite requirement. This requirement adds cost and complexity to the receiver. On the other hand, because these circuits can now be implemented routinely in digital form, the cost factor is becoming less of an issue. Fundamentally, the bandwidth advantage is analogs hole card; it seems clear that analog modulation will predominate in channels where the signal is not confined to a wired or optical media (e.g., atmospheric channel). Because bandwidth is a shared resource in this environment, bandwidth utilization is a critical issue.
CHAPTER NO.-2
SAMPLING THEORY
An A/D converter digitizes, or samples, an analog signal at regular intervals and represents the original analog or continuously varying signal as a series of binary data points that correspond to the amplitude of the original signal.
This series of binary values is an accurate representation of the original signal if certain criteria are met. The first of these is that the sampling must be regular. This is shown in the sampling interval .The second point is that the signal must be sampled often enough to accurately represent the signal.
The third point that the more bits that are used to represent each sample, the more accurate the sampled quantities are. Any error due to this effect is called a quantization error. For example, suppose that you had an analog signal that varied from 0 to 10V and tried to sample it with a 2 bit A/D. Two bits give just four possible amplitude values, each about 2.5 V apart. The quantization error here could be as much as 1.25 V, or half the step size. On the other hand if you used an 8-bit A/D, 8 bits gives 256 possible amplitude values, each only about 0.04 V apart. It should be clear that the latter approach will give a lower quantization error and smaller step size.
The number of bits was held constant and the sampling interval was varied. the sampling interval was held constant and the number of bits was varied. In the amplitude steps accommodated the same dynamic range. The sampling interval and the dynamic range will be held constant when discussing the number of bits needed for a specific performance.
The effects of not following either point 2 or point 3. Remember, if the signal is not represented well, information is lost that can never be recovered. To summarize, there are three rules that must be obeyed to obtain an accurate sampling of the analog data: 1. The sampling interval is held constant. 2. The signal must be sampled often enough. 3. Enough bits must be used to represent each sample so the amplitude accuracy is correct.
The Nyquist theorem defines sampling theory. For any sampled data system, there is a minimum sampling rate that must be observed if the results are to be accurate. This minimum sampling rate is defined by the maximum frequency component present in the original analog or continuous waveform to be sampled. The sampling rate must be at least twice that frequency: fsample u 2*fsignal
It is possible to sample more often and get more accuracy, but all that is necessary to recover the original signal is twice the highest frequency present in the original signal. The result is to make sure that each cycle of any frequency present in the original signal is sampled at least twice. This results in a guarantee that the original waveform can be reproduced from the sampled data.
ALIASING
If the sampling rule is violated and the original waveform is not sampled at the rate of at least twice its highest frequency, a phenomenon known as aliasing will arise. Aliasing means that a frequency has folded over and is an alias, or false image, of the correct frequency. Aliasing always results in making the frequencies look lower in frequency than they should be.
Recall that any repetitive waveform can be represented as a series of sines and cosines and that they are all harmonically related to each other. The sampling pulse is a repetitive waveform so can be represented as a group of sine and cosine waves. If the signal is not sampled fast enough, and hence the fundamental frequency is not high enough, the negative frequency image folds over and appears in the output spectrum. The sampling process itself is essentially amplitude modulation of the sampling waveform by the original analog waveform. This signal that appears is an alias of the original analog frequency that should be in the output spectrum.
Simulation
1. Place the Simulate Signal function VI in the block diagram and configure it as signal type of sine wave form with the frequency of 100Hz. 2. Place the another Simulate Signal function VI in the block diagram and configure it as signal type of square wave form with the frequency of 10Hz. 3. Place the Multiply VI in the Block diagram in order to multiply the sine signal with the square wave form signal. 4. Connect a filter to the output of the Multiply VI block according to the following specifications as shown in Figure.
5. Make the Lower Cut-Off of the filter equal to sine signal frequency with an offset of 15. 6. Place the waveform graphs in the block diagram according to the Figure and wire the blocks to the each output function in the block diagram.
7. Place the sub diagrams inside the loop in order to repeat the operation until the stop
button is enabled.
8. Add a time delay block to add a delay of 0.500 sec. Your final block diagram should be
similar to Figure.
9. Now switch to the front panel, it should appear like Figure 9.4.
CHAPTER NO.-3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION-
Figure
PAM MODEL GRAPH
PAM DEMODULATION MODEL GRAPH
TEST PROCEDURE:-
Modulation
1. Make the circuit as sho wn in circuit diagram 2. Set the pulse generator output to be 41Vpp at 100HZ 3. Set AFO output at 2 Vpp 100HZ 4. Observe the output wave form on a CRO 5. Tabulate the reading.
Demodulation
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2. Given the modulated output with AFO used to the input of the circuit. 3. Vary the potentiometer so that modulating signal is obtained. 4. Measure the amplitude of the signal and verify with that of the input.
CHAPTER NO.-4
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:-
Resistor:
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law: V = IR Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, the maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor. Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals), are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.
Like every part, resistors can fail in normal use. Thermal and mechanical stress, humidity, etc., can play a part. Carbon composition resistors and metal film resistors typically fail as open circuits. Carbon-film resistors may decrease or increase in resistance.[18] Carbon film and composition resistors can open if running close to their maximum dissipation. This is also possible but less likely with metal film and wirewound resistors. If not enclosed, wirewound resistors can corrode. The resistance of carbon composition resistors are prone to drift over time and are easily damaged by excessive heat in soldering (the binder evaporates). Variable resistors become electrically noisy as they wear. All resistors can be destroyed, usually by going open-circuit, if the power dissipation rating (watts) of the resistor is exceeded either through improper circuit design or accidental short-circuiting. Resistors that are operated near their power dissipation rating have shorter lifespans and resistance can vary dramatically from what is expected. Thus an ideal design uses resistors with power dissipation ratings 2x or more of what is required.
3.3 Electronic color code:

The electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components, very commonly for resistors, but also for capacitors, inductors, and others. A separate code, the 25pair color code, is used to identify wires in some telecommunications cables. The electronic color code was developed in the early 1920s by the Radio Manufacturers Association (now part of Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA)), and was published as EIA-RS279. The current international standard is IEC 60062. Color bands were commonly used (especially on resistors) because they were easily printed on tiny components, decreasing construction costs. However, there were drawbacks, especially for color blind people. Overheating of a component, or dirt accumulation, may make it impossible to
distinguish brown from red from orange. Advances in printing technology have made printed numbers practical for small components, which are often found in modern electronics.
Fig. 3.2. To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.
y y y y
band A is first significant figure of component value (left side) band B is the second significant figure band C is the decimal multiplier band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no color means 20%)
For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit 4 (yellow in table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that the tolerance is 5%, so the real resistance could lie anywhere between 4,465 and 4,935 ohms.
Color
Temp. Significant Multiplier Tolerance Coefficient figures (ppm/K)
Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White Gold Silver None
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 10-1 10-2
1% 2% 0.5% D 0.25% C 0.1% B 0.05% A 5% J F G
250 100 50 15 25 20 10 5 1
U S R P Q Z Z M K
10% K 20% M
Fig 3.3 Color coding of Resistor
Capacitor:
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is apotential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured infarads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes. The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
The arrangement of plates and dielectric has many variations depending on the desired ratings of the capacitor. For small values of capacitance (microfarads and less), ceramic disks use metallic coatings, with wire leads bonded to the coating. Larger values can be made by multiple stacks of plates and disks. Larger value capacitors usually use a metal foil or metal film layer deposited on the surface of a dielectric film to make the plates, and a dielectric film of impregnated paper or plastic these are rolled up to save space. To reduce the series resistance and inductance for long plates, the plates and dielectric are staggered so that connection is made at the common edge of the rolled-up plates, not at the ends of the foil or metalized film strips that comprise the plates. The assembly is encased to prevent moisture entering the dielectric early radio equipment used a cardboard tube sealed with wax. Modern paper or film dielectric capacitors are dipped in a hard thermoplastic. Large capacitors for high-voltage use may have the roll form compressed
to fit into a rectangular metal case, with bolted terminals and bushings for connections. The dielectric in larger capacitors is often impregnated with a liquid to improve its properties. Capacitors may have their connecting leads arranged in many configurations, for example axially or radially. "Axial" means that the leads are on a common axis, typically the axis of the capacitor's cylindrical body the leads extend from opposite ends. Radial leads might more accurately be referred to as tandem; they are rarely actually aligned along radii of the body's circle, so the term is inexact, although universal. The leads (until bent) are usually in planes parallel to that of the flat body of the capacitor, and extend in the same direction; they are often parallel as manufactured. Small, cheap discoidal ceramic capacitors have existed since the 1930s, and remain in widespread use. Since the 1980s, surface mountpackages for capacitors have been widely used. These packages are extremely small and lack connecting leads, allowing them to be soldered directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards. Surface mount components avoid undesirable high-frequency effects due to the leads and simplify automated assembly, although manual handling is made difficult due to their small size. Mechanically controlled variable capacitors allow the plate spacing to be adjusted, for example by rotating or sliding a set of movable plates into alignment with a set of stationary plates. Low cost variable capacitors squeeze together alternating layers of aluminum and plastic with ascrew. Electrical control of capacitance is achievable with varactors (or varicaps), which are reverse-biased semiconductor diodes whose depletion region width varies with applied voltage. They are used in phase-locked loops, amongst other applications.
Crystal Oscillator:
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the
mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them became known as "crystal oscillators."
Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of megahertz. More than two billion (2109) crystals are manufactured annually. Most are small devices for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.
Crystals are somewhat sensitive to radiation damage. Natural quartz is much more sensitive than artificially grown crystals, and sensitivity can be further reduced by sweeping the crystal - heating the crystal to at least 400 C in hydrogen-free atmosphere in electric field of at least 500 V/cm for at least 12 hours. Such swept crystals have very low response to steady ionizing radiation. Some Si(IV) atoms are replaced with Al(III) impurities, each having a compensating Li+ or Na+ cation nearby. Ionization produces electron-hole pairs; The holes are trapped in the lattice near the Al atom, the resulting Li and Na atoms are loosely trapped along the Z axis; the change of the lattice near the Al atom and the corresponding elastic constant then causes a corresponding change in frequency. Sweeping removes the Li+ and Na+ ions from the lattice, reducing this effect. The Al3+ site can also trap hydrogen atoms. All crystals have transient negative frequency shift after exposition to an X-ray pulse; the frequency then shifts gradually back; natural quartz reaches stable frequency after 101000 seconds, with
negative offset to pre-irradiation frequency, artificial crystals return to frequency slightly lower or higher than pre-irradiation, swept crystals anneal virtually back to original frequency. The annealing is faster at higher temperatures. Sweeping under vacuum at higher temperatures and field strength can further reduce the crystal's response to X-ray pulses.[21] Series resistance of unswept crystals increases after an X-ray dose, and anneals back to a somewhat higher value for a natural quartz (requiring a corresponding gain reserve in the circuit) and back to pre-irradiation value for synthetic crystals. Series resistance of swept crystals is unaffected. Increase of series resistance degrades Q; too high increase can stop the oscillations. Neutron radiation induces frequency changes by introducing dislocations into the lattice by knocking out atoms, a single fast neutron can produce many defects; the SC and AT cut frequency increases roughly linearly with absorbed neutron dose, while the frequency of the BT cuts decreases.[33] Neutrons also alter the temperature-frequency characteristics. Frequency change at low ionizing radiation doses is proportionally higher than for higher doses. High-intensity radiation can stop the oscillator by inducing photoconductivity in the crystal and transistors; with a swept crystal and properly designed circuit the oscillations can restart within 15 microseconds after the radiation burst. Quartz crystals with high level of alkali metal impurities lose Q with irradiation; Q of swept artificial crystals is unaffected. Irradiation with higher doses (over 105 rad) lowers sensitivity to subsequent doses. Very low radiation doses (below 300 rad) have disproportionally higher effect, but this nonlinearity saturates at higher doses. At very high doses, the radiation response of the crystal saturates as well, due to finite number of impurity sites that can be affected.
LED:
A light-emitting diode is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation lighting, automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as well as in traffic signals. The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth, switching speed, and extreme reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.
Advantages

Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent bulbs.[74] Their efficiency is not affected by shape and size, unlike Fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.
Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2[75]) and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards.
On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in under a microsecond.[76] LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times.
Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting.
Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward current.
Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.
Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs.[77]
Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer.[78] Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,0002,000 hours.
Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile.
Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner.
Low toxicity: LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike fluorescent lamps.
DIODE:
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric
current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today. This is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals.[1] A vacuum tube diode (now little used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction) while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers. However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on-off action. This is due to their complex non-linear electrical characteristics, which can be tailored by varying the construction of their P-N junction. These are exploited in special purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, specialized diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations(tunnel diodes), and to produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes them useful in some types of circuits. Diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of
crystals' rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today most diodes are made of silicon, but
other semiconductors such as germanium are sometimes used
Diodes will prevent currents in unintended directions. To supply power to an electrical circuit during a power failure, the circuit can draw current from a battery. An Uninterruptible power supply may use diodes in this way to ensure that current is only drawn from the battery when necessary. Similarly, small boats typically have two circuits each with their own battery/batteries: one used for engine starting; one used for domestics. Normally both are charged from a single alternator, and a heavy duty split charge diode is used to prevent the higher charge battery (typically the engine battery) from discharging through the lower charged battery when the alternator is not running. Diodes are also used in electronic musical keyboards. To reduce the amount of wiring needed in electronic musical keyboards, these instruments often use keyboard matrix circuits. The keyboard controller scans the rows and columns to determine which note the player has pressed. The problem with matrix circuits is that when several notes are pressed at once, the current can flow backwards through the circuit and trigger "phantom keys" that cause ghost notes to play. To avoid triggering unwanted notes, most keyboard matrix circuits have diodes soldered with the switch under each key of the musical keyboard. The same principle is also used for the switch matrix in solid state pinball machines.
IC 7805:
The 78xx (also sometimes known as LM78xx) series of devices is a family of selfcontained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is a very popular choice for many electronic circuits which require a regulated power supply, due to their ease of use and relative cheapness. When specifying individual ICs within this family, the xx is replaced with a two-digit number, which indicates the output voltage the particular device is designed to provide (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line are positive voltage regulators, meaning that they are designed to produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to provide both positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit, if necessary. 78xx ICs have three terminals and are most commonly found in the TO220 form factor, although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3packages are also available from some manufacturers. These devices typically support an input voltage which can be anywhere from a couple of volts over the intended output voltage, up to a maximum of 35 or 40 volts, and can typically provide up to around 1 or 1.5 amps of current(though smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher current rating).
There are several common configurations for 78xx ICs, including 7805 (5 volt), 7806 (6 volt), 7808 (8 volt), 7809 (9 volt), 7810 (10 volt), 7812 (12 volt), 7815 (15 volt), 7818 (18 volt), and 7824 (24 volt) versions. The 7805 is very commonly used, as its regulated 5 volt supply can provide an easy and useful power source for most TTL components. Some manufacturers also produce less common variations on the 78xx design, including lowerpower versions such as the LM78Mxx series (500mA) and LM78Lxx series (100mA) from National Semiconductor. Some devices also provide slightly different voltages than usual, such as the LM78L62 (6.2 volts) and LM78L82 (8.2 volts)
CONNECTING WIRES:
Often, when building electronics projects, little thought is given thought is given to the connecting wire. While it is possible to "get away with" almost anything for many projects, it is sometimes necessary to connect the various electronics components using the right wire. For example it is often useful to use colored connecting wire to indicate such items as electronics wire used for connecting the supplies, signals, and grounds. In this way it is easier to identify the
different signals and lines and this reduces the possibility of errors. In addition to this it is sometimes necessary to have connecting wire of a particular size to ensure the connections are made in the right manner. If the wire is too thick it may not be easy to accommodate in some situations, whereas thicker wire may be needed for higher currents of physical
Wire "size" can be measured in a variety of ways. There are three main methods that have been used over the years. SWG or Standard Wire Gauge was widely used some years ago, but now two methods are used. One is AWG or American Wire gauge, and the other is the metric system where wire and cable sizes are measured by their cross sectional area in square millimeters. Where multiple strands are used this can be expressed as the number of strands or a certain wire. As an example seven strands of 0.032 mm wire would be expressed as 7 / 0.032. For the wires and cables defined under the AWG system, the gauge numbers applied to the wire are for the overall wire whether it is a single strand of a bunch of strands with an equivalent size. This means that the gauge size only determines its overall cross sectional area, and not its physical construction.
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD:

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA). PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped or point-to-point constructed circuits, but are much cheaper and faster for high-volume production. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are published by the IPC organization.
SOLDERING:
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soft soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler metal, which is below 400 C (752 F).[1] The filler metal used in the process is called solder.
Soldering is distinguished from brazing by use of a lower melting-temperature filler metal; it is distinguished from welding by the base metals not being melted during the joining process. In a soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing the solder to melt and be drawn into the joint by capillary action and to bond to the materials to be joined by wetting action. After the metal cools, the resulting joints are not as strong as the base metal, but have adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and water-tightness for many uses. Soldering is an ancient technique mentioned in the Bible[2] and there is evidence that it was employed up to 5000 years ago in Mesopotamia. Soldering filler materials are available in many different alloys for differing applications. In electronics assembly, theeutectic alloy of 63% tin and 37% lead (or 60/40, which is almost identical in performance to the eutectic) has been the alloy of choice. Other alloys are used for plumbing, mechanical assembly, and other applications. Common solder alloys are mixtures of tin and lead, respectively: Other common solders include low-temperature formulations (often containing bismuth), which are often used to join previously-soldered assemblies without un-soldering earlier connections, and high-temperature formulations (usually containing silver) which are used for high-temperature operation or for first assembly of items which must not become unsoldered during subsequent operations.Specialty alloys are available with properties such as higher strength, better electrical conductivity and higher corrosion resistance.
Hard soldering" or "silver soldering" (performed with high-temperature solder containing up to 40% silver) is also often a form of brazing, since it involves filler materials with melting points in the vicinity of, or in excess of, 450 C. Although the term "silver soldering" is used much more often than "silver brazing", it may be technically incorrect depending on the exact melting point of the filler in use. In silver soldering ("hard soldering"), the goal is generally to give a beautiful, structurally sound joint, especially in the field of jewelry. Thus, the temperatures involved, and the usual use of a torch rather than an iron, would seem to indicate that the process should be referred to as "brazing" rather than "soldering", but the endurance of the "soldering" appellation serves to indicate the arbitrary nature of the distinction (and the level of confusion) between the two processes. Induction soldering is a process which is similar to brazing. The source of heat in induction soldering is induction heating by high-frequency AC current. Generally copper coils
are used for the induction heating. This induces currents in the part being soldered. The coils are usually made of copper or a copper base alloy. The copper rings can be made to fit the part needed to be soldered for precision in the work piece. Induction soldering is a process in which a filler metal (solder) is placed between the faying surfaces of (to be joined) metals. The filler metal in this process is melted at a fairly low temperature. Fluxes are commonly used in induction soldering. This is a process which is particularly suitable for soldering continuously. The process is usually done with coils that wrap around a cylinder/pipe that needs to be soldered. Some metals are easier to solder than others. Copper, silver, and gold are easy. Iron and nickel are found to be more difficult. Because of their thin, strong oxide films, stainless steel and aluminium are even little more difficult. Titanium, magnesium, cast irons, steels, ceramics, and graphite can be soldered but it involves a process similar to joining carbides. They are first plated with a suitable metallic element that induces interfacial bonding.
REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAM http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_register http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor http://www.electronicsforu.com/efylinux/circuit/feb2003/pam%20Indicator.pdf http://www.ucpros.com/Resources/books_analog and digital communication.htm
REFERENCES
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAM 7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_register 8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor 9. http://www.electronicsforu.com/efylinux/circuit/feb2003/pam%20Indicator.pdf 10. http://www.ucpros.com/Resources/books_analog and digital communication.htm

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO.-1 INTRODUCTION

ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMPARISON

PAM MODEL GRAPH

PAM DEMODULATION MODEL GRAPH

3.3 Electronic color code:

Temp. Significant Multiplier Tolerance Coefficient figures (ppm/K)

1% 2% 0.5% D 0.25% C 0.1% B 0.05% A 5% J F G

Fig 3.3 Color coding of Resistor

Low toxicity: LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike fluorescent lamps.

other semiconductors such as germanium are sometimes used

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAM http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_register http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor http://www.electronicsforu.com/efylinux/circuit/feb2003/pam%20Indicator.pdf http://www.ucpros.com/Resources/books_analog and digital communication.htm

6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAM 7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_register 8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor 9. http://www.electronicsforu.com/efylinux/circuit/feb2003/pam%20Indicator.pdf 10. http://www.ucpros.com/Resources/books_analog and digital communication.htm

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