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Practical Work Book

Session 2017

BASIC ELECTRONICS

Name:__________________________________________________________________________________

Roll Number:_________________________________________________________________________

Class:___________________________________________________________________________________

Batch:__________________________________________________________________________________

Department:__________________________________________________________________________

Department of Computer Sciences

Barani Institute of Management Sciences (BIMS)
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Practical Work Book

Session 2017

BASIC ELECTRONICS

Prepared By:
Engr Aamir Mehmood
Engr Roohullah Khan
Engr Aftab Ahmed

Department of Computer Sciences

Barani Institute of Management Sciences (BIMS)
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SAFETY
Safety is always an important topic whenever laboratory work is being considered,
and it is certainly true in the case of labs. Safety is important.

The experiments in the laboratory use low voltages and low currents. However, the
lab equipment is powered by the 220V, 50Hz, line voltage. Be careful with the line voltages.
Do not touch exposed prongs on the equipment plugs when connecting the equipment to
the lines.

Take care when using power supplies, which may be low voltage but can supply
currents in the ampere range. Shorting such a supply can lead to a serious burn as high
currents arc and can ignite flammable material. This is precisely why a car battery needs to
be treated with respect. The hundreds of amps a battery can supply are sufficient to cause
serious burns.

The equipment is heavy enough to be generally stable on the bench. Be sure to keep
the equipment away from the edges of the benches to avoid having a piece of equipment
fall off the bench. Besides endangering people who might be struck, falling equipment
endangers everyone in vicinity by stressing the power cords, possibly causing a line short
or live fault on the equipment, not to mention damage to the expensive lab equipment. In
general electronic equipment does not survive harsh treatment.

The capacitors furnished in your lab kits are electrolytic capacitors with positive
and negative terminals. Be sure to always connect the positively marked terminal to the
most positive terminal in your circuit. An excess negative voltage applied to these
capacitors can cause the device to overheat and explode.

The curve tracers can apply voltages as high as 200 V to a device. There is an
interlock forcing the user to cover the device when applying these voltages. Do not attempt
to override this safety feature when using the curve tracer.
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BASIC ELECTRONIC

LAB No LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

01 Introduction of Electronics Lab equipment

02 Introduction of Multisim

03 To verify ohms law

04 P-N Junction Diode Characteristics

05 Half Wave Rectifier

06 Full Wave Rectifier

07 To study the operation of filters for Full Wave Rectifier.

08 To study the operation of Diode Clipper.

09 To study the operation of Diode Clampers.

10 Zener Diode Characteristics

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Date____________
Lab No 01

Title
Introduction of Electronics Lab equipment

Objective
 To study about Multimeter (Analog/Digital).
 To study about Oscilloscope (Analog/Digital).
 To study about Function Generator.
 To study about Dual Track Power Supplies.

Equipment and Materials

 Digital Multimeter.
 Digital Oscilloscope.
 Function Generator.
 Power supply unit mod.

Digital Multimeter.
Multimeter is the measuring instrument use to measure voltage, current and
resistance of the electronics and electrical circuit. Multimeter is basically an integration of
Ammeter, Voltmeter and Ohm-meter. Some of the modern digital Multimeter also contains
Frequency meter.

Ammeter is used to measure the current. Since current flows through the
component, the ammeter must go in series with the component. This makes sure the same
current flows through the meter. Current
is measured in Amperes. Often in
electronics we use large resistors which
only allow very small current to pass.
Therefore we used two other small units.

Voltmeter is used to measure the

voltage and potential difference across
the component. Therefore the voltmeter
must go in parallel. If the internal
resistance of voltmeter is quite small
then the loading effect causes the
problem.
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The unit for measuring the voltage is volt. Small signals such as bio-signals are
generally measure in millivolts (mV).

Oscilloscope
We use CRO to visualize at the
voltages that changes with the time
such as AC voltages and signal
waveforms from amplifiers. The
voltage on the X-plate makes the
electron beam sweep across the
screen. This sets the time base. The
spot on the screen shows how the Y-
voltage varies with the time. this
example the oscilloscope measures
the sine wave with the peak amplitude
of 5Vand the frequency of 50 Hz. The
two properties we need to know about the sine wave is its amplitude and frequency.

Here we are using Digital Oscilloscope with LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) panel.
Volts/div. and Time/div. are controlled digitally through Auto set button. Even other
electrical calculations are done directly through this oscilloscope.
There are several controlling knobs and buttons that are quite user friendly.

Function Generator
A function generator is a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate
electrical waveforms.
This instrument is basically the frequency
generator that can generate signals of
different frequency, amplitude and shape. It
is known as variable frequency source.

Function generators, like most signal

generators, may also contain an attenuator,
various means of modulating the output
waveform, and often the ability to
automatically and repetitively "sweep" the
frequency of the output waveform (by means
of a voltage-controlled oscillator) between
two operator-determined limits. This capability makes it very easy to evaluate the
frequency response of a given electronic circuit
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Power supply
A power supply is a device that
supplies electric power to an electrical
load. The term is most commonly
applied to electric power converters that
convert one form of electrical energy to
another, though it may also refer to
devices that convert another form of
energy (mechanical, chemical, solar) to
electrical energy. A regulated power
supply is one that controls the output
voltage or current to a specific value; the
controlled value is held nearly constant
despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's
energy source.

Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it
consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a
power supply may obtain energy from:

Observations
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Date____________
Lab 02:

Title
Introduction of Multisim
Objective:

The objective of this exercise is to become familiar with the Multisim electrical
circuit simulation package in order to create simple schematics and perform basic
simulations

Equipment and Materials

 Computers Dual core.
 Multisim V11.O Software

Procedure

Multisim is the schematic capture and simulation application of National

Instruments Circuit Design Suite, a suite of EDA (Electronic Design Automation) tools. It is
similar to PSpice, but it is more easy to use in practical sense and has lots of features to
make circuit drawing/simulating, a really simple task. Here is window of multisim, as it

appears first time when you start the software.

1. The Menu Bar is where you find commands for all functions.
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2. The Design Toolbox lets you navigate through the different types of files in a project
(schematics,)
PCBs, reports), view a schematic’s hierarchy and show or hide different layers.
3. The Component toolbar contains buttons that let you select components from the
Multisim databases for placement in your schematic.
4. The Standard toolbar contains buttons for commonly-performed functions such as Save,
Print, Cut, and Paste.
5. The View toolbar contains buttons for modifying the way the screen is displayed.
6. The Simulation toolbar contains buttons for starting, stopping, and other simulation
functions.
7. The Main toolbar contains buttons for common Multisim functions.
8. The In Use List contains a list of all components used in the design.
9. The Instruments toolbar contains buttons for each instrument.
10. Scroll Left –right is to ensure ease in handling larger designs.
11. The Circuit Window (or workspace) is where you build your circuit.
12. Active tab indicates the current active circuit window.
Let’s take an example of a RC circuit. We will simulate the circuit to perform the transient
analysis. At any point of time you can click F1 for help on the tool.
Please follow the steps:
 Select Start» All Programs» National Instruments» Circuit Design Suite 10.1»
Multisim 10.1. A blank file opens on the workspace called Circuit1.
 Select File» Save As to display a standard Windows Save dialog.
 Select Place» Component to display the Select a Component browser, navigate to the
group Sources and click on POWER_SOURCES. Then choose the Family: AC_POWER
option. The component appears as a “ghost” on the cursor. (Once you have selected
the desired Group and Family, start typing the component’s name in the browser’s

Component field. As you type, the string appears in the Searching field at the bottom
of the browser.)
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 Move the cursor to the bottom-right of the workspace and left-click to place the
component. Similarly, find the other components and place them. When a part is on
the workspace and you want to place the same part again, highlight it and select
Edit»Copy, then Edit» Paste. You can also select it from the In Use List and click to
place it on the workspace. Press Ctrl+R if you want to rotate the component. The
oscilloscope is obtained (by dragging it) from the component window on the right
hand side of main window.
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 All components have pins that you use to wire them to other components or
instruments. As soon as your cursor is over a pin, Multisim knows you want to wire
and the pointer changes to a cross hair. You can also use ctrl + q for wiring the
circuit. Don’t forget to add Ground to the circuit (available in Sources option in
Place>>Component).
 Choose the type of analysis you want to perform by clicking Simulate>> Analyses>>.
Here, we have chosen transient analysis.

 Select Simulate» Analyses» Transient Analysis and click on the Output tab. Add I(v1)
to the right column by first clicking on I(v1) in left column and then pressing Add
tab.
 Also choose the time (from transient Frequency parameters).
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 Click on Simulate tab. The output window appears which consists of tab for
oscillator output as well as Multisim transient waveforms. Different colored waves
can be viewed by choosing the color of respective wire of the electrical quantity
(voltage and current). Right click on wire in the circuit and then click on Color
segment… to choose the color of wire and thus the waveform color (after
simulation).
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 With multisim, you can create 3D breadboard with components placed. You can
explore yourself this sorption by clicking on show breadboard tab on main toolbar.
Figure below shows example of 3D breadboard created in multisim

Result
 Draw a circuit with 3 resistors in series with a voltage source and multimeter.

PASTE SNAP SHOT OF CIRCUIT

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 Draw a circuit with 3 resistors in parallel with a voltage source and Multimeter.

PASTE SNAP SHOT OF CIRCUIT

Theoretical analysis:

Observations
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Conclusion
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Date: ___________

Lab No 03
Objective
To verify the following two equivalent forms of Ohm’s Law:
(a) Express I as a function of V and R.
(b) Express V as a function of I and R.

Equipments Required

 Variable DC power supply (maximum 30V)

 DMM/Analog Multimeter
 Resistors
 Variable resistor (maximum 10 kΩ)

Theory
Ohm’s law describes mathematically describes how voltage ‘V’, current ’I’, and resistance ‘R’ in
a circuit are related. According to this law:

“The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and inversely
proportional to the circuit resistance”.

Formula for Voltage:

For a constant value of R, V is directly proportional to I

Formula For current:

i.e. V = IR

For a constant value of V, I is inversely proportional to R

i.e. I = V/R

Ohm's Law makes intuitive sense if we apply it to the water-and-pipe analogy. If we have a
water pump that exerts pressure (voltage) to push water around a "circuit" (current) through a
restriction (resistance), we can model how the three variables interrelate. If the resistance to
water flow stays the same and the pump pressure increases, the flow rate must also increase. If
the pressure stays the same and the resistance increases (making it more difficult for the water to
flow), then the flow rate must decrease. If the flow rate were to stay the same while the
resistance to flow decreased, the required pressure from the pump would necessarily decrease.
 - 16 -

Procedure

a) Current versus voltage:

1) Construct the circuit of fig 3.1.

2) Do not switch on the power supply. Disconnect the variable resistor R from the circuit and
set it to 2200Ω by using ohmmeter. Now reconnect it.
3) Turn on the power supply and adjust it to 5V. Measure the current I in amperes and record it
in the table.
4) Measure and record in turn, the current I (in amperes) at each of the voltage settings shown
in the table, for R = 2,200 Ω.
5) Calculate the value of current I by using I=V/RT Use measured value of resistance.
6) Plot a graph of I versus V. (use measured values)

Fig 3.1

b) Current versus resistance:

1) Construct the circuit of fig 3.2.

2) Do not switch on the power supply. Disconnect the variable resistor R from the circuit and
set it to 1000Ω by using ohmmeter. Now reconnect it.
3) Turn on the power supply and adjust it to 20V. Measure the current I in amperes and record
it in the table.
4) Measure and record in turn, the current I (in amperes) at each of the resistance settings
shown in the table, for V= 20V.Be sure to set the resistor values in the same way as described in
step (i).
5) Calculate the value of resistance R by using R=V/I. Use measured value of Voltage and
current.
6) Plot a graph of I versus R. (use measured values)
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Fig 3.2

S.N Voltage R(KΩ) Measured I Calculated I (amp)

(amp)
1 5 2.2
2 10 2.2
3 15 2.2
4 20 2.2
5 25 2.2
6 30 2.2
 Current versus volt

 Current versus resistance

S.N Voltage R(KΩ) Measured I (amp) Calculated RT(KΩ)

1 20 1
2 20 2.2
3 20 3.3
4 20 3.3
5 20 4.7
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Observations:
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Simulations
 Current versus volt

PASTE SNAP SHOT OF CIRCUIT

 Current versus resistance

PASTE SNAP SHOT OF CIRCUIT

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Graph
 Current versus volt

 Current versus resistance

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Conclusion:
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Date: _________

Lab 04:

Title
P-N Junction Diode Characteristics

Objective
To examine the forward and reversed biased characteristics of a silicon diode

Equipment and Materials

 0-15 V dc power supply
 1 K ohm resistor
 Breadboard
 1N914 Silicon diode
 Digital Multimeter

Theory
The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material.
The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the
n-type material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line
on the diode.

Anode Cathode

Figure: The symbol for a diode compared to an actual diode.

The primary function of the diode is rectification. When it is forward biased (the higher
potential is connected to the anode), it will pass current. When it is reversed biased (the
higher potential is connected to the cathode), current flow is blocked. For conventional
current flow, current will flow through the diode from anode to cathode. Unlike a resistor
in which current flow is linear, the diode is a nonlinear device. When the diode is forward
biased, a small but measurable voltage drop, called the barrier potential, occurs at the
diode. For germanium diodes, this value is typically 0.3V; for silicon diodes, it is
approximately 0.7V. The characteristic curve for a real diode is seen as following:
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Forward Bias
Region

Reverse Bias Reverse Bias

Region Region

Figure: I-V Curve for a real diode.

Procedure
Forward Bias

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. For forward bias, the power supply +ve is connected to the anode of the diode and
power supply –ve is connected to the cathode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage)
insteps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across
the diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The reading of voltage and current are tabulated
6. Graph is plotted between voltage and current

Figure: Forward Biase

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Table 01(a):
Forward Bias

S.N Applied voltage Voltage across diode Current through diode(ma)

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
Graph:
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Reverse Bias

7. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

8. For reverse bias, the power supply +ve are connected to the cathode of the diode
and power supply –ve is connected to the anode of the diode.
9. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) instep
10. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode voltage across the
diode for each and every step of the input voltage
11. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated
12. Graph is plotted between voltage and current.

Figure: Reverse Bias

Table 01(b):
Reverse Bias

S.N Applied voltage Voltage across diode Current through diode(ma)

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
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Graph:

Simulations

PASTE SNAP SHOT OF CIRCUIT

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Theoretical analysis:

Observations
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Conclusion
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Date: _________

Lab 05:

Title
Half Wave Rectifier

Objective:
 Add to your knowledge of rectification
 A half-wave rectifier is a circuit that allows only one half-cycle of the AC voltage
waveform to be applied to the load, resulting in one non-alternating polarity across
it. The resulting DC delivered to the load “pulsates” significantly.

Equipment and Materials

 Transformer (6-0-6)V
 Power Supply
 Multimeter
 Diode IN4001
 Resistor
 Bread Board
 Capacitor 100uf
 Oscilloscope

Theory
The process of removing one-half the input signal to establish a dc level is called
half-wave rectification. The output from the rectifier circuit is a pulsating DC. This pulsating
DC cannot be utilized in most electronic circuits because of the fluctuation of the output
voltage. To make this output voltage usable; it must be smoothed out to a steady DC output
with very little fluctuation. To perform this, a filter circuit is utilized. The filter circuit is
placed between the rectifier and the output load; it uses capacitors, resistors.
The capacitor charges up while the diode is conducting, until it reaches the
maximum value of the rectified voltage. When the supply voltage to the anode is less than
the voltage on the cathode, (i.e. the max. voltage of the capacitor), the diode is cut off.

.
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Procedure
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to the
rectifier input.
3. By the multimeter, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier and, ac and dc voltage
at the output of the rectifier.
4. Find the theoretical of dc voltage by using the formula
Vdc=Vm/П
Where, Vm=2Vrms,
(Vrms=output ac voltage.)
The Ripple factor is calculated by using the
formula=ac output voltage/dc output voltage.

Regulation Characteristics

 Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

 By increasing the value of the rheostat, the voltage across the load and current
flowing through the load are measured.
 The reading is tabulated.
 Draw a graph between load voltage (VL and load current IL) taking VL on X-axis and
IL on y-axis
 From the value of no-load voltages, the %regulation is calculated using the formula
 - 29 -

Table:
WITHOUTFILTER:

Vm Vrms Vdc Ripple factor Efficiency

Measured
Calculated

WITHFILTER:

Vm Vrms Vdc Ripple factor Efficiency

Measured
Calculated

Graph:
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Simulations

PASTE SNAP SHOT OF CIRCUIT

Theoretical analysis:

Observations
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Conclusion
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Date: _________

Lab 06:

Title
Full WAVE RECTIFIER

Objective:
 Add to your knowledge of rectification
 A full-wave rectifier is a circuit that converts both half-cycles of the AC voltage
waveform to an unbroken series of voltage pulses of the same polarity. The resulting
DC delivered to the load doesn't “pulsate” as much.

Equipment and Materials

 Transformer (6-0-6)V
 Power Supply
 Multimeter
 Diode IN4001
 Resistor
 Bread Board
 Capacitor 100uf
 Oscilloscope

Theory
The dc level obtained from half-wave rectification can be improved 100% using a
process called full-wave rectification. Like the half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit
produces an output voltage or current which is purely DC or has some specified DC
component. Full wave rectifiers have some fundamental advantages over their half wave
rectifier counterparts. The average (DC) output voltage is higher than for half wave, the
output of the full wave rectifier has much less ripple than that of the half wave rectifier
producing a smoother output waveform.
 - 32 -

Procedure
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the ac mains to the primary side of the transformer and the secondary side to the
rectifier
3. Measure the ac voltage at the input side of the rectifier
4. Measure both ac and dc voltages at the output side the rectifier.
5. Find the theoretical value of the dc voltage by using the formula Vdc=2Vm/П
6. Connect the filter capacitor across the load resistor and measure the values of Vac and Vdc
at the output.
7. The theoretical values of Ripple factors with and without capacitor are calculated.
From the values of Vac and Vdc practical values of Ripple factors are calculated. The practical
values are compared with theoretical values.
 - 33 -

Table:
WITHOUTFILTER:

Vm Vrms Vdc Ripple factor Efficiency

Measured
Calculated

WITHFILTER:

Vm Vrms Vdc Ripple factor Efficiency

Measured
Calculated
Graph:

Simulations

PASTE SNAP SHOT OF CIRCUIT

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Theoretical analysis:

Observations
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Conclusion
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Date: _________

Lab 07:

Title
To study the operation of filters for Full WAVE RECTIFIER.

Objective:
 To observe the voltages filtered with C, RC circuits on the oscilloscope.
 To measure the peak-to-peak ripple voltage.
 To measure the average rectified voltage.
 To calculate the ripple voltage.

Equipment and Materials

 Digital Multimeter
 Dual-trace oscilloscope
 Function Generator
 Circuit board
 1N4001 Silicon Diodes [5]
 NPN transistors [2], 2N3904 or equivalent
 Resistors : 1 kΩ [4]
 Capacitors: 10µF [1], 47µF [1]

Theory
The output from the rectifier circuit is a pulsating DC. This pulsating DC cannot be
utilized in most electronic circuits because of the fluctuation of the output voltage. To make
this output voltage usable, it must be smoothed out to a steady DC output with very little
fluctuation. To perform this, a filter circuit is utilized. The filter circuit is placed between
the rectifier and the output load; it uses capacitors, resistors and inductors to smooth or
decrease the ripple voltage.
The capacitor input filter is the most basic type of filter, and its use is very limited. It
can be used in circuits that require extremely high voltage and low current, such as power
supplies for cathode-ray tubes or electron-tube circuits which require very little load
current from the power supply. This type of filter is also used where the power supply
ripple frequency is not critical and has minimum effect on the operation of the circuit.
Useful Formulas:

 T = RC
 Vr = Iload
fC
 - 36 -

Where: I is the DC load current in amps, ƒ is the frequency of the ripple or twice the
input frequency in Hertz, and C is the capacitance in Farads.

 Xc = 1/ 2fC
 Vout (DC) = Vp – 0.5 Vr

Procedure
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the ac mains to the primary side of the transformer and the secondary side to the
rectifier
3. Measure the ac voltage at the input side of the rectifier
4. Measure both ac and dc voltages at the output side the rectifier.
5. Design a RC filter to get the maximum Vr( ripple), if a 10 Volts( peak to peak) @
1000Hz is applied at the input of full wave rectifier.
6. Measure the load voltage using oscilloscope or voltmeter and compare it with
calculated value.
7. Measure the average DC load current and compare it with calculated value
8. Measure the percentage error between the measured and calculated value of output
voltage.

Table:
WITHOUTFILTER:

Vm Vrms Vdc Ripple factor Efficiency

Measured
Calculated
 - 37 -

WITHFILTER:

Vm Vrms Vdc Ripple factor Efficiency

Measured
Calculated

Graph:

Simulations

PASTE SNAP SHOT OF CIRCUIT

 - 38 -

Theoretical analysis:

Observations
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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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Date: _________

Lab 08:

Title

To study the operation of Diode Clipper.

Objective:
Understand a Combinational Clipper and verify its results practically as well through
software simulation.

1. Describe diode clipper operating characteristics.

2. To use a positive clipping circuit.
3. To use a negative clipping circuit.

Equipment and Materials

 One 10K Resistor
 One 1N4001 Silicon Diode
 Dual Trace Oscilloscope
 Digital Multimeter
 Breadboard
 Function Generator(6Vp-p@200 Hz)

Theory
Clipping circuit is a wave-shaping circuit, and is used to either remove or clip a
portion of the applied wave in order to control the shape of the output waveform. One of
the most basic clipping circuits is the half-wave rectifier. A half-wave rectifier clips either
the negative half cycle or the positive half cycle of an alternating waveform, and allows
passing only one half cycles. Such a circuit has great applications in radars, digital
computers and other electronic systems for removing unwanted portions of the input
signal voltages above or below a specified level. Another application is in radio-receivers
for communication circuits where noise pulses that rise well above the signal amplitude
are clipped down to the desired level. Clipping circuits are also referred to as voltage
limiters, amplitude selectors, or slicers.

Positive Diode Clipper

In a positive clipper, the positive half cycles of the input voltage will be removed.
The circuit arrangements for a positive clipper are illustrated in the figure given below.
 - 40 -

As shown in the figure, the diode is kept in series with the load. During the positive
half cycle of the input waveform, the diode ‘D’ is reverse biased, which maintains the output
voltage at 0 Volts. Thus causes the positive half cycle to be clipped off. During the negative
half cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased and so the negative half cycle appears
across the output.
In Figure (b), the diode is kept in parallel with the load. This is the diagram of a
positive shunt clipper circuit. During the positive half cycle, the diode ‘D’ is forward biased
and the diode acts as a closed switch. This causes the diode to conduct heavily. This causes
the voltage drop across the diode or across the load resistance RL to be zero. Thus output
voltage during the positive half cycles is zero, as shown in the output waveform. During the
negative half cycles of the input signal voltage, the diode D is reverse biased and behaves as
an open switch. Consequently the entire input voltage appears across the diode or across
the load resistance RL if R is much smaller than RL
Actually the circuit behaves as a voltage divider with an output voltage of [RL / R+
RL] Vmax = -Vmaxwhen RL >> R

Negative Diode Clipper

The negative clipping circuit is almost same as the positive clipping circuit, with
only one difference. If the diode in figures (a) and (b) is reconnected with reversed polarity,
the circuits will become for a negative series clipper and negative shunt clipper respec-
tively. The negative series and negative shunt clippers are shown in figures (a) and (b) as
given below.
 - 41 -

In all the above discussions, the diode is considered to be ideal one. In a practical
diode, the breakdown voltage will exist (0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium). When
this is taken into account, the output wave-forms for positive and negative clippers will be
of the shape shown in the figure below.

Some of other biased clipper circuits are given below in the figure. While drawing
the wave-shape of the output basic principle discussed above are followed. The diode has
been considered as an ideal one.
 - 42 -

Procedure
Positive clipper

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Now connect the signal generator to the breadboard.
3. Adjust the signal generator’s output level at 6 V peak-to-peak at a frequency of 200
Hz.
Notice that the positive peaks of the clipper’s output waveform are removed, or clipped
off. Notice also that the clipping levels are not perfect; the positive peaks are clipped not at
zero volts, but at a small positive voltage. This is because of 0.7V voltage drop across the
diode. Such an arrangement is called a positive clipper because the circuit limits the
positive peaks of the input waveforms. Table:

S.No Input Output

Graph:

Negative clipper

4. Now reverse the polarity of the diode as shown in figure 3. The behavior is opposite
that of the positive clipper. The waveform has all negative peaks of the input signal.
Again note that the clipping level is not perfect. Such an arrangement is called a
negative clipper because the circuit clips off the negative peaks of the input
waveform.
 - 43 -

Table:

S.No Input Output

Graph:

Simulations

PASTE SNAP SHOT OF CIRCUIT

 - 44 -

Theoretical analysis:

Observations
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Conclusion
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Date: _________
 - 45 -

Lab 09:

Title
To study the operation of Diode Clampers

Objective:
 Identity diode clamper schematic symbols.
 Describe diode clamper operating characteristics.
 To use a positive clamping circuit.
 To use a negative clamping circuit.

Equipment and Materials

 One 10K Resistor
 One 1N4001 Silicon Diode
 Dual Trace Oscilloscope
 0-15V dc power supply
 Digital Multimeter
 Breadboard
 Function Generator
 10µF/47uF electrolytic capacitor

Theory
What Is A Clamper?

The best way to begin is with the definition.

DC CLAMPER - A circuit in which either the upper or lower peak of a waveform is fixed to a
predetermined level.

Positive Diode Clamper

Figure 1 illustrates a positive clamper circuit. The purpose of the circuit is to clamp or
reference an input signal to ground (0 volts) with the entire waveform above ground. R1
provides a discharge path for C1. The value of R1 is large so that the discharge time of C1 is
very large when compared to the pulse width of the input signal. The purpose of the diode
is to provide a fast charge path for C1. After C1 becomes fully charged, it acts as a voltage
source. If you compare the input and output waveforms, it is easy to see how a clamper
functions. The illustrated circuit uses T1 through T6. T represents time. In the illustration,
the input is compared to the output whenever the input changes. By using the T, we have a
reference with which to compare events.
 - 46 -

Positive unbiased Clamper

In the negative cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is forward biased and conducts,
charging the capacitor to the peak positive value of VIN. During the positive cycle, the diode
is reverse biased and thus does not conduct. The output voltage is therefore equal to the
voltage stored in the capacitor plus the input voltage again, so VOUT = 2VIN

Negative unbiased Clamper

A negative unbiased clamp is the opposite of the equivalent positive clamp. In the positive
cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is forward biased and conducts, charging the
capacitor to the peak value of VIN
 - 47 -

. During the negative cycle, the diode is reverse biased and thus does not conduct. The
output voltage is therefore equal to the voltage stored in the capacitor plus the input
voltage again, so VOUT = -2VIN

Positive biased Clamper

A positive biased voltage clamp is identical to an equivalent unbiased clamp but with the
output voltage offset by the bias amount VBIAS. Thus, VOUT = 2VIN + VBIAS

Negative biased Clamper

A negative biased voltage clamp is likewise identical to an equivalent unbiased clamp but
with the output voltage offset in the negative direction by the bias amount VBIAS. Thus,
VOUT = -2VIN - VBIAS
 - 48 -

Procedure
Make the circuit shown in the figure below on the breadboard.

1. Set the function generator to the sin wave of 5V (peak to peak) at 100hz.
2. Draw the waveform of the input voltage on input table provided below, by
displaying the input voltage on any one channel of the oscilloscope.
3. Connect Vout1 to the channel one and Vout2 to the channel 2 of the oscilloscope.
4. Draw the resultant wave form of the Vout1 and Vout2 in the tables provided.

Results:

Sr.No Input Output Voltage Output Voltage(Oscilloscope) Output voltage

Voltage Calculated
Vout 1
Vout 2
 - 49 -

Simulations

PASTE SNAP SHOT OF CIRCUIT

 - 50 -

Theoretical analysis:

Observations
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Conclusion
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Date: _________

Lab 10:

Title
Zener Diode Characteristics

Objective
Add to your knowledge of zener diode

Equipment and Materials

 Zener diode
 Regulated Power Supply (0-30v)
 Voltmeter (0-20v)
 Ammeter (0-100mA)
 Resistor (1KOhm)
 Bread Board
 Connecting wires

Theory
Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction.
When biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the
rated current, but as soon as a reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the
rated voltage of the device, the diodes breakdown voltage VB is reached at which point a
process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a
current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in voltage.

The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the
maximum circuit value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achieved this
reverse saturation current remains fairly constant over a wide range of applied voltages.
This breakdown voltage point, VB is called the "zener voltage" for zener diodes and can
range from less than one volt to hundreds of volts.
 - 52 -

The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode
can be very accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the
diodes semiconductor construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage,
( Vz ) for example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a
vertical straight line
Procedure
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The Regulated power supply voltage is increased in steps.
3. The zener current (IZ), and the zener voltage (VZ.) are observed and then noted
in the tabular form.
4. A graph is plotted between zener current (IZ) and zener voltage (VZ).
5. Regulation characteristics
6. the voltage regulation of any device is usually expressed as percentage
regulation
7. The percentage regulation is given by the formula
8. ((VNL-VFL)/ VFL)X100
9. VNL=Voltage across the diode, when no load is connected
10. FL=Voltage across the diode, when load is connected.
11. Connection are made as per the circuit diagram
12. The load is placed in full load condition and the zener voltage (Vz), Zener
current(IZ), load current (IL) are measured
13. The above step is repeated by decreasing the value of the load in steps.
14. All the readings are tabulated.
 - 53 -

15. The percentage regulation is calculated using the above formula.

Table:
S.N Applied voltage Zener Voltage Current through Zener
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10

Graph:
 - 54 -

Simulations

PASTE SNAP SHOT OF CIRCUIT

Theoretical analysis:

Observations
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Conclusion
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