과제6 해답

Section 4.
Exercise Set 4.6
1. (a) (1,2)(2,-1) = 0, so the vectors are orthogonal.
(b) (3,-1)(0,5) = -5, so the vectors are not orthogonal.
(c) (0,-2)(3,0) = 0, so the vectors are orthogonal.
(d) (4,1)(2,-3) = 5, so the vectors are not orthogonal.
(e) (-3,2)(2,3) = 0, so the vectors are orthogonal.
2. (a) (1,2,1)(4,-2,0) = 0, (1,2,1)(2,4,-10) = 0, and (4,-2,0)(2,4,-10) = 0, so the set of

vectors is orthogonal.
(b) (3,-1,1)(2,0,1) = 7, so the set of vectors is not orthogonal.
(c) (-2,-1,3)(6,-1,-1) = -14, so the set of vectors is not orthogonal.
(d) (1,2,-1,1)(3,1,4,-1) = 0, (1,2,-1,1)(0,1,-1,-3) = 0, and (3,1,4,-1)(0,1,-1,-3) = 0,

so the set of vectors is orthogonal.
3. (a) ( 1, 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2
, )( , - , )= 0, ( , , )( , , - )= 0, and
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
( 2, - 2 1 2 1 2
, )( , , - )= 0, so the set of vectors is orthogonal.
3 3 3 3 3 3
           
It is easiest here to use the form ||u||2 = uu (sec 1.6) to check magnitude. Then
     
( 1 , 2 , 2 )( 1 , 2 , 2 )=1, ( 2 , - 2 , 1 )( 2 , - 2 , 1 )=1, and ( 2 , 1 , - 2 )( 2 , 1 , - 2 )=1,
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
so all the vectors are unit vectors. Thus the vectors are an orthonormal set.
                 
(b) ( 1
,
3
)( 3 , 1
)= 0 , so the vectors are orthogonal.
10 10 10 10

( 1
,
3
)( 1 , 3
)= 1 and ( 3 , 1
)( 3 , 1
) = 1,
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
   

so the vectors are unit vectors. Thus the vectors are an orthonormal set.
       
224
Section 4.6
(c) ( 1
,0,
1
)( 1 ,0, 1 )= 0, ( 1 ,0, 1
)(0,1,0) = 0, and
2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1
( ,0, )(0,1,0) = 0, so the set of vectors is orthogonal.
 2  2 
  
( 1
,0,
1
)( 1 ,0, 1
)= 1, ( 1 ,0, 1 )( 1 ,0, 1 )= 1, and
 
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(0,1,0)(0,1,0) = 1, so the vectors are unit vectors. Thus the vectors are an
       
orthonormal set.
1 2
(d) ( 1
, , ) (0, 2 , 1 ) = 0, ( 1 , 1 , 2 ) ( 5 , 1
,
2
)= 0, and
6 6 6 5 5 6 6 6 30 30 30

 0, 2 , 1 ) ( 5 , 1 , 2 )= 0, so the set of vectors is orthogonal.
 5 5 30 30 30
           
( 1 , 1 , 2 ) ( 1 , 1 , 2 )= 1, (0, 2 , 1 ) (0, 2 , 1 )= 1, and

6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5
     
( 5 , 1 , 2 )  ( 5 , 1 , 2 )= 1, so the vectors are unit vectors. Thus

30 30 30 30 30 30
          
the set of vectors is an orthonormal set.
     
2 2
(e) ( 1
, ,
5
) ( 1
, ,
5
) = 30 ≠ 1, so ( 1 , 2 , 5
) is not a
32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
unit vector. Therefore the set is not orthonormal.

         
4. v = (vu1 )u1 + (vu2 )u2 + (vu3 )u3 .

4 2
vu1 = (2,-3,1) (0,-1,0) = 3, vu2 = (2,-3,1)  ,0,
3
)= 5 , and
5 5
2 11
vu3 = (2,-3,1)  , 0, )=
4 3 11
, so v = 3u1 + 5 u2 + 5 u3 .
5 5 5
 
   225
Section 4.6
5. v = (vu1 )u1 + (vu2 )u2 + (vu3 )u3 .

1 1 4
vu1 = (7,5,-1) (1,0,0) = 7, vu2 = (7,5,-1) (0, , )= 2 = 2 2 , and
2 2
1 1 6
vu3 = (7,5,-1) (0, , )= 2 = 3 2 , so v = 7u1 + 2 2 u2 + 3 2 u3 .
2 2
 
6. We show that the column vectors are unit vectors and that they are mutually orthogonal.
 
1 0
(a) a1 =   and a2 =   . ||a1 || = ||a2 || = 1 and a1 a2 = 0.
0 1
0  -1 
(b) a1 =   and a2 =   . ||a1 || = ||a2 || = 1 and a1 a2 = 0.
1  0
 23   2
1
(c) a1 =
  and a2 =
  .
3 1 1 3
||a1 ||2 = 4 + 4 = 1 and ||a2 ||2 = 4 + 4 = 1,
 -1   3
 2  2 
3 1 1 3
so ||a1 || = ||a2 || = 1, and a1 a2 = 2 x 2 - 2 x 2 = 0.
1 0  0
(d) a1 = 0,a =  0  , and a =  -1  .
  2   3  
0 1  0
||a1 || = ||a2 || = ||a3 || =1 and a1 a2 = a1 a3 = a2 a3 = 0.
2 /3  2 /3  1/ 3

      4 4 1
(e) a1= 2 /3, a2 = 2
1/3 , and a3 = 2 / 3. ||a1|| = 9 + 9 + 9 = 1,

1/3 
 
2 /3
 
2 / 3

4 1 4 1 4 4
||a2||2 = + + = 1, and ||a3||2 = + + = 1, so ||a1|| = ||a2|| = ||a3|| =1,
9 9 9 9  9 9 
  
4 2
and a1a2= - -2 2 4 2 2 2
= 0, a1a3= - + = 0, a2a3= + - 4
= 0.
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
     
        
226
Section 4.6
 -1 1 
The row vectors are r1 = 
1 1
7. (a)  and r2 =  .
 2 2  2 2
1 1 1 -1 1
||r1 ||2 = ||r2 ||2 = 2 + 2 = 1, so ||r1 || = ||r2 || = 1, and r1 r2 = x + x
2 2 2
1
= 0. Thus the rows are orthonormal vectors. Similarly for columns.
2
1 -1
 12 1
 
AA t
=
 2  2 2  1 0
=   , so A-1 = At .
 -1 1  1 1  0 1
 2 2  2 2 
The rows of A, which have been shown to be orthonormal, are the columns of
1 1 1 -1
A-1 = At , so A-1 is orthogonal. |A| = x - x = 1.
2 2 2 2
 3 1 1 - 3 3 1
(b) The row vectors are r1 =  2 2 and r2 = 2 2  . ||r1 ||2 = 4 + 4 = 1 and
   
1 3 3 1 1 3
||r2 ||2 = 4 + 4 = 1, so ||r1 || = ||r2 || = 1, and r1 r2 = 2 x 2 - 2 x 2 = 0.
Thus the rows are orthonormal vectors. Similarly for columns.
 3 1  3 1 
AA t
=
 2 2  2 2  1 0
=   , so A-1 = At .
 1 - 3 1 - 3 0 1
 2 2  2 2 
The rows of A, which have been shown to be orthonormal, are the columns of
3 - 3 1 1
A-1 = At , so A-1 is orthogonal. |A| = 2 x 2 - 2 x 2 = -1.
8. In matrices of (a), (b), (c) column vectors are orthonormal. Thus each matrix
is orthogonal. Inverse is the transpose. Inverses are:
 2 1  1/3 2 /3 2 /3 
0 1     
(a)   (b)  5 5
 (c) 2 /3 2 /3 1/3
1 0  
1 1
 
2 /3 1/3 2 /3 

 5 5 
9. Let C = AB. Then C-1 = (AB) -1 = B-1 A-1 = BtAt = (AB)t = Ct. Thus C is orthogonal.

227
Section 4.6
10. AAt = (I - 2uut)(I - 2uut )t = (I - 2uut )(I - 2(ut )t ut ) = (I - 2uut )(I - 2uut )
= I - 4uut + 4uut uut = I - 4uut + 4u(ut u)ut = I - 4uut + 4uIut = I.
Thus AAt = I . Multiply both sides by A-1. A-1AAt = A-1I, At = A-1. Thus A is orthogonal.
-1
11. To show that A-1 is unitary it is necessary to show that (A-1 )-1 = ( A )t .
-1
Since A is unitary A-1 = . Thus (A-1 )t = ( )t = A , so that ( A )t = A = (A-1 )-1 .
12. The (i,j)th element of is ai1 a j1  ai2 a j 2  ... ain a jn . If = I,
then ai1 a j1  ai2 a j 2  ... ain a jn = 1 if i = j and zero if i ≠ j, so that the columns of A are a
set of mutually orthogonal
 unit vectors in Cn . Conversely, if the columns of A are a set of
mutually orthogonal unit vectors in Cn , then ai1 a j1  ai2 a j 2  ... ain a jn = 1 if i = j and 0 if
 i ≠ j, so that = I.
vu
13. proju v = uu u.

(7,4)(1,2)
(a) proju v = (1,2)(1,2) (1,2) = 3(1,2) = (3,6).
(-1,5)(3,-2)
(b) proju v = (3,-2)(3,-2) (3,-2) = -(3,-2) = (-3,2).
(4,6,4)(1,2,3)
(c) proju v = (1,2,3)(1,2,3) (1,2,3) = 2(1,2,3) = (2,4,6).
(6,-8,7)(-1,3,0)
(d) proju v = (-1,3,0)(-1,3,0) (-1,3,0) = -3(-1,3,0) = (3,-9,0).
(1,2,3,0)(1,-1,2,3) 1 1 2
, , 1  .
1
(e) proju v = (1,-1,2,3)(1,-1,2,3) (1,-1,2,3) = 3 (1,-1,2,3) = ( ,
3 3 3
(1,2)(2,5) 12 24 60
14. (a) proju v = (2,5)(2,5) (2,5) = 29 (2,5) = ( , ).  
29 29
(-1,3)(2,4) 1
(b) proju v = (2,4)(2,4) (2,4) = 2 (2,4) = (1,2).
 
(1,2,3)(1,2,0)
(c) proju v = (1,2,0)(1,2,0) (1,2,0) = (1,2,0).
228
Section 4.6
(2,1,4)(-1,-3,2) 3 3 9 6
(d) proju v = (-1,-3,2)(-1,-3,2) (-1,-3,2) = 14 (-1,-3,2) = ( , , ).
14 14 14
(2,-1,3,1)(-1,2,1,3) 2 2 4 2 2
(e) proju v = (-1,2,1,3)(-1,2,1,3) (-1,2,1,3) = 15(-1,2,1,3) = ( , , , ).
   15 15 15 5
(-1,3)(1,2)
15. (a) u1 = (1,2), u2 = (-1,3) - (1,2)(1,2) (1,2) = (-1,3) - (1,2) = (-2,1), is an orthogonal
   
basis for R3 .
 1 2 2 1 
||u1 || = 5 and ||u2 || = 5 , so the set ( , ),( , )is an orthonormal basis
 5 5 5 5 
for R2 .
(6,2)(1,1) 8
(b) u1 = (1,1), u2 = (6,2) - (1,1)(1,1) (1,1) = (6,2) - 2 (1,1) = (2,-2), is an orthogonal

basis for R3 .
 1 1 1 1 
||u1 || = 2 and ||u2 || = 8 = 2 2 , so the set ( , ),( , )is an
 2 2 2 2 
orthonormal basis for R2 .

(4,-2)(1,-1)
(c) u1 = (1,-1), u2 = (4,-2) - (1,-1)(1,-1) (1,-1) = (1,1), is an orthogonal basis
 1 1 1 1 
for R3 . ||u1 || = 2 and ||u2 || = 2 , so the set ( , ),( , ) is an
 2 2 2 2 
orthonormal basis for R2 .
(2,0,1)(1,1,1)
16. (a)  (1,1,1) = (1,-1,0),
u1 = (1,1,1), u2 = (2,0,1) - (1,1,1)(1,1,1)
(2,4,5)(1,1,1) (2,4,5)(1,-1,0)
u3 = (2,4,5) - (1,1,1)(1,1,1) (1,1,1) - (1,-1,0)(1,-1,0) (1,-1,0)
( 2 , 2 , 4 ), is an orthogonal basis
11
= (2,4,5) - 3 (1,1,1) - (-1)(1,-1,0) =
3 3 3
24 2 6
for R3 . ||u1 || = 3 , ||u2 || = 2 , and ||u3 || = 3 = 3 , so the set
  
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
{( , , ),( , ,0)( , , ) } is an orthonormal basis for R3 .
3 3 3 2 2 6 6 6

229
Section 4.6
(1,5,-1)(3,2,0)
(b) u1 = (3,2,0), u2 = (1,5,-1) - (3,2,0)(3,2,0) (3,2,0) = (-2,3,-1),
(5,-1,2)(3,2,0) (5,-1,2)(-2,3,-1)
u3 = (5,-1,2) - (3,2,0)(3,2,0) (3,2,0) - (-2,3,-1)(-2,3,-1) (-2,3,-1)
15
= (5,-1,2) - (3,2,0) - (2,3,1) = ( 2 ,
3 13
, ), is an orthogonal basis
14 14 14 14
182
for R3 . ||u1 || = 13 , ||u2 || = 14 , and ||u3 || = 14 , so the set
   
3 2 2 3 1 2 3 13
{( , ,0),( , , ),( , , )}
13 13 14 14 14 182 182 182
is an orthonormal basis for R3 .

(-1,0,1)(1,0,2) 1
17. (a) u1 = (1,0,2), u2 = (-1,0,1) - (1,0,2)(1,0,2) (1,0,2) = (-1,0,1) - 5 (1,0,2)
6 3  3
= ( 5 , 0, 5  , is an orthogonal basis for the subspace of R . ||u1 || = 5 and
3  1 2 2 1 
||u2 || = 5 5 , so the set ( , 0, ),( , 0, )is an orthonormal basis
  5 5 5 5 
for the subspace.

(1,2,-1)(1,-1,1) -2
(b) u1 = (1,-1,1), u2 = (1,2,-1) - (1,-1,1)(1,-1,1) (1,-1,1) = (1,2,-1) - 3 (1,-1,1)
5 4 1
= ( , , ) , is an orthogonal basis for the subspace of R3 . ||u1 || = 3 and
3 3 3
1  1 1 1 5 4 1 
||u2 || = 3 42 , so the set ( , , ),( , , )is an
 3 3 3 42 42 42 
  
orthonormal basis for the subspace.

(-1,1,0,1)(1,2,3,4)
18. (a) u1 = (1,2,3,4), u2 = (-1,1,0,1) - (1,2,3,4)(1,2,3,4) (1,2,3,4)
1 7 4 3 2
= (-1,1,0,1) - 6 (1,2,3,4) = ( , , , ), is an orthogonal basis for the
6 6 6 6
230
   
Section 4.6
1
subspace of R4 . ||u1 || = 30 and ||u2 || = 6 78 , so the set
1 2 3 4 7 4 3 2
{( , , , ), ( , , , )} is an orthonormal
30 30 30 30 78 78 78 78
basis for the subspace.
(b) u1 = (3,0,0,0), u2 = (0,1,2,1) (because u1 u2 = 0),


(0,-1,3,2)(0,1,2,1) 13 4 5
u3 = (0,-1,3,2) - 0(3,0,0,0) - (0,1,2,1)(0,1,2,1) (0,1,2,1) = (0, , , ), is an
6 6 6
1
orthogonal basis for the subspace of R4 . ||u1 || = 3, ||u2 || = 6 , and ||u3 || = 6 210 ,
  
1 2 1 13 4 5
so the set {(1,0,0), (0, , , ), (0, , , )} is an orthonormal basis for
6 6 6 210 210 210
the subspace.
19. To construct such a vector, start with any vector that is not a multiple of the given

vector (1,2,-1,-1) and use the Gram-Schmidt process to find a vector orthogonal to
(1,2,-1,-1). The vector (-2,1,0,0) is orthogonal to (1,2,-1,-1).
20. To construct such a vector, start with any vector that is not a multiple of the given
vector (2,0,1,1) and use the Gram-Schmidt process to find a vector orthogonal to
(2,0,1,1). The vector (1,1,-2,0) is orthogonal to (2,0,1,1).
21. (1,2,-2) and (6,1,4) are orthogonal. If the vector (a,b,c) is orthogonal to both, then
(1,2,-2)(a,b,c) = a + 2b - 2c = 0 and (6,1,4)(a,b,c) = 6a + b + 4c = 0. One solution to
this system of equations is a = -10, b = 16, and c = 11. The set
{(1,2,-2), (6,1,4), (-10,16,11)} is therefore an orthogonal basis for R3 .
22. ||v|| = vv so we need to show that vv = (vu1 )2 + (vu2 )2 + . . . + (vun )2 .
v = (vu1 )u1 + (vu2 )u2 + . . . + (vun )un , so
vv = ((vu1 )u1 + (vu2 )u2 + . . . + (vun )un )((vu1 )u1 + (vu2 )u2 + . . . + (vun )un )
= (vu1 )u1 (vu1 )u1 + (vu2 )u2 (vu2 )u2 + . . . + (vun )un (vun )un . All the other
terms are zero because ui uj = 0 for i ≠ j, and since ui ui = 1 we have
vv = (vu1 )2 + (vu2 )2 + . . . + (vun )2 .
23. {u1 , u2 , . . . , un } is a set of n linearly independent vectors in a vector space with

dimension n. Therefore {u1 , u2 , . . . , un } is a basis for the vector space.
24. We are given Q. To determine R use R = QtA.
231
Section 4.6
1 1
1 5 0 2 5  5 5 1 5 
(a) R =  0 0  =  
2 5 0 1 5 
  0 3 5 
2 1 

1 5 2 5  1 1
 5 5 1 5   
Check: QR =  0 0   = 0 0  = A
2 5 1 5  0 3 5 

2 1 

 
5 9 
5 6 1 6   
3 6 1 6 1 7  6 12
(b) R=    =  
1 6 5 6 1 6 3 63 5 0 6 
 
1 5 
5 6 1 6 5 9 
     
1 6 5 6  6 12 1 7 
 =
3 6 
Check: QR = =A
1 6 0 6  3 5
   
1 6 3 6  1 5 
1 3 1 3 1 3 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 11 3 
     
(c) R = 1 2 1 2 0 1 0 4=  0 2 2 2 2 
     0
1 6 1 6 2 6
1 1 5
  0 4 6 

1 3 1 26 3 3 3 3 11 3 
1 1 2 2
    
Check: QR = 1 3 1 2 1 6  0 2 2 2 2 = 1 0 4= A
   
1 2 6  4 6  
1 1 5

 3 0  0 0 
1 3 
1  
6 2 6 1 6 0 2 4  6 6 12 6 
= 
(d) R    =   
1 3 0 1 3 1 31 1  0 3 3 
 
0 1 
 1 6 1 3 
1 3 
   
2 6 0 6 6 12 6  2 4 = A
Check: QR =   =
1 6 1 3 0 3 3  1 1
   
 0 1 3 0 1 
 3 13 2 13 0 3 1 5  13 13 13 13 13 13 
     
(e) R = 2 14 3 14 1 14 2 5 1=  0 14 14 15 14 
  
2 182 3 182 13 182 

0 1 2 
  0
 0 13 182 

232
  
Section 4.6
3 13 2 14 2 18213 13 13 13 13 13  3 1 5 

    
Check: QR = 2 13 3 14 3 182  0 14 14 15 14  = 2 5 1= A
 0 1 14  13 182  0 1 2 
 13 182  0 0   
25. (a) = 8, 2, 1 (b)= 5, 3, 1 (c)= 4.7506, -3.4149, 1.6643

  
(d)  = 9.5464, 3.3682, -2.7758 (e)  = -4.8284, 4.0000, -3.0000, 0.8284
26. The columns of A are elements of Rm. Rm is a space of dimension m. Thus the maximum
number of linearly independent columns possible is m. Since the n columns are linearly
independent then n must be less than or equal to m. Thus the mxn matrix A in the QR
Factorization Theorem must have at least n rows.
27. Let the columns of Q be v1, . . . , vn. The columns of Q t are v1t, . . . , vnt. Let S = Qt Q.
Since Q is an mxn matrix Qt will be nxm.Thus S is nxn.Since Q has orthonormal columns, Q t

has orthonormal rows. sij will be the dot product of row i of Q t and column j of Q. Thus sii = 1
and sij = 0, if i≠j. Therefore S = I.
28. Let the column vectors of A be v1, . . . , vn. Since A is orthogonal these are unit orthogonal
vectors. Let u1 = v1. Then
v 2 .u1 v .v
u2 = v2 - proju v2 = v2 - u1.u1 = v2 - 2 1 v1.v1 = v2 (Since v2.v1 = 0)
1 u1.u1 v1.v1
v 3 .u1 v .u
u3 = v3 – proju v3 – proju v3 = v3 - u1.u1 - 3 2 u2 .u2 = v3
1 2 u1.u1 u2 .u2
:
 
v .u v .u v .u
un=vn – proju vn – proju vn ... – proju vn=v3 - n 1 u1.u1 - n 2 u2 .u2 ... - n n1 un1.un1 =vn
1 2  
n-1 u1.u1 u2 .u2 un1.un1
The column vectors of Q are v1, . . . , vn. Thus Q = A. Then R = QtA = AtA = I, since A is
orthogonal.
  
29. (a) Let A be invertible. Let A = QR be the QR factorization of A. Then
A-1 = (QR)-1 = R-1 Q-1
Since R is an upper triangular matrix its determinant is the product of its diagonal elements
(Section 3.2). Since R-1 exists its determinant is nonzero. Thus the diagonal elements must be
233
Section 4.7
nonzero. Since Q is square (Q-1 exists) and the columns are orthonormal, it must be
orthogonal (Theorem 4.21).
(b) Let Q be orthogonal and R be an upper triangular matrix with nonzero diagonal elements.
Let QR = A. Since Q is orthogonal Q-1 exists (Theorem 4.22). Since R is upper triangular |R| is
the product of its diagonal elements. Since all these elements are positive |R| ≠ 0. Thus R-1
exists. Therefore R-1 Q-1 exists, implying that A-1 exists.
Exercise Set 4.7
1. First find an orthonormal basis for W. u1 = (0,-1,3),
(1,1,2)(0,-1,3) 1 3 1
u2 = (1,1,2) - (0,-1,3)(0,-1,3) (0,-1,3) = (1,1,2) - 2 (0,-1,3) = (1, , ), is an
2 2
1
orthogonal basis for the subspace of R3 . ||u1 || = 10 and ||u2 || = 2 14 , so the set

 1 3 2 3 1   
(0, , ),( , , )is an orthonormal basis for W.
 10 10 14 14 14 
1 3 1 3
(a) projW (3,-1,2) = ( (3,1,2) 0, , )) (0, , )
 10 10 10 10
2 3 1 2 3 1 7 5
+ ( (3,1,2)  ( , , )) ( , , ) = 10 (0,-1,3) + 14 (2,3,1)
 14 14 14 14 14 14
   
= (5, 13 86
, )
 7 35 35
     
-1 3 -1 3
(b) proj (1,1,1) = ( (1,1,1) 0, , )) (0, , )
  W 10 10 10 10
2 3 1 2 3 1 1 3
+ ( (1,1,1)  ( , , )) ( , , ) = 5 (0,-1,3) + 7 (2,3,1)
 14 14 14 14 14 14
 
= (6, 38 36
, )
 7 35 35
     
1 3 1 3
(c) proj (4,2,1) = ( (4,2,1) (0, , )) (0, , )
  W 10 10 10 10
2 3 1 2 3 1 1 15
+ ( (4,2,1)  ( , , )) ( , , ) = 10 (0,-1,3) + 14 (2,3,1)
 14 14 14 14 14 14
   
234

     
Section 4.7
15 109 48
=( , , )
7 35 35
2. First
findan orthonormal basis for V. u = (-1,0,2,1),
1
(1,-1,0,3)(-1,0,2,1) 1
u2 = (1,-1,0,3) - (-1,0,2,1)(-1,0,2,1) (-1,0,2,1) = (1,-1,0,3) - 3 (-1,0,2,1)
2 8
= ( 4 , -1, , ), is an orthogonal basis for the subspace of R3 . ||u1 || = 6 and
3 3 3
1  1 2 1 4 3 2 8 
||u2 || = 3 93 , so the set ( , 0, , ), ( , , , )
 6 6 6 93 93 93 93 
 is 
an orthonormal
 basis for V.
1
(a) projV(1,-1,1,-1) = ((1,-1,1,-1)  (

, 0,
2
,
1
)) ( 1 , 0, 2
,
1
)
6 6 6 6 6 6
4 3 2 8 4 3 2 8
+ ((1,-1,1,-1)  ( , , , )) ( , , , )
93 93
 93 93 93
 93
 93 93
-1 4 3 2 8
= 0(-1,0,2,1) + 31 (4,-3,-2,8) = ( , , , )
31 31 31 31
      

1 2 1 1 2 1
(b) projV(2,0,1,-1) = ( (2,0,1,-1)  ( , 0, , )) ( , 0, , )
  6  6 6 6 6 6
4 3 2 8 4 3 2 8
+ ((2,0,1,-1)  ( , , , )) ( , , , )
93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93
     
-1 -2 5 2 9 21
= 6 (-1,0,2,1) + 93 (4,-3,-2,8) = ( , , , )
62 31 31 62
       
1 2 1 1 2 1
(c) projV(3,2,1,0) = ( (3,2,1,0)  ( , 0, , )) ( , 0, , )
 6   6  6 6 6 6
4 3 2 8 4 3 2 8
+ ((3,2,1,0)  ( , , , )) ( , , , )
93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93
     
-1 4 21 4 13 11
= 6 (-1,0,2,1) + 93 (4,-3,-2,8) = ( , , , )
62 31 31 62
       
   
235
Section 4.7
3. We normalize (1, 2, 3). ||(1, 2, 3)|| = 12  22  32 = 14 . Normalized vector is u =
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
( , , ). Then projW v= (v.u)u=((-1, 2, 4) . ( , , )) ( , , )
14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14
1 4 12 1 2 3 15 1 2 3 15
=( + + )( , , )= ( , , )= (1, 2, 3).
   14 14 14 14 14 14  14  14  14 
14  14 
4. V = {a(1,1,0) + b(0,0,1)}. The set {(1,1,0), (0,0,1)} is an orthogonal basis. The vectors
          
1 1
( 2 , 2 , 0  and (0,0,1) are therefore an orthonormal basis. v = w + w , where
1 1 1 1 
w = projV v = ( (1,2,1)  , , 0))( , , 0) + ((1,2,-1)(0,0,1))(0,0,1)
2 2 2 2

3 3 3
= 2 (1,1,0) + (-1)(0,0,1) = ( , , 1 ) and
 2 2 
  3 3  1 1
w  = v - projV v = (1,2,-1) - ( , , 1 ) = ( , , 0 )
2 2 2 2
 
5.  The set {(1,2,0),

V = {a(1,2,0) + b(0,0,1)}.  (0,0,1)} is an orthogonal basis. The vectors
1 2
( , , 0) and (0,0,1) are therefore an orthonormal basis. v = w + w , where
5 5

, 0  + ((4,1,-2)(0,0,1))(0,0,1)
1 2 1 2
w = projV v = ( (4,1,2)  ( , , 0)) ( ,
5 5 5 5
 
6 6 12
= 5 (1,2,0) + (-2)(0,0,1) = ( , ,2) and
 5 5
   
6 12 14 7
w  = v - projV v = (4,1,-2) - ( , ,2) = ( , , 0 )
5 5 25 25


6. W = {a(1,0,1) + b(0,1,1)}. We must find an orthogonal basis. u1 = (1,0,1) and
(1,0,1)
(0,1,1)  1 1 1
u2 = (0,1,1) - (1,0,1)(1,0,1) (1,0,1) = (0,1,1) - 2 (1,0,1) = ( , 1, ) are an
2 2
orthogonal basis. The vectors ( 1

, 0,
1
) and ( 1 , 2 , 1 ) are therefore an
2 2 6 6 6
 
236
    
Section 4.7
orthonormal basis. v = w + w  , where

1 1 1 1 
w = projW v = ( (3,2,1)  ( , 0, )) ( , 0,
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 1 2 1 1
+ ( (3,2,1)  , , )) ( , , ) = 2(1,0,1) + 3 (-1,2,1) = ( 5 , 2 , 7 )
 6 6 6 6 6 6 3 3 3
  52 7 4 4 4
w  = v - projV v = (3,2,1) - ( , , ) = ( , , )
3 3 3 3 3 3


      
7. W = {a(1,1,0) + b(0,0,1)}. The set {(1,1,0), (0,0,1)} is an orthogonal basis. The vectors
 
1
( 1 , 2 , 0) and (0,0,1) are therefore an orthonormal basis.
2
, 0  + ((1,3,-2)(0,0,1))(0,0,1)
1 1 1 1
projW x = ( (1,3,2)  , , 0)) ( ,
2 2 2 2

= 2(1,1,0) + (-2)(0,0,1) = (2,2,-2), so

d(x,W) = ||x- proj
W x|| = ||(1,3,-2)
  - (2,2,-2)|| = ||(-1,1,0)|| = 2 .
8. W = {a(1,-2,0) + b(0,0,1)}. The set {(1,-2,0), (0,0,1)} is an orthogonal basis. The vectors
1 2
( , , 0) and (0,0,1) are therefore an orthonormal basis.
5 5
1 2 1 2
projW x = ( (2,4,1)  , , 0)) ( , , 0) + ((2,4,-1)(0,0,1))(0,0,1)
 5 5 5 5
 
-6 6 12
= 5 (1,-2,0) + (-1)(0,0,1) = ( , ,-1), so
  5 5
   
6 12 16 8 8
d(x,W) = ||x - proj x|| = || (2,4,1) -( , ,-1)|| = ||( , ,0)|| = 5 5 .
W 5 5 5 5
 
 vector ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) is an orthonormal


9. W = {a(1,2,3)}. The     basis for W.
14 14 14
1 2 3 1 2 3
projW x = ( (1,3,2)  , , )) ( , , )= ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) , so
14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14
  
237

        
Section 4.8
1 2 3 13 40 31 2730
d(x,W) = ||x - projW x|| = || (1,3,2) - ( , , )|| = || ( , , )|| = 14 .
14 14 14 14 14 14
10. Consider the identity c1w1 + ... + csws + d1v1 + ... + dtvt = 0. Then c1w1 + ... + csws =

     
-d1v1 - ... - dtvt . But c1w1 + ... + csws is in W and -d1v1 - ... - dtvt is in W  . Thus c1w1 + ... +
csws and -d1v1 - ... - dtvt are both in W  W . But W  W  = {0}. Thus c1w1 + ... + csws = 0
and -d1v1 - ... - dtvt = 0. Since w1, ... , ws are linearly

independent, and v1, ... , vt are also
linearly independent (they are

bases) then 
c1 = 0, ... cs = 0, and d1 = 0, ... d t = 0. Thus w1, ... ,
ws, v1, ... , vt are linearly independent.

Let u be a vector in Rn. Then v = w + w where w is in W and w  is in W  . We can write
w = p1w1 + ... + psws and w = q1v1 + ... + qtvt. Thus v = p1w1 + ... + psws + q1v1 + ... + qtvt.

Therefore the vectors w1, ... , ws, v1, ... , v t span Rn. {w1, ... , w

s , v1, ... , vt} is a basis for

Rn. Note that this implies that dim W + dim W = n. 
11. No - Consider the vector space R3 and let W bethe subspace {(a, b, 0)}. W is the XY
plane. W is {(0, 0, c)}. W U W  = {(a, b, 0)} U {(0, 0, c)}. Any vector of the form (a, b, c) where
a, b, and c are all nonzeo is not in {(a, b, 0)} U {(0, 0, c).
 
12. Let u be a vector in W. Then u is orthogonal to every vector in W . Thus u is an element
of (W ) . Therefore W is a subset of (W ) .
Conversely, let v be a vector in (W ) . Since any vector in Rn can
 

be written in the form w+w 
 
where w is in W and w  is in W  we can 
write v = w + w . Take the dot product of both
sides with w . We get w  . v = w   . ( w + w  ) = w  . w + w  . w  . Since w  is in W it is
 

orthogonal to both v and w ; w . v = 0 and w . w =0. Therefore w  . w  = 0, implying that w
 = 0. Thus
        
v = w, an element of W; (W   )  is a subset  of W. We have shown  that

 W is a subset of (W  ) 
 and vice versa, hence (W )  = W.
   
 
Exercise Set 4.8
1. T((x1 ,y1 )+(x2 ,y2 )) = T(x1 +x2 ,y1 +y2 ) = (3(x1 +x2 ), x1 +x2 +y1 +y2 )
= (3x1 +3x2 , x1 +y1 +x2 +y2 ) = (3x1 ,x1 +y1 ) + (3x2 ,x2 +y2 )
= T(x1 ,y1 ) + T(x2 ,y2 ) and
T(c(x,y)) = T(cx,cy) = (3cx,cx+cy) = c(3x,x+y) = cT(x,y). Thus T is linear.
T(1,3) = (3(1),1+3) = (3,4). T(-1,2) = (3(-1),-1+2)=(-3,1).
2. T((x1 ,y1 )+(x2 ,y2 )) = T(x1 +x2 ,y1 +y2 )

= (x1 +x2 +2(y1 +y2 ), 3(y1 +y2 ), x1 +x2 -(y1 +y2 ))
238
Chapter 6
Exercise Set 6.1
1. u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 ), w = (z1 , z2 ), and c is a scalar.
<u,v> = 4x1 y1 + 9x2 y2 = 4y1 x1 + 9y2 x2 = <v,u>,
<u+v,w> = 4(x1 + y1 )z1 + 9(x2 + y2 )z2 = 4x1 z1 + 4y1 z1 + 9x2 z2 + 9y2 z2
= 4x1 z1 + 9x2 z2 + 4y1 z1 + 9y2 z2 = <u,w> + <v,w>,
<cu,v> = 4cx1 y1 + 9cx2 y2 = c(4x1 y1 + 9x2 y2 ) = c<u,v>, and
<u,u> = 4x1 x1 + 9x2 x2 = 4 x12 + 9 x22 ≥ 0 and equality holds if and only if 4 x12 = 0
and 9 x22 = 0, i.e., if and only if x1 = 0 and x2 = 0. Thus the given function is an inner
product on R2 .
2. u = (x1 , x2 , x3 ), v = (y1 , y2 , y3 ), w = (z1 , z2 , z3 ), and c is a scalar.
<u,v> = x1 y1 + 2x2 y2 + 4x3 y3 = y1 x1 + 2y2 x2 + 4y3 x3 = <v,u>,
<u+v,w> = (x1 + y1 )z1 + 2(x2 + y2 )z2 + 4(x3 + y3 )z3
= x1 z1 + y1 z1 + 2x2 z2 + 2y2 z2 + 4x3 z3 + 4y3 z3
= x1 z1 + 2x2 z2 + 4x3 z3 + y1 z1 + 2y2 z2 + 4y3 z3 = <u,w> + <v,w>,
<cu,v> = cx1 y1 + 2cx2 y2 + 4cx3 y3 = c(x1 y1 + 2x2 y2 + 4x3 y3 ) = c<u,v>, and
<u,u> = x1 x1 + 2x2 x2 + 4x3 x3 = x12 + 2 x22 + 4 x32 ≥ 0 and equality holds if and
only if 4 x12 = 0, 2 x22 = 0, and 4 x32 = 0, i.e., if and only if x1 = 0, x2 = 0, and x3 = 0.
Thus the given function is an inner product on R3 .
3. <u,u> = 2x1 x1 - x2 x2 = 2x12 - x22 < 0 for the vector u = (1,2), so condition 4 of
the
317
Section 6.1
definition is not satisfied.
a b e f  j k 
4. u= ,v=  , and w =  .
c d g h l m
<u+v,w> = (a+e)j + (b+f)k + (c+g)l + (d+h)m = aj + ej + bk + fk + cl + gl + dm + hm
= aj + bk + cl + dm + ej + fk + gl + hm = <u,w> + <v,w>, so axiom 2 is satisfied.
<u,u> = aa + bb + cc + dd = a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 ≥ 0 and equality holds if and only if
a = b = c = d = 0, so axiom 4 is satisfied.
a b e f  j k 
5. u= ,v= , w=  , and s is a scalar.
c d g h l m
<u,v> = ae + 2bf + 3cg + 4dh = ea + 2fb + 3gc + 4hd = <v,u>,
<u+v,w> = (a+e)j + 2(b+f)k + 3(c+g)l + 4(d+h)m
= aj + ej + 2bk + 2fk + 3cl + 3gl + 4dm + 4hm
= aj + 2bk + 3cl + 4dm + ej + 2fk + 3gl + 4hm = <u,w> + <v,w>,
<su,v> = sae + 2sbf + 3scg + 4sdh = s(ea + 2fb + 3gc + 4hd) = s<u,v>, and
<u,u> = aa + 2bb + 3cc + 4dd = a + 2b + 3c + 4d ≥ 0 and equality holds if and only if
a = b = c = d = 0. Thus the given function is an inner product on M 22 .
(a) <u,v> = 1x4 + 2(2x1) + 3(0x-3) + 4(-3x2) = 4 + 4 + 0 - 24 = -16.
(b) <u,v> = -2x5 + 2(4x-2) + 3(1x0) + 4(0x-3) = -10 -16 + 0 + 0 = -26.
6. <cf,g> = 
 cf(x)g(x) dx = c
1 1
 f(x)g(x) dx = c<f,g>, so axiom 3 is satisfied.
0 0
 f(x)f(x) dx = 
1
<f,f> =  1 2
 f(x) dx ≥ 0 and equality holds if and only if f(x) is the zero
0 0
318
Section 6.1
function, so axiom 4 is satisfied.
 
b b
7. <f,g> = f (x)g(x) dx = g(x) f (x) dx = <g,f>,

a a
  
b b b
<f+g,h> = ( f (x)  g(x))h(x) dx = f (x)h(x) dx + g(x)h(x) dx = <f,h> + <g,h>,

a a a
 
 a cf (x)g(x) dx = c  a f (x)g(x) dx = c<f,g>, and
b b
<cf,g> =
  
<f,f> =  f (x) f (x) dx =  f (x) 2 dx ≥ 0 and equality holds if and only if f(x) is the zero
b b
a a
 
function. Thus the given function with a < b defines an inner product on P n .
 
If a = b, the integral is zero for all functions f and g, violating axiom 4.
<f,g> =   1 2x3- 1 x2-2x1 = - 1 .

8. (a) 
1
(2x+1)(3x-2) dx =  (6x2
-x-2) dx =  
0 0  2 0 2
1
<f,g> =
 (x +2)(3) dx = 
2 1 2 3 1
(b)  (3x +6) dx = [ x + 6x ] = 7.
0 0 0
1 x4 + 4 x3 + 1 x2 -2x
1
<f,g> = 
1 2 1 3
(c)  (x +3x-2)(x+1) dx =  (x +4x2
+x-2) dx = 
0 0 4 3 2 0
1
= 12 .
<f,g> =
 (x +2x-1)(3x -4x+2) dx = 
1 3 2 1 5 4 3 2
(d)  (3x -4x +8x -11x +8x-2) dx
0 0
1 1
= 2 x6 - x5 + 2x4 -
1 4 11 3
x + 4x2 - 2x = 30 .
 5 3 0
16 3 1 4
|| f ||2 = 
 (4x-2) dx = 
1 1
 (16x -16x+4) dx =  3 x - 8x + 4x0 = 3 ,
2 2 2
9. (a)
0 0
319
Section 6.1
2
so || f || = .
3
1
|| f ||2 = 
 (7x ) dx = 
1 3 2 1 6 7
(b)  (49x ) dx = [ 7x ] = 7, so || f || = 7 .
0 0 0
9 x5 + 4x3 + 4x = 49 , so
1
|| f ||2 =  
1 1
(c)  (3x2
+2)2
dx =  (9x4
+12x2
+4) dx = 5
0 0  0 5
7
|| f || = .
5
|| g ||2 = 
 (x +x+1) dx = 
1 2 2 1 4 3 2
(d)  (x +2x +3x +2x+1) dx
0 0
1 37
= 5 x5 + 2 x4 + x3 + x 2 + x = 10 , so || g || =
1 1 37
 0 10 .
1
10. <f,g> = 
 (x )(4x-3) dx = 
1 2 1 3 2 4 3
 (4x -3x ) dx = [ x -x ] = 0, so the functions are
0 0 0
orthogonal.
 1 -x dx = 1 1 -x dx = 1 x- 1 x2 = 0, so the functions are

1
11. <f,g> = 
1
 (1)  
 2    
 2   2 2 0
0 0
orthogonal.
12. <f,g> = 
1
 1 45 x41 = 45 ,
 (5x2
)(9x) dx =  (45x3
) dx = 4 
0 0  0 4
1
|| f ||2 = 
 (5x ) dx = 
1 2 2 1 4 5
 (25x ) dx = [5x ] = 5, so || f || = 5 , and
0 0 0
1
|| g ||2 = 
 (9x) dx = 
1 2 1 2 3
 (81x ) dx = [27x ] = 27, so || g || = 3 3 . Thus
0 0 0
45 3x15 15
cos  = = = 4 .
4 53 3 4x3 15
320
Section 6.1
 (6x+12)(ax+b) dx = 
1
13. <f,g> =  1 2
 (6ax +12ax+6bx+12b) dx
0 0
1
= [2ax3 +6ax2 +3bx2 +12bx ] = 2a+6a+3b+12b, so any choice of a and b that makes
0
8a+15b = 0 will do. Let a = 15 and b = -8. g(x) = 15x - 8 is orthogonal to f(x).
14. d(f,g) = || f-g || = ||2x+4||. ||2x+4||2 = 

 (2x+4) dx = 
1 2 1 2
 (4x +16x+16) dx
0 0
 1
= 3 x3 + 8x2 + 16x = 3 +8+16 = 3 ,so d(f,g) =
4 4 76 76 19
 0 3 . (= 2 3 )
1 2
15. d(f,g)2 = || f-g ||2 = ||-2x+3||2 = 
 (-2x+3) dx = 
1 2
 (4x -12x+9) dx
0 0
1 4
= 3 x3 - 6x2 + 9x = 3 -6+9 = 3 , and d(f,h)2 = || f-h ||2 = ||3x-4||2 = 
4 13 1 2
 0  (3x-4) dx
0
1 13
= 1 2 3 2
 (9x -24x+16) dx = [ 3x -12x +16x ] = 7 > 3 , so g is closer to f.
0 0
1 2 2 0

16. (a) <  ,  >= 1x-2 + 2x0 + 3x-3 + 4x5 = -2 + 0 - 9 + 20 = 9.
3 4 3 5
0 3 3 6 

 (b) <
 ,  >= 0x3 + -3x6 + 2x-2 + 5x-7 = 0 - 18 - 4 -35 = -57.
2 5  2 7
 1 2 1 2

||  2 2 2 2 2
17. (a) || = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 = 30, so ||  ||= 30 .
3 4 3 4
0 1 2 2 2 2
0 1
 (b) ||  || = 0 + 1 + (-1) + 3 = 0 + 1 + 1 + 9 =11, so ||  ||= 11 .
1 3 1 3
 321 
Section 6.1
5 2 2 2 2 2 2
5 2
(c) ||  || = 5 + (-2) + (-1) + 6 = 25 + 4 + 1 + 36 = 66, so ||  ||= 66
1 6  1 6 
4 2 2 2 2 2 2
(d) ||  || = 4 + (-2) + (-1) + (-3) = 16 + 4 + 1 + 9 = 30, so
 1 3 
4 2
||  ||= 30 .
 1 3
1 2 2 4 

18. (a) <  ,  > = 1x2 + 2x4 + -1x3 + 1x-7 = 2 + 8 -3 - 7 = 0, so the
1 1 3 7
matrices are orthogonal.

 
5 2 1 6 
(b) <  ,  < = 5x-1 + 2x6 + -3x1 + 2x-2 = -5 + 12 -3 - 4 = 0, so the
3 2 1 2
matrices are orthogonal.
 
1 2 a b

19. <  ,  > = a + 2b + 3c + 4d, so any choice of a,b,c, and d satisfying the
3 4 c d
condition a + 2b + 3c + 4d = 0 will do. One such choice is a = -3, b = 2, c = 1, d = -1.

 
4 0 1 1 3 1 3 1 2

20. (a) d(  ,  ) = ||  ||. ||  || = 18, so
1 3 1 1 2 2  2 2 
4 0 1 1

d(  ,  ) = 18 = 3 2 .
 1 3 11 
2 3 3 2 5 5 5 5 2

(b) d(  
, )
 = ||  ||. ||  || = 70, so
1 4  1 0 2 4  2 4 
2 3 3 2

d(  ,  ) = 70 .
 1 4  1 0

 
322
 
Section 6.1
21. (a) <u,v> = (2-i)(3+2i) + (3+2i)(2-i) = 2(6 + 2 -3i + 4i) = 16 + 2i.
||u||2 = (2-i)(2+i) + (3+2i)(3-2i) = 4 + 1 + 9 + 4 = 18, so ||u|| = 18 = 3 2 .
||v||2 = (3-2i)(3+2i) + (2+i)(2-i) = 18, so ||v|| = 18 = 3 2 .
d(u,v)2 = ||u-v||2 = ||(-1+i, 1+i)||2 = (-1+i)(-1-i) + (1+i)(1-i) = 4, so d(u,v) = 2.
u and v are not orthogonal since <u,v> ≠ 0.
(b) <u,v> = (4+3i)(2-i) + (1-i)(4+5i) = 8 + 3 -4i + 6i + 4 + 5 + 5i - 4i = 20 +3i.
||u||2 = (4+3i)(4-3i) + (1-i)(1+i) = 16 + 9 + 1 + 1 = 27, so ||u|| = 27 = 3 3 .
||v||2 = (2+i)(2-i) + (4-5i)(4+5i) = 4 + 1 + 16 + 25 = 46, so ||v|| = 46 .
d(u,v)2 = ||u-v||2 = ||(2+2i,-3+4i)||2 = (2+2i)(2-2i) + (-3+4i)(-3 -4i) = 33, so
d(u,v) = 33 . u and v are not orthogonal since <u,v> ≠ 0.
(c) <u,v> = (2+3i)(i) + (-1)(3-2i) = 2i - 3 - 3 + 2i = -6 +4i.
||u||2 = (2+3i)(2-3i) + (-1)(-1) = 4 + 9 + 1 = 14, so ||u|| = 14 .
||v||2 = (-i)(i)+ (3+2i)(3-2i) = 1 + 9 + 4 = 14, so ||v|| = 14 .
d(u,v)2 = ||u-v||2 = ||(2+4i,-4-2i)||2 = (2+4i)(2-4i) + (-4 -2i)(-4+2i) = 40, so
d(u,v) = 40 = 2 10 . u and v are not orthogonal since <u,v> ≠ 0.
(d) <u,v> = (2-3i)(1) + (-2+3i)(1) = 2 - 3i - 2 + 3i = 0.
||u||2 = (2-3i)(2+3i) + (-2+3i)(-2-3i) = 4 + 9 + 4 + 9 = 26, so ||u|| = 26 .
||v||2 = (1)(1) + (1)(1) = 2, so ||v|| = 2 .
d(u,v)2 = ||u-v||2 = ||(1-3i,-3+3i)||2 = (1-3i)(1+3i) + (-3+3i)(-3 -3i) = 28, so
323
Section 6.1
d(u,v) = 28 = 2 7 . u and v are orthogonal since <u,v> = 0.
22. (a) <u,v> = (1+4i)(1-i) + (1+i)(-4-i) = 1 + 4 - i + 4i - 4 + 1 - i - 4i = 2-2i.
||u||2 = (1+4i)(1-4i) + (1+i)(1-i) = 1 + 16 + 1 + 1 = 19, so ||u|| = 19 .
||v||2 = (1+i)(1-i) + (-4+i)(-4-i) = 1 + 1 + 16 + 1 = 19, so ||v|| = 19 .
d(u,v)2 = ||u-v||2 = ||(3i,5)||2 = (3i)(-3i) + (5)(5 ) = 34, so
d(u,v) = 34 . u and v are not orthogonal since <u,v> ≠ 0.
(b) <u,v> = (2+7i)(3+4i) + (1+i)(2-5i) = 6 - 28 + 21i + 8i + 2 + 5 + 2i - 5i = -15+26i.
||u||2 = (2+7i)(2-7i) + (1+i)(1-i) = 4 + 49 + 1 + 1 = 55, so ||u|| = 55 .
||v||2 = (3-4i)(3+4i) + (2+5i)(2-5i) = 9 + 16 + 4 + 25 = 54, so ||v|| = 54 = 3 6 .
d(u,v)2 = ||u-v||2 = ||(-1+11i,-1-4i)||2 = (-1+11i)(-1-11i) + (-1-4i)(-1+4i) = 139,
so d(u,v) = 139 . u and v are not orthogonal since <u,v> ≠ 0.
(c) <u,v> = (1-3i)(2+i) + (1+i)(-5i) = 2 + 3 - 6i + i + 5 - 5i = 10-10i.
||u||2 = (1-3i)(1+3i) + (1+i)(1-i) = 1 + 9 + 1 + 1 = 12, so ||u|| = 12 = 2 3 .
||v||2 = (2-i)(2+i) + (5i)(-5i) = 4 + 1 + 25 = 30, so ||v|| = 30 .
d(u,v)2 = ||u-v||2 = ||(-1-2i,1-4i)||2 = (-1-2i)(-1+2i) + (1-4i)(1+4i) = 22,
so d(u,v) = 22 . u and v are not orthogonal since <u,v> ≠ 0.
<u,v> = (3+i)(2-i) + (2+2i)-2- 2 i = 6 + 1 - 3i + 2i - 4 + 3 - 4i - 3i = 6-8i.

3
(d)
 
||u||2 = (3+i)(3-i) + (2+2i)(2-2i) = 9 + 1 + 4 + 4 = 18, so ||u|| = 18 = 3 2 .
= (2+i)(2-i) + -2+ 2 i -2- 2 i = 4 + 1 + 4 + 4

3 3 9 45 3
||v||2 = 4 , so ||v|| = 2 5 .
  
324
Section 6.1
 1 
d(u,v)2 = ||u-v||2 = || 1,4  i||2 = (1)(1) + 4+ 2 i 4- 2 i = 4 , so
1 1 69
 2    
1
d(u,v) = 2 69 . u and v are not orthogonal since <u,v> ≠ 0.

23. u = (x1 , . . . , xn ), v = (y1 ,. . . , yn ), w = (z1 , . . . , zn ), and c is a scalar.

_ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ __ _ _
<u,v> = x1 y 1 + . . . + xn yn = y1 x1 + . . . + y n xn = y 1 x 1 + . . . + y n x n = <v ,u >
= <v,u> ,
_ _ _ _ _
<u+v,w> = (x1 + y1 ) z1 + . . . + (xn + yn ) z n = x1 z 1 + y1 z1 + . . . + xn z n +
_
yn zn
_ _ _ _
= x1 z 1 + . . . + xn zn + y1 z 1 + . . . + yn z n = <u,w> + <v,w>,
_ _ _ _
<cu,v> = cx1 y 1 + . . . + cxn y n = c( x1 y1 + . . . + xn y n ) = c<u,v>, and
_ _ _
<u,u> = x1 x 1 + . . . + xn x n ≥ 0 since all xi xi ≥ 0, and equality holds if and only if all
xi = 0. Thus the given function is an inner product on Cn .
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
24. <u,kv> = x1 k y 1 + . . . + xn k yn = k x1 y 1 + . . . + k xn y n =
_ _ _ _
k (x1 y 1 + . . . + xn y n ) = k <u,v>.
25. (a) Let u be any nonzero vector in the inner product space. Then using axiom 1, the
fact that 0u = 0, axiom 3, and the fact that zero times any real number is zero we
have <v,0> = <0,v> = <0u,v> = 0<u,v> = 0.
(b) From axiom 1, axiom 2, and axiom 1 again <u,v+w> = <v+w,u> = <v,u> + <w,u>
= <u,v> + <u,w>.
(c) From axiom 1, axiom 3, and axiom 1 again <u,cv> = <cv,u> = c<v,u> = c<u,v>.
325
Section 6.1
26. (a) <u,v> = uAvt = (uA)v = v(uA) = v(uA)t = vAut = <v,u>,
<u+v,w> = (u+v)Awt = uAwt + vAwt = <u,w> + <v,w>,
<cu,v> = (cu)Avt = c(uAvt ) = c<u,v>, and
<u,u> = uAut > 0 if u ≠ 0 (given) and uAut = 0 if u = 0.
(b) Let u = (x1 ,…, xn ) and v = (y1 ,…, yn ). uv = x1 y1 + . . . + xn yn = uvt = uIn vt .
2 00 0
(c) <u,v> = uAvt = [1 0 ]     = [ 2 0 ]   = 0.
0 31 1
2 01 1
||u||2 = uAut = [1 0 ]     = [ 2 0 ]   = 2, so ||u|| = 2 .
0 30 0
2 00 0
||v||2 = vAvt = [0 1 ]     = [ 0 3 ]   = 3, so ||v|| = 3 .
0 31 1
 2 0   1  1
d(u,v)2 = ||u-v||2 = [1 -1 ]     = [ 2 -3 ]   = 5, so d(u,v) = 5 .
 0 3   -1  -1
1 20 0
<u,v> = uBvt = [1 0 ]     = [1 2 ]   = 2.
2 31 1
1 21 1
||u||2 = uBut = [1 0 ]     = [1 2 ]   = 1, so ||u|| = 1.
2 30 0
1 20 0
||v||2 = vBvt = [0 1 ]     = [ 2 3 ]   = 3, so ||v|| = 3 .
2 31 1
 1 2   1  1
d(u,v)2 = ||u-v||2 = [1 -1 ]     = [-1 -1 ]   = 0, so d(u,v) = 0.
 2 3   -1  -1
2 30 0
<u,v> = uCvt = [1 0 ]     = [ 2 3 ]   = 3.
 3 5  
1 1
2 31 1
||u||2 = uCut = [1 0 ]     = [ 2 3 ]   = 2, so ||u|| = 2 .
3 50 0
326
Section 6.2
2 30 0
||v||2 = vCvt = [0 1 ]     = [ 3 5 ]   = 5, so ||v|| = 5 .
3 51 1
 2 3   1  1
d(u,v)2 = ||u-v||2 = [1 -1 ]     = [-1 -2 ]   = 1, so d(u,v) = 1.
 3 5   -1  -1
a b  y1 
(d) u = (x1, x2), and v = (y1, y2). Let <u, v> = x1y1 + 4x2y2 = [x1 x2]    
c d  y2 
(d) u = (x1 , x2 ) and v = (y1 , y2 ). <u,v> = x1 y1 + 4x2 y2 = [ x1 x2 ]


 y1 
= [ ax1 + cx2 bx1 + d x2]   = (ax1 + cx2)y1 + (bx1 + d x2)y2 = ax1y1 + cx2y1 + bx1y2 +
 y2 
1 0
d x2y2 . Equating coefficients, a=1, b= 0, c=0, d = 4. Thus A =  .
0 4
27. Let w1 and w2 be elements of W and c a scalar. Then <w1,v>=0 and <w2,v> = 0. Thus
<w1,v>+<w2,v> = 0 and c<w1,v>=0. Properties of innerproduct give:
<w1+w2,v> = 0 and <cw1,v>=0. Thus w1+w2 and cw1 are in W. W is closed under
vector addition and under scalar multiplication. Thus it is a subspace of V.
28. (a) True: <u,v>=0, Thus c<u,v>=0, <u,cv>=0.
(b) True: For arbitrary vectors u=(a,b), v=(c,d) let <u,v> = p(ac)+q(bd). This defines an
inner product if p and q are positive. If u=(1,3), v=(-1,2), then <(1,3),(-1,2)> = p(-1)+q(6).
Let p=6 and q=1; then <(1,3),(-1,2)> = 0. <u,v> = 6ac+bd is an appropriate inner
product.
1 1
1
 f(x)g(x)dx . <3x, 3x> = 
(c) False: <f, g> =   9x2dx = [3x3]0 = 3. ||3x|| = 3 .
0 0
(d) True: <A,B>=0, <A,C>=0. By props of inner product, p<A,B>=0, q<A,C>=0.
<A,pB>=0, <A,qC>=0. <A,pB>+<A,qC>=0. <A,pB+qC>=0.
(e) True: Let V be an inner product space with distance defined d(u, v) = || u - v|| .
Then || u - v|| =  u  v,u  v  =  (1)(v  u),(1)(v  u)  = (1)2  (v  u),(v  u) 
= (1)2  (v  u),(v  u)  = d(v, u).

  
327

Section 6.4
16. (a) Since each vector in V23 has 23 components and there are 2 possible values (zero
and 1) for each component, there are 2 23 vectors.
(b) Each vector in C23,12 is a linear combination of 12 basis vectors and each
coefficient is either zero or 1. Thus there are 2 12 = 4096 vectors.
(c) There are 23 ways to change exactly one component of the center vector,
23x22/2 = 253 ways to change exactly two components, and 23x22x21/6 = 1771
ways to change exactly three components. 1 + 23 + 253 + 1771 = 2048 vectors.
Exercise Set 6.4
 1 3  1 3
  1 0 1  11 0 1  2 1 -1  1 0 -1 
1. Pinv  0 1  = (   0 1 )  =    
 -1 2  3 1 2 3 1 2  1 14   3 1 2 

1 2

1  14 -1   1 0 -1  1  11 -1 -16 
= 27     = 27  .
 -1 2   3 1 2   5 2 5
 1 1 1 1
  1 2 0  11 2 0 1  4 1 -7 
2. Pinv  2 3  = (  2 3 )  =  .
 0 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 6  -2 1 5 

0 1

1 2
1 2 3  1
3. The pseudoinverse
 does not exist because (  2 4 ) does not exist.
2 4 6

3 6

 1 2 1 2
  1 3 5 1 3 5 1  -32 -8 16 
 1
4. Pinv  3 4  = (  3 4 )  = 24  26 8 -10 
 5 6 
2 4 6 
2 4 6
5 6
 
1  -16 -4 8 
= 12  .
 13 4 -5 

338
Section 6.4
 1 3 1 3
 
  11 2 1 1  4 20 12 
Pinv  2 0  = ( 
1 2 1
5. 2 0 )  = 56  16 -4 -8 
 1 -1  
3 0 1 
3 0 1

1 1

1  1 5 3
= 14  .
 4 -1 -2 

6. There is no pseudoinverse.
7. There is no pseudoinverse.
 1 2 1 3 1 2 11 3 1  5 -2 

8. Pinv   = (   )  =  .
 -3 5  2 53 5 2 5 11  3 1 
9. The equation of the line will be y = a + bx. The data points give 0 = a + b, 4 = a + 2b, and

0  1 1
a
7 = a + 3b. Thus the system of equations is given by A   =  4  ,where A =  1 2  .
 
b
7  1 3
1 1
1 1 1  11 1 1 1  8 2 -4 
Pinv A = (  1 2 )  =  .
1 2 3  1 2 3 6  -3 0 3 

1 3

0
1  -20  10 10 7
Pinv A  4  = 6 
7
 , so a = , b = , and the least squares line is y = + x.
  21  3 2 3 2
7
1
a 3
10. The system of equationsis givenby A   =   , with A given in Exercise
 9.
b
7
1 1
  1  8 2 -4    1  -14 
Pinv A  3  = 6   3 = 6   , so
 -3 0 3   18 
7 7
a = -7/3, b = 3, and the least squares line is y = -7/3 + 3x.
339
Section 6.4
1
a 5
11. The system of equations is given by A   =   , with A given in Exercise 9.
b
9
1 1
  1  8 2 -4    1  -18 
Pinv A  5  = 6   5 = 6   , so a = -3, b = 4, and the least
 -3 0 3   24 
9 9
squares line is y = -3 + 4x.
1
a 6
b
9
1 1
  1  8 2 -4    1  -16 
Pinv A  6  = 6   6 = 6   , so
 -3 0 3   24 
9 9

7
a 2
b
0
7 7
  1  8 2 -4    1  60 
Pinv A  2  = 6   2 = 6   , so
 -3 0 3   -21 
0 0
a = 10, b = -7/2, and the least squares line is y = 10 - 7x/2.
 12 
a  5 
b
 1 
 12   12 
  1  8 2 -4    1  102 
Pinv A   = 6 
5  5  = 6   , so
 -3 0 3   -33 
 1   1 
15. The equation of the line will be y = a + bx. The data points give 0 = a + b, 3 = a + 2b,
340
Section 6.4
 03 
a
5 = a + 3b, and 6 = a + 4b. Thus the system of equations is given by A   =
 ,
b 5
6
 1 1
  0

where A =
 1 2 1 
. Pinv A = 10 
10 5 0 -5 
 . Pinv A
 3 1  -15 
= 10   , so
 1 3  -3 -1 1 3   
5  20 
 1 4 6
 13 
a
16. The system of equations is given by A   =
  , with A given in Exercise 15.
b 5
9
 13   1

Pinv A
  1 
= 10 
10 5 0 -5  3

1  -20 
= 10   , so
5  -3 -1 1 3   5   26 
9 9
a = -2, b = 13/5, and the least squares line is y = -2 + 13x/5.
 97 
a
  , with A given in Exercise 15.
b 3
2
 97   9

Pinv A
  1  10 5 0
= 10 
-5   7 

1  23 
= 2   , so
3  -3 -1 1 3  3  -5 
2 2
a = 23/2, b = -5/2, and the least squares line is y = 23/2 - 5x/2.
 21 
a
 17 
, with A given in Exercise 15.
b  12 
7
341
Section 6.4
 21   21

Pinv A
 17  1  10 5 0
= 10 
-5   17 

1  260 
= 10   , so
 12   -3 -1 1 3   12   -47 
7 7
19. The equation of the line will be y = a + bx. The data points give 0 = a + b, 1 = a + 2b,
4 = a + 3b, 7 = a + 4b, and 9 = a + 5b. Thus the system of equations is given by
1  
0 1 1
1 2
A   =  4  , where A =  .
a 1 3
b
9  
7 1 4
1 5
1 1
 
1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Pinv A = (  1 3 )1 
1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5
1 4

1 5

  1
0
1
 1  8 5 2 -1 -4 
= 10   . Pinv A
 -2 -1 0 1 2    = 10
4  -30 

 24 
 , so
 
7
9
a = -3, b = 12/5, and the least squares line is y = -3 + 12x/5.
3
1
The system of equations is given by A   =  4  , with A given in Exercise 19.

a
20.
b
 11 
8
342
Section 6.4
  1   1
1 1
3 3
 8 5 2 -1 -4 
Pinv A   = 10   = 10  -21 
4   4   , so
 -2 -1 0 1 2   25 
   
8 8
11 11
a = -21/10, b = 5/2, and the least squares line is y = -21/10 + 5x/2.
21. The equation of the parabola will be y = a + bx + cx2 . The data points give 5 = a + b + c,
2 = a + 2b + 4c, 3 = a + 3b + 9c, and 8 = a + 4b + 16c. Thus the system of equations is
a  52   1 1 1

given by A  b  =
  , where A =  1 2 4
.
c 3  1 3 9
8  1 4 16 
1 1 1
1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1
 1 2 4 1 
Pinv A = ( 1 2 3 4 ) 1 2 3 4
1 3 9 

1 4 9 16
  1 4 9 16

1 4 16
 4 10 30 -1  1 1 1 1  620 -540 100   1 1 1 1 

=  10 30 100   1 2 3 4  = 1  -540 516 -100   1 2 3 4 
     80   
 30 100 354   1 4 9 16   100 -100 20   1 4 9 16 
 45 -15 -25 15   5
  12 
1  
= 20  -31 23 27 -19  . Pinv A
 2
=  -9  , so
   2
3
 5 -5 -5 5
8
a = 12, b = -9, c = 2, and the least squares parabola is y = 12 - 9x + 2x2 .
a 0
4
22. The system of equations is given by A  b  =

  with A given in Exercise 21.
c  
3
5
343
Section 6.4
 40   45 -15 -25 15   
4
 180 
Pinv A
  1  
= 20  -31 23 27 -19 
 0
= 20  -138  , so
1 
3 5 
3
 30 
5  5 -5 -5
5
a = 9, b = -69/10, c = 3/2, and the least squares parabola is y = 9 - 69x/10 + 3x2 /2.
a 5
2

c  
7
1
 25   45 -15 -25 15   
2
 -145 
Pinv A
  1  
= 20  -31 23 27 -19 
 5 1  -29
= 20  223  , so a = 4 , b = 20 ,
223
7 5 
7
1  5 -5 -5
1  -45 
-9 -29 223 9
c = 4 , and the least squares parabola is y = 4 + 20 x - 4 x2 .
a  4 
23

c 
7
 17 
 234   45 -15 -25 15  

23
 1  1055 
Pinv A
  1  
= 20  -31 23 27 -19 
 4
= 20  -755  , so a = 4 ,
211
 7 5
7
 145 
 17   5 -5 -5
 17 
-151 29 211 151 29 2
b= 4 , c = 4 , and the least squares parabola is y = 4 - 4 x + 4 x .
25. (a) Let line be L = a + bF (see example 5). Data points give 5.9 = a + 2b,
8 = a + 4b, 10.3 = a + 6b, and 12.2 = a + 8b. Thus the system of equations is given
344
Section 6.4
 5.98   1 2

a
by A   =
  , where A =  1 4
.

pinv(A) = 
1 .5 0 -.5 
,
b  10.3   1 6  -.15 -.05 .05 .15 
 12.2   1 8
 5.98 
as in example 5. pinv(A)
   3.8 
=   , so a = 3.8, b = 1.06, and the least
 10.3   1.06 
 12.2 
squares equation is L = 3.8 + 1.06F. If the force is 15 ounces, then the predicted
length of the spring is L = 3.8 + 1.06x15 = 19.7 inches.
(b) Let line be L = a + bF. Data points give 7.4 = a + 2b, 10.3 = a + 4b, 13.7 = a + 6b,
and 16.7 = a + 8b. Thus the system of equations is
 10.3
7.4
  1 2

a
given by A   =
  , where A =  1 4
.
b  13.7   1 6
 16.7   1 8
 1 .5 0 -.5 
pinv(A) =   , as in example 5.
 -.15 -.05 .05 .15 
 10.3
7.4

pinv(A)
   4.2 
=   , so a = 4.2, b = 1.565, and the least squares equation
 13.7   1.565 
 16.7 
is L = 4.2 + 1.565F. If the force is 15 ounces, then the predicted length of the
spring is L = 4.2 + 1.565x15 = 27.675 inches.
26. Let line be G = a + bS. The data points give 18.25 = a + 30b,
20 = a + 40b, 16.32 = a + 50b, 15.77 = a + 60b, and 13.61 = a + 70b. Thus the system of
 20.00  1 
18.25 1 30
40
equations is given by A   =  16.32  , where A =  1  . pinv A = (A A)
a t -1
50 At
b
 13.61  1 
15.77 1 60
70
345
Section 6.4
1  13500 -250   1 1 1 1 1  1  60 35 10 -15 -40 

= 5000    = 50  .
 -250 5   30 40 50 60 70   1 .5 0 .5 1 
  1
18.25
20.00
pinv A   = 50  1177.25 
16.32   , so a = 23.545, b = -.1351, and the least squares
 -6.755 
 
15.77
13.61
line is G = 23.545 - .1351S. The predicted mileage per gallon of this car at 55 mph is
G = 23.545 - .1351x55 = 16.1145 miles per gallon.
27. Let line be N = a + bX. The data points give 101 = a + 20b, 115 = a + 25b, 92 = a + 30b,
64 = a + 35b, 60 = a + 40b, 50 = a + 45b, and 49 = a + 50b.
   
101 1 20
   
115 1 25
92 1 30
Thus the system of equations is given by A   =   , where A =  .
a 64 1 35
b
   
60 1 40
   
50 1 45
49 1 50
1  9275 -245   1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
pinv A = (At A)-1 At = 4900   
 -245 7   20 25 30 35 40 45 50 
1  4375 3150 1925 700 -525 -1750 -2975 

= 4900  .
 -105 -70 -35 0 35 70 105 
 
101
  1
115
92
pinv A   = 4900  761250  76125 -1113
64   , so a = 490 , b = 490 , and the least
 -11130 
 
60
 
50
49
76125 1113
squares equation is N = 490 - 490 X. The predicted number of driver
346
Section 6.4
76125 - 1113x22
fatalities at age 22 is 490 = 105.
28. Let line be U = a + bD. The data points give 520 = a + 1000b, 540 = a + 1500b,
582 = a + 2000b, 600 = a + 2500b, 610 = a + 3000b, and 615 = a + 3500b.
 540  1 
520 1 1000
1500
a
Thus the system of equations is given by A   =
 582  , where A =  1 2000 .
b
 600   1 2500

 615  1 
610 1 3000
3500
pinv A = (At A)-1 At
1  34750000 -13500   1 1 1 1 1 1 
= 26250000   
 -13500 6   1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 
1  212500 145000 77500 10000 -57500 -125000 

= 262500  .
 -75 -45 -15 15 45 75 
 540 
520
pinv A
 582  = 1  127955000  , so a = 127955000 , b = 10545 ,
 600  262500  10545  262500 262500
 615 
610
127955000 + 10545D
and the least squares line is U = 262500 . Predicted sales when
127955000 + 10545x5000
$5000 is spent on advertising is U = 262500 = 688 units.
29. Let equation be G = a + bS. The system of equations is given by
347
Section 6.4
   
3.2 1 490
   
2.8 1 450
3.9 1 640
 2.4   1 510 
A   = C, where C =   and A =  .
a 4.0 1 680
pinv (A)C = (At A)-1 At C
b 3.5 1 610
 2.7   1 480 
   
3.6 1 450
   
3.5 1 600
2.4 1 650
1  316220 -556  t 1  122716 

= 70840   A C = 70840   , so the least squares line is
 -556 1  187 
122716 + 187S
given by G = 70840 . G = 1.732298137 + 0.0026397516s.
Prediction of the graduating GPA of a student entering with an SAT of S = 670 is G = 3.5.
30. Let line be % = a + bY. The system of equations is
   
.18 1 20
   
.19 1 25
.21 1 30
given by A   = C, where C =   and A =  .
a .25 1 35 pinv A = (At A)-1 At
b
   
.35 1 40
   
.54 1 45
.83 1 50
1  4375 3150 1925 700 -525 -1750 -2975 

= 4900   , as in Exercise 27.
 -105 -70 -35 0 35 70 105 
348
Section 6.4
1  -1632.75 
(pinv A) C = 4900   , so the least squares line is given by
 97.65 
-1632.75 + 97.65Y
%= 4900 . The predicted percentage of deaths at 23 years of
-1632.75 + 97.65x23
age is 4900 = 0.125.
It is clear from the drawing below that the least squares line does not fit the data well.
The parabola fits better. The equation of the least squares parabola will be
a
% = a + bY + cY . The system of equations is given by A  b  = C, where
2
c
 
1 20 400
 
1 25 625
1 30 900  .9364 
A=  1 35 1225 
and C is given above. (pinv A)C =  -.0591  , so
 .0011 
 
1 40 1600
 
1 45 2025
1 50 2500
the least squares parabola is % = .9364 - .0591Y + .0011Y2 . The predicted
percentage of deaths at 23 years of age is .9364 - .0591x23 + .0011x529 = .159.
least squares line least squares parabola
31. Let cost-volume formula be C = a + bV. The system of equations is given by
349
Section 6.4
   
6300 1 120
6500 1 140
a
A   = D, where D =
 6670  and A =
 1 155 . (pinv A)D = (At A)-1 At D
b
 6450
  1 135

   
6100 1 110
5950 1 105
1  99375 -765  t 1  2020440 

= 11025   A D = 441   , so the least squares line is
 -765 6   6042 
2020440 + 6042V
given by C = 441 . For the next month, the predicted cost is
2020440 + 6042x165
C= 441 = $6842.
32, Hint, refer to examples 3 and 5. Let x=0 for 1970, x = 10 for 1980, ... x = 45 for 2015.
1 0 0  45.55 5.50

      45.2660 5.4094 
1 10 100  41.65 5.00  
A = 1 20 400  , Y1 = 40.54, Y2 = 5.20. pinv(A) [Y1 Y2] = 0.4552 0.0439
      
1 30 900  44.31 6.02 0.0127 0.0019 


1 40 1600
 
46.86
 
6.51

Least squares parabolas are:
 – 0439x + 0.0019x2.
Public y = 45.2660 – 0.4552x + 0.0127x2 . Private y = 5.4094
 
2015: x = 45. y(public) 
= 50.4995, y(private) = 7.2814.
33. (a) Let W be the plane given by the equation x - y - z = 0. For all points in this plane
x = y + z, so W = {(y + z, y, z)} = {y(1,1,0) + z(1,0,1)}. Thus a basis for W is the set
1 1
1  2 -1 
{(1,1,0), (1,0,1)} and A =  1 0  . (At A)-1 = 3   , and the projection
 -1 2 
0 1
 2 1 1 1  4
matrix P = A(A A) A = 3  1 2 -1  . P  2  = 3  5  , so the projection of
t -1 t 1     1 
 1 -1 2  0  -1 
the vector (1,2,0) onto the plane x - y - z = 0 is the vector (4/3, 5/3, -1/3).
350
Section 6.4
(b) Let W be the plane given by the equation x - y + z = 0. For all points in this plane
x = y - z, so W = {(y - z, y, z)} = {y(1,1,0) + z(-1,0,1)}. Thus a basis for W is the set
 1 -1 
1  2 1
{(1,1,0), (-1,0,1)} and A =  1 0  . (At A)-1 = 3   , and the projection
 1 2
 0 1
 2 1 -1  1 2
t -1 t 1     1  
matrix P = A(A A) A = 3  1 2 1  . P  1  = 3  4  , so the projection of
 -1 1 2  1 2
the vector (1,1,1) onto the plane x - y + z = 0 is the vector (2/3, 4/3, 2/3).
(c) Let W be the plane given by the equation x - 2y + z = 0. For all points in this plane
x = 2y - z, so W = {(2y - z, y, z)} = {y(2,1,0) + z(-1,0,1)}. Thus a basis for W is the
 2 -1 
1  2 2
set {(2,1,0), (-1,0,1)} and A =  1 0  . (At A)-1 = 6   , and the projection
 2 5
 0 1
 5 2 -1  0 6
t -1 t 1     1  
matrix P = A(A A) A = 6  2 2 2  . P  3  = 6  6  , so the projection of
 -1 2 5  0 6
the vector (0,3,0) onto the plane x - 2y + z = 0 is the vector (1,1,1).
 1 1
1  3 1
34. (a) A =  -1 1  and (At A)-1 = 8   . Thus the projection matrix
 1 3
 1 -1 
 8 0 0  -2   -16 
A = 8  0 4 -4  . P  1  = 8  -8  , so the projection of
t -1 1 
t    1 
P = A(A A)
 0 -4 4   3  8
the vector (-2,1,3) onto W is the vector (-2,-1,1).
351
Section 6.4
1 2
1  5 -2 
(b) A =  0 1  and (At A)-1 = 6   . Thus the projection matrix
 -2 2 
1 0
 5 2 1  6  42 
t -1 t 1 
P = A(A A) A = 6  2 2 -2   0  1 
-12  , so the projection of
.P  = 6  
 1 -2 5   12   66 
the vector (6,0,12) onto W is the vector (7,-2,11).
1 2
1  5 -3 
35. A =  1 1  and (At A)-1 = 6   . Thus the projection matrix
 -3 3 
1 0
 5 2 -1  3  14 
1     1 
t
P = A(A A) -1 t
A =6  2 2 2 0 8  , so the projection of the vector
.P  = 6  
 -1 2 5  1  2
6  36  6
(3,0,1) onto W is the vector (7/3,4/3,1/3). P  3  = 6  18  =  3  , so the projection
  1  
0  0 0
of the vector (6,3,0) onto W is the vector (6,3,0). This is because (6,3,0) is a multiple of
a
basis vector and is therefore in W.
36. If A is invertible then A-1 and (At )-1 exist and (At A)-1 = A-1(At)-1 so that
pinv(A) = (At A)-1 At = A-1(At)-1 At = A-1 . In such a situation there is a unique solution
x = A-1 y. The least squares solution is x = pinv(A)y = A-1 y. that solution.
37. pinv(AB) = ((AB)t(AB) )-1(AB)t .
If A is mxn and B is nxk then pinv(A) is nxm and pinv(B) is
kxn, AB is mxk, and pinv (AB) is kxm. In general pinv(A)pinv(B) does not exist and
352
Section 6.4
pinv(B)pinv(A) is kxm, so (a) is not possible, but (b) is. In fact (b) obviously holds if A
and B are invertible. (b) also holds for some fairly simple examples where A and B are
 10 0 0
 1 0
not invertible, such as A=
 1 0  and B =  0 1  . However it is easy to find
0 0 1  0 0
0 0 0 
 11 0 1
 1 1
examples where (b) does not hold. If A=
 0 0  and B =  0 1  then
1 1 0  1 0
0 1 0 
 0 2 1 -1 
1  1 -1 2  1  1  6 -1 -2 -1 
pinv(B)pinv(A) = 3   3  0 -1 1 2  = 9   and
 1 2 -1   -3 2 4 2 
 3 -2 -1 1 
1  9 2 -3 -5 
pinv(AB) = 17  .
 -4 1 7 6 
1 1
38. (a) Pinv(cA) = ((cA)t(cA) )-1(cA)t = (c2 At A)-1 cAt = t -1
2 (A A) cAt = c (AtA)-1 At .
c
(b) Pinv(A) exists if and only if (At A)-1 exists, and (At A)-1 exists if and only if
|At A| ≠ 0. Since A (and therefore At ) is square, |At A| = |At ||A|, so |At A| ≠ 0 if and
only if |A| = |At | ≠ 0. Thus pinv(A) exists if and only if A is invertible, and therefore
pinv(A) = A-1 (see exercise 36). Thus pinv(pinv(A)) = pinv(A-1 ) = (A-1 )-1 = A.
(c) As in (b), pinv(A) = A-1 and pinv(At ) = (At )-1 = (A-1 )t = (pinv(A))t .
39. If A is mxn, then At is nxm and At A is nxn. Pinv(A) exists if and only if (At A) 1 exists, and
(At A) 1exists if and only if At A has rank n. We must show that At A has rank n if and
only

if A has rank n. A is the matrix of a linear transformation T from R n to R m , A t is the matrix

of a linear transformation S from Rm to Rn , and At A is the matrix of the linear
  
353
Section 6.4
transformation ST from Rn to Rn . Thus dim range(T) + dim ker(T) = dim domain(T)
= dim(Rn ) = n and dim range(ST) + dim ker(ST) = dim domain(ST) = dim(Rn ) = n.
Dim range(T) = rank(A) and dim range(ST) = rank(At A), so rank(A) + dim ker(T) = n
= rank(At A) + dim ker(ST). We show that ker(T) = ker(ST).
If x is in ker(T) then Ax = 0 and At Ax = 0 so x is in ker(ST). If x is in ker(ST) then
At Ax = 0 and xt At Ax = 0. But xt At Ax = (Ax)t Ax = ||Ax||2 and if ||Ax||2 = 0 then
||Ax|| = 0 and Ax = 0. Thus x is in ker(T). So dim ker(T) = 0 if and only if dim ker(ST) = 0
and rank(A) = n if and only if rank(At A) = n.
If m < n, then rank(A) ≤ m < n, so pinv(A) does not exist.
40. P = A(At A)-1 At , where the columns of A are a basis for the vector space.
(a) Pt = ( A(At A)-1 At )t = (At )t ((AtA)-1)t At = A((At A)t )-1 At = A(At A)-1 At = P.
(b) P2 = (A(At A)-1 At )(A(At A)-1 At ) = A(At A)-1(AtA)(AtA)-1 At = A(At A)-1 At = P.
41. (a) Let v  null(A). Then Av = 0  At(Av) = 0  (AtA)v = 0  v  null(AtA). Thus null(A) 
null(AtA). Conversly, let u  null(AtA). Then (AtA)u = 0  utAtAu = 0  (Au)t(Au) = 0  ||Au||2
= 0  Au = 0  u  null(A).  Thus null(AA)  null(A). 
t

Since null(A)  null(A A) and null(A A)  null(A) then null(A) = null(A A).
t t t
  
(b) Rank/nullity theorem gives rank(A) + nullity(A) = dim domain(A) and
  
rank(AtA) + nullity(AtA) = dim domain(AtA).
 
We know from (a) that nullity(A) = nullity(AtA). Further domain(A) =domain (AtA) = Rn. Thus
dim domain(A) = dim domain(AtA) = n. Therefore rank(A) = rank(AtA). (AtA) is invertible if and
only if rank(A) = n.
354
Section 7.6
Wa
 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
 Wa
 11 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

Ne  1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0  Ne  1 1 0 0 0 0 0 
H  0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0  H  0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 
A  0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0  A  0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 
T
 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
 T
 00 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

G  0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0  ,
G  0 0 0 0 1 1 0  ,
Na  1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1  Na  1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 
We  1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0  We  1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 
Power method gives = 3.3577, x=(1,0.59,0.39,0.17,0.17,0.40,0.94,0.82).
Normalized vector is (0.22,0.13,0.09,0.04,0.04,0.09,0.21,0.18), giving connectivities.
Wanganui has the highest connectivity, 0.22.
South Island: A = B=
Ri Cr D T Ch G Re N Ri Cr D T Ch G Re N
Ri
 0 0 1 0 0 0
Cr  0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0
 Ri
 10 01 11 00 00 00 0 0

0 0  Cr  0 0 
D  1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0  D  1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 
T  0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0  T  0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 
Ch
 0 0 0 1 0 1
G  0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1
 Ch
 00 00 00 10 11 11 0 1

1 0  ,
G  1 0  ,
Re  0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0  Re  0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 
N  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0  N  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 
Power method gives = 3.0420, x=(0.41,0.41,0.84,0.90,1,0.65,0.32,0.50). Normalized
vector is (0.08,0.08,0.17,0.18,0.20,0.13,0.06,0.10)), giving connectivities. Christchurch has
the highest connectivity, 0.20. The North Island (with an index of 3.36) is more connected
than the South Island (3.04).
Exercise Set 7.6
1.  1 = 4,  2 = 1.  1 = 2, σ2 = 1.
2.  1 = 9,  2 = 1. σ1 = 3, σ2 = 1.
3.  1 = 4,  2 = 0. σ1 = 2, σ2 = 0.
4.  1 = 9,  2 = 9. σ1 = 3, σ2 = 3.
5.  1 = 33,  2 = 1. σ1 = 33 , σ2 = 1.
396

Section 7.6
6.  1 = 3,  2 = 1. σ1 = 3 , σ2 = 1.
7.  1 = 19,  2 = 0,  3 = -1. σ1 = 19, σ2 = 0.
8.  1 = 15,  2
= 0,  3 = 0. σ1 = 15 , σ2 = 0, σ3 = 0.
9.  1 = 27,  2 = 4,  3 = 0. σ1 = 27 , σ2 = 2, σ3 = 0.
10.  1 = 294,  2 = 0,  3
= 0. σ1 = 294 , σ2 = 0, σ3 = 0.
11.  1 = 16,  2 = 4,  3 =4. σ1 = 4, σ2 = 2, σ3 = 2.
12.  1 = 16,  2 = 9,  3 = 2, 4 = 1. σ1 = 4, σ2 = 3, σ3 = 2 , σ4 = 1.
1 04 0 1 0
13.    
0 10 2 0 1

1/ 2 1/ 23 2 0 1 0
14.    
1/ 2 1/ 2 0 2 2 0 1
  
1 02 2 0 1/ 2 1/ 2
15.    
0 1 0 21/ 2 1/ 2 
  
1/ 2 1/ 28 01/ 2 1/ 2
16.    
 1/ 2 1/ 20 41/ 2 1/ 2 
 
2 /3 1/3 2 /318 0 
  0 1
17. 2 /3 2 /3 1/3 0 12 
 
 2 /3 0 0 1 0
1/3 2 /3  
1/3 2 /3 2 /312 0
  1 0
18. 2 /3 2 /3 1/3 
 0 0 
0 1
  
2 /3 1/3 2 /3 

0 0

12 2
2 /3 1/3 2 /3 0 
    1/ 2 1/ 2 
19. 2 /3 2 /3 1/3 0 3 2  
1/
 2 1/ 2 

1/3 
2 /3 2 /3  0 0 

2 /3 1/3 2 /39 2 0
  1/ 2 1/ 2 
20. 2 /3 2 /3 1/3 0  0 
  1/ 2 1/ 2 


1/3 2 /3 2 /3
 0 
0

 
397
Section 7.6
0.6667 0.6667 0.3333 12.7279 0

  0.7071 0.7071
Computer gives: 0.6667 0.7333 0.1333 0 0 
0.7071 0.7071 

 0.333 0.1313 0.9333 

 0 0

1/ 2 0 1/ 2
1/ 2 1/ 24 0 0 
21.    0 1 0  
 20
1/ 2 1/ 2 0  
1/ 2 0 1/ 2
1/ 2 0 1/ 2
1/ 2 1/ 212 0 0 
 22.     0 1 0 
1/ 2 1/ 20 4 2 0 
1/ 2 0 1/ 2
1/ 2 0 1/ 2
1/ 2 1/ 22 0 0 
 23.     0 1 0 
1/ 2 1/ 20 2 0 
1/ 2 0 1/ 2
1/ 2 0 1/ 2
1 0 2 0 0 
 24.  
  0 1 0 

0 1 0 1 01/ 2 0 1/ 2 
 
1 0 012 0 02 /3 2 /3 1/3
   
  0 1 00 6 02 /3 1/3 2 /3 
25.
 0 0 31/3 2 /3 2 /3 
0 0 1
  
1 0 06 0 02 /3 2 /3 1/3

 
   
26. 0 1 00 3 02 /3 1/3 2 /3

0 0 1

0 0 0

1/3 2 /3 2 /3 

1 0 03 0 02 /3 2 /3 1/3

 
 
  
27. 0 1 00 0 02 /3 1/3 2 /3

0 0 1

0 0 0

1/3 2 /3 2 /3

1 0 03 0 00.6667 0.6667 0.3333
   
Computer gives: 0 1 00 0 00.7454 0.5963 0.2981
   
0 0 1

0 0 0

 0 0.4472 0.8944

3/7 6 /7 2 /7 42 0 0 2 /3 2 /3 1/3
   
28. 2 /7 3/7 6 /7 0 21 0 2 /3 1/3 2 /3
   0 0 211/3 2 /3 2 /3
6 /7 2 /7 3/7

  
398
  
Section 7.6
Computer gives:
0.4286 0.6389 0.638942 0 0 0.6667 0.6667 0.3333
   
0.2857 0.7667 0.57500 21 0 0.7454 0.5963 0.2981 

0.8571 0.0639 0.5100 

0 0 21

 0 0.4472 0.8944

1 0 021 0 03/7 6 /7 2 /7 
   
29. 0 1 00 14 02 /7 3/7 6 /7 
  6 /7 2 /7  3/7
0 0 1

0 0 7
 
3/7 6 /7 2 /7 63 0 0 2 /3 2 /3 1/3
   
30. 2 /7 3/7 6 /7 0 42 0 2 /3 1/3 2 /3
 
 
6 /7 2 /7 3/7

0 0 21

1/3 2 /3 2 /3

3/7 6 /7 2 /7 42 0 02 /3 2 /3 1/3
   
31. 2 /7 3/7 6 /7 0 21 02 /3 1/3 2 /3
   
6 /7 2 /7 3/7

0 0 0

1/3 2 /3 2 /3

3/7 6 /7 2 /7 21 0 02 /3 2 /3 1/3
   
32. 2 /7 3/7 6 /7 0 0 02 /3 1/3 2 /3
   
6 /7 2 /7 3/7

0 0 0

1/3 2 /3 2 /3

Computer gives:
0.4286 0.8571 0.285721 0 00.6667 0.7454 0 
      
0,2857
 0.1714 0.9429 0 0 00.6667 0.5963 0.4472 

0.8571 0.4857 0.1714

0 0 0

0.3333 0.2981 0.8944

33. (a) Let the matrix U be orthogonal. Then U -1 = U t. Thus (U t) -1 = (U -1) t (Properties of
Matrix Inverse, Section 2.4) implying that (U t) -1 = (U t) t . Therefore U t is orthogonal.
  
(b) Let X and Y be orthogonal. Then X -1 = X t and Y -1 = Y t. Thus (XY) -1 = Y-1X-1 (Properties of
Matrix Inverse, Section 2.4) = YtXt = (XY) t (Properties of transpose, Section 2.3). Therefore
XY is orthogonal.
(c) Since A is mxn, At is nxm. Thus AtA is an nxn symmetric matrix. AtA has n real eigenvalues
(Theorem 5.9). Since i = i , i = 1,..., n, A has n singular values. Similarly AAt is an mxm
symmetric matrix, having m real eigenvalues leading to m singular values for A t.

34. Let A be an mxn matrix and UΣVt be a Σingular value decomposition of A.
A = UΣVt is an SVD of the mxn matrix A. Then: # rows in A = # of rows in U = m.
399
Section 7.6
# columns in A = # of columns in Vt = n. U is orthogonal – it is square. Thus # of columns in U

is m; # rows in Σ = m. V is orthogonal – it is square; Thus number of rows in Vt = n; # columns
in Σ = n.
35. Let A be an mxn matrix and A = UΣVt be an SVD of A.

If A is mxn then Σ is mxn. Thus we know m and n for each of the above cases. (A tA) is nxn
and symmetric. Thus (AtA) has n real eigenvalues and A has a total of n singular values (i=
i ,
i = 1, ..., n). D, the diagonal upper left submatrix of A, is rxr diagonal. Therefore A has r
positive singular values, namely the elements of D, and n-r zero singular values.

(a) m=2, n=3, r=2. Thus σ1=5, σ2=1, σ3=0. (b) m=2, n=3, r=1. Thus σ1=6, σ2=0, σ3=0.
(c) m=3, n=2, r=2. Thus σ1=12, σ2=4. (d) m=3, n=4, r=2. σ1=7, σ2=5, σ3=0, σ4=0.
36. Let A be an mxn matrix. (a) Let A = UΣVt be an SVD of A. We get At = (UΣVt) t = V (UΣ)t =
Dt 0 D 0
VΣtU t. Since D is diagonal, Dt = D and we get Σt =  =  . V and U are orthogonal.
0 0 0 0
VΣt U t is thus of the required form to be an SVD for At. The positive singular values of At are
the elements of D, the same as the positive singular values of A. (Note that even though Dt =
 
D, Σ is mxn, while Σt is nxm.) (b) A is an mxn matrix. Let A have r positive singular values
(diagonal elements of the matrix D). The matrix A tA is nxn and symmetric. Thus AtA has n real
eigenvalues (counting multiplicities), implying that A has n singular values. A will thus have n-r
zero singular values. Analogously the matrix At has m-r zero singular values.
(c) Let A be nxn. A and At have the same positive singular values – part (a). A has n-r singular
zero singular values and At has m-r singular values - part (b). Since A is square m = n. Thus A
and At have the same singular values.
37. A is mxn. Thus AtA is nxn and symmetric. Therefore AtA has n real eigenvalues and A has n
singular values. Since P and Q are orthogonal matrices they are square. Thus P is mxm and Q is
nxn. PAQ is mxn. (PAQ)t( PAQ) is nxn and symmetric, thus (PAQ)t( PAQ) has n real
eigenvalues and PAQ therefore has n singular values.
Let A = UΣVt be a singular value decomposition of A. Then PAQ = PUΣVtQ = (PU)Σ(QtV)t. PU
and QtV are both orthogonal matrices – see exercise 33. Thus (PU)Σ(QtV)t is an SVD of PAQ.
400
Section 7.6
The nonzero singular values of both A and PAQ are the same – they are the diagonal elements
of D – r of them . Since both A and PAQ have n singular values, they must both have n-r zero
singular values. Thus A and PAQ have the same singular values.
38. Let A be an nxn invertible matrix with singular value decomposition A = UΣV t and singular
values s1, ... , sn. (a) A is square. Thus U, Σ and V are square nxn matrices. Since Σ is square
it must be a diagonal matrix. Since A is invertible, |A| ≠ 0. Thus |Σ| ≠ 0. Therefore Σ =
1 ... 0 
 
M O Mand |Σ| = σ1σ2...σn ≠ 0. Thus σ1≠ 0, ... , σn ≠ 0. Singular values of Σ are all

0 ...  n 

nonzero.
1/1 ... 0 
  
(b) Σ-1 =  M O M .

 0 ... 1/ n 

(c) A =UΣVt. A-1 = (UΣVt) -1 = (Vt) -1Σ-1 U-1 = (V-1) -1Σ-1 Ut =VΣ-1 Ut. Thus VΣ-1Ut is an SVD of A-1.
1/1 ... 0 
  
(d) Since Σ =  M O
-1
M the singular values of A-1 are 1/σ1, ... , 1/σn.

 0 ... 1/ n 

39. Let A = UΣVt be a singular value decomposition of A. Then |A| = |U| |Σ| |V t|.
 and V are orthogonal |U| = +1 and |Vt| = +1. Therefore |A| = + |Σ|. Since Σ is square it
Since U
must be a diagonal matrix with diagonal elements σ1, σ2, ... , σn. |Σ| = σ1σ2...σn . Thus |A| =
+σ1σ2...σn .
40. (a) A = UΣVt. Thus AtA = (UΣVt) t ( UΣVt) = (Vt) t (UΣ)t (UΣVt) = V(Σt U t) (UΣVt) =
VΣt (UtU) ΣVt = V Σt (U -1U) ΣVt = V Σt I Σ Vt = V Σ t Σ Vt = V Σ t Σ V-1. Thus (AtA)V = V Σ t Σ.
Then (AtA)[v1... vi ... vn] = [v1... vi ... vn] Σt Σ. Thus (AtA)[v1. . . vi . . . vn] = [σ12v1 ... σi2vi ...
σn2vn]. implying that (AtA)vi = σi2vi, 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Thus the column vectors of V are eigenvectors of
AtA.
(b) Since A = UΣVt then At = (UΣVt) t = V(UΣ) t = V Σt U t. This is an ΣVD of At (V and U are
orthogonal and Σt is in the correct form). Thus by (a) the columns of U t are eigenvectors of
(At) t At, i.e. of AAt.
401
Section 7.6
(c) Let V = [v1... vi ... vn]. From part (a) we have that (AtA)vi = σi2vi, 1 ≤ i ≤ n , implying also
that (AtA)vi = σi2vi for 1 ≤ i ≤ r. Therefore σi2 = i , σi = i . The nonzero elements of Σ are the
nonzero singular values of A.
41. Note that since U and V are orthogonal then Ut = U-1, Vt = V-1, UUt = Im and VVt = In. We

D 0
use these identities extensively. Note also that sometimes  is an mxn matrix and
0 0
sometimes an nxm matrix. The notation will be the same – we assume that the dimensions fit
the context. Let rank(A) = n. Then (AtA) -1 exists and thus pinv(A) = (AtA) -1At exists. A = UΣVt

is an SVD for A. Substituting this form of A we get
[(AtA) -1At][VΣ+Ut] -1 = [(UΣVt)t (UΣVt )] -1 (UΣVt )t (VΣ+Ut) -1= [(VΣtUt) (UΣVt )] -1 (UΣVt )t (VΣ+Ut) -1
D 0t D 0 t -1 D 0 t t D1 0 t -1
= (VΣtΣVt) -1(UΣVt )t (VΣ+Ut) -1 = (V    V ) (U  V ) (V  U )
0 0 0 0 0 0  0 0
D 02 D 0t t D1 01 D 02 D 0t t D 0 -1
= (   V V ) (V   U ) (U   V ) = (   I ) (V   U ) (U  V )
t -1 -1 -1
0 0 0 0   0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
   
D 02 -1 D 0t 
D 0  
D 0 2

D 02
= (   ) (   VU ) (  UV ) =   (   VU UV ) = In
t -1 t -1
0 0 
0 0 
0 0  0 0 
0 0 
          
42. From exercise 41 we know that VΣ+Ut = pinv(A) when A is mxn and of rank n. From
        
exercise 36, section 6.4 we know that pinv(A) = inv(A) when A is nxn (square), and of rank n.
Thus A+ = inv(A) when A is nxn and of rank n.
43. (a) A U Σ Vt
1 1 0.2608 0.95355.2993
0.1513 0  t
    0.5414 0.8408 
1 2 = 0.2152 0.9719 0.0953 0 1.9791  .
0.8408 0.5414

3 4
 0.9411 0.1803 0.2860 

 0 0 

5.2993 0 
 5.2993 0  -1 
0.1887 0  + 0.1887 0
 1.9791, D =
0
Σ =
 0    , D =  , Σ =  .
 0 1.9791  0 0.5053  0 0.5053 0

 0 0 

1
0.0909 0.3909 0.1727  0.0909 0.3909 0.1727  1.1273
A+ = VΣ+Ut =   
. x = A y = 
+   0 =  .
  0 0.3 0.1   0 0.3 0.1    0.6 

6

The least squares solution is x 

= 1.1273, y = 0.6.
  
402 
Chapter 7 Review Exercises
(b) A U Σ Vt
1 1 0.3295 0.2468 0.91134.0501 0  t
    0.4332 0.9013
1 2 = 0.3381 0.9321 0.1302  0 1.8965  .
0.9013 0.4332

2 3
 
0.8815 0.2652 0.3906 

 0 0 

4.0501 0 
  4.0501 0  -1 0.2469 0  + 0.2469 0 0
 Σ =  0 1.8965, D =   , D =  ,Σ =  .
 0 1.8965  0 0.5273  0 0.5273 0

 0 0 

4 
0.1525 0.4068 0.2203   0.1525 0.4068 0.2203   0.8644 
 A+ =VΣ+Ut =   .x =A y = 
+  1=  .
0.0169 0.2881 0.1356 0.0169 0.2881 0.1356 0.7627

3 

The least squares solution is x 

= 0.8644, y = -0.7627.
  

44. (a) A U Σ Vt
0.2781 0.3232 0.9045 t
1 2 1 0.2298 0.97324.3253 0 0 
 =   0.1188 0.9460 0.3015 .
1 1 4  0.9732 0.2298 0 2.3004 0

0.9532 0.0236 0.3015 

0.2312 0 
 4.3253  0 0 
4.3253 0  -1 0.2312 0  +  
Σ =  , D =  , D =
 , Σ =  0  0.4347.
 0 2.3004 0  0 2.3004  0 0.4347

 0 0 

0.1515 0.0303 0.1515 0.0303 0.4848 

  
 3  
 
  0.1212 . x = A+y 
A+ = VΣ+Ut = 0.3939 = 0.3939 0.1212   = 1.0606 .
 1

0.0606 0.2121 
 
0.0606 0.2121 
 
0.3939

The least squares solution

 is x = 0.4848, y = 1.0606, z = -0.3939.

  
(b) A U Σ Vt
0.3041 0.9029 0.3038t
2 1 3 0.3077 0.95157.3623 0 0 
 =   0.5587 0.0892 0.8245 .
3 4 5 0.9515 0.3077  0 3.1299 0
0.7716 0.4205 0.4774 
 
  
 
403
0.1358 0 
7.3623 0 0 7.3623 0  -1 0.1358 0  +  
Σ =  , D =  , D =  , Σ =  0 0.3195.
 0 3.1299 0  0 3.1299  0 0.3195

 0 0 

0.2618 0.1281 0.2618 0.1281 1.8268 

   
 0.0038 0.0810   = 0.1846.
 
 6
  0.0810 . x = A+y =
A+ = VΣ+Ut = 0.0038   2
   
 
0.1601 0.0584   
0.1601 0.0584  
0.8437 

The least squares solution

 is x = 0.4848, y = 1.0606, z = -0.3939.
+A A+ = A+: A+A A+
45. Theorem 7.8 (b), proof that A = (AtA)-1 t t -1 t
 A A (A A) A
= A-1(At)-1 At A A-1(At)-1 At = A-1(At)-1 At = (At A)-1 At = A+
1. From the first equation x1 = 2, and from the second equation 6 - x2 = 7, so x2 = -1.
From the third equation 2 - 3 + 2x3 = 1, so x3 = 1.
 1 0 0
2. The "rule" is Ri - aRj causes the (i,j)th position in L to be a. L =  3/2 1 0  .

 -2/7 4 1 
 6 1 -1   1 
x
 5
3. The matrix equation Ax = b is  -6 1 1   x2  =  1  .
 
 12 12 1   x3   52 
6 1 1  6 1 1 6 1 1

      
6 1 1  R2  R1 0 2 0 R3  (5)R2 0 2 0  = U, and

12 12 1 
R3  (2)R1 
0 10 3 
 
0 0 3 

 1 0 0  5  5 1
L =  -1 1 0  . Ly =  1  gives y =
   6  , and Ux = y gives x =  3  .
   

 2 5 1  52   12  4
4. The arrays below show the numbers of multiplications and additions needed to compute
each entry in the matrix LU = A.
404

과제6 해답

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과제6 해답

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Section 4.

Exercise Set 4.6

1. (a) (1,2)(2,-1) = 0, so the vectors are orthogonal.

(b) (3,-1)(0,5) = -5, so the vectors are not orthogonal.

(c) (0,-2)(3,0) = 0, so the vectors are orthogonal.

(d) (4,1)(2,-3) = 5, so the vectors are not orthogonal.

(e) (-3,2)(2,3) = 0, so the vectors are orthogonal.

2. (a) (1,2,1)(4,-2,0) = 0, (1,2,1)(2,4,-10) = 0, and (4,-2,0)(2,4,-10) = 0, so the set of

(b) (3,-1,1)(2,0,1) = 7, so the set of vectors is not orthogonal.

(c) (-2,-1,3)(6,-1,-1) = -14, so the set of vectors is not orthogonal.

(d) (1,2,-1,1)(3,1,4,-1) = 0, (1,2,-1,1)(0,1,-1,-3) = 0, and (3,1,4,-1)(0,1,-1,-3) = 0,

( 1 , 1 , 2 ) ( 1 , 1 , 2 )= 1, (0, 2 , 1 ) (0, 2 , 1 )= 1, and

( 5 , 1 , 2 )  ( 5 , 1 , 2 )= 1, so the vectors are unit vectors. Thus

unit vector. Therefore the set is not orthonormal.

4. v = (vu1 )u1 + (vu2 )u2 + (vu3 )u3 .

5. v = (vu1 )u1 + (vu2 )u2 + (vu3 )u3 .

||a1 || = ||a2 || = ||a3 || =1 and a1 a2 = a1 a3 = a2 a3 = 0.

2 /3  2 /3  1/ 3

12. The (i,j)th element of is ai1 a j1  ai2 a j 2  ... ain a jn . If = I,

is an orthonormal basis for R3 .

(b) u1 = (3,0,0,0), u2 = (0,1,2,1) (because u1 u2 = 0),

23. {u1 , u2 , . . . , un } is a set of n linearly independent vectors in a vector space with

24. We are given Q. To determine R use R = QtA.

3 13 2 14 2 18213 13 13 13 13 13  3 1 5 

25. (a) = 8, 2, 1 (b)= 5, 3, 1 (c)= 4.7506, -3.4149, 1.6643

Since Q is an mxn matrix Qt will be nxm.Thus S is nxn.Since Q has orthonormal columns, Q t

Exercise Set 4.7

1. First find an orthonormal basis for W. u1 = (0,-1,3),

3. We normalize (1, 2, 3). ||(1, 2, 3)|| = 12  22  32 = 14 . Normalized vector is u =

5.  The set {(1,2,0),

orthogonal basis. The vectors ( 1

orthonormal basis. v = w + w  , where

 vector ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) is an orthonormal

linearly independent (they are

ws, v1, ... , vt are linearly independent.

v = w, an element of W; (W   )  is a subset  of W. We have shown  that

2. T((x1 ,y1 )+(x2 ,y2 )) = T(x1 +x2 ,y1 +y2 )

Exercise Set 6.1

1. u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 ), w = (z1 , z2 ), and c is a scalar.

<u,v> = 4x1 y1 + 9x2 y2 = 4y1 x1 + 9y2 x2 = <v,u>,

<u+v,w> = 4(x1 + y1 )z1 + 9(x2 + y2 )z2 = 4x1 z1 + 4y1 z1 + 9x2 z2 + 9y2 z2

= 4x1 z1 + 9x2 z2 + 4y1 z1 + 9y2 z2 = <u,w> + <v,w>,

<cu,v> = 4cx1 y1 + 9cx2 y2 = c(4x1 y1 + 9x2 y2 ) = c<u,v>, and

2. u = (x1 , x2 , x3 ), v = (y1 , y2 , y3 ), w = (z1 , z2 , z3 ), and c is a scalar.

<u,v> = x1 y1 + 2x2 y2 + 4x3 y3 = y1 x1 + 2y2 x2 + 4y3 x3 = <v,u>,

<u+v,w> = (x1 + y1 )z1 + 2(x2 + y2 )z2 + 4(x3 + y3 )z3

= x1 z1 + y1 z1 + 2x2 z2 + 2y2 z2 + 4x3 z3 + 4y3 z3

= x1 z1 + 2x2 z2 + 4x3 z3 + y1 z1 + 2y2 z2 + 4y3 z3 = <u,w> + <v,w>,

<cu,v> = cx1 y1 + 2cx2 y2 + 4cx3 y3 = c(x1 y1 + 2x2 y2 + 4x3 y3 ) = c<u,v>, and

definition is not satisfied.

<u+v,w> = (a+e)j + (b+f)k + (c+g)l + (d+h)m = aj + ej + bk + fk + cl + gl + dm + hm

= aj + bk + cl + dm + ej + fk + gl + hm = <u,w> + <v,w>, so axiom 2 is satisfied.

<u,u> = aa + bb + cc + dd = a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 ≥ 0 and equality holds if and only if

<u,v> = ae + 2bf + 3cg + 4dh = ea + 2fb + 3gc + 4hd = <v,u>,

<u+v,w> = (a+e)j + 2(b+f)k + 3(c+g)l + 4(d+h)m

= aj + ej + 2bk + 2fk + 3cl + 3gl + 4dm + 4hm

= aj + 2bk + 3cl + 4dm + ej + 2fk + 3gl + 4hm = <u,w> + <v,w>,

a = b = c = d = 0. Thus the given function is an inner product on M 22 .

(a) <u,v> = 1x4 + 2(2x1) + 3(0x-3) + 4(-3x2) = 4 + 4 + 0 - 24 = -16.

(b) <u,v> = -2x5 + 2(4x-2) + 3(1x0) + 4(0x-3) = -10 -16 + 0 + 0 = -26.

function, so axiom 4 is satisfied.

7. <f,g> = f (x)g(x) dx = g(x) f (x) dx = <g,f>,

<f+g,h> = ( f (x)  g(x))h(x) dx = f (x)h(x) dx + g(x)h(x) dx = <f,h> + <g,h>,