LESSON 1: SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF
Some of
PHILOSOPHY
Birth of Philosophy
- 600 B.C.E
- Philosophy defined as Love of Wisdom
Philo - to love
Sophia - wisdom
- Wisdom is the goal of Philosophy
● Knowledge and Wisdom are two
different things.
Example: Knowing what to say is knowledge but
knowing when to say it or not is wisdom.
● Philosophy can be explained by:
- Science: it is a systematic/step by step
process to know the truth and
information.
- can be defined as a Natural light of
reason
- can be explained as “study of all
things”
● For Instance, the Greek Philosopher in
Miletus chose to see natural
explanations to events and phenomena
around him instead of seeking for
supernatural explanations from the
gods as what was passed down through
the generations.
● As these early philosophers labor to
search for explanations into how the
world works through understanding the
elements, mathematics, heavenly
bodies, and even atoms, another group
of philosophers shifted into search and
focused on “man”.
● From trying to understand nature and
also the universe, questions now center
on the inner world of man such as
“Who am I?”, “Why am I here?”, and
“What do I want out of life?”.
us think that things happen either by
destiny/fate or choice.
GREEK PHILOSOPHERS
- When philosophical thoughts shifted to the
nature of human beings or man, in the 5th
Century B.C.E, Athens enjoyed the status of
being a city state and a democracy.
- During these times, for you to become
powerful, one must do it with words, which
means, all that you say should have evidence.
- People skilled in doing this were called
sophists, the first teachers of the west.
- Their arguments were usually about practical
things and not metaphysical speculations.
(Arguments are more about examination and
critiquing of accepted standards of behavior
within the society of Athens.)
1. SOCRATES
-The birth of Socrates (470-399 BCE)
-A stonemason with a sharp mind.
Socrates wanted to discover the
essential nature of knowledge, justice,
beauty, and goodness. (This is where
Philosophy started getting known)
There are 5 branches of Philosophy:
A. Metaphysics - study of reality
B. Ethics - moral judgment
C. Aesthetic - study of beauty
D. Logic - critical thinking
E.Epistemology-validity & reliability of
knowledge
Socratic Method (dialectic method)
- Socrates used this to win arguments
over others and to prove that what he
was saying was true.
- This method involves the search for the
correct/proper definition of a thing. In this
method, Socrates did not lecture, he instead,
would ask questions and engage the person in
a discussion.
- The more questions are asked, the more you
know about answers.- In this method, the
questionnaire must be skilled at detecting
misconceptions and at revealing them by asking
the right questions.
- The goal is to bring the person closer to the
final understanding.
Socrates’ view of Human Nature
- “The unexamined life is not worth
living”
- Socrates believed that his mission in life
is to seek for the highest possible
knowledge and to convince others to
find their highest possible knowledge.
- His socratic method allowed him to
question people's beliefs and ideas,
exposing their misconceptions and get
them to touch their souls. For socrates,
“The touching of the soul, may mean
helping the person to get in touch with
his true self.”
- Socrates values the soul and identifies it
as one’s true self. For him virtue is the
inner goodness and the real beauty is
the soul, not the physical body.
2. PLATO
- his real name is “Aristocles” (428-348
BCE)
- He was nicknamed Plato because of his
physical build which means “wide” or
“broad”, especially his shoulders.
- He left Athens for 12 years after the
death of Socrates. When he returned,
he established his own school called
“The Academy”.
- Both Socrates and Plato believed that
philosophy is more than just an analysis
but rather a way of life.
- Plato’s Metaphysics/view of reality is
known as Theory of Form. In his theory
of forms, Plato explained that “forms”
refers to what is real. (or the reality)
- This was discussed in one of his
dialogues “The republic”.
- In his Theory of Forms, Plato explained
that forms refers to what are real, which
are not objects that are encountered by
the senses but those that we grasp
intellectually.
[What we think of is the forms or the
reality, while the object produced from
thinking about it is just a copy of
imitation of the forms-(intellectually)]
Plato ‘s Form have the ff characteristics:
➢ The forms are ageless therefore
eternal.
➢ The forms are unchanging
therefore permanent.
➢ The forms are unmoving and
indivisible.
/
- Plato’s aim is to explain “reality”
wherein all things around us are
copycats of what’s in our minds.
- In connection with these forms, Plato
also introduced the existence of the 2
realms known as
Plato’s Dualism:
➢ The Realm of the Shadows is
composed of changing ‘sensible
things’ which are less entities
 and therefore imperfect and
flawed.
➢ The Realm of Forms is
composed of eternal things
which are permanent and
perfect. It is the source of all
reality and true knowledge.
Plato’s view of Human Nature
- ‘The essence of knowledge is self-knowledge”
- Plato made use of Socrates’ dialectic method
and considered this as one of the most
important tools to discover knowledge.
- Plato also believed that Knowledge lies within
the person’s soul.
- In “The republic”, Palato described the souls as
having 3 components:
➢ The Reason - is rational and is
the motivation for goodness
and truth. (logical)
➢ The Spirited - is non-rational
and is the will or the drive
toward action. (emotions/heart
and is neutral)
➢ The Appetites - are irrational
and lean towards the desire for
pleasure of the body. (desire)
Plato’s Theory of Love and Reasoning
- Plato further illustrated his Philosophy of the
search for knowledge using the “Allegory of the
Cave”. In the Allegory of the Cave, what people
in the cave see are only the shadows of reality,
which they believe are real things and represent
knowledge.
- What they see at that time is the only thing
they believe in or the only knowledge they
have. According to Plato, these are not real but
shadows only of reality. To him, only the
“Forms” are real.
Plato’s Theory of Being
- “In knowing the truth, the person must become
the truth”
- The more the person knows, the more he is
and the better he is.
- also, each individual has in his immortal soul, a
perfect set of forms that he can recall which
constitute through knowledge.
“To recall or remember the forms is to
know the truth and then to become just and
wise.”
HOW TO FIND THE LIGHT/FORMS (REALITY)?
- In Plato's symposium, he postulated
that love is the way by which a person
can move from a state of imperfect
knowledge and ignorance to a state of
perfection and true knowledge.
- If you love something, then you know
more of it. (willing to know more of it
because of love)
- For Plato, love is the force that paves
the way for all beings to ascend to
higher stages of self-realization and
perfection. Plato’s love begins with a
feeling or experience that there is
something lacking-this then drives the
person to seek for that which is lacking.
Thoughts and efforts are then directed
towards the pursuit of that which is
lacking.
- “The deeper the thought, the stronger is
the love.
- For Plato, Love is the way of knowing
and realizing the truth.
- Love is a process of seeking higher
stages of being. The greater the love,
the more intellectual component it will
contain. Life longing and pursuit seek
even higher stages of love which lead to
the possession of absolute beauty. It is
 this pursuit that motivates man and
transforms people and societies. To love
the highest according to Plato, is to
become the best.
3. ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO
- Christianity’s influence dominated the
western thought after the fall of the
hellenistic roman eras. During this time,
Christian philosophers of the medieval
era are theologians-(their concerns was
with God and man’s relationship with
God)
- These Christian philosophers did not
believe that self-knowledge and
happiness were the ultimate goals of
man but man. but instead, should rely
on God's commands and his judgment
of what constitutes good and evil.
- He contradicts the philosophies of
Plato and Socrates when it comes to
love and becoming. Unlike in Socrates
and Plato's view, man can be wise while
knowing one’s self and through love.
Meanwhile, St. Augustine believes that
man should rely on God’s commands
and not on its environment.
- To find happiness and truth, know
God.
- Plato and other Greek philosophers
see man as basically good and become
evil through ignorance of what is good.
On the other hand, Christianity sees
man as sinners who reject God's
command.
- Chrisitan philosophers held faith
supreme over reason and logic.
- St. Augustine (354-436 CE) of Hippo,
Africa.
- He initially rejected Christianity for it
seemed to him then that Christianity
could not provide him answers to
questions that interested him.
- He wanted to know about moral evil
and why it existed in people, his
personal desire for sensual pleasures
and questions about all the suffering in
the world.
St. Augustine views of Human Nature
- After all his internal and worldly
personal battles, he became a priest
and a bishop of Hippo. His thoughts
focused on 2 realms.
➢ God as the source of all reality
and truth. For St. Augustine, he
discovered through mystical
experience, that man is capable
of knowing eternal truths. This
is made possible through the
existence of the one eternal
truth which is God.
According to him, we doubt
God as the source of all truth.
Man could never understand
the eternal truth. So God is
within man and transcends him.
This relationship with God
means that those who know
most about God will come
closest to understanding the
true nature of the world.
According to him, without God as the
source of all truth, man could never
understand the eternal truths.
➢ The sinfulness of man.
According to St. Augustine, the
cause of good and evil is an act
of man’s freewill. Evil therefore
does not live in God’s creatures
 but rather in man. Moral
goodness can only be achieved
through the grace of God.
The Role of Love
- St. Augustine is in agreement with the
Greeks that man searches for
happiness. However, he stated that real
happiness can only be found in God. For
God is love and he created humans
from them to also love. Problems arise
because of the object humans choose
to love.
- For St. Augustine explains:
Love of physical objects leads to the
sin of greed.
Love for other people is not lasting
and excessive love for them is the sin of
jealousy.
Love for the self leads to the sin of
pride.
Love for God is the supreme virtue
and only through loving God can man
find real happiness.
All things are worthy of love but they
must be loved properly.
- St. Augustine contends that if man loves
God first, and everything else to a lesser
degree, then all will fall into its rightful
place.
4. RENE DESCARTES
- (1596-1650) is known as the Father of
Modern Philosophy.
- He was considered as one of the
Rationalist Philosophers of Europe. This
group of philosophers considered the
truth as a universal concept and reason
is superior to and independent of
sensory experience. The rationalists are
so impressed by the scientific method
and mathematics that they aimed to
apply this to their philosophies. (he likes
to be more rational and scientific)
- He introduced what is known as the
Cartesian method and invented analytic
geometry. In this method, he asked
himself, “Is there anything I can know
with certainty?”
- In his research for answers, nothing
satisfied him for he saw that there were
always differences in facts, ideas, and
opinions. In search of his answers to
these questions, he had 3 dreams which
instructed him to construct a system of
knowledge using just the powers of
human reasons.
Descartes’ System
- Using his dreams as a guide, Descartes
came up with a system using principles
that were true and related to each
other in a clear and meaningful way. He
turned to mathematics, through math,
he discovered that the human mind has
two powers.
➢ Intuition or the ability to
apprehend direction of certain
truths. (like through
observations which we can get
fact or opinion either it is true
or not)
➢ Deduction or the power to
discover what is not known by
progressing in an orderly way
from what is already known.
Truths are arrived at using a
step-by-step process.
- With what he discovered, Descartes
believed that reasoning could produce
absolute truths about nature, existence,
morality, and even God. The truths that
can be discovered are priori or
posteriori.
 ➢ Posteriori- acquired knowledge
from experiences.
➢ Priori- knowledge is obtained by
analyzing concepts
independently, or even
experienced.
Descartes’ view of Human Nature
- “I think therefore I am”
- This is the first principle of his first
philosophy. He believes that to doubt is
to think. A thing that thinks, he deduced
that a thinker is a thing that doubts,
understands, affirms, denies, wills,
refuses, and also imagines and feels.
The cognitive aspect of human nature in
his basis for existence of the self.
- (If you doubt, you think. If you think
you can achieve it.)
The Mind-Body Problem
- Many Philosophers were against
Descartes because of this.
- Descartes considered the soul/mind
(also the self) as a substance that is
separate from the body. Based on this,
Descartes believed that all bodily
processes are mechanical. The body
according to him was like a machine
that is controlled by the will and aided
by the man.
5. JOHN LOCKE
- born in Wrington, England
(1632-1704). Son of a puritan lawyer.
- He was interested in politics and like
his father, he was a defender of the
parliamentary system.
- At the age of 57, he published a book
on the scope and limits of the human
mind which played a significant role in
the new era of thought known as
enlightenment.
- Locke believed that knowledge results
from ideas produced posteriori or by
objects that were experienced. The
process involved two forms:
➢ Sensation wherein objects were
experienced through the senses
and;
➢ Reflection by which the mind
‘looks’ at the objects that we
are experiencing to discover
relationships that may exist
between them.
- John Locke is very content that ideas are
not innate but rather the mind at birth
is a tabula rasa -(just like a blank state)
- He further stated that nothing exists in
the mind that was not first in the senses
(which means that through the senses
we learn, we acquire knowledge and
we’d have reflection) So what the
senses have experienced are simple
ideas which are the raw material from
which knowledge begins.
- Ideas can also be the result of reflection
which demonstrates the power of
thinking and volition or what we call as
will. Through these mental powers,
simple ideas are repeated and
compared to become complex ideas.
- Since there are no innate ideas, for John
Locke, morals, religious and political
values must come from sense
experiences. Mental acts for instance,
are acts that produce the greatest
possible good but contended that
knowing the good does not necessarily
mean that people will always do what is
good. Morality has to do with choosing
or being willing to do good.
- Moral good depends on the conformity
or nonconformity of a person’s behavior
towards some law. These are some law
according to John Locke:
➢ Law of Opinion - where actions
that are praiseworthy are
called virtues and those that
are not are called vice. (own
perspectives of each humans)
➢ Civil Law - where right actions
are enforced by people in
authority. (state law)
➢ Divine Law - set by God on the
actions of man. (Eternal truth)
6. DAVID HUME
- born in Edinburgh, Scotland
(1711-1776)
- At the time he was enrolled in
the University of Edinburgh, he
lost his faith because of John
Locke’s ‘tabula rasa’.
- He became cynical about
almost everything except
philosophy and general
learning. After reading the
Philosophy of Locke, he never
again entertained any belief in
religion.
- David Hume was credited for
giving empiricism its clearest
formulation.
- At the beginning of his
philosophy, he relied on
scientific methods. He believed
that it could analyze human
nature and explain the workings
of the mind-through scientific
method.
- As he examined the process of
how ideas are formed, he
discovered the limitations of
mind. From optimism, he
turned into skepticism.
The Human Mind for David Hume
- In Hume’s analysis, the mind receives
the materials from the senses and he
calls it perceptions. According to him
there are 2 perceptions:
➢ Impressions are an immediate
sensation of external reality.
-More vivid than the ideas it
produces. After this
(impressions) ideas are
produced;
➢ Ideas are recollection of these
impressions.
- For David Hume, these two make up the
content of the human mind. It begins
with impressions, without this, there
will be no formation of ideas. The
imagination has the ability to connect
two ideas to form a complex idea.
According to Hume, words are
meaningful if and only if they can be
traced to impressions and ideas or ideas
that copy the impressions.
Hume’s view of Human Nature
- The part of human nature is what other
philosophers called the soul: Hume
termed it “the self”.
- He concluded that man does not really
have an idea of so-called self because
ideas rely on a sense of impressions of a
self.
- He believed that the self is also a
product of the imagination. He also
stated that there is no such thing as
personal identity behind perceptions
and feelings that come and go. For him,
 there is no permanent and unchanging
self.
- His main perspective here is that if we
are going to find the impression in
ourselves, we should come up with
different impressions to come up with
or lead to an idea.
Kant’s view of the Human Nature and the Self
7. IMMANUEL KANT
- Born in 1724-1804.
- He lived all this life in the town
of Konigsberg in the East Prussia
(presently Western Russia)
- Even though he stayed away
from church, he was deeply
spiritual. His studies on asian
philosophies had a strong
influence on him but it was the
french philosopher Rousseau
that made him realize and
enabled him to form his
philosophical ideas. Though
initially content with teaching,
he stated that it was the
philosophy of David Hume that
awakened and motivated him
to be the founder of German
idealism.
- Immanuel Kant came up with
the most remarkable
Philosophical system of the
modern times.
He wrote 3 books:
(1) Critique of Pure Reason,
(2) Critique of Practical Reason,
(3) Critique of Judgement.
Kant’s view of the Mind
- Contrary to what the empiricists
believe, he argues that the mind is not
the passive receiver of the senses but
rather, actively participates in knowing
the object it experiences.
- According to Kant instead of the mind
conforming to the world, it is the
external world that conforms to the
mind.
- Kant stated that the kingdom of God is
within the man. God is manifested in
people’s lives therefore it is man’s duty
to move towards perfection.
- Kant emphasized that people should
always see duty as a divine command.
8. SIGMUND FREUD
- Born in 1856-1939. An Austrian
Neurologist, not a philosopher,
however, contributed to the
world of Psychology.
- One of the pioneering figures
in the field of psychology.
- In his psychodynamic theory,
the theory tells about the
workings of the mind or one’s
mental life impact strongly on
the body resulting in either
emotional stability or
psychological dysfunction.
- He was known by the term
“unconscious mind”. (related
with libido-a psychic energy
that if fixated, can create
conflict or traumatic
experiences that could affect
one’s way of thinking in the
future)
- For him, pleasure greatly
affects a person’s personality.
Topography of the Mind
- ID, EGO, SUPEREGO.
➢ Id. The structure that is
primarily based on the pleasure
principle.
➢ Ego. The structure that is based
on the reality principle.
➢ Superego. The last structure to
develop is primarily dependent
on learning the difference
between right and wrong.
EXAMPLE:
➢ Id: I want to do that now!
➢ Ego: Maybe we can compromise.
➢ Superego: It’s not right to do that.
knowledge, there are 2 types
of knowledge:
➢ Knowing-that
➢ Knowing-how
Gilbert Ryle’s view of Human Nature and
Knowledge
- Freewill was invented to answer the
question of whether an action deserves
praise or blame.
- On the other hand, we must be
responsible and know that there would
be consequences if we commit
something bad.

Sigmund Freud’s view of Human Nature

- In his psychoanalysis theory, he believes
that every person is part of the past.
What happens to you now is the
product of the past.

9. GILBERT RYLE
- Born in 1900-1976. He was an
English philosopher whose
ideas contradicted cartesian
dualism.

Ryle’s view of Human Nature & Knowledge

- Both Kant and Ryle have
something in common wherein
Ryle supported Kant’s
perspective about freewill. That
freewill was invented to answer
the question of whether an
action deserves praise or
blame.
- Aside from that, for Ryle, to
receive or to find final
understanding and/or true
LESSON 4: SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF
PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology
● It is the field of the social sciences that
deals with the description (what is
happening/observation), explanation
(why is it happening/using
theories/facts to know why) , prediction
(will it happen again?) and control (how
can it be changed) of behavior.
● Evolving into a science only in the late
19th century from the discipline of
philosophy.
● The mind-body problem of philosophy
is one issue in the field of knowledge.
● It is the scientific study of behavior
(outward or overt
actions and reaction) and mental
processes (internal, covert activity of
our minds)
Nature-Nurture Controversy
● Both nature and nurture influence
behavior, each one to a greater or
lesser degree.
Nature ; through genetics /from parents/family
Nurture ; environment, through friends, etc
DIFFERENT CONCEPTS OF SELF ACCORDING TO
PSYCHOLOGISTS:
1. William James
➢ 1842-1910
➢ Was an American Philosopher and
Psychologist at Harvard University and
was known for being one of the great
pragmatists.
➢ He is also known for his Theory of the
Self.
➢ Published the book “Principles of
Psychology in 1980”.
The “Me” and The “I”
Characteristics of thoughts:
1. All human thoughts are owned by some
personal self.
2. All thoughts are constantly changing or
are never static.
3. There is a continuity of thoughts as its
focus shifts from one object to another.
4. Thoughts deal with objects that are
different from and independent of
consciousness itself.
5. Consciousness can focus on particular
objects and not others.
“Thoughts are associated with the existence of
the Self”
A. James William called: Me self as the
empirical ME and I self as the Pure Ego.
B. Me Self or “Empirical” (James William)
● Can be considered as a separate object
or individual that the person refers to
when discussing or describing their
personal experiences.
e.g : The gifts were sent to ME.
The person is smiling at ME.
Components of “Me self”
I. Material Self- Consists of the things or
objects that belong to the person or
entities that a person belongs to.
e.g. Person’s body, culture & tradition
of family, books, money, clothes
II. Social Life- Refers to who the person is
in a particular social situation.
e.g How he is with his family or
 with his friends.
III. Spiritual Self- Refers to the self that is
more concrete or permanent when
compared to the material and social
selves. The most subjective and
intimate part of the self. It includes an
individual's personality, values and
morals that are usually stable and
constant. The spiritual self is always
engaging in the process of introspection
(self-observation). The method that
includes reflecting or looking inward to
study and understand the how and why
of the self. According to James, spiritual
self is more important than satisfying
material and social self.
C. I Self or the “Pure Ego” (William James)
● Is the self that knows and recognizes
who they are and what they have
done.
● The pure ego is similar to the person’s
soul or mind.
● The pure ego comprises the totality of
the person’s identity.
● It takes into account the past, present
and future selves of the individual.
● This perception of identity arises from a
continuous stream of human
consciousness.
Global and Differentiated Self Models
● Global self represents the overall value
that a person places upon himself.
● These people are who he turns to when
he needs advice, someone to talk to or
just to be with.
● His global self is the product of all
experiences that he has in the society
which accounts for the kind of person
he presently is.
2. Murray Bowen
➢ 1913-1990
➢ Was an American Psychiatrist and
Professor of Psychiatry.
➢ He was among those who developed
Family therapy and systemic Therapy.
➢ In his observation of the family
(particularly his own) he came up with
the concept of a differentiated self.
Two forces affecting the person by Murray
Bowen:
(1) Togetherness and (2) individuality
A balance should be maintained between these
two forces for:
too much togetherness creates friction and
conflict and prevents the development of the
person’s sense of self;
too individuality on the other hand results in
distant and strange feelings towards family and
other people.
3. Carl Rogers
➢ 1902-1987
➢ Was an American psychologist who
proposed the personality theory
known to be Person-Centered Theory.
➢ He stated that the term self-concept is
used to refer to how a person thinks
about or perceives himself.
➢ These are the two types of self-concept:
-the real self concept
-the ideal self-concept
 a. The Real Self
➔ Real self concept refers to all
information and perception the person
has about himself.
➔ This is who he actually is and answers
the question, “Who am I”.
b. The Ideal Self
➔ Ideal self concept is the model version
the person has of himself .
➔ The idealized view was borne out of his
experiences, standards and demands of
society and the heroes and models
which he chooses to imitate.
➔ It answers the question of who he
wants to become or “Who do I want to
be”.
● Rogers stated that there should be
congruence (sameness, equality)
between the real self and the ideal self
in order for the person to be happy and
satisfied with his life. In relation to this
is the:
SELF-DISCREPANCY THEORY OF HIGGINS (1987)
❖ Stated that people use internalized
standards to which they compare
themselves. These are called self-guides
which provide directions for how the
person should present himself.
❖ When the self is found to be
deviating/diverting from these guides,
the result is self-discrepancy.
❖ Self-discrepancy may cause emotional
discomfort to the individual and can be
manifested as guilt or worse as
indifference.
4. D.W. Winnicott
➢ (1896-1971)
➢ Was an English pediatrician and
psychoanalyst who studies child
development.
➢ He looked into the significance of play in
child development.
➢ It is also through play where he
observed children/people as having
true and false selves.
a. TRUE SELF
➔ Is one in which the self is seen as
creative,spontaneously experiencing
each day of their lives, appreciating
being alive, real, integrated and
connected to the whole of existence.
➔ It is further characterized by a high level
of awareness in the person of who he is.
b. FALSE SELF
➔ May be manifested as a form of
defense. It lacks spontaneity, is dead
and empty.
➔ It is the mask that hides the true person
for fear of the pain of rejection and
failure.
5. Albert Bandura
➢ (1925-present)
➢ Is the proponent of the personality
theory known as the Social Cognitive
Theory.
➢ In his theory, the person is seen as
proactive and agentic which means that
he has the capacity to exercise control
over his life.
➢ In his Triadic Reciprocal Causation
Paradigm, he explains further how
human beings are affected by the
 interaction among environmental regulates his behavior as he observes
events, behavior and personal factors. his progress in achieving his goals.

IV. Self-reflectiveness : Refers to the

person looking inward and evaluating
his motivations, values, life goals and
other people’s effect on him.

IN ADDITION:
V. Self Regulation - Allows the person to
set goals that are better and higher than
the former, challenging his capabilities
and making him a wiser and
self-actualized individual.
THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
● Suggested that human beings are
proactive, self-regulating, self-reflective
and self-organizing.
● People have the ability to influence
their own behavior which may lead to
desired outcomes.

● In his Theory, he discusses the

4 features of Human Agency:

I. Intentionality : Refers to the actions

performed by the person's
intentionality or with full awareness of
his behavior. This feature involves
planning with awareness of the possible
consequences of actions.

II. Forethought : Refers to the person's

anticipation of likely outcomes of his
behavior. This allows him to select from
a repertoire of behaviors and determine
which one will most likely lead to a
positive outcome.

III. Self-reactiveness : Refers to the process

in which the person is motivated and
LESSON 3: SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF
ANTHROPOLOGY
QUESTIONS TO PONDER:
● Why is it important to know the
similarities that exist among the
individuals?
● After the scientists learn what made
people similar, why is it also important
to know what sets them apart?
ANTHROPOLOGY
● is the field of the social sciences that
focuses on the study of man.
● This does not pertain only to one aspect
of man but rather on the totality of
what it means to be human.
- Ability to think
- Use tools
- Learn from experiences
● They have adapted and gained
dominance over all earth’s creatures
● The most important aspect of human
nature, which is survival.
BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
● Biological aspect of man
● The biological anthropologists focus
primarily on how human body adapts to
the different earth environments
● They look at the probable causes of
disease, physical mutation and death.

The field looks into man’s:

1. Physical/biological characteristics
2. His social relationships
3. influence of his culture from the dawn
of civilization up to the present

ARCHAEOLOGY
➢ Archaeologist is a scientist who studies
artifacts in order to discover how these
● To know how human beings might have
people lived their lives.
evolved from their early forms (based
➢ Artifacts are tools and objects past
on the discovered fossilized remains)
people have made.
● They are interested in explaining how
➢ They focus on the past and how it may
the biological characteristics of human
have contributed to the present ways of
beings affect how they live their lives.
how people conduct their daily lives.
● Humans at present still share biological
➢ They discovered the unique ways in
strengths and vulnerabilities.
which human beings adapted to
- Eating the right balance diet
changes in their environment in order
- Intake of minerals which are beneficial
for them to survive.
to human beings
- Pandemic (disease affecting people in a
large area) and a cure effective
Homo sapiens did not become extinct because
of:
LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY
● Human survival is primarily linked to
their ability to communicate.
● Language identifies a group of people
Words, sounds, symbols, writings and
signs that are used are reflections of a
group’s culture.
● Language, as a means to discover a
group’s manner of social interaction and
his worldview.
● These scientists want to discover how
language is used to create and share
meanings, to form ideas and concepts
and to promote social change.
● In contemporary society, other forms of
language have evolved which represent
the subculture of a particular group.
● Societies change and technologies
develop so do the symbols and meaning
people attach to objects and events as
expressed through the language that
they use.
CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
● Culture is described as a group of
people's way of life.
● It includes their behaviors, beliefs,
values and symbols that they accept.
● Cultural anthropologists are interested
in knowing what makes one group’s
manner of living particular to that group
and forms an essential part of the
members’ personal and social identity.
● Theory of Cultural Determinism- the
contention that culture has a strong
impact on how the individual views
himself.
● Human nature is determined by the
ideas, meanings, beliefs and values
learned as members of a society.
● Cultural diversities are manifested in
different ways and at different levels of
depth.
Symbols
● Symbols are considered the most
superficial level of culture and values
belong to the deepest level or are
considered the core of culture.
● SYMBOLS- are words , gestures,
pictures or objects that have a
recognized meaning in a particular
culture
● Can be shaped or copied by other
cultures who find them also fitting for
their own culture.
Example: Ring signify commitment
Trophy signifies honor
Heroes
● are persons from the past or present
who have characteristics that are
important in a culture. They may be real
or fictitious and are models for
behavior.
Example: Real Jose Rizal
Fictitious Spiderman
Rituals
● are activities (may be religious or social)
participated in a group of people for the
fulfillment of desired objectives and are
considered to be socially essential.
Example: Religious ceremonies like
baptisms, Social ceremonies like birthdays and
graduations, Baptism Birthdays
Values
● considered being the core of every
culture. It involves human
tendencies/preferences towards good
or bad, right or wrong.
Examples: Respect for elders, hospitality
and nationalism

❖ In summary, the field of anthropology

is yet another way by which a person
can view himself.
❖ Anthropology makes the person aware
that what he is may be determined by
his past and present condition, his
biological characteristics, the way he
communicates, the language that he
uses and the manner in which he
chooses to live his life.
LESSON 2: SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF
SOCIOLOGY
SOCIOLOGY
● Is one of the disciplines of sciences
which aim to discover the ways by
which the social
surrounding/environment influences
people’s feelings, thoughts, and
behavior.
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD (1863 – 1931)
➢ Born February 1863 in Massachusetts,
USA.
➢ Graduated and taught grade school at
Oberlin College.
➢ 1887- He enrolled in Harvard University.
(interests were Psychology and
Philosophy)
Social Behaviorism
● Is the approach George Herbert Mead
used to describe the power of the
environment in human behavior.
Self
● A ‘dimension of personality that is
made-up of the individual’s
self-awareness and self-image’
Mead’s Stages of Self Transformation
1. The Preparatory Stage. (1-3 years old)
Mead believed that a self did not exist
at birth. Instead, the self develops over
time. Its development is dependent on
social interaction and social experience.
At this stage, children’s behavior is
primarily based on imitation. It was
observed that children imitate the
behaviors of those around them. As
children grow, they become familiar
with the symbols (verbal & non-verbal)
that people use in their interactions.
The symbols are the bases of
communication. At this stage, knowing
and understanding the symbols are
important for this will constitute their
way of communicating with others
throughout their lives.
2. The Play Stage. (4-7 years old)
(Developing) (Role-taking)
At this stage, skills at knowing and
understanding the symbols of
communication is important for this
constitutes the basis for socialization.
Through communication, social
relationships are formed. Now children
begin to role play and pretend to be
other people. Role taking in the play
stage according to Mead is the process
of mentally assuming the perspective of
another person to see how this person
might behave or respond in a given
situation (Schaefer, 2012)
The play stage is significant in the
development of the self. It is at this
stage where the child widens his
perspective and realizes that he is not
alone and that there are others around
him whose presence he has to consider.
3. The Game Stage. (8-9 years old)
(Present) (Generalized other)
Mead gave a specific age for this stage.
Here, the child is about 8 or 9 years of
age and now does more than just
role-taking. In one instance/situation,
the child begins to consider several
tasks and various types of relationships
simultaneously. Through learnings that
 were gained in stage two, the child now
begins to see not only his own
perspective but at the same time the
perspective of others around him. In
this final stage or self-development, the
child now has the ability to respond not
just to one but several members of the
social environment.
The term ‘generalized other’ was
what Mead used to explain the behavior
of the person when he sees/considers
other people in the course of the
actions.
MEAD’S THEORY OF THE SELF:
THE “I” & “ME” SELF
“I” SELF
➢ When the person initiates or performs a
social action, the self functions as a
subject. This subjective element of the
self is the “I”.
Example: I will go on a date.
I will cook dinner tonight.
“ME” SELF
➢ When the person takes the role of the
other, the self functions as an object.
The objective element of the self is the
“Me”.
Example: The choice for the best drawing was
awarded to me.
Students around school voted for me.
● Socialization continues for as long as the
person is alive. The self may change
based on a loved one, disease or
disability may reshape the self. Though
a person may have control over such
events, he has control over how he
reacts and deals with it is still an
important aspect of the self. (Macionis,
2012)
OTHER SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
CHARLES HORTON COOLEY (1846-1929)
➢ He was an American Sociologist who
made use of the Sociopsychological
approach to understand how society
works.
➢ He earned his doctorate at the
University of Michigan and taught at the
same university as a sociology professor
until the end of his life.
➢ In his written work, Human Nature and
the Social Order (1902), he discussed
the formation of self through
interaction.
● Cooley stated that people learn
who they are through their
social interaction with other
people. Although seeing oneself
is based on contemplating one’s
personal qualities, the view of
the self is also significantly
influenced by the impression
and perception of others.
● Cooley called this the
looking-glass self or the self
that is a product of social
interaction.
THREE PHASES OF A DEVELOPING SELF: he labeled it a dramaturgical approach.

I. People imagine how they present
themselves to others.
Example: You greet your teachers
politely in the school hallway.
II. People imagine how others evaluate
them
Example: Others will see you as
pretty and attractive by the way you fix
yourself.
III. People develop some sort of feeling
about themselves as a result of those
impressions.
Example: You may see yourself as
confident or inferior.
“I am not what you think I am.”
“I am not what YOU think I am.”
“I am what I think YOU think I am.”
- Charles Horton Cooley
● The phrase face-work describes another
aspect of self. This was actually
observed in situations where
face-saving measures are resorted to in
the maintenance of a proper image of
the self in frustrating or embarrassing
situations. (Schaefer, 2012)
❖ In summary, the discussions and
observations of the sociologists in this
discussion represented a progression on
how the self has developed through the
process of socialization to how the
person manages self-presentation in
order for him to be accepted by others.

ERVING GOFFMAN (1922-1982)

➢ He was a Canadian- American
sociologist known for his role in the
development of Modern American
Sociology.
➢ One of his popular works was
Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life.

● People, early in their social interaction

learned to slant their presentation of
themselves in order to create preferred
appearances and satisfy particular
people. - Erving Goffman

● He referred to this process of altering

how the person presents himself to
others as impression management.
● Goffman sees similarities of real social
interaction to a theatrical presentation;