OSIAS EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATION

DR. CAMILO OSIAS, BALAOAN, 2517, LA UNION

Contact No. Tell No.6070142, Cell. No. 09275937027
Email Add.: oefbalaoan47@yahoo.com

ELT 7
SPEECH AND THEATRE ARTS
Chapter 2 Communication: Context and Models

Communication in Context

Is a quiet dinner conversation with someone you care about the same experience as a discussion
in class or giving a speech? Is sending a text message to a friend the same experience as writing
a professional project proposal or a purchase order? Each context has an influence on the
communication process. Contexts can overlap, creating an even more dynamic process. You
have been communicating in many of these contexts across your lifetime, and you’ll be able to
apply what you’ve learned through experience in each context to business communication.

Intrapersonal Communication

Have you ever listened to a speech or lecture and gotten caught up in your thoughts so that, while
the speaker continued, you were no longer listening? During a phone conversation, have you
ever been thinking about what you are going to say, or what question you might ask, instead of
listening to the other person? Finally, have you ever told yourself how you did after you wrote a
document or gave a presentation? As you “talk with yourself” you are engaged in intrapersonal
communication.

Intrapersonal communication involves one person; it is often called “self-talk.” (Wood, 1997)

Donna Vocate’s book on intrapersonal communication explains how, as we use language to
reflect on our own experiences, we talk ourselves through situations. For example, the voice
within you that tells you, “Keep on Going! I can DO IT!” when you are putting your all into
completing a five-mile race; or that says, “This report I’ve written is pretty good.” Your
intrapersonal communication can be positive or negative, and directly influences how you
perceive and react to situations and communication with others.

What you perceive in communication with others is also influenced by your culture, native
language, and your world view. As the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas said, “Every
process of reaching understanding takes place against the background of a culturally ingrained
preunderstanding.” (Habermas, 1984)

For example, you may have certain expectations of time and punctuality. You weren’t born with
them, so where did you learn them? From those around you as you grew up. What was normal
for them became normal for you, but not everyone’s idea of normal is the same.
When your supervisor invites you to a meeting and says it will start at 7 p.m., does that mean
7:00 sharp, 7-ish, or even 7:30? In the business context, when a meeting is supposed to start at 9
a.m., is it promptly a 9 a.m.? Variations in time expectations depend on regional and national
culture as well as individual corporate cultures. In some companies, everyone may be expected
to arrive ten to fifteen minutes before the announced start time to take their seats and be ready to
commence business at 9:00 sharp. In other companies, “meeting and greeting” from about 9 to
9:05 or even 9:10 is the norm. When you are unfamiliar with the expectations for a business
event, it is always wise to err on the side of being punctual, regardless of what your internal
assumptions about time and punctuality may be.

Interpersonal Communication

The second major context within the field of communication is interpersonal

communication. Interpersonal communication normally involves two people, and can range from
intimate and very personal to formal and impersonal. You may carry on a conversation with a
loved one, sharing a serious concern. Later, at work, you may have a brief conversation about
plans for the weekend with the security guard on your way home. What’s the difference? Both
scenarios involve interpersonal communication, but are different in levels of intimacy. The first
example implies a trusting relationship established over time between two caring individuals.
The second example level implies some previous familiarity, and is really more about
acknowledging each other than any actual exchange of information, much like saying hello or
goodbye.

Group Communication

Have you ever noticed how a small group of people in class sit near each other? Perhaps they are
members of the same sports program, or just friends, but no doubt they often engage in group
communication.

“Group communication is a dynamic process where a small number of people engage in a

conversation.” (McLean, 2005) Group communication is generally defined as involving three to
eight people. The larger the group, the more likely it is to break down into smaller groups.

To take a page from marketing, does your audience have segments or any points of
convergence/divergence? We could consider factors like age, education, sex, and location to
learn more about groups and their general preferences as well as dislikes. You may find several
groups within the larger audience, such as specific areas of education, and use this knowledge to
increase your effectiveness as a business communicator.

Public Communication

In public communication, one person speaks to a group of people; the same is true of public
written communication, where one person writes a message to be read by a small or large group.
The speaker or writer may ask questions, and engage the audience in a discussion (in writing,
examples are an e-mail discussion or a point-counter-point series of letters to the editor), but the
dynamics of the conversation are distinct from group communication, where different rules
apply. In a public speaking situation, the group normally defers to the speaker. For example, the
boss speaks to everyone, and the sales team quietly listens without interruption.

This generalization is changing as norms and expectations change, and many cultures have a
tradition of “call outs” or interjections that are not to be interpreted as interruptions or
competition for the floor, but instead as affirmations. The boss may say, as part of a charged-up
motivational speech, “Do you hear me?” and the sales team is expected to call back “Yes Sir!”
The boss, as a public speaker, recognizes that intrapersonal communication (thoughts of the
individual members) or interpersonal communication (communication between team members)
may interfere with this classic public speaking dynamic of all to one, or the audience devoting all
its attention to the speaker, and incorporate attention getting and engagement strategies to keep
the sales team focused on the message.

Mass Communication

How do you tell everyone on campus where and when all the classes are held? Would a speech
from the front steps work? Perhaps it might meet the need if your school is a very small one. A
written schedule that lists all classes would be a better alternative. How do you let everyone
know there is a sale on in your store, or that your new product will meet their needs, or that your
position on a political issue is the same as your constituents? You send a message to as many
people as you can through mass communication. Does everyone receive mass communication
the same way the might receive a personal phone call? Not likely. Some people who receive
mass mailings assume that they are “junk mail” (i.e., that they do not meet the recipients’ needs)
and throw them away unopened. People may tune out a television advertisement with a click of
the mute button, delete tweets or ignore friend requests on Facebook by the hundreds, or send all
unsolicited e-mail straight to the spam folder unread.

Mass media is a powerful force in modern society and our daily lives, and is adapting rapidly to
new technologies. Mass communication involves sending a single message to a group. It allows
us to communicate our message to a large number of people, but we are limited in our ability to
tailor our message to specific audiences, groups, or individuals. As a business communicator,
you can use multimedia as a visual aid or reference common programs, films, or other images
that your audience finds familiar yet engaging. You can tweet a picture that is worth far more
than 140 characters, and you are just as likely to elicit a significant response. By choosing
messages or references that many audience members will recognize or can identify with, you can
develop common ground and increase the appeal of your message.

Models of Communication

Communication models describe the process of communication, visually show the

relationship among variables and help find and correct communication problems.

What are the three standard models of communication?

1. Linear Model of Communication (Transmission Model)

The linear model was the first kind of model that experts have made to understand the
process of communication. It has improved and has been updated over the years. The
following are the remarkable characteristics of the linear model:

1) Unidirectional - Linear model is one-way communication where the speaker

sends messages to the receiver with or without effect. Senders can only transmit
messages while receivers can only receive the messages. This model of
communication applies to mass communication.

2) Simple - This model presents a simple communication acts because the

transmission of message shows only the beginning and the end and that there is no
interchanging of roles between the sender and receiver.

3) Persuasion not Mutual understanding

This model shows the one-way direction of communication which promotes
advice and influence rather than mutual understanding between receiver and
sender.

The first three characteristics emphasize the lack of feedback in this model which
has been criticized as a missing element in the communication process

4) Values psychological over social effects:

This model focuses more on the psychological effects (such as understanding
the messages) rather than the social effects (like building the relationship among
communicators).

The Shannon-Weaver model (1949), also known as the transmission model and the mother
of all communication models is one best example of a one-way or linear process of
communication consisting of five elements (see diagram below) which have been criticized
for missing one element in the communication process, feedback.
 The Shannon-Weaver Model illustration above shows the characteristics of the
Linear Model of Communication. First, as shown in the direction of the arrow, it is a
unidirectional or one-way direction where the speaker sends messages to the receiver with
or without effect. Second, it is simple as it only shows beginning and end of
communication, but there is no interchanging of communication roles between
communicators. The first two characteristics emphasize persuasion and understanding the
message rather than mutual understanding and social relationship.

Example of the elements of the Shannon-Weaver Model

Elements Example:
Sender You
Receiver Your friend
channel Your mobile network
encoder Your mobile’s network company
Decoder The receiver’s Smartphone
Noise your friend receives only parts of the SMS message you tried to
send due to disruption of mobile signal
Transactional Communication Model

The Transactional Model of Communication illustrates how the sender and receiver
take turns in conveying and receiving messages and are called as “communicators.”
The sender and receiver’s roles are reversed each time sending and receiving
messages occur at the same time. Since both sender and receiver are necessary to keep the
communication alive in Transactional Model, the communicators are also interdependent to
each other. Thus, if the receiver is not listening to the sender, Transactional Communication
is not possible.
Frank Dance (1967) introduced the Helix model that best illustrates the
Transactional Model by showing how the development of communication is based on
previous experiences or behaviors as well as how the knowledge-base of a person deepens
and expands throughout life. He emphasized, “that communication while moving forward
is at the same time coming back to itself and being affected by its past behavior…” Dance’s
model also shows how the external and internal factors that are learned throughout life
influence the person’s understanding of a message.
The characteristics of Transactional Model

1. Communication evolves from the very first day (origin) until the existing moment.
2. Communication is largely dependent on its past.
3. Concept of time.
4. Communication process is the product of what we learned.
.
So to put it in simple terms, Transactional Model of Communication involves three
principles:
1. people send messages continuously and simultaneously
2. communication events that have a past, present, and future, and;
3. participants play certain roles in the conversation.

How does the second model of communication look to you? Do you think
the second model is better than the first model? Why or why not?
Interactive Communication Model

This model, also known as the convergence model or the Schramm Model of Communication
emphasizes the coding and decoding elements of the process which also focuses on the message
exchanges between the sender and receiver and vice versa. Rather than linear or a one-way
process, communication is a two-way street, with a sender and a receiver.
Wilbur Schramm introduced the interactive communication model where he
emphasized the need for the source to encode the message as well as for the receiver to
decode the message. These messages will always be affected by the “field of experience”
from various factors namely; social, cultural, psychological, situational experiences or
gained knowledge.
In this model, noise is considered as a form of barrier in communication. The
following elements are included in this model of Communication:

Elements Functions
1. Sender sends the message
(transmitter)
2. Encoder converts the message into codes before sending
3. Decoder gets the encoded message then converts it into the
language understandable by the receiver
4. Interpreter tries to understand and analyze the message. The
message is considered received after the interpretation is done
and message is understood. Interpreter and receiver are the same.

5. Receiver gets the message. Decoding and interpreting is also

part of his/her role.
6. Message data sent by the sender and information that the
receiver gets.
7. Feedback process where in receiver responds to the
received message

8. Medium or channel used to send the message.

media
9. Noise interference disruptions during the process. This is
(interference / also created when the intended meaning sent by the sender is
disruptions) different from what was interpreted by the receiver.

10. Field of patterns which affect the communication process. This can be
Experience from society, culture, situations, psychological or sociological
events or experiences of the sender and
receiver.
Let us study the illustration below.

Figure 2: Schramm Model of Communication

Features of Interactive Communication Model

1. It has a never-ending process of communication and feedback where there is

role-switching between the sender and the receiver as they continue the exchange
of messages. It means that in the next flow of communication, the sender may
become the receiver while the receiver in the first communication process
becomes the sender in the next communication flow when gives his feedback or
response.

2. Feedback is seen as an important part of this model to ensure that

communication takes place. With feedback, it gives the sender the chance to know
whether his / her receiver got the message the way he / she intended it to be
understood. Feedback in short, helps communicator to seek for clarification.

3. The field of experience affects the messages being exchanged. It means that
the background of the persons involved in the communication process plays a role
in how they interpret the messages received or how they encode the messages they
will be sending.

4. It encourages interaction. This means that the Interactive model triggers the
communicators to give their responses because they share common experiences
and thus share a common understanding.
 “If there is no commonality in the sender and
receiver field of experience. Then,
communication does not take place.”