S3 CIVIL CME (3011)

MODULE 1
Classification of stones

BUILDING STONES.
In order to be able to decide what kind of stone to use under given conditions, a knowledge of
the different kinds employed in the various types of construction is essential. It is not
necessary for a mason to determine the exact composition of a stone to be used in a structure,
but his knowledge should be sufficient to help him in selecting or specifying the stone that is
best for the type of structure.
The properties of a stone that determine its fitness for construction purposes are durability,
strength, hardness, density, and appearance. The quality of a stone can easily and 
approximately be known by studying  its origin and chemical composition and from the
results of tests and experiments.
 Definitions.
 The term rock is commonly defined as a hard mass of mineral matter having, as a rule, no
definite external form. In engineering construction, the word stone is applied indiscriminately
to all classes of hard rocks.
 Description of Classes.
Rocks are classified as follows:

 According to geological origin- igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic

 According to the physical form- stratified, unstratified and foliated.
 According to their chemical composition–silicious, argillaceous and calcerous.

GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
This is classification of rocks based on their origin and formation. On this basis, rocks are
classified as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.  
IGNEOUS ROCK
Igneous Rock, rock formed when molten or partially molten material, called magma, cools
and solidifies. The inner layers of the earth are at a very high temperature causing the masses
of silicates to melt. The melted masses of silicates is called magma, which forced up and
released on the surface of the earth. This release is called volcanic eruption. The magma that
is released cools and solidify into a crystalline rock.
Geologists classify igneous rocks according to the depth at which they formed in the earth’s
crust. Using this principle, they divide igneous rocks into two broad categories: those that
formed beneath the earth’s surface, and those that formed at the surface.
Rocks formed within the earth are called intrusive or plutonic rocks because the magma from
which they form often intrudes into the neighboring rock. Rocks formed at the surface of the

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 earth are called extrusive rocks. In extrusive rocks, the magma has extruded, or erupted,
through a volcano or fissure.
Geologists can tell the difference between intrusive and extrusive rocks by the size of their
crystals: crystals in intrusive rocks are larger than those in extrusive rocks. The crystals in
intrusive rocks are larger because the magma that forms them is insulated by the surrounding
rock and therefore cools slowly. This slow cooling gives the crystals time to grow larger.
Extrusive rocks cool rapidly, so the crystals are very small. In some cases, the magma cools
so rapidly that crystals have no time to form, and the magma hardens in an amorphous glass,
such as obsidian.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
 Sedimentary rocks are formed by the consolidation of particles deposited in any of the three
following ways:
by the mechanical destruction and subsequent deposition of other rocks, usually by
water, as in the case of sandstone or lime stone;
 by the action of animals and plants, as in the case of coral;
 by the chemical precipitation of mineral matter from water, as in the case of
gypsum. The metamorphic rocks are formed by the transformation, of either igneous or
sedimentary rocks through the influence of heat or chemical action. To this class belong
marble, gneiss, and slate.

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 Most sedimentary rocks are characterized by parallel or discordant bedding that reflects
variations in either the rate of deposition of the material or the nature of the matter that is
deposited.

Sedimentary rocks are classified according to their manner of origin into mechanical or
chemical sedimentary rocks.

 Mechanical rocks, or fragmental rocks, are composed of mineral particles

produced by the mechanical disintegration of other rocks and transported, without chemical
deterioration, by flowing water. They are carried into larger bodies of water, where they are
deposited in layers. Shale, sandstone, and conglomerate are common sedimentary rocks of
mechanical origin.
The materials making up chemical sedimentary rocks may consist of the remains of
microscopic marine organisms precipitated on the ocean floor, as in the case of limestone.
They may also have been dissolved in water circulating through the parent rock formation
and then deposited in a sea or lake by precipitation from the solution. Halite, gypsum, and
anhydrite are formed by the evaporation of salt solutions and the consequent precipitation of
the salts.

Due to the method of formation, sedimentary rocks are naturally soft and can be easily split
up along the bedding. Their  properties will vary depending on the nature of the sediment and
type of bond.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS.

Metamorphic Rock is a type of rock formed when rocky material experiences intense heat

and pressure in the crust of the earth.
Metamorphic rock forms when pre-existing rock undergoes mineralogical and structural
changes resulting from high temperatures and pressures. These changes occur in the rock
while it remains solid (without melting).
The changes can occur while the rock is still solid because each mineral is stable only over a
specific range of temperature and pressure. If a mineral is heated or compressed beyond its
stability range, it breaks down and forms another mineral. For example, quartz is stable at
room temperature and at pressures up to 1.9 gigapascals (corresponding to the pressure found
about 65 km [about 40 mi] underground). At pressures above 1.9 gigapascals, quartz breaks
down and forms the mineral coesite, in which the silicon and oxygen atoms are packed more
closely together.
In the same way, combinations of minerals are stable over specific ranges of temperature and
pressure. At temperatures and pressures outside the specific ranges, the minerals react to form
different combinations of minerals. Such combinations of minerals are called mineral
assemblages.

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In a metamorphic rock, one mineral assemblage changes to another when its atoms move
about in the solid state and recombine to form new minerals. This change from one mineral
assemblage to another is called metamorphism. As temperature and pressure increase, the
rock gains energy, which fuels the chemical reactions that cause metamorphism. As
temperature and pressure decrease, the rock cools; often, it does not have enough energy to
change back to a low-temperature and low-pressure mineral assemblage. In a sense, the rock
is stuck in a state that is characteristic of its earlier high-temperature and high-pressure
environment.
The size, shape, and distribution of mineral grains in a rock are called the texture of the rock.
Many metamorphic rocks are named for their main texture. Textures give important clues as
to how the rock formed. As the pressure and temperature that form a metamorphic rock
increase, the size of the mineral grains usually increases. When the pressure is equal in all
directions, mineral grains form in random orientations and point in all directions. When the
pressure is stronger in one direction than another, minerals tend to align themselves in
particular directions. In particular, thin plate-shaped minerals, such as mica, align
perpendicular to the direction of maximum pressure, giving rise to a layering in the rock that
is known as foliation. Compositional layering, or bands of different minerals, can also occur
and cause foliation. At low pressure, foliation forms fine, thin layers, as in the rock slate. At
medium pressure, foliation becomes coarser, forming schist. At high pressure, foliation is
very coarse, forming gneiss. Commonly, the layering is folded in complex, wavy patterns
from the pressure.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE PHYSICAL FORM.

Rocks are also classified as stratified and unstratified, depending on their structure. Igneous
and metamorphic rocks are unstratified, that is, they are not arranged in any definite form in
layers, or strata, but have the constituent parts mingled together.
The sedimentary rocks are stratified, or formed in a series of parallel layers, as they are
deposited from water. The layers were originally horizontal, but in most cases they are found
more or less inclined and curved on account of the action of disturbing forces. Sedimentary
rocks are composed of grains bound together by a cementing medium, and their strength and
durability depend on the nature of the cementing material.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.

Rocks may be further classified as silicious, calcareous, and argillaceous, according to the
chemical composition of the earth forming their main ingredients.

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In silicious stones, silica is the principal earthy constituent;
In calcareous stones, carbonate of lime is the predominating material;
 In argillaceous stones, alumina is the chief component

Parameters in selection of a good construction stone:

Being cheap, hard, durable and naturally good looking stones are often used in construction.
There are several properties of stones that are controlling their types and qualities.
The criteria of selection is based normally on the following general parameters:
1. Chemical composition of stone
2. Strength and hardness
3. Durability
4. Resistance to fire
5. Bio-Deterioration
6. Appearance
7. Susceptibility to being quarried in large sizes.

Chemical composition of stones:

Using/selecting a stone for construction, its chemical properties and composition must be
tested and verified because different elements and compounds in stones have different
properties. For instance, Magnesium in Limestone causes it to be more stronger and is called
Dolomite. Feldspar, in large quantities in stone is a source of weakness because
CO dissolves Potassium, Sodium, and even Calcium in the Feldspar leaving pure white clay
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behind. Presence of Mica, even less than 2-3% makes stone unsuitable for building purposes.
Stones with silicates as cementing materials are resistant to weathering.

Factors affecting strength, hardness and toughness:

a. Hardness or softness of the components
b. Proportions of the hard and soft minerals
c. Size and shape of the minerals
d. Cohesion
e. Porosity
f. Density
g. Cementing material.

Characteristics of stones:
The following properties of the stones should be looked into before selecting them for
engineering works:

Appearance:
Appearance is a primary requirement for all stones. The colour and ability to receive polish
are important factors.

Bio-deterioration:
Certain trees and creepers thrust their roots into the joints of stones and have both mechanical
and chemical effects. Special microbes can grow on the surface and in minute fissures, their
by-products cause flaking and discoloration.

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Colour:
A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable, if grains are compact. Stones with
much iron should be discouraged as the formation of iron oxides disfigures them and brings
about disintegration. Marble and granite get very good appearance, when polished.

Cost:
Cost is an important consideration in selecting a building material. Proximity of the quarry to
building site brings down the cost of transportation and hence the cost of stones comes down.
However it may be noted that not a single stone can satisfy all the requirements of a
good building stones, since one requirement may contradict another. For example, strength
and durability requirement contradicts ease of dressing requirement. Hence it is necessary
that site engineer looks into the properties required for the intended work and selects the
stone.

Dressing:
Giving required shape to the stone is called dressing. It should be easy to dress so that the
cost of dressing is reduced. However the care should be taken so that, this is not be at the cost
of the required strength and the durability.

Durability:
Stones selected should be capable of resisting adverse effects of natural forces like wind, rain
and heat.

Ease in Dressing:
Cost of dressing contributes to cost of stone masonry to a great extent. Dressing is easy in
stones with lesser strength. Hence an engineer should look into sufficient strength rather than
high strength while selecting stones for building works.

Hardness:
It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for flooring and pavement.
Coefficient of hardness is to be found by conducting test on standard specimen in Dory’s
testing machine. For road works coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For building
works stones with coefficient of hardness less than 14 should not be used. The stone used in
floors and pavements should be able to resist abrasive forces caused by movement of men
and materials over them.

Percentage wear:
It is measured by attrition test. It is an important property to be considered in selecting
aggregate for road works and railway ballast. A good stone should not show wear of more
than 2%.

Porosity and Absorption:

All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of water with material of stone
causes disintegration. Absorption test is specified as percentage of water absorbed by the
stone when it is immersed under water for 24 hours. For a good stone it should be as small as
possible and in no case more than 5. Building stone should not be porous. If it is porous rain
water enters into the pour and reacts with stone and crumbles it. In higher altitudes, the
freezing of water in pores takes place and it results into the disintegration of the stone.
Permissible limits of water absorption for some the commonly used building stones are as
follow.
Type of Stone

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Maximum limit of Water Absorption
(%)
Sandstone
10
Limestone
10
Granite
1
Shale
10
Slate
1
Quartzite
3

Resistance to heat or Fire:

Resistance to heat means that the stone must have a very low amount of expansion due to
large increase in temperature. Silicious materials are good at areas where resistance to fire is
required. Sand stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, though poor in strength, are
good in resisting fire.

Seasoning:
The stones obtained from quarry contain moisture in the pores. Good stones should be free
from the quarry sap. The strength of the stone improves if this moisture is removed before
using the stone. The process of removing moisture from pores is called seasoning. The best
way of seasoning is to allow it to the action of nature for 6 to 12 months. This is very much
required in the case of laterite stones. Laterite stones should not be used for 6 to 12 months
after quarrying. They are allowed to get rid of quarry sap by the action of nature. This process
of removing quarry sap is called seasoning.

Sensitivity to Moisture:

Moisture from rain, snow or other environmental conditions penetrates the wall leading to
cracks, efflorescence, rust staining, wood rotting, paint peeling, darkening of masonry and
spalling. The perfect sealing of a masonry wall surface is almost impossible since fine cracks
and joints will allow the passage of water into the wall. Some stones have moisture sensitive
mineral contents. This will cause the stone to develop rust spots, or other color variations.
The presence of moisture sensitive substances will cause blotchy and streaking
discolorations. Certain lime stones contain bituminous materials that are soluble when
exposed to moisture. Some marbles are also moisture sensitive when in high moisture areas,
showers and those with steam features; these stones have a tendency to develop dark botches.

Specific Gravity:
Heavier variety of stones should be used for the construction of dams, retaining walls, docks
and harbours. The specific gravity of good building stone is between 2.4 and 2.8.

Strength:
Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as building block.
Indian standard code recommends, a minimum crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm2 for any
building block. Due to non-uniformity of the material, usually a factor of safety of 10 is used
to find the permissible stress in a stone. Hence, even laterite can be used safely for a single

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storey building, because in such structures expected load can hardly give a stress of 0.15
N/mm2. However in stone masonry buildings care should be taken to check the stresses when
the beams (Concentrated Loads) are placed on laterite wall.

Structure:
The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured stones should
be easily dressed and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard and difficult to
dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.

Texture:
Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are used
for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.

Toughness:
Building stones should be tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations. The
vibrations may be due to the machinery mounted over them or due to the loads moving over
them. The stone aggregates used in the road constructions should be tough. The resistance to
impact is called toughness. It is determined by impact test. Stones with toughness index more
than 19 are preferred for road works. Toughness indexes 13 to 19 are considered as medium
tough and stones with toughness index less than 13 are poor stones.

Weathering:
Weathering is a complex interaction of physical, chemical and biological processes that can
alter the stone in some general or specific way. The physical properties of stone differs
widely between stone groups and even within the same stone type. The mineral composition,
textural differences, varying degrees of hardness and pore/capillary structure are the main
reasons why stone nor all the surface of the same stone shows signs of alteration the same
and evenly. These minerals can be broken down, dissolved or converted to new minerals by a
variety of processes which are grouped as Mechanical and Chemical. Intensity and duration
are two key elements that govern to what extent weathering reactions will have on stone.
Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones. Hence stones with good weather
resistance should be used for face works.

Weight and Density:

Building stones must be heavy. Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak.
Hence stones with specific gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.

Quality Tests conducted on Stones:

To ascertain the required properties of stones, the following tests can be conducted:
(i) crushing strength test.
(ii) water absorption test.
(iii) abrasion test.
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(iv) impact test.

(v) acid test.

(i) Crushing Strength Test:

For conducting this test, specimens of size 40 × 40 × 40 mm are prepared from parent stone.
Then the sides are finely dressed and placed in water for 3 days. The saturated specimen is
provided with a layer of plaster of paris on its top and bottom surfaces to get even surface so

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that load applied is distributed uniformly. Uniform load distribution can be obtained
satisfactorily by providing a pair of 5 mm thick playwood instead of using plaster of paris
layer also. The specimen so placed in the compression testing machine is loaded at the rate
of 14 N/mm2 per minute. The crushing load is noted. Then crushing strength is equal to the
crushing load divided by the area over which the load is applied. At least three specimen
should be tested and the average should be taken as crushing strength.

(ii) Water Absorption Test:

Just like a sponge, porous rocks have the ability to absorb water and other liquids. Water-
absorbing rocks are formed from minerals that can hold water in their crystal structure or
between grain boundaries. Such water absorption is often accompanied by a change in the
crystal dimension that manifests itself as a swelling of the rock. These rocks, including
pumice and sandstone, increase in weight and size as they take in water. For the water
absorption test, the specimens are dried in an oven for a specified time and temperature and
then placed in a desiccators to cool. Immediately upon cooling the specimens are weighed.
The material is then emerged in water at agreed upon conditions, often 23°C for 24 hours or
until equilibrium. Water absorption is expressed as increase in weight percent. Percent Water
Absorption = [(Wet weight - Dry weight)/ Dry weight] x 100 .

(iii) Abrasion Test:

This test is carried out on stones which are used as aggregates for road construction.
The test result indicate the suitability of stones against the grinding action under traffic.

(iv) Impact Test:

The resistance of stones to impact is found by conducting tests in impacting testing machine .

(v) Acid Test:

This test is normally carried out on sand stones to check the presence of calcium carbonate,
which weakens the weather resisting quality. In this test, a sample of stone weighing about 50
to 100 gm is taken and kept in a solution of one per cent hydrochloric acid for seven days.
The solution is agitated at intervals. A good building stone maintains its sharp edges and
keeps its surface intact. If edges are broken and powder is formed on the surface, it indicates
the presence of calcium carbonate. Such stones will have poor weather resistance.

(vi) Ultrasonic techniques:

Ultrasonic techniques are increasingly being used in in various fields such as mining,
geotechnical, civil, and underground engineering, since they are non-destructive and easy to
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apply. These techniques are usually employed both in site and laboratory to characterize and
determine the dynamic properties of rocks. Velocity ratio index: An index called a velocity
ratio index (VRI) was defined from ultrasonic measurements on the stone block and intact
rock specimen.
Common Building Stones:

(i) Granite: Granites are intrusive igneous rocks. Their colour varies from light gray to pink.

The only natural stones harder than granite are diamonds, rubies, and sapphires. Therefore,
choose granite when permanence, enduring color and texture, and complete freedom from

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deterioration and maintenance are prime requirements. Granite is highly heat, scratch and
stain resistant, and is commonly used to face commercial and institutional buildings and
monuments. Commercially, the term ‘granite’ includes a range of other types of non-granite
dimension stone including any feldspathic crystalline rocks or other igneous or metamorphic
rocks which possess qualities similar to granite’s grainy, interlocking texture. Many
variations of granite appear on the commercial market with white, gray, pink, and red being
the most common primary colors.

The structure is crystalline, fine to coarse grained. They take polish well. They are hard
durable. The compressive strength is 100 to 250 N/mm2. Specific gravity: 2.64 and
absorption less than 1%.Crushing strength: 110 to 140 MN/m. Colour depends upon that of
feldspar and may be brown/ grey/ green or pink. Scientifically, an intrusive (plutonic)
igneous rock must contain between 10% and 50% quartz to be classified as granite, but other
similar stones such as gabbro, diabase, anorthosite, sodalite, gneiss, and basalt are sometimes
sold as “granite” commercially.

They are used primarily for bridge piers, river walls, and for dams. They are used as kerbs
and pedestals. The use of granite for monumental and institutional buildings is common.
Polished granites are used as table tops, cladding for columns and wall. They are used as
coarse aggregates in concrete.

Granodiorite: It is an intermediate intrusive igneous rock composed of light colored white

to light grey feldspar and dark green to black amphibole and/or biotite. The mix of light and
dark minerals gives the rock a coarse “salt-and-pepper” appearance.

Gabbro: It is a dark-colored (mafic) intrusive rock that consists of dark grey feldspar and
black to dark green minerals such as amphibole and pyroxene.

To a geologist, the term “black granite” would be an oxymoron, since by definition granite
must be light colored.

(ii) Basalt and Trap: These are extrusive igneous rocks. The structure is medium to fine
grained and compact. Their colour varies from dark gray to black. Fractures and joints are
common. Crushing strength is70 to 80 MN/m. Specific gravity = 2.96. Basalt is rough,
lightweight and grey to black in colour. The compressive strength of basalt varies from 200 to
350 N/mm2. They are used as road metals, aggregates for concrete. They are also used for
rubble masonry works for bridge piers, river walls and dams. They are suitable for paving
sets and as road metal, for the manufacture of artificial stones and used as aggregate in
concrete.

(iii) Sand stone: These are sedimentary rocks, and hence stratified. The stone is composed
mainly of sand-sized grains, or clasts, of quartz cemented with silica, calcium carbonate, or
iron oxide. They consist of quartz and feldspar. They are found in various colours like white,
grey, red, buff, brown, yellow and even dark gray. The specific gravity varies from 1.85 to
2.7 and compressive strength varies from 20 to 170 N/mm2. Its porosity varies from 5 to 25
per cent. Weathering of rocks renders it unsuitable as building stone. It is desirable to use
sand stones with silica cement for heavy structures, if necessary. They are used for masonry
work, for dams, bridge piers and river walls. A range of sandstones exist on the market,
varying in the amount of quartz present in the stone. These varieties can be different in
density, hardness, porosity, and aesthetics. The commercial sandstone category encompasses
many variations of texture and color. Common forms of sandstone include arkose which has
a high feldspar content, graywacke which contains angular rock fragments, and conglomerate

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which contains rounded rock fragments. Other common stones included in this category are
bluestone, a hard, dense feldspathic sandstone, brownstone, a reddish-brown stone taking its
color from its high iron content, and flagstone, a sandstone or sandy slate that is easily split
into large, thin slabs.

(iv) Slate: These are metamorphic rocks. They are composed of quartz, mica and clay
minerals. While slate is primarily comprised of quartz and either muscovite or illite,
quantities of biotite, chlorite, hematite, and pyrite are also commonly present. Less
frequently, apatite, graphite, kaolin, magnetite, tourmaline, and zircon can be constituents, as
well. The structure is fine grained. They split along the planes of original bedding easily. The
colour varies from dark gray, greenish gray, purple gray to black. The specific gravity is 2.6
to 2.7. Compressive strength varies from 100 to 200 N/mm2. They are used as roofing tiles,
slabs, pavements etc. Slate is naturally found in an array of colors. The most common include
black, gray, blue-gray, and mottled varieties. When iron compounds are present in the
formation, slate can take on hues of brick red, deep purple, or one of many shades of green.

(v) Laterite: It is a alteration product of a rock. It is having porous and sponges structure. It
contains high percentage of iron oxide. Its colour may be brownish, red, yellow, brown and
grey. Its specific gravity is 1.85 and compressive strength varies from 1.9 to 2.3 N/mm2. It
can be easily quarried in blocks. With seasoning it gains strength. When used as building
stone, its outer surface should be plastered.

(vi) Marble: This is a metamorphic rock. It can take good polish. It is available in different
pleasing colours like white and pink. Its specific gravity is 2.65 and compressive strength is
70–75 N/ mm2. It is used for facing and ornamental works. It is used for columns, flooring,
steps etc. Marble formed from very pure limestone is white, but the presence of other
minerals, as well as clay, silt and sand, can give it richly varied coloration. A wide variety of
marbles exist on the market, both foreign and domestic, and these can be drastically different
in density, hardness, porosity, and aesthetics.

(vii) Gneiss: It is a metamorphic rock. It is having fine to coarse grains. Alternative dark and
white bands are common. Light grey, pink, purple, greenish gray and dark grey coloured
varieties are available. These stones are not preferred because of deleterious constituents
present in it. They may be used in minor constructions. However hard varieties may be used
for buildings. The specific gravity varies from 2.5 to 3.0 and crushing strength varies from 50
to 200 N/mm2.

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(viii) Quartzite: Quartzites are metamorphic rocks. The structure is fine to coarse grained
and often granular and branded. They are available in different colours like white, gray,
yellowish. Quartz is the chief constituent with feldspar and mica in small quantities. The
specific gravity varies from 2.55 to 2.65. Crushing strength varies from 50 to 300 N/mm2.
They are used as building blocks and slabs. They are also used as aggregates for concrete.

(ix) Limestone: Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed of calcium carbonate, plus

calcium and/or magnesium. It is formed when layers of minerals (particularly calcite), fine
sediment, and the skeletons and shells of marine organisms undergo lithification.
Terrestrially-formed limestone is known as travertine.
An especially wide variety of limestones exist on the market, both foreign and domestic, and
these can be drastically different in density, hardness, porosity, and aesthetics. The ability of
limestone to readily adapt to various architectural styles, along with its pleasing natural color,
ease of shaping, and its durability are advantages that have all worked together to maintain

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the stone’s popularity throughout the years.

Common uses of stones:

Stones are used in the following civil engineering constructions:

(i) Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches.

(ii) Stones are used for flooring.

(iii) Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials.

(iv) Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings. Polished marbles
And granite are commonly used for face works.

(v) Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings.

(vi) Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and
retaining walls.

(vii) Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base course for roads. When mixed with
Tar they form finishing coat.

(viii) Crushed stones are used in the following works also:

(a) As a basic inert material in concrete mix.

(b) For making artificial stones and building blocks
(c) As railway ballast.

Conclusion:

The dimension, building, and decorative stone industries today are almost non-existent
because of competition from other, lower cost materials. New construction technology,
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together with a less labor-intensive economy and modern architectural leanings have reduced
the demand for stone. While granite, limestone, marble, sandstone, slate and travertine
represent most building stones, there are countless other options available, such as
agglomerate, cantera, flagstone, onyx, porphyry, quartzite, semi-precious stones, shellstone,
soapstone and sodalite. Throughout history, natural stone has been the premier building
material all over the world. Natural stone makes homes more sophisticated and elegant.

Methods of Quarrying of Stones.

Quarrying methods are classified differently. It is convenient to divide

them under two main headings, namely, quarrying without blasting
and quarrying by blasting.

Quarrying of  Stones Without Blasting.

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In these methods, blocks of rocks are broken loose from their natural
outcrops by men using hand tools or special purpose channeling
machines.

No explosive material is used at any stage in this method of

quarrying. Soft rocks and also those rocks which have layered
structure are easily quarried by these methods.

As a first step, the loose cover of soil over the rock (the over-burden)
is first removed and the rock surface is cleared. It is then
systematically broken into blocks of desired sizes either by driving
wedges or by cutting channels.

The Wedge Method of Quarrying:

It is consists digging a few holes at carefully selected places on the

rock. These holes are dug either manually using chisels and hammers
by the skilled workers.

Or, in major quarrying, these holes may be drilled by special

machines called hammer drills.

Once the hole is ready, a steel wedge is inserted in between two steel
strips or feathers. This is done with all the holes drilled in a sequence.

Such firmly inserted wedges are then struck with hammer almost
simultaneously. This process develops cracks along the lines joining
the holes.

After that, long iron bars are inserted in the holes and cracks, and then
the blocks of the rocks are pushed forward onto the free face of a
quarry.

The Channeling Method of Quarrying:

In this method of quarrying involves the use of big machines called

Channelizers which have reciprocating cutting tools and are power
driven.

13
When single large blocks of costly stones like marbles and limestones
are required, this method is most suitable.

Read more: What is Dressing of Stones. Its Types & Methods.

The channelizer can cut a groove as deep as 3 m, as wide as 5 cm and

as long as 3 m, or even more. When a single block is required,
grooves of required depth and length are first cut at the back and sides
of the working face of the quarry.

Holes are then drilled from the free front side horizontally to meet the
back channel at its base. Using wedges and rods, the block is
separated from the rock and hoisted up to the transporting lorries or
wagons.

Single blocks as big as 10 meters long and 3 meters thick and 1-3
meters wide can be quarried by this method from soft rocks.

Quarrying by Heating:

It is an old, crude method which may be useful locally for obtaining

small quantities of stones. Rocks are heated for a few hours by
burning heaps of firewood over their surface.

Such a process results in expansion of the upper layers and their

cracking and separating from the lower layers.

Quarrying of Stones by Blasting.

This method consists of using explosives for breaking stones from

very hard rocks. It has been observed that quarrying of granites,
basalts, traps, quartzites, and sandstones by wedging and other
methods is very laborious and costly.

These hard rocks, however, can be loosened economically and easily

by using explosives. The basic principle of this method is to explode a
small quantity of an explosive material at a calculated depth within
the rocks.

14
The force generated due to this explosion is sufficient only to create
cracks and loosen blocks of good size. Blasting for quarrying for
stones may be quite different from blasting for road clearance.

In the latter case, the size of the broken stone is of not much
consequence.

Quarrying by blasting, therefore, requires very experienced persons

thoroughly acquainted with blasting explosives on the one hand and
strength qualities of rocks on the other hand.

Quarrying by blasting involves a series of systematic operations such

as drilling of blast-holes, charging of blast-holes and firing the shots.

(1) Drilling of blast-holes:

A blast-hole is a hole of suitable diameter and depth driven at a

properly selected location on a rock for being charged with an
explosive.

It may be driven either manually or mechanically. In mechanical

drilling, machines such as hammer drills, percussive drills or rotary
drills are used depending on the nature of the rock.

In the quarrying by blasting, the diameter, depth, number, and spacing

of boreholes require very careful considerations for getting the most
beneficial result.

The diameter of the hole is determined by the type of explosive being

used. For explosives that come in standard sized cartridges, the
diameter has to be slightly greater than the size of the cartridges for
allowing easy insertion.

Bu when blasting powder has to be used, the diameter of blast-holes

will depend on the quantity of explosive to be accommodated as also
the convenience of drilling the holes.

15
The depth of blast-hole depends on the volume of rock to be broken in
one shot which is also related to the quantity of the explosive that has
to be charged into the hole.

The Spacing of holes has to be decided carefully when a number of

holes are to be charged and fired simultaneously.

A given quantity of any explosive can induce cracks, break open or

throw away limited volumes of rock around it on exploding.

Naturally, when holes are too closely spaced, they will shatter the
rock into smaller, useless pieces.

When they are spaced too far off from each other, cracking caused on
their explosion will not break the entire aimed rock mass in the
desired manner.

Properly spaced holes charged with calculated quantities of explosive

will not only break the calculated volume of rock into blocks of
manageable size but also throw them at a proper distance from the
quarry.

While spacing the holes, the distance from the free side of the quarry
is kept into consideration. On exploding, the main thrust is along the
shortest distance to the free side. This (distance) is called the line of
least resistance.

If this line is of considerable length, the shot may prove effective.

Similarly, if this distance is too short, the broken stone may be thrown
far away from the quarry.

(2) Charging of Blast-hole:

The loading or charging of the blast-holes with pre-determined

quantities of the selected type of explosive is to be done with great
care and caution.

A slight negligence in this operation may lead to fatal accidents.

Following are some important steps:

16
(i) The holes are first cleared of all the obstructions and irregularities
witlmne help of wooden romping rods.

(ii) Explosive in the form of powder packs or cartridges is then

inserted in small quantity at a time. Before adding the next batch of
explosive, the previously placed quantity is packed firmly by using
wooden tamping rods (metallic rods are never used).

(iii) When blasting powder is used as an explosive charge, a fuse is

inserted.

In the case of charge is in the form of cartridges a primer cartridge

(which has a highly sensitive explosive), it is also inserted and is
connected to a safety fuse.

The hole is generally filled from 1/3 to 1/2 its depth with the
explosive.

(iv) The hole is then summed. Stemming consists of filling the

remaining 2/3 to 1/2 depth of blast-hole (above the last compacted
layer of explosive) with inert and non-combustible material like
powdered clay, rock and, sand.

This is also done in installments. Each installment of the stemming

material is thoroughly compacted before placing the second layer.

The main object of the stemming process is to prevent the escape of

the gases produced on explosion through the hole. They are made to
pass to other directions and do the job of breaking the rock by their
energy.

(v) It is also customary to put the safety fuse (for firing) at the
beginning of stemming operation. In another arrangement, a thin rod
is kept inserted in the hole during the stemming process. This rod is
removed at the completion of stemming and the fuse is inserted in its
place.

(vi) Sometimes stemming is done in layers alternating with explosive

layers. This becomes almost necessary in deep holes involving use of
large quantities of an explosive in each shot.
17
Read more: Top 12 Different Types of Cranes used in
Construction Works.

(3) The Firing of the Shot:

It is the final step involving igniting the explosive in the blast-holes

by using a safety fuse or by electric detonators.

A Safety fuse is essentially a thin strain of gun powder properly

wrapped in a cotton thread. When ignited, it burns from one end to the
other end at a fixed speed, generally 100-130 seconds per meter.

One end of such a fuse length is connected to the blasting cap of the
primer cartridge. The other free end of the fuse trails at the surface.

It is this free end that is ignited by the firing man who has time at his
disposal to run to a place of safety proportional to the length of the
fuse.

An electrical detonator is a specially designed metallic cap which

contains a highly sensitive charge filled in it; Over the charge hangs a
thin copper filament which conducts an electric charge.

As the current is switched on, the filament in the detonator gives a

powerful spark. This ignites the sensitive charge which makes a small
explosion that is sufficient to blow the main Explosive in the blast
hole.

Types of Dressing of Stones

The different types of dressing of stones are,

1. Hammer Dressed or Quarry-faced Surface

2. Rough tooled surface

3. Tooled Surface

4. Cut stone Surface

18
5. Rubbed Surface

6. Polished Surface

The details of types of dressing of stones are as follows,

1. Hammer Dressed or Quarry-faced Surface:

This is the roughest form of surface finish. Stone as removed from the quarry has large
projections which are knocked off with the quarry hammer and it is finally broken up into
blocks of suitable size and shape such as khandki, quoin, or rectangular blocks, The faces of
the blocks arc roughly planned and the stone is rendered suitable to be used in masonry.
When used in a wall, the roughly finished surfaces arc further modified by forming a 2 cm. to
5 cm. wide margin about the edges of the exposed face.

2. Rough tooled surface:

In this type of surface finish, the projection of the stone block are removed by means of
chisels and the surface is nearly dressed true. The corners and the edges are made accurate,
chisel draughted margins sunk and the side and bed joints roughly treated to ensure proper
bonding.

3. Tooled Surface:

In this type of surface finish continuous parallel chisel marks are produced throughout the
width of the stone. The parallel corrugations or chisel marks are made at closer intervals
rendering the surface truly planned. Different types of tooled finishes are obtained by use of
different chisel and marking patterns.

4. Cut stone Surface:

In this type of surface finish the surface is dressed by using a, sharp chisel so that the chisel
marks are practically imperceptible. It is considered superior to tooled surface.

5. Rubbed Surface:

This type of surface finish is obtained by grinding or rubbing a cut stone surface by hand or
machine until it gets perfectly smooth.

6. Polished Surface:

The rubbed surfaces of granite, marble of lime stones are polished to enhance their texture.
Polishing may be done by manual labour using sand and water, pumice stone etc. or by
rubbing machine.

BRICK

19
Steps Involved in Brick Manufacturing
Manufacturing of bricks consists of the following 4 operations or steps.

1. Preparation of brick clay or brick earth

2. Moulding of bricks
3. Air drying of bricks
4. Burning of bricks

The process of brick making

1. Preparation of brick clay or brick earth

In this step the soil is excavated in steps and then laid on leveled ground. Then the soil is
cleaned of impurities such as vegetation matter, stones or pebbles etc. After removing
impurities it is exposed to weather for few months. This is called the process of weathering.
After completion of weathering process the soil is blended with other material to prepare
good brick earth. Then the mixed soil is tempered by being thoroughly broken up, watered
and kneaded. The tempering is usually done in pug mill.

2. Moulding of Bricks
20
Bricks are moulded in many ways depending on the quality of the product to be made.
Generally the moulding is done in the following two ways

 Hand moulding
 Machine moulding

For hand moulding the tempered clay is forced in the mould in such a way that it fills all the
corners of the mould. Extra clay is removed either by wooden strike or frame with wire.
Mould is then lifted up and raw brick is left on ground.

Machine moulding is is used where large numbers of bricks are to be made. Machines used
for moulding is generally of two types.

 Plastic clay machines

 Dry clay machines

In plastic clay machine the clay in plastic state is forced to rectangular openings of a size
equal to the length and breadth of the bricks and are then cut into strips of thickness of the
brick with wires in frames.

In dry clay machines, dry clay is reduced to powder, filled dry into mould by the machine and
then are subjected to high pressure to form hard and well shaped bricks.

3. Drying of Bricks
Drying is usually done by placing the bricks in sheds with open sides so as to ensure free
circulation of air and protection from bad weather and rains. The bricks are allowed to dry till
they are left with 5 to 7 percent moisture content. The drying period usually varies from 7 to
14days. The moulded bricks are dried because of the following reasons.

 If damp bricks or green bricks are directly taken to burning then, they are likely to be
cracked and distorted
 To remove maximum moisture from the brick so as to save time and fuel during
burning
 To increase the strength of raw bricks so that they can be handled and stacked in
greater heights in the kiln for burning without damage.

4. Burning of the Bricks

It is the very important step in manufacture of bricks. Bricks may be burnt by two distinct
methods given below.

 Burning in a clamp or Pazawah known as clamp burning

 Burning in a flame kiln or Bhatta known as kiln burning

In clamps, one batch of green bricks is heaped along with firewood, coal etc. and sealed with
clay. It is then fired slowly to intense heat which may take many days. Modern kilns,
however, permanent structures consisting of many chambers. There are intermittent and
continuous kilns. Moulded clay is stacked in the chambers. They are then slowly dried and

21
burned to high temperature and cooled. One cycle of loading, drying, burning, cooling and
emptying may take as much as two weeks. These processes are carried out intermittently in
intermittent kilns and in cyclic order in continuous kilns.

Characteristics of a good brick are,

1. The bricks should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size.

2. It should have good strength to take the specified load of the structure. It should have
minimum crushing strength of 10.5 N/mm^2.
3. It should be hard and tough. When scratched by finger nails no impression should be
appear on its surface.
4. When two bricks are struck with each other, should produce a clear metalic ringing sound.
5. It should show fine, compact and uniform structure in broken form.
6. It should be less porous, so that it may not absorb more than 20% water by weight when
immersed in cold water for 24 hrs.
7. It should not contain much alkaline salt which may cause efflorescence on its surface.
8. It should have enough resistance to fire.

Strength-good quality should have strength enough to take load.

Hardness- hard, tough and no nail impression.

S0undness- A metallic ringing sound produce struck together.

Durability-Resist weathering agencies.

Porosity-,Efflorecence,resistance to fire

The main constituents of cement are,

1. Lime : An important ingredient of cement. Usual range is 60 to 67%. It's proportion
should be carefully maintained. The excess presence of lime makes the cement unsound and
causes the cement to expand and disintegrate.
2. Silica : A range of 18 to 24% is required. It impart strength to the cement due to the
formation of dicalcium and tricalcium silicates. Excess presence of silica strengthen the
cement but at the same time it's setting time is prolonged.
3. Alumina : It imparts quick setting property to the cement. Usual range is 5 to 9%.
Alumina should not be present in excess amount as it weakens the cement.
4. Calcium sulphate : It present in the form of gypsum. It's function is to increase the initial
setting time of cement.
5. Iron Oxide : Usual range is 0.5 to 6%. Presence of this ingredient imparts colour, hardness
and strength to the cement.

22
6. Magnesia : If this ingredient present in less quantity, it imparts hardness and colour to the
cement. 0.1 to 4 % is required. A high content of magnesia makes the cement unsound.
7. Sulphur : A very small amount of sulphur is useful in making sound cement. If it is excess,
it causes the cement to become unsound.
8. Alkalies : The cement contains only a small amount of alkalies. If they are in excess in
cement, they cause a no. of troubles such as, alkali- aggregate reaction, efflorescence and
staining when used in concrete, brick work or masonry mortar.
1) Alumina-20to30%, It absorbs water and renders the clay plastic
2) Silica-50to60%, It enables the brick to retain its shape, imparts durability and presence shrinkage
and warping.
3) Lime-It reduces the shrinkage on drying
4) Oxides of iron-5to6%, The color of the brick depends on the proportion of oxide of iron. It gives
red color on burning to the bricks.
5) Magnesia-It decreases the shrinkage and gives yellow tint to the bricks.

Tiles
Characteristics:

Terra-cotta

23
Lime - Types, Properties and Uses

The main sources of obtaining lime are the stones which possess clay, magnesium
carbonate, soluble silica, alkalis and metallic oxides, sulphates, iron compounds and
carbonaceous matter.

General Classification of Lime and their Uses:

Lime is classified based on the calcination of limestone, and they are:

Fat Lime

     Fat lime is white in colour, which has high calcium oxide content. This lime can
set and become hard only in the presence of carbon dioxide.

It is also called high-calcium lime, pure lime, rich lime or white lime. But, it is mostly
known as fat lime as it slakes quickly. It contains specific properties such as very
slowly hardening, a high degree of plasticity and soluble in water.

Uses of fat lime:

  It is used in plastered surfaces for whitewashing.

  It is used as lime mortar (a combination of lime and sand) for plastering and pointing
works.
  It is used as a Lime Surkhi mortar for foundations, thick masonry walls, etc., where surkhi
is the powder obtained by pounding burnt bricks.
Hydraulic Lime

     Hydraulic lime is the lime that contains small quantities of silica, alumina and iron
oxide, which are collectively in the chemical composition with calcium oxide.

24
It is also known as water lime because it can set under water and become hard even
in the absence of carbon dioxide.

Based on the percentage of the clay, hydraulic lime is available in different forms
such as Feebly hydraulic lime, Moderately hydraulic lime and Eminently hydraulic
lime. The increase in clay content makes slaking difficult and increases hydraulic
properties.

Uses of hydraulic lime:

  It resembles cement as it contains 30% of clay and can be used in major civil engineering
works.
  It can set in thick walls where there is no free-flowing of air.
  It forms a thin paste with water.
Poor Lime

     This lime is also known as lean lime or impure lime. As it contains more than 30%
of clay, which makes lime to slake slowly.

It sets and hardens very slowly compared to other types of limes. It has very poor
binding properties and can form a thin paste with water. It is used for inferior types of
works because of its inferior quality.

Indian Standard Classification of Lime and their Uses:

As per Bureau of Indian Standards (IS: 712 - 1984), limes are classified into six
classes, and they are:

Class A: Eminently Hydraulic Lime

It is available in hydrated form and can be used for structural works like arches,
domes, etc.

Class B: Semi-hydraulic Lime

It is available as both quick lime and hydrated lime. This mortar is used for masonry
works.

Class C: Fat Lime

It is available in quick or hydrated form. It is used for finishing coat in plastering,

whitewashing etc. It is used for masonry mortar with the addition of pozzolanic
material.

Class D: Magnesium or Dolomite Lime

It is also available in a hydrated or quick form. It can be used for whitewashing and
finishing coat for plastering.

25
Class E: Kankar Lime

It is produced by burning lime nodules which are seen in soils like black cotton soil
containing silica in the hydrated form. It is also preferred for masonry works.

Class F: Siliceous Dolomite Lime

It is usually used as an undercoat and finishing coat of plaster.

Properties of Lime

     Lime is one of the oldest binding materials used in several ancient architectural
works. A good quality lime should own the following properties:

  It should possess good plasticity.

  It should be flexible and easily workable.
  When used in mortar, it should provide greater strength to the masonry.
  It should solidify in less time and become hard.
  It should comprise of excellent binding properties which adhere to brick or stone masonry
units perfectly.
  It possesses high durable properties as it is less shrinkable when used in mortar.
  It should be highly resistant to moisture and can be used for pointing works.
Precautions in Handling Lime

     Lime is a health hazard if breathed in and also affects the skin resulting in skin
diseases. It can be avoided by coating the skin with oil.

Slaking of lime is an exothermic reaction and generates a large amount of

heat. Proper care should be taken by workers by using goggles, respirants, gloves,
and boots as protection while working with lime.

Storage of Lime as a Building Material

If it is necessary to store quick lime for a longer period, it is advised to store it in airtight vessels or in
the form of large heaps, to ensure that no air is coming in reaction with the mixture.
The package of slaked lime can be done for three to four months with the help of gunny bags, craft
papers or polyethylene bags etc. This after the package must be stored in a dried place.
The area must be weatherproof. The floor must be watertight and impervious. In construction
requirement, there are certain specifications demanded like, the lime slaked should be having a
package period of one week or more than four, for their application.

Portland Pozzolana Cement – Manufacture,

Properties and Uses

Portland Pozzolana cement is integrated cement which is formed by

synthesising OPC cement with pozzolanic materials in a certain proportion. It

26
is commonly known as PPC cement. In this article we discuss about the
properties, manufacture, characteristics, advantages and disadvantages
of Portland Pozzolana cement.

What is pozzolana or pozzolanic

material?
Pozzolana is a volcanic powder found in Italy near Vesuvius. A pozzolanic
material can be a natural or artificial which contains silica and aluminous in a
reactive form. This materials usually doesnt posses any cementitious
properties, but when it is mixed with water or moisture or lime to undergo
reaction with calcium hydroxide to form compounds possessing cement
properties.

Types of pozzolana materials :

1. Artificial pozzolana
Fly ash, silica fume, rice husk, blast furnace slag.

2. Natural pozzolana
Burnt clay, pumicite, diatomaceous Earth.

Manufacture of Portland pozzolana

cement
 The primary raw materials used for this cement manufacture  are limestone
(CaCO2) and clay (SiO2,AI2,O3,Fe2O3). Rocks are loaded into trucks and
transported to the crushers, where the crushed into fine particles.
 Fine particles of clay and limestone are fed into the air-swept ball mills in
desired proportions as per requirement and mixed very well before it is sent to
silos for storing.
 This mixture is then pre-heated upto 800-1000c where calcinations of CACO3 to
CaO takes place.

27
  The pre heated mixture is then sent into kiln where the mixture is heated to
1450C in rotary Kiln. The modules formed from the burning process called
clinker. The clinker is cooled by a rotary cooler.
 This clinker is now mixed with gypsum and pozzolana materials in the
required proportion and thus the Portland Pozzolana Cement is obtained.

Properties of Portland Pozzolana Cement

 Initial setting time = 30 min (minimum)
 Final setting time = 600 min (maximum).
 At 3 days 13MPa  (minimum)
 At 7 days 22 MPa (minimum)
 At 28 days 33 MPa (minimum)
 Drying shrinkage should not be more than 0.15%
 Fineness should not be less than 300 m2/kg
 Initial strength of PPC is less but final strength is equal to the 28 days strength
of OPC
 PPC has lower rate of development of strength than OPC

Uses of Portland Pozzolana Cement

1. Used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction near the sea
shore, dam construction etc.
2. Used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
3. Used in masonry mortars and plastering.
4. As it gives better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art structures.
5. Used in manufacture of precast sewage pipes.
6. Used under harsh concreting conditions.

Advantages of Portland Pozzolana Cement

1. it is an eco-friendly cement as the material used in the manufacture are made
of natural recycled waste.
2. It is very fine cement hence very good when used for plastering works.
3. Pozzolano consists of silica material which makes it cheap and hence reduces
the cost of the cement making it economical to use.
4. Pozzolana cement has very good resistance against sulphate attack hence is
used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction near the sea
shore, dam construction etc.
5. PPC used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.

28
 6. It reduces the carbon monoxide emission from the concrete making it
environmental friendly.
7. As the pozzolano materials are very fine, it can fill gaps between the
reinforcement and aggregate , thus reducing the shrinkage, honeycomb
formation and bleeding can be reduced, which in turn increases the strength
and durability of concrete.

Disadvantages of Portland Pozzolana
Cement
1. The initial strength obtained is less, which effect the de-shuttering of supports
early.
2. As it contains more fine material, handing of concrete is difficult.
3. When compared to the OPC setting time is less for PPC
4. Reduction in alkanity reduces the resistance to corrosion of steel
reinforcement
5. As the strength of this concrete gains slowly, curing process is very important.
Any error in this could cause durability problems.

CEMENT
Cement is used as a binding material for mortar and concrete. It is produced by
burning a mixture of siliceous ( containing Silica), argillaceous (containing Alumina) and
calcareous (containing lime) materials at a temperature of about 14000C. The product
obtained (called Clinker) is then ground to the required fineness. Gypsum (Calcium
Sulphate) is added during the process of clinker grinding. It is added to slow down the
setting time of cement.
HISTORY OF CEMENT
In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a brick layer of England discovered that a mixture of lime
and clay, heated to a high temperature could produce a binding material which would
harden in the presence of water. Since this new material , on setting resembled a stone
quarried near Portland in England it was named ‘Portland Cement’.
TYPES OF CEMENT
By altering the proportions of the raw materials and also by adding other chemicals,
a variety of cements are manufactured now a days. The principle types of artificial cements
are given below:
a) Ordinary Portland cement( normal setting cement) b) Rapid hardening cement c)
Quick setting cement d) High alumina cement e) White cement

29
 a. ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT It is generally suitable for the construction of all
engineering works. Most important cement and widely used. b. RAPID HARDENING CEMENT
The rate of strength developed is more rapid in this kind of cement. The high strength
development at early stage is being due to finer grinding, burning at high temperature and
increased lime contents in the composition. It is generally used for structures where load is
to be brought at an early stage. c. QUICK SETTING CEMENT When concrete is to be laid
under water, quick setting cement is used advantageously. The setting action of such
cement starts within five minutes and becomes hard in less than one hour. The setting
action is increased by adding a small percentage of Aluminium Sulphate and decreasing the
percentage of gypsum. d. HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT It is manufactured by fusing a mixture of
Bauxite ( Aluminium ore) and lime. It is not only rapid hardening cement but also high
ultimate strength cement. On about account of high cost of Bauxite this cement is costlier
than ordinary Portland cement. e. WHITE AND COLOURED CEMENT White cement is just a
variety of the Portland cement and the whiteness is obtained by reducing the Iron Oxide
content. Coloured cements are also manufactured in the same way as ordinary cement and
suitable pigments are added to it before the cement is finally ground. They are used for
decorative works.
SOME IMPORTANT ITEMS
I. HYDRATION OF CEMENT The chemical reaction between cement and water is
called hydration of cement. Due to this chemical reaction the setting and hardening of
cement takes place. II. SETTING AND HARDENING OF CEMENT When cement is mixed with
water a still and sticky paste is formed. As the time elapses the plasticity gradually
disappears and the cement paste becomes a solid mass due to the hydration. III.
SOUNDNESS OF CEMENT
Due to the presence of free lime and manganese, cement undergoes volume
changes after setting as these substances go on slaking very slowly. The reason for the
change in volume is that these constituents expand when they are slaked. It is essential that
concrete does not undergo large volume changes after setting as change in volume lead to
cracks distortion and disintegration of concrete.
LABORATORY TESTS OF CEMENT
i.Fineness test ii.Consistency test iii.Initial and final setting time test iv.Soundness
test v.Tensile strength test

Types of Cement:
Following are the different types of cement used in construction works.

1. Rapid Hardening Cement:

30
Rapid hardening cement is very similar to ordinary portland cement (OPC). It contains higher
c3s content and finer grinding. Therefore it gives greater strength development at an early
stage than OPC. The strength of this cement at the age of 3 days is almost same as the 7 days
strength of OPC with the same water-cement ratio.

The main advantage of using rapid hardening cement is that the formwork can be removed
earlier and reused in other areas which save the cost of formwork. This cement can be used in
prefabricated concrete construction, road works, etc.

2. Low Heat Cement:

Low heat cement is manufactured by increasing the proportion of C2S and by decreasing the
C3S and C3A content. This cement is less reactive and its initial setting time is greater than
OPC. This cement is mostly used in mass concrete construction.

3. Sulfate Resisting Cement:

Sulfate resisting cement is made by reducing C3A and C4AF content. Cement with such
composition has excellent resistance to sulfate attack. This type of cement is used in the
construction of foundation in soil where subsoil contains very high proportions of sulfate .

4. White Cement:
White cement is a type of ordinary Portland Cement which is pure white in color and has
practically the same composition and same strength as OPC. To obtain the white color the
iron oxide content is considerably reduced. The raw materials used in this cement are
limestone and china clay.

This cement, due to its white color, is mainly used for interior and exterior decorative work
like external renderings of buildings, facing slabs, floorings, ornamental concrete products,
paths of gardens, swimming pools etc.

5. Portland Pozzolana Cement:

Portland pozzolana cement is produced either by grinding together, portland cement clinkers
and pozzolana with the addition of gypsum or calcium sulfate or by intimately and uniformly
blending portland cement and fine pozzolana.

It produces lower heat of hydration and has greater resistance to attack of chemical agencies
than OPC. Concrete made with PPC is thus considered particularly suitable for construction
in sea water, hydraulic works and for mass concrete works.

6. Hydrophobic Cement:
Hydrophobic cement is manufactured by adding water repellant chemicals to ordinary
portland cement in the process of grinding. Hence the cement stored does not spoiled even
during monsoon. This cement is claimed to remain unaffected when transported during rains

31
also. Hydrophobic cement is mainly used for the construction of water structures such dams,
water tanks, spillways, water retaining structures etc.

7. Colored Cement:
This Cement is produced by adding  5- 10% mineral pigments with portland cement during
the time of grinding. Due to the various color combinations, this cement is mainly used for
interior and exterior decorative works.

8. Waterproof Portland Cement:

Waterproof cement is prepared by mixing with ordinary or rapid hardening cement, a small
percentage of some metal stearates (Ca, Al, etc) at the time of grinding. This cement is used
for the construction of water-retaining structure like tanks, reservoirs, retaining walls,
swimming pools, dams, bridges, piers etc.

9. Portland Blast Furnace Cement:

In this case, the normal cement clinkers are mixed with up to 65% of the blast furnace
slag for the final grinding. This type of cement can be used with advantage in mass concrete
work such as dams, foundations, and abutments of bridges, retaining walls , construc

Manufacturing of cement involves various raw materials and processes. Each process is
explained chemical reactions for manufacture of Portland Cement.

Cement is a greenish grey colored powder, made of calcined mixtures of clay and limestone.
When mixed with water becomes a hard and strong building material.

32
The history of cement goes back into Roman Empire. The modern day cement. That is
Portland cement was first produced by a British stone mason, Joseph Aspdin in 1824, who
cooked cement in his kitchen. He heated a mixture of limestone and clay powder in his
kitchen, and grind the mixture into powder creating cement, that hardens when mixed with
water. The name Portland was given by the inventor as it resembles a stone quarried on the
Isle of Portland.

The first use of modern day Portland cement was in the tunnel construction in the Thames
River in 1828.

Manufacture Process of Cement

The manufacture procedures of Portland cement is described below.

33
 1. Mixing of raw material
2. Burning
3. Grinding
4. Storage and packaging

1. Mixing of raw material

The major raw materials used in the manufacture of cement are Calcium, Silicon, Iron and
Aluminum. These minerals are used in different form as per the availability of the minerals.

Table shows the raw materials for Portland cement manufacture

The mixing procedure of the manufacture of cement is done in 2 methods,

 Dry process
 Wet process

a) Dry Process

The both calcareous and argillaceous raw materials are firstly crushed in the gyratory
crushers to get 2-5cm size pieces separately. The crushed materials are again grinded to get
fine particles into ball or tube mill.

Each finely grinded material is stored in hopper after screening. Now these powdered
minerals are mixed in required proportion to get dry raw mix which is then stored in silos and
kept ready to be sent into rotary kiln. Now the raw materials are mixed in specific proportions
so that the average composition of the final product is maintained properly.

34
 Fig: Manufacture of Cement by Dry Process

b) Wet Process

The raw materials are firstly crushed and made into powdered form and stored in silos. The
clay is then washed in washing mills to remove adhering organic matters found in clay.

The powdered limestone and water washed clay are sent to flow in the channels and transfer
to grinding mills where they are completely mixed and the paste is formed, i.e., known as
slurry.

The grinding process can be done in ball or tube mill or even both. Then the slurry is led into
collecting basin where composition can be adjusted. The slurry contains around 38-40%
water that is stored in storage tanks and kept ready for the rotary kiln.

35
 Fig: Manufacture of Cement by Wet Process

Comparison of dry process and wet process of Cement Manufacture

Criteria Dry process Wet process

Hardness of raw Quite hard Any type of raw material
material
Fuel consumption Low High
Time of process Lesser Higher
Quality Inferior quality Superior quality
Cost of production High Low
Overall cost Costly Cheaper
Physical state Raw mix (solid) Slurry (liquid)

2. Burning of Raw Materials

The burning process is carried out in the rotary kiln while the raw materials are rotated at 1-
2rpm at its longitudinal axis. The rotary kiln is made up of steel tubes having the diameter of
2.5-3.0 meter and the length differs from 90-120meter. The inner side of the kiln is lined with
refractory bricks.

36
The kiln is supported on the columns of masonry or concrete and rested on roller bearing in
slightly inclined position at the gradient of 1 in 25 to 1 in 30. The raw mix of dry process of
corrected slurry of wet process is injected into the kiln from the upper end. The kiln is heated
with the help of powdered coal or oil or hot gases from the lower end of the kiln so that the
long hot flames is produced.

As the kiln position is inclined and it rotates slowly, the material charged from upper end
moves towards lower end at the speed of 15m/hr. In the upper part, water or moisture in the
material is evaporated at 400oC temp, so this process is known as Drying Zone.

The central part i.e. calcination zone, the temperature is around 10000C, where
decomposition of lime stone takes place. The remaining material is in the form of small
lumps known as nodules after the CO2 is released.

CaCO3 = CaO + CO2

The lower part (clinkering zone) have temperature in between 1500-17000C where lime and
clay are reacts to yielding calcium aluminates and calcium silicates. This aluminates and
silicates of calcium fuse to gather to form small and hard stones are known as clinkers. The
size of the clinker is varies from 5-10mm.

The lower part i.e. clinkering zone has the temperature around 1500-1700C. In the region
lime and clay reacts to yield calcium aluminates and calcium silicates. This products of
aluminates and silicates of calcium fuses together to form hard and small stones known as
clinkers. The size of the small and hard clinkers varies from 5 to 10mm.

2CaO + SiO2 = Ca2SiO4 (declaim silicate (C2S))

3CaO + SiO2 = Ca3SiO5 (tricalcium silicate (C3S))

3CaO + Al2O3 = Ca3Al2O6 (dicalcium aluminate (C2A))

4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 = Ca4Al2Fe2O10 (tetracalcium aluminoferrite(C4AF))

The clinker coming from the burning zone are very hot. To bring down the temperature of
clinkers, air is admitted in counter current direction at the base of the rotary kiln. The cooled
clinkers are collected in small trolleys.

3. Grinding of Clinkers

The cooled clinkers are received from the cooling pans and sent into mills. The clinkers are
grinded finely into powder in ball mill or tube mill. Powdered gypsum is added around 2-3%
as retarding agent during final grinding. The final obtained product is cement that does not
settle quickly when comes in contact with water.

After the initial setting time of the cement, the cement becomes stiff and the gypsum retards
the dissolution of tri-calcium aluminates by forming tricalcium sulfoaluminate which is
insoluble and prevents too early further reactions of setting and hardening.

3CaO.Al2O3 + xCaSO4.7H2O = 3CaO.Al2O3.xCaSO4.7H2O

37
4. Storage and packaging

The grinded cement is stored in silos, from which it is marketed either in container load or
50kg bags.

Tests on Cement
Quality tests on cements at construction site (also called field tests on cement)
are carried to know the quality of cement supplied at site. It gives some idea
about cement quality based on colour, touch and feel and other tests.

 Color test
 Presence of lumps
 Adulteration test
 Temperature test
 Float tests
 Strength test
 Setting test
 Date of packing

Color Test of Cement

The color of the cement should be uniform. It should be grey colour with a
light greenish shade.

Presence of Lumps
The cement should be free from any hard lumps. Such lumps are formed by
the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. Any bag of cement
containing such lumps should be rejected.

Cement Adulteration Test

The cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between fingers. If
it is felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.

38
Temperature Test of Cement
If hand is inserted in a bag of cement or heap of cement, it should feel cool and
not warm.

Float Test
If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, the particles
should float for some time before it sinks.

Setting Test
A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of glass plate and it is
kept under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack

Strength of Cement Test

A block of cement 25 mm ×25 mm and 200 mm long is prepared and it is
immersed for 7 days in water. It is then placed on supports 15cm apart and it
is loaded with a weight of about 34 kg. The block should not show signs of
failure.

The briquettes of a lean mortar (1:6) are made. The size of briquette may be
about 75 mm ×25 mm ×12 mm. They are immersed in water for a period of 3
days after drying. If cement is of sound quality such briquettes will not be
broken easily.

Date of Packing:
Strength of cement reduces with time, so it is important to check the
manufacturing date of the cement. Generally, the cement should be used
before 90 days from the date of manufacturing.

INITIAL SETTING TIME OF CEMENT

THEORY

A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials
together . Cement sets when mixed with water by way of a complex series of hydration chemical
reactions still only partly understood. The different constituents slowly hydrate and crystallize while
the interlocking of their crystals gives the cement its strength. After the initial setting, immersion in

39
warm water will speed up setting. In Portland cement, gypsum is added as a compound preventing
cement’s flash setting.

AIM

To calculate the initial setting time as per IS:4031-1988

APPARATUS

Vicat’s apparatus conforming to IS 5513-1976, balance, whose permissible variation at a load of

1000gm should be +1.0g, trowel conforming to IS:10086-1982.

PROCEDURE

i. Prepare a cement paste by mixing the cement with 0.85 times the water required to give a paste of
standard consistency. ii. Start a stop- watch, the moment waer is added to the cement iii. Fill the
vicat mould completely with the cement paste prepared as above, the mould resting on a non-
porous plate and smooth off the surface of the paste making it level with the top of the mould. The
cement block thus prepared in the mould is the test block.

INITIAL SETTING TIME

Place the test block under the rod bearing the needle. Lower the needle gently in order to make
contact with the surface of the cement paste and release quickly, allowing it to penetrate the test
block. Repeat the procedure till the needle fails to pierce the test block to a point 5.0 ±0.5mm
measured from the bottom of the mould. The time period elapsing between the time, water is
added to the cement and the time, the needle fails to pierce the test block by 5.0±0.5mm measured
from the bottom of the mould , is the initial setting time.

RESULT

The Initial setting time of the given ordinary port land cement =

INFERENCE

As per the IS specification initial setting time of cement should be greater than 30 minutes. Initial
setting time of tested cement here is …… minutes. Hence it confirm / does not confirm IS
specifications.

CONSISTENCY OF CEMENT

THEORY

Consistency of cement means the water content which permits the vicat’s plunger of 10mm
diameter to penetrate to a point 5mm to 7mm from the bottom of vicat’s mould. It is expressed as
amount of water as a percentage by weight of dry cement.

AIM

The basic aim is to find out the water- content required to produce a cement paste of standard
consistency as specified by the IS:4031(part 4)-1988. The principle of standard consistency of cement

40
is that consistency at which the vicat plunger penetrates to a point 5.7mm from the bottom of vicat
mould.

APPARATUS

Vicat apparatus conforming to IS:5513-1976, balance whose permissible variation at a load of 1000g
should be +1.0g , gauging trowel conforming to IS 10086-1982

PROCEDURE

i. Weigh approximately 300g of cement and mix it with a weighed quantity of water. Start the stop
watch when adding of water started. The time of gauging should be between 3 to 5 minutes( adding
water, mixing and filling the mould are done within 5 minutes). ii. Fill the vicat mould with paste and
level it with a trowel. The mould is gently shaken to expel the air bubbles. iii. Immediately after filling
the mould, it is placed under the plunger of the apparatus and the lower the plunger to touch the
cement surface. iv. Release the plunger allowing it to sink into the paste. v. Note the reading on the
gauge. vi. Repeat the above procedure taking fresh samples of cement with different quantities of
water until the reading on the apparatus is 5 to 7mm.

RESULT

Consistency of given sample of cement =

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CEMENT

AIM

To determine the specific gravity of cement using Le Chatlier flask or specific gravity bottle.

APPARATUS

1. Le Chatlier flask or specific gravity bottle of 100 ml 2. Balance capable of weighing accurately up to
0.10mg

PROCEDURE

1. Weigh a clean dry Le Chatlier flask or specific gravity bottle of 100 ml capacity with its stopper (say
w1g) 2. Place the sample of cement up toone third of the bottle (about 50 g) and weigh with its
stopper (say w2g) 3. Fill kerosene up to half full. 4. Mix thoroughly with glass rod to remove
entrapped air. 5. Continue stirring and add kerosene up to graduated mark. 6. Dry the outside of
flask/bottle and weigh (say w3 g) 7. The entrapped air should be removed 8. Empty the flask/bottle,
clean it and fill it with kerosene. 9. Dry the outside of flask/ bottle and weigh (say w4 g) 10. Empty
the flask/bottle, clean it and fill it with water. 11. Dry the outside of the flask/ bottle and weigh (say
w5g)

RESULT

Specific gravity of cement with respect to water =

SPECIFICATION

According to Indian Standard Specification the specific gravity of good ordinary Portland cement is
between 2.7 and 3.2

41
INFERENCE

Here it is ____ , hence the tested cement confirms / does not confirm IS specification.

OBSERVATIONS

Weight of the bottle ( w1 ) =

Weight of the bottle + cement sample( w2 ) =

Weight of the bottle + cement + kerosene (w3 ) =

Weight of bottle + kerosene (w4 ) =

Weight of bottle + water (w5 ) =

CALCULATIONS

Weight of cement wc = ( w2 – w1 ) =

Weight of equal volume of kerosene wk = ( w4 -- w1 ) – ( w3 – w2 ) =

Specific gravity of cement with respect to kerosene Csk = wc / wk =

Weight of kerosene filling the bottle wk = (w4 – w1 ) =

Weight of equal volume of water ww = (w5 – w1 ) =

Specific gravity of kerosene with respect to water Ksw = wk / ww =

Specific gravity of cement with respect to water Csw =( Csk x Ksw )

FINENESS OF CEMENT

AIM

To determine the fineness ( by sieve method ) of a given sample of cement.

APPARATUS

42
I S sieve No:9 (90 micron), an accurate balance

PROCEDURE

i. Break down any air set lumps in the cement sample by fingers ii. Weigh approximately 100 g of
cement to the nearest 0.01 g and place it on the sieve. iii. Agitate the sieve by swirling for 15
minutes planetary and linear movements until no more fine material passes through it. iv. Weigh the
residue after 15 minutes and express its mass as a percentage R1, of the quantity first placed on the
sieve to the nearest 0.1 percent. v. Gently brush all the fine material off the base of the sieve. vi.
Repeat the whole procedure using a fresh 100g sample to obtain R2. Then calculate R as the mean of
R1 and R2 as a percentage, expressed to the nearest 0.1 percent. When the results differ by more
than 1 percent absolute, carry out a third sieving and calculate the mean of the three values.

RESULT

The fineness of given sample of cement=

SPECIFICATION

AS PER IS Specification the percentage of residue should not exceed 10 % by weight of cement.

INFERENCE

Here percentage of residue is ………%. Hence it confirm / does not confirm IS specification.

Classification of Aggregates Based on Size

Aggregates are available in nature in different sizes. The size of aggregate used may be
related to the mix proportions, type of work etc. the size distribution of aggregates is called
grading of aggregates.

Following are the classification of aggregates based on size:

Aggregates are classified into 2 types according to size

 Fine aggregate
 Coarse aggregate

Fine Aggregate

When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate passed through it called as
fine aggregate. Natural sand is generally used as fine aggregate, silt and clay are also come
under this category. The soft deposit consisting of sand, silt and clay is termed as loam. The
purpose of the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act as a
workability agent.

Fine aggregate Size variation

Coarse Sand 2.0mm – 0.5mm
Medium sand 0.5mm – 0.25mm
Fine sand 0.25mm – 0.06mm

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Silt 0.06mm – 0.002mm
Clay <0.002

Coarse Aggregate

When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate retained is called coarse
aggregate. Gravel, cobble and boulders come under this category. The maximum size
aggregate used may be dependent upon some conditions. In general, 40mm size aggregate
used for normal strengths and 20mm size is used for high strength concrete. the size range of
various coarse aggregates given below.

Coarse aggregate Size

Fine gravel 4mm – 8mm
Medium gravel 8mm – 16mm
Coarse gravel 16mm – 64mm
Cobbles 64mm – 256mm
Boulders >256mm

Types of Sand Based on Its Source

Sand can be natural or artificial. I’ll discuss them throughly below –

 Pit sand
 River sand
 Sea sand
 Artificial sand

Pit Sand

This is a natural sand.

Source: Pit sand is collected from the ground by digging a pit. The pit’s depth is about 1m –
2m from ground level.

44
Grain: Pit sand consists of  sharp, angular and rough grains. it is free from salt and organic
materials. Because of the absence of salt in this sand it doesn’t absorb moisture from
atmosphere.

Sand Type: Pit sand is a coarse type sand (I’ll discuss about coarse sand later in this post).

Color: Due to coating of a iron-oxide it shows red-orange color.

Uses: Due to its superior binding quality it is widely used in civil construction.

River Sand

River sand is also a natural sand.

Source: It is obtained from river bed or river bank.

Grain: This sand consists of fine rounded grains and It is well graded.

Sand Type: River sand is a fine type sand ( I’ll discuss fine sand later in this post)

Color: It has white-grey color.

Uses: It is available in clean condition and can be widely used for all-purpose of construction
activities like plastering and concreting.

Sea sand

Source: This type of sand is obtained from sea-shore.

Grain: It consists of rounded grains.

Sand Type: It is also a fine type sand.

Color: The color of sea sand is light-brown.

Uses: This type of sand is not normally used for construction work. Because it has salt
which attracts the moisture from atmosphere and causes for dampness, efflorescence and
disintegration of work. It should be throughly washed before using in construction.

Artificial Sand

It is an effective alternative to river sand. It is produced by crushing either basalt rock or

granite. It is well graded and a coarse-type sand.

Types of Sand Based on sieve analysis

45
Based on sieve analysis sand can be divided into following three types –

 Fine sand
 Coarse sand
 Gravelly sand

Fine Sand

Sand passing through the 1.5875 mm sieve is called fine sand. We use this sand for mainly
plastering purpose.

Coarse Sand

The sand which is passing through the 3.175 mm sieve is called coarse sand. For masonry
work we mostly used this type of sand.

Gravelly Sand

The sand which is passing through the 7.62 mm sieve is called gravelly sand. We generally
use this type of sand in concrete.

Types of Sand Based on Their Grain Size

Based on the grain size of the sand it can be classified as following –

Very Fine Sand

If the grain size of the sand between 0.0625 mm to 0.125 mm then it is called very fine sand.

46
Fine Sand

The grain size of this type of sand is between 0.125mm to 0.25mm

Medium Sand

If the grain size of the sand between 0.25mm to 0.50mm that is the medium sand.

Coarse Sand

This type of sand’s grain size is between 0.50mm to 1.0mm

Very Coarse Sand

The grain size of this type of sand is between 1.0 mm to 2.0 mm.

Types of Mortar
Mortar is produced by mixing a binding material (cement or lime) with fine aggregate (sand,
surki, etc) with water. For construction purpose, different types of mortar are used.
Depending upon the materials used for mortar mixture preparation, mortar could be classified
as follows.

1. Cement Mortar
2. Lime Mortar
3. Surki Mortar
4. Gauged Mortar
5. Mud Mortar

Cement Mortar

Cement mortar is a type of mortar where cement is used as binding material and sand is used
as fine aggregate. Depending upon the desired strength, the cement to the sand proportion of
cement mortar varies from 1:2 to 1:6.

Definition:- A paste obtained by adding water to a mixture of fine aggregates such as sand
and binding material.

The pyramids of the have been built with clay-gypsum, gypsum-lime and lime mortar.

The safety, strength and durability of resulting wall or any structure depends upon quality of
mortar used as a binding medium.

Functions of mortar:-

 It provides force or cohesion between the structural unit.

 It acts as a medium for distributing the forces throughout the structure uniformly.

47
  Additional strength and resistance against the rain penetration and other such
weathering agencies.
 In stone or brick masonry, it fills up empty joints, a thin liquid mortar used for such
purposes is termed as Grout

Lime Mortar

Lime mortar is a type of mortar where lime (fat lime or hydraulic lime) is used as binding
material and sand is used as fine aggregate. The lime to the sand proportion of cement mortar
is kept 1:2. The pyramids at Giza are plastered with lime mortar.

Gauged Mortar

Gauged mortar is a type of mortar where cement and lime both are used as binding material
and sand is used as fine aggregate. Basically, it is a lime mortar where cement is added to
gain higher strength. The process is known as gauging. The cement to the lime proportion of
varies from 1:6 to 1:9. Gauged mortar is economical than cement concrete and also possess
higher strength than lime mortar.

Surki Mortar

Surki mortar is a type of mortar where lime is used as binding material and surki is used as
fine aggregate. Surki mortar is economic.

Mud Mortar

Mud mortar is a type of mortar where mud is used as binding material and saw dust, rice
husk or cow-dung is used as fine aggregate. Mud mortar is useful where lime or cement is not
available.

CONCRETE

Cement concrete is a building material obtained by mixing together certain inert materials
called aggregates with cement and water allowing the product to cure for hardening. The
proportions of the different ingredients used vary with nature of work in which the concrete
is to be used.
INGREDIENTS OF PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE
Cement, aggregates and water are the essential ingredients of plain cement concrete.
CEMENT
It is used as a binding material in the concrete. Ordinary Portland cement also called normal
setting cement is most commonly used for this purpose.

48
AGGREGATES
Aggregates are the inert materials which are combined with cement and water to produce
concrete. These act as volume increasing components and are responsible for strength ,
hardness and durability of the concrete, the aggregates may be classified as:
i. Fine aggregate ii. Coarse aggregate

I.FINE AGGREGATE The material of size which passes through 4.75mm sieve is termed as
fine aggregate. Sand is commonly used as fine aggregate in plain cement concrete. The sand
should pass through 4.75 mm mesh and is almost entirely retained in a 0.15mm mesh.
II.COARSE AGGREGATE The material retained on 4.75 mm sieve is termed as coarse
aggregate. Crushed stone and gravel are the common materials used as coarse aggregates
for concrete. The aggregate size should not be greater than 20 mm to 40 mm generally.

WATER It plays an important part in the mixing, laying compacting, setting and hardening of
concrete. The strength of concrete depends on the quality and quantity of water used in the
mix. MEASUREMENT OF MATERIALS The accurate measurement of materials required for
preparation of concrete is very important for ensuring the required quantities in the
proportioning of concrete mixes. MEASUREMENT OF CEMENT
It is preferable to measure cement in terms of its weight as its volume depends upon the
manner in which the cement is taken out of the bag. In India cement is available in 50 Kg
bags. The density of cement is taken as 1440 Kg/cm3 so that the volume of 50 Kg of cement
is 0.035 m3. MEASUREMENT OF FINE AGGREGATE Fine aggregate may be measured by
weight for ordinary work. The volume of fine aggregate such as sand depends upon its
moisture content. If sand is wet its volume will increase. This increase in volume due to
moisture in sand is known as bulking of sand. When sand becomes moist, water forms thin
film around each sand particle thereby separating the adjacent particles and causes an
increase in volume. Bulking increases gradually with moisture content and is maximum at a
moisture content of about 4% by weight of dry sand. It then decreases down to zero when
the quantity of water becomes more than 20% . Due to this, if sand is measured by volume
bulking should be properly accounted.

MEASUREMENT OF COARSE CEMENT There is no problem of bulking in coarse aggregate,

and hence it may be measured either by volume or by height. For accurate and large scale
works measurement should be done by weight. WATER: It may be measured by volume or
by weight In general practice, however for small or medium works measurement of material
is done by weight.

FACTORS GOVERNING PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE MIXES The strength of the concrete

depends considerably on the proportions of the various ingredients of concrete i.e., cement,
49
aggregates and water. The important properties of concrete which govern the design of
concrete mix are:- i. Strength ii. Durability iii. Workability and iv. Economy

I. Strength The concrete must be strong enough to bear the imposed stresses safely in each
case with the required factor of safety. II. Durability Durability is the property of concrete by
virtue of which it is capable of resisting its disintegration and decay. The concrete must be
durable with proper regard to weathering conditions such as atmospheric gases, moisture
changes and temperature variations. III. Workability It is difficult to define and measure the
workability of concrete, despite its being the most important property. The term workability
may be defined as the ease with which concrete may be mixed placed compacted and
finished at the surface. Factors influencing workability are: a) Water in the mix b) Size of the
particles c) Coarse and the fine aggregate ratio d) Particle interlocking IV. Economy Concrete
should be prepared as economically as possible. As cement is costlier than aggregates,
economy requires that the amount of cement per unit volume of concrete is the least with
due regard to the first three requirements.

WATER CEMENT RATIO The water cement ratio is an important factor in the design of
concrete mixes. It is defined as the ratio of the minimum quantity of water to the volume or
weight of cement to obtain the desired workability of a concrete mix. Water cement ratio is
a yard stick to obtain a concrete mix of desired strength.

SLUMP TEST
AIM
To determine the workability of fresh concrete.
The slump test is a practical means of measuring the workability of mix. Since changes in the
values of slump obtained indicate material changes in the water content or proportions of
the mix, it is therefore useful in controlling the quality of mortar produced.
WORKABILITY
Slump test is used to determine the workability of fresh concrete, by conducting a slump
test as per IS:1199. The apparatus used for conducting slump test are slump cone and
tampering rod.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consist of a steel mould 100mm dia at the top, 200mm dia at the bottom and
300mm high, a 16mm diameter steel tamping rod 600mm long and rounded on one end.
PROCEDURE

50
i. The internal surface of the mould is thoroughly cleaned and applied with a light coat of oil.
ii. The mould is placed on a smooth horizontal, rigid and non-absorbent surface. iii. The
mould is then filled in four layers with freshly mixed concrete, each approximately to one
fourth of the height of the mould. iv. Each layer is tamped 25 times by the round end of the
tamping rod. v. After the top layer is loaded, the concrete is struck off and levelled with a
trowel. vi. The mould is removed from the concrete immediately by raising it slowly in the
vertical direction. vii. The difference in level between the height of the mould and that of
the highest point of the subsided concrete is measured. viii. The difference in height in mm
is the slump of the concrete.
GRAPH
A graph is ploted with water-cement ratio along X axis and slump along Y axis.

RESULT
From the graph it is seen that slump increases with water-cement ratio.

COMPACTION FACTOR TEST

AIM
Compaction factor of fresh concrete is done to determine the workability of fresh concrete
by compacting factor test as per IS : 1199-1959
APPARATUS
Compaction factor testing apparatus, mixing pan, trowel, tamping rod, concrete measuring
cylinder, weighing balance.
PROCEDURE
1. The sample of concrete is placed in the upper hopper up to the brim. 2. The trap-door is
opened so that the concrete falls into the lower hopper. 3. The trap-door of the lower
hopper is opened and the concrete is allowed to fall into the cylinder. 4. The excess
concrete remaining above the top level of the cylinder is then cut off with the help of plane
blades. 5. The concrete in the cylinder is weighed. This is the weight of partially compacted
concrete. 6. The cylinder is filled 1/3rd portion with a fresh sample of concrete and vibrated
to obtain full compaction. Then fill next 1/3rd, again compact and fill the last 1/3rd of
concrete and compacted. 7. The cylinder with the compacted concrete is weighed again.
This weight is of fully compacted concrete.
RESULT
Compaction factor of the given mix=
INFERENCE

51
TABULATION
Weight of the empty cylinder
(w Kgm)
Weight of the partially compacted concrete + cylinder
(w1 Kg

Weight of fully compacted concrete + Cylinder

(w2Kgm)
Weight of the partially compacted concrete (w1-w)
Weight of the fully compacted concrete (w2-w)
Compaction factor
(w1-w) / (w2w)
Diameter of the cylinder =
Height of the cylinder =
Volume of the cylinder = 𝜋𝑟2h

COMPRESSION TEST OF CEMENT CONCRETE CUBES

Cement concrete is a building material obtained by mixing together certain inert
materials ie, aggregates with cement and water and allowing the product to cure for
hardening. The proportions of the different ingredients used vary with the nature of work in
which the concrete is to be used.
AIM
To determine the compressive strength of the prepared concrete cube.
APPARATUS
Cube mould of size 150mm x 150mm x 150mm with base plates, weighing balance, accurate
up to 0.1 g, motored cube vibration machines, measuring cylinder, trowel and tray etc.
MATERIALS
Cement:- it is used as the binding material in concrete. Ordinary Portland cement, also
called normal setting cement is most commonly used for this purpose.
Aggregates:- these are inert materials with no chemical reaction with water and cement and
act as volume increasing components and are responsible for the strength , hardness and
durability of the concrete.

52
They are classified into two-
Fine aggregate:- the material of size which passes through 4.75mm IS sieve and retained in a
0.15mm mesh.
Coarse aggregate:- the material of size which pass through 20mm sieve and is retained in
4.75mm sieve.
Water:- it plays an important part in the mixing, laying, compacting, setting and hardening
of concrete. The strength of concrete depends on the quality and quantity of water used in
the mix.
PROCEDURE
Mix proportions of cement, sand and aggregates in proportions by weight so as
to get an M20 grade concrete. The ingredients shall be mixed dry first so as to get a uniform
colour and then the measured quantity of water is added and mixed thoroughly until the
resulting concrete is uniform in colour.
i. Apply thin layer of oil to the uniform interior faces of the mould. Place it on the table of
the vibration machine and firmly hold in position by means of suitable clamps. ii. Place the
entire quality of concrete in the cube mould and compact the same by vibrations for period
of about 2 minutes. iii. At the end of vibration, remove the mould together with the base
plate from the machine and finish the top surface of cube in the mould by smoothing the
surface with the blade of trowel. Engrave identification mark on cubes. iv. Keep the filled
moulds in the atmosphere of at least 90% relative humidity for 24 hours in the humidity
chamber, after the completion of vibration. Also maintain temperature at 27 ± 2oC v. At the
end of this period, remove cubes from the moulds and immediately submerge in clean fresh
water and keep there until taken out just prior to breaking. After they are taken out and
until they are broken, the cubes shall not allow to become dry.

Testing:
a) Place the test tube on the platform of compression testing machine, without any packing
between the cube and the steel platform of the testing machine. b) Apply the load on
smooth surface of the cube steadily and uniformly starting from zero at a rate of 35
N/mm2 /minute till the cubes fails. c) Test three such cubes at the end of three days of
curing. 3 cubes at the end of 7 days of curing and it needed 3 cubes after 28 days of curing.
d) Record the crushing load e) Calculate the compression strength of each cube by dividing
crushing load by crushing area of the cube. The compression strength shall be average of
the strength of three cubes for each period of curing.
RESULT
Compressive strength of concrete cube =
INFERENCE

53
Compressive strength of M5concrete cube is found out.

What’s the difference between ferrous and non-ferrous

metal?
The simple answer is that ferrous metals contain iron and non-ferrous metals do not. The
more in-depth answer is that ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals each have their own
distinctive properties. These properties determine the applications they are most suited for.

Non-ferrous metals have been used since the beginning of civilization. The discovery of
copper in 5,000 BC marked the end of the Stone Age and the beginning of the Copper Age.
The later invention of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, started the Bronze Age.

The use of ferrous metals started in around 1,200 BC when iron production started to become
commonplace. This ushered in the Iron Age.

Ferrous Metals
Some common ferrous metals include alloy steel, carbon steel, cast iron and wrought iron.
These metals are prized for their tensile strength and durability. Carbon Steel – also known as
structure steel – is a staple in the construction industry and is used in the tallest skyscrapers
and longest bridges. Ferrous metals are also used in shipping containers, industrial piping,
automobiles, railroad tracks, and many commercial and domestic tools.

Ferrous metals have a high carbon content which generally makes them vulnerable to rust
when exposed to moisture. There are two exceptions to this rule: wrought iron resists rust due
to its purity and stainless steel is protected from rust by the presence of chromium.

Most ferrous metals are magnetic which makes them very useful for motor and electrical
applications. The use of ferrous metals in your refrigerator door allows you to pin your
shopping list on it with a magnet.

Steel

Steel is made by adding iron to carbon which hardens the iron. Alloy steel becomes even
tougher as other elements like chromium and nickel are introduced. Steel is made by heating
and melting iron ore in furnaces. The steel can is tapped from the furnaces and poured into
molds to form steel bars. Steel is widely used in the construction and manufacturing
industries.

Carbon Steel

Carbon steel has a higher carbon content in comparison to other types of steel making it
exceptionally hard. It is commonly used in the manufacturing of machine tools, drills, blades,
taps, and springs. It can keep a sharp cutting edge.

54
Alloy Steel

Alloy steels incorporate elements such as chromium, nickel and titanium to impart greater
strength and durability without increasing weight. Stainless steel is an important alloy steel
made using chromium. Alloy steels are used in construction, machine tools, and electrical
components.

Cast Iron

Cast iron is an alloy made from iron, carbon, and silicon. Cast iron is brittle and hard and
resistant to wear. It’s used in water pipes, machine tools, automobile engines and stoves.

Wrought Iron

Wrought iron is an alloy with so little carbon content it’s almost pure iron. During the
manufacturing process, some slag is added which gives wrought iron excellent resistance to
corrosion and oxidation, however, it is low in hardness and fatigue strength. Wrought iron is
used for fencing and railings, agricultural implements, nails, barbed wire, chains, and various
ornaments.

Non-Ferrous Metals
Non-ferrous metals include aluminum, copper, lead, zinc and tin, as well as precious metals
like gold and silver. Their main advantage over ferrous materials is their malleability. They
also have no iron content, giving them a higher resistance to rust and corrosion, and making
them ideal for gutters, liquid pipes, roofing and outdoor signs. Lastly they are non-magnetic,
which is important for many electronic and wiring applications.

Aluminum

Aluminum is lightweight, soft and low strength. Aluminum is easily cast, forged, machined
and welded. It’s not suitable for high-temperature environments. Because aluminum is
lightweight, it is a good choice for the manufacturing of aircraft and food cans. Aluminum is
also used in castings, pistons, railways, cars, and kitchen utensils.

Copper

Copper is red in color, highly ductile, malleable and has high conductivity for electricity and
heat. Copper is principally used in the electrical industry in the form of wire and other
conductors. It’s also used in sheet roofing, cartridge cases, statutes, and bearings. Copper is
also used to make brass, an alloy of copper and zinc.

Lead

Lead is a soft, heavy, malleable metal with a low melting point and low tensile strength. It
can withstand corrosion from moisture and many acids. Lead is widely used in electrical
power cables, batteries, building construction and soldering.

55
Zinc

Zinc is a medium to low strength metal with a very low melting point. It can be machined
easily, but heating may be required to avoid cleavage of crystals. Zinc is most widely used in
galvanizing, the process of applying a protective zinc coating to iron or steel to prevent rust.

Tin

Tin is very soft and malleable, ductile with low tensile strength. It’s often used to coat steel to
prevent corrosion. Tinplate steel is used to make tin cans to hold food. In the late 19th
century, tin foil was commonly used to wrap food products, but has since largely been
replaced by aluminum foil. Tin is can also be alloyed with copper to produce tin brass and
bronze.

‘Classification of Timber

Various bases are considered for the classification of timbers. The following are the
important basis:
(i) Mode of growth
(ii) Modulus of elasticity
(iii) Durability
(iv) Grading
(v) Availability.
(i) Classification Based on Mode of Growth: On the basis of mode of growth trees are
classified as (a) Exogeneous and (b) Endogeneous (a) Exogeneous Trees: These trees grow
outward by adding distinct consecutive ring every year. These rings are known as annual
rings. Hence it is possible to find the age of timber by counting these annual rings. These
trees may be further divided into (1) coniferrous and (2) deciduous. Coniferrous trees are
having cone shaped leaves and fruits. The leaves do not fall till new ones are grown. They
yield soft wood.
Deciduous trees are having broad leaves. These leaves fall in autumn and new ones appear
in springs. They yield strong wood and hence they are commonly used in building
construction. The classification as soft wood and hard wood have commercial importance.
The difference between soft wood and hard wood is given below:
1. In soft wood annual rings are seen distinctly whereas in hard wood they are indistinct.
2. The colour of soft wood is light whereas the colour of hard wood is dark.
3. Soft woods have lesser strength in compression and shear compared to hard woods.
4. Soft woods are light and hard woods are heavy.
5. Fire resistance of soft wood is poor compared to that of hard wood.
6. The structure of soft wood is resinous while structure of hard wood is close grained.
The cross-section of a exogeneous tree is as shown in the Fig. 1.7. The following
components are visible to the naked eye:

56
1. Pith: It is the inner most part of the tree and hence the oldest part of exogeneous tree when
the plant becomes old, the pith dies and becomes fibrous and dark. It varies in size and shape.
2. Heart Wood: This is the portion surrounding pith. It is dark in colour and strong. This
portion is useful for various engineering purpose. This is the dead part of wood. It consists of
several annular rings.
3. Sap Wood: It is the layer next to heart wood. It denotes recent growth and contains sap. It
takes active part in the growth of trees by allowing sap to move in upward direction. The
annual rings of
sap wood are less sharply divided and are light in colour. The sap wood is also known as
alburnum.
4. Cambium Layer: It is a thin layer of fresh sap lying between sap wood and the inner bark.
It contains sap which is not yet converted into sap wood. If the bark is removed and cambium
layer is
exposed to atmosphere, cells cease to be active and tree dies.
5. Inner Bark: It is a inner skin of tree protecting the cambium layer. It gives protection to
cambium layer.
6. Outer Bark: It is the outer skin of the tree and consists of wood fibres. Sometimes it
contains fissures and cracks.
7. Medullary Rags: These are thin radial fibres extending from pith to cambium layer. They
hold annular rings together. In some of trees they are broken and some other they may not be
prominent.
(b) Endogeneous Trees: These trees grow inwards. Fresh fibrous mass is in the inner most
portion. Examples of endogenous trees are bamboo and cane. They are not useful for
structural works.
(ii) Classification Based on Modulus of Elasticity: Young’s modulus is determined by
conducting bending test. On this basis timber is classified as:
Group A: E = 12.5 kN/mm2
Group B: E = 9.8 kN/mm2 to 12.5 kN/mm2

57
Group C: E = 5.6 kN/mm2 to 9.8 kN/mm2.
(iii) Classification Based on Durability: Durability tests are conducted by the forest research
establishment. They bury test specimen of size 600 × 50 × 50 mm in the ground to half their
length and observe their conditions regularly over several years. Then timbers are classified
as:
High durability: If average life is more than 10 years.
Moderate durability: Average life between 5 to 10 years.
Low durability: Average life less than 5 years.
(iv) Classification Based on Grading: IS 883-1970 classifies the structural timber into three
grades-select grade, grade I and grade II. The classification is based on permissible stresses,
defects etc.
(v) Classification Based on Availability: Forest departments classify timbers based on the
availability as
X—Most common. 1415 m3 or more per year
Y—Common. 355 m3 to 1415 m3 per year
Z—Less common. Less than 355 m3 per year.

Defects in Timber
Defects in timber may be defined as, any undesirable character -natural or
artificial- that lowers its strength, durability or quality.

Defects in timber are generally distinguished as natural defects and

artificial defects.

Natural Defects in Timber.

This group includes all those defects: (from an engineering point of view)
that are developed in a tree during its growth.

Their development, therefore, cannot be controlled by man.

Most common natural defects are: knots, shakes, cross grain,

crookedness, rind galls, burr, and curl.

1. KNOTS.
A knot marks the position of growth of a branch on the tree. On the cut
board, it is most easily marked by its conspicuously darker appearance and
harder character.

A knot is essentially a discontinuity in the timber and hence a place of

weakness.

58
Some types of knot are:

1. ROUNDED
2. KNOT CLUSTER
3. ELONGATED
4. FACE KNOT
5. EDGE KNOT
6. PIN KNOTS
7. LIVE AND
8. DEAD KNOTS.
Knots show great variation in their size, shape, and stage of development.
A few common types of knots are pin knots, small knots, medium knots and
large knots.

(i) Live Knot: It is that part (root) of the branch that becomes completely
enclosed within the growing trunk of a tree.
In such a knot, there is complete structural continuity between the fibers of
the branch and the main tree.

(ii) Dead Knot: In such a knot, the continuity of structure is almost lost or is
only up to 25 percent.
(iii) An Inter-grown Knot: This is the term used when almost three-fourths
of the fibers of the knot (perimeter) show continuation with the main tree.

(iv) Encased Knot: It is a knot surrounded entirely by bark.

(v) Edge Knot: It is seen only in saw-on timber, on one edge of the cut
portion.

59
(vi) Face Knot: It is also seen on cut timber on the face of the board.
Knots of whatever type and shape are always to be considered as defects
in timber. They influence the quality of timber at least in two ways:

Firstly, they make the workability of timber quite difficult. They are harder
and offer greater resistance to planning and polishing.
Secondly, they reduce the tensile strength of the timber. Compressive and
shear strength are, however, not affected badly.
2. SHAKES.
After knots, shakes are more serious and common defects in timber.

In simple language, they are also called cracks or fissures. These natural
cracks may result from:

1. Shrinkage on aging of the tree;

2. due to movement caused by wind action in the growing tree;
3. freezing of sap in the cells during its ascent.

Heart Shakes: These are cracks or clefts occurring in the heartwood,

i.e., towards the inner region.
They indicate the beginning of decay of the tree. They become thinner as
they extend outward (towards sapwood).

Star Shakes: They are also called radial shakes. They generally arise in
the sap wood and extend towards the inner regions.
Hence, these are wider in the outer regions and become narrower as they
pass inwards.

The main cause for their development in a living tree is severe temperature
difference during different seasons, such as excessive heat during
summer, and severe cold, leading to frost formation in winter.

Cup Shakes: These are also called ring shakes. These are cracks that
develop parallel to the annual rings.
As such, when fully developed, they may separate portions of timber
longitudinally along the rings. But this condition is seldom seen.

Generally, they develop along a part of a particular annual ring. Reasons

for development of cup or ring shakes are to be sought in the unequal
growth of the timber.

The most important effect of the shakes on the timber is that these reduce
its resistance to shear considerably.

60
As such, it is necessary to avoid the use of timber containing shakes where
severe shear stresses are involved.

Another effect is that shakes allow an easy access of moisture and air to
the interior of the tree along with insects and fungi.

This reduces the durability of the timber.

3. CROSS GRAIN.
As said earlier, fibers of the wood in a normal tree are usually parallel to the
axis of growth (length of timber). This structure is called straight grained.

In some cases, however, these fibers are not straight; they make an angle
or slope with the axis of the tree, the structure is then called cross-grained.

In fact, a minor slope (of grain) may be seen in most trees. It may be quite
harmless. The slope of grain becomes harmful (or a defect) when it
exceeds specified limits.

This is because the strength properties (especially compressive and tensile

strength) are closely related to the direction of the grain vis-a-vis direction
in which the load is applied to the timber.
The slope of grain is determined easily from a simple relationship:

4. RINDGALLS etc.
Overgrowth of timber in some parts or a tree may result in some typical
defects.

Rindgall: are quite common.

A rindgall is simply a highly thickened, enlarged wood cover developed

over an injured part of the tree.

61
It is a defect in timber because it will have to be removed first of all for
conversion of the tree.

Burr and Curl are generally developed as thickened overgrowth on

junctions between the tree trunk and a branch or between one branch and
another branch.

Such overgrowths commonly result in severe twisting of fibers in the board

cut from this portion.

5. REACTION WOOD.
In the growing trees, strong winds commonly cause ‘shaking’ of the
standing trees again and again.

As a reaction to such wind action, wood in these trees develops additional

strength in those parts where the bending action is most severe and
repeated very often.

In other words, within a tree, there may be zones of normal wood and also
zones of exceptionally strong wood.

These zones of reaction wood are further distinguished in tension wood

and compression wood depending on which side of a bending tree they
have been developed.

The reaction wood may also develop cracks. Such wood will be very
difficult to work with for conversion to any useful parts.

Secondary (Artificial) Defects of Timber.

These include such defects of timber that develop in the timber after its
felling and conversion to different sizes.

1. CHECKS.
These are cracks or clefts developing longitudinally in the logs after their
felling. These cracks or checks are often cutting across the annual rings of
the log.

In most cases, their origin is due to a simple cause of unequal drying. Thus,
when a log of wood remains exposed to the atmosphere only on one side,
the upper side will lose more moisture than the under side.

This will result in a shrinkage in the exposed region to such an extent that
tensile forces sufficient to cause a crack or cracks in the wood will be easily
developed.

62
The development of such checks could be avoided by changing the
position of the timber log at regular intervals.

This will ensure uniform shrinkage which will not allow the checks to
develop.

The effect of checks on the quality of timber is that they reduce their

strength on the one hand and allow the moisture to seep in on the other
hand.
2. WARPS.
arping is defined as a deformation in the original plane surface of a board
cut from the timber.

This is also attributed to ‘unequal’ shrinkage. It is most commonly

developed in those boards that are cut from green or ‘unseasoned’ timber.

Warping deformations may take various shapes of these, following are

more common:

(i) Bow: It is a curvature of the board developed in a longitudinal direction.

The thin board takes shape resembling a bow.
(ii) Cupping: It is a distortion developed transversely. Length of the board
remains unaffected, but the width suffers distortion.
(iii) Twisting: It is a complex type of distortion in which one end of the
board is so much distorted that it comes to lie over a part of the other edge.

The above distortions may be developed wholly or partly depending upon

the thickness of the board and also on the extent of drying.

Methods of Seasoning of Timber

There are two methods of Seasoning of timber which are explained below

63
 1. Natural seasoning
2. Artificial seasoning

Natural Seasoning of Timber

Natural seasoning is the process in which timber is seasoned by subjecting it to the natural
elements such as air or water. Natural seasoning may be water seasoning or air seasoning.

Water Seasoning

Water seasoning is the process in which timber is immersed in water flow which helps to
remove the sap present in the timber. It will take 2 to 4 weeks of time and after that the
timber is allowed to dry. Well-seasoned timber is ready to use.

Air Seasoning

In the process of air seasoning timber logs are arranged in layers in a shed. The arrangement
is done by maintaining some gap with the ground. So, platform is built on ground at 300mm
height from ground. The logs are arranged in such a way that air is circulated freely between
logs. By the movement of air, the moisture content in timber slowly reduces and seasoning
occurs. Even though it is a slow process it will produce well-seasoned timber.

Artificial Seasoning of Timber

64
Natural seasoning gives good results but takes more time. So, artificial seasoning of timber is
developed nowadays. By artificial seasoning, timber is seasoned with in 4-5 days. Here also
different methods of artificial seasoning are there and they are as follows.

 Seasoning by Boiling
 Chemical seasoning
 Kiln seasoning
 Electrical seasoning

Seasoning by Boiling

Seasoning of timber is also achieved by boiling it in water for 3 to 4 hours. After boiling
timber is allowed to drying. For large quantity of timber boiling is difficult so, sometimes hot
steam is passed through timber logs in enclosed room. It also gives good results. The boiling
or steaming process develops the strength and elasticity of timber but economically it is of
heavier cost.

Chemical Seasoning

In case of chemical seasoning, timber is stored in suitable salt solution for some time. The
salt solution used has the tendency to absorb water from the timber. So, the moisture content
is removed and then timber is allowed to drying. It affects the strength of the timber.

Kiln Seasoning

In this method timber is subjected to hot air in air tight chamber. The hot air circulates in
between the timber logs and reduces the moisture content. The temperature inside the
chamber is raised with the help of heating coils. When the required temperature is obtained
moisture content and relative humidity gets reduced and timber gets seasoned. Even though it

65
is costly process it will give good results strength wise.

Electrical Seasoning

In the method of electrical seasoning timber is subjected to high frequency alternating

currents. The resistance of timber against electricity is measured at every interval of time.

When the required

resistance is reached seasoning, process is stopped because resistance of timber increases by
reducing moisture content in it. It is also called as rapid seasoning and it is uneconomical.

PLYWOOD AS A CONSTRUCTION
MATERIAL
Plywood as a building material is very widely used
due to its many useful properties. It is an
economical, factory-produced sheet of wood with

66
 precise dimensions that does not warp or crack
with changes in atmospheric moisture.

Ply is an engineered wood product made from three

or more 'plies' or thin sheets of wood. These are
glued together to form a thicker, flat sheet. The logs
used to make plywood as a building material are
prepared by steaming or dipping in hot water. They
are then fed into a lathe machine, which peels the
log into thin plies of wood. each ply is usually
between 1 and 4mm thick. 

Uses of plywood as a building

material
Plywood has a huge range of used within the
construction industry. Some of its most common
uses are:

 To make light partition or external walls

 To make formwork, or a mould for wet
concrete
 To make furniture, especially cupboards,
kitchen cabinets, and office tables
 As part of flooring systems
 For packaging
 To make light doors and shutters

HOW PLY IS MADE

Plywood consists of the face, core, and back. The face is the surface that is visible after
installation, while the core lies between the face and back. Thin layers of wood veneers are
glued together with a strong adhesive. This is mainly a phenol or urea formaldehyde resin.
Each layer is oriented with its grain perpendicular to the adjacent layer. Plywood as a
building material is generally formed into large sheets. It may also be curved for use in
ceilings, aircraft, or ship building. 

67
MODULE II

Ornamental materials for finishing

Paints and Varnishes

The paints, distempers and varnishes are provided as a part of the final treatment
to all the surfaces of walls, ceilings, floors, wood work etc., both internally and
externally. Some more forms of finishes/treatments are also used depending
upon
requirement. These building treatments perform two major functions:

(i) They provide a protective coating to the surfaces. This helps in

preserving and protecting the materials used in the building
construction from environmental effects like heat, frost and rain
water.
(ii) They provide decorative finish or treatment which adds to the
aesthetic appearance of the surfaces and the building.

 PAINTS 

Paints are used to protect metals, timber or plastered surfaces from the corrosive
effects of weather, heat, moisture or gases etc. and also to improve their

68
appearance.

Functions of Paint 

Paint performs following functions :

(i) It protects wood from decaying.

(ii) It prevents corrosion of metals.
(iii) It renders surface hygienically safe and clean.
(iv) It gives decorative and attractive appearance to the surface.
(v) It also protects the surface from harmful effects of atmospheric
agencies.

Characteristics of an Ideal Paint 

An ideal paint should have the following characteristics :

(i) The paint should be cheap.

(ii) It should be easy and harmless to the user.
(iii) It should retain its original colour for a long time.
(iv) It should be able to cover maximum area of the surface with minimum
quantities.
(v) The painted surface should dry neither too slowly nor too rapidly.
(vi) When applied, the paint should form a thin uniform film on painted
surface.
(vii) The paint should form a hard and durable coat on the painted surface.
(viii) The paint should not peel off from painted surface.
(ix) It should be good fire and moisture resistant.
(x) The painted surface should not show any cracks.
(xi) The painted surface should possess attractive and decorative pleasing
appearance.
(xii) Atmospheric agencies should not be able to affect the painted surface.

Constituents of an Oil Paint or Oil Borne Paints 

An oil paint essentially consists of the following ingredients :

(i) A base
(ii) An inert extender or filter

69
(iii) A vehicle or carrier
(iv) A drier
(v) A solvent or thinner
(vi) A colouring pigment

Base 
It provides body to the paint and on it depends upon the nature of paints to a
great extent. A base in general should possess the following properties :

(i) It is the solid matter forming the main body of the paint.

(ii) It makes the paint film harder and more resistant to abrasion.

(iii) It reduces shrinkage cracks formed on drying.

(iv) It forms an opaque layer to obscure the surface of material to be

painted.

White lead, Red lead, Zinc oxide, Iron oxide, and metallic powders such as
Aluminium, Copper and Bronze etc. are the commonly used bases.

An Inert Extender or Filter 

They are added in the paint to reduce the cost and also to modify some of
the properties of the paints. They reduce weight of the paint and render
paint more durable. They should not be used in excess amount as otherwise
paint may loose its original character and may become weak.

Barium sulphate silica, lithophone, whiting, charcoal, gypsum silicate of

magnesia or alumina etc. are the usual inert extenders.

Vehicles or Carriers 
They are liquid substances which hold solid ingredients of the paint. In
general vehicles or carriers possess the following properties :

(i) It is an oily liquid in which the base and pigment are soluble.

(ii) It facilitates the paint to be conveniently spread evenly over the

surface by means of a brush.

(iii) It acts as a binder for the base and causes it to stick to the surface.

(iv) On drying, it forms a tough and an elastic film. Oils most commonly
used as vehicles are linseed oil, poppy oil, nut oil and tung oil.

70
Driers 
These are metallic compounds which when added to the paint in small
quantities accelerate the process of drying of the paint. Driers have a
tendency to affect the colour of the paint and also to destroy the elasticity of
the paint. Hence, they should not be used in excess amount. They are not
used at all in final finishing coat of the paint. Driers should not be used in a
paint that dries well.

Litharge, manganese dioxide, lead acetate and cobalt are the usual driers,
out of which litharge is most commonly used.

Solvents or Thinners 
A liquid thinner is added to the prepared paints to increase their fluidity to
the desired consistency so as to make them work more smoothly and also to
help penetration of porous surfaces. It evaporates after the paint has been

applied to the surface. It also helps the paint in its penetration into the
surface to be painted.

Turpentine oil, petroleum spirits and naphtha are mostly used as solvents or
thinners.

Colouring Pigments 

These are colouring agents which are used to develop desired shade of the
paint. For white, black and other very dark shades, the base of the paint is
chosen in such a way that, it will develop the colour of the paint through
base itself. In case of other shades, colouring pigments of desired shade are
mixed with the paint. Colouring pigments may be divided into five
divisions.

(i) Precipitates
(ii) Natural earth
(iii) Calcined colours
(iv) Lake colours
(v) Metallic powders
Various colouring pigments to develop a particular colour are as follows :
(i) Blue
(ii) Brown
(iii) Black
(iv) Green
(v) Yellow
(vi) Red

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Types of Paints 

The paints are of following types :

(i) Aluminium Paint

(ii) Anti-Corrosive paints
(iii) Asbestos paints
(iv) Bituminous paint
(v) Bronze paints
(vi) Cellulose paint
(vii) Casein paint
(viii) Cement paint
(ix) Enamel paint
(x) Emulsion paint
(xi) Graphite paint
(xii) Plastic paints
(xiii) Silicate paint
(xiv) Luminous paint
(xv) Inodorous paint
(xvi) Rubber paint

Details of each of these paints are described below : 

Aluminium Paint 
The paint is prepared by holding very finely ground aluminium in
suspension either in quick drying spirit varnish or slow drying oil varnish as
per the requirements of the surface to be painted. The suspension liquid is
spirit or oil, evaporates and a thin metallic film of aluminium is left on the
surface. This paint is used for painting wood work and metal surfaces. It is
widely used for painting hot water pipes, gas tanks, marine piers, oil storage
tanks, radiators, etc.

Anti-corrosive Paint 
These paints are used mainly to protect the surface of metallic structural
steel work, against the negative effects of acids, corrosive chemicals fumes
etc. There are several paints which exhibit these properties. These paints
essentially consist of the linseed oil, as vehicle and red lead, zinc oxide,
iron oxide, zinc dust, zinc chromate etc. as their base. These paints are
cheap, durable and are usually black in colour.

Asbestos Paint 

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This paint is used for stopping leakage of metal roofs and painting gutters,
spouts, flashings etc. to prevent their rusting. The paint is also used as damp
proof coat to cover the outer face of the basement walls. This paint can
withstand the effects of acidic gases and steam.

Bituminous Paint 
This paint consists of asphalt, bitumen or pitches, dissolves in any type of
oil or petroleum. The paint is always black in colour but its colour can be
modified by mixing certain pigment like red oxide etc. in it. The paint is
used mostly for painting iron-works under water. These paints deteriorate
when exposed to direct sun. It is also used for water proofing.

Bronze Paint 
These paints are prepared by disbursing aluminium bronze or copper bronze
in nitro-cellulose lacquer as vehicle. They produce a very reflective type of
surface and hence very useful for being applied on radiators. These paints
are equally effective for painting interior or exterior metallic surfaces.

Cellulose Paint 
This type of paint is prepared from cellulose sheets, nitro-cotton and
photographic films. This paint dries very quickly and provides a flexible,
hard and smooth surface. The paint does not harden by oxidation but by
evaporation of thinning agent. The surface of the paint can be easily washed
and cleaned. It remains unaffected by hot water, smoky or acidic
atmosphere. This paint is used for painting cars, aeroplanes etc.

Casein Paint 
Casein is a product extracted from milk curd. Casein paint when mixed with
base like whiting, titanium, lithophone, etc. forms the paint which is usually
available in powder or paste form. This paint has high capacity and can be
applied on new plaster work. It is usually used on walls, ceilings wall
boards, cements block construction etc. to increase the appearance of the
surface.

Cement Paint 
This paint is available in powder form. It consists of white or coloured
cement as its base and water acts as a vehicle. No oil or varnish is added to
it. This paint is available in variety of shades. It is durable and water-proof.
This paint proves to be useful for surfaces which are damp at the time of
painting and are also likely to remain damp after painting.

Enamel Paint 
This paint is prepared by adding base like white lead or zinc white to a
vehicle which is a varnish. To obtain the desired colour, colouring pigments
may also be added. This paint dries slowly and forms a hard, durable,

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smooth, glossy, solid thin film. Enamel paints can be used both for interior
as well as exterior painting.

Emulsion Paint 
This paint consists of synthetic resin like polyvinyl acetate. It can be
applied easily. It retains its colour for a very long time. The surface of the
paint is tough and can be cleaned by washing with water. This paint has
excellent resistance against action of alkali. It dries very quickly in about
one to two hours.

Graphite Paint 
It is black in colour. It is used over the surface which come in contact with
ammonia, chlorine, sulphur gases, etc. It is very much used in under ground
railways.

Plastic Paint 
This paint contains a variety of plastics in suspension and is available in the
market under different trade name. It is mostly used in show rooms, display
rooms, and auditorium etc. It can be applied by spray or by brush.

Silicate Paint 
It is prepared by mixing calcium and finely ground silica with resinous
materials. It forms a very hard and durable film on painted surface. It can be
directly applied on brick, concrete or plastered surface, but only after
wetting them.

Luminous Paint 
This paint is prepared by mixing calcium sulphide with varnish. This paint
shines in darkness like radium dials of watches. This paint should be
applied on surface which have been rendered free from corrosion or lead
paints in particular.

Inodorous Paint 
This paint consists of white lead or zinc white mixed with methylated spirit.
No turpentine is used in this paint. White lead or zinc white is ground in oil.
Shellac with same quantity of linseed oil and castor oil is dissolved in
methylated spirit and this mixture is mixed with lead or zinc white paste
prepared in linseed oil. This paint dries quickly, but is not durable.
Rubber Paint 
This paint is prepared by treating rubber with chlorine gas (chlorinated
rubber) and then dissolving it in suitable solvent. This paint can be used on
new concrete and lime plastered surfaces. This paint dries quickly. It is little
affected by weather and sunlight. It is resistant against chemical actions,
water, etc.

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 VARNISHES 
Varnish is a solution of some resinous substance in alcohol, oil or turpentine. The
process of covering the surface with varnish is known as varnishing. Varnishing
is done only on wooden surface.

Functions of Varnish 
Varnish performs the following functions :

(i) It brings about brilliance to the painted surface.

(ii) It protects the surface against adverse effects of the atmosphere.
(iii) It increases the durability of the paint film.
(iv) It beautifies the surface without hiding the beautiful grains of the
wood.
Varnish plays an important part in finishing wooden surfaces of doors, windows,
floors, furniture, etc.

Properties of Good Varnish 

A good varnish should possess the following properties :

(i) It should not hide the natural grains of the surface.

(ii) It should not shrink or show cracks after drying.

(iii) It should make the surface glossy.

(iv) It should dry rapidly.

(v) It should impart the finished surface uniform colour and pleasing
appearance.

(vi) The thin film of varnish developed after drying on the surface should
be tough, hard and durable.

(vii) The natural colour of the varnish should not fade away when
varnished surface is exposed to atmospheric action.

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Constituents of the Varnish
A varnish has usually three elements :
(i) Resins or resinous material
(ii) Driers
(iii) Solvents

Resins or Resinous Material

Quality of varnish depends much upon the quality of resin used. Copal, lac,
amber and rosin are the commonly used resins for varnishes. Copal is
considered to be best.

Driers
Driers are used to accelerate the process of drying of the varnish. Litharge,
lead, acetate, and white copper are the various types of driers, out of which
litharge is mostly used.

Types of Varnish

The varnishes can be classified into following categories depending upon the
solvent used :

(i) Oil Varnish

(ii) Spirit Varnish
(iii) Turpentine Varnish
(iv) Water Varnish
(v) Asphalt Varnish
(vi) Spar Varnish
(vii) Flat Varnish

Oil Varnish
This type of varnish is manufactured by dissolving hard resins such as
amber and copal in linseed oil. Turpentine may be used in small quantity to
thin the varnish, and also to render it workable. Oil varnishes form a hard
and durable film, but they dry slowly.

Spirit Varnish
This type of varnish is prepared by dissolving resins such as lac or shellac
in methylated spirit. This varnish dries very quickly and gets easily affected
by weather action. This varnish is mostly used for wood furniture.

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Turpentine Varnish
In this type of varnish, gum, dammar, mastic, and rosin like resins are
dissolved in turpentine. These varnishes are light in colour and dry quickly.

Water Varnish
This varnish is prepared by dissolving shellac in hot water. Shellac does not
dissolve readily in water and as such to accelerate the process of dissolving
shellac in water either ammonia or potash, or soda or borax is added. This
varnish is used for painting pictures, posters and maps.

Asphalt Varnish
This varnish is obtained by dissolving melted asphalt in linseed oil. The
varnish may be thinned by adding suitable amount of either turpentine or
petroleum spirit. This varnish is used for varnishing fabricated iron and
steel product.

Spar Varnish
This varnish derives its name from its use. It is mostly used on spars and
other exposed parts of the ships. It is very good weather resistant. It should
not be used indoor.

Flat Varnish
This is an ordinary varnish to which material such as wax, finely divided
silica and metallic soaps are added, to reduce the gloss of the varnished
surface. This varnish presents a dull appearance.

Process of Varnishing

Following operations are required to be carried out while varnishing a wooden

surface :

Preparation of Surface:- The surface to be varnished should be thoroughly

rubbed smooth by means
of sand paper and thoroughly cleaned from dust and dirt.

Knotting:- It is the process by which knots on the surface of wood work are killed
by
applying certain substance over the knots. All the knots should be covered
with a hot preparation of red lead or glue size.

Stopping :-After knotting, the surface of wood work is stopped by means of hot
weak
glue size. This coat fills all the pores of the surface. After stopping when
surface becomes dry, it is rubbed again with sand paper.

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Applying Varnish Coats :- After stopping process, varnish is applied on the
surface in very thin coats.
Next coat is applied only when previously applied coat has dried. For
varnishing, fine brittle varnishing brush should be used.

Plastics
Plastic isn’t as simple as you may think. Each one of them is different from the
others. Some of them are reusable, the others produce hazardous material after
several uses. Some are easily recyclable, others need more sophisticated and
intricate handlings in its recycling process.

To summarize, there are 7 types of plastic exist in our current modern

days:
1 – Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET or PETE or Polyester)

PET is also known as a wrinkle-free fiber. It’s different from the plastic bag that
we commonly see at the supermarket. PET is mostly used for food and drink
packaging purposes due to its strong ability to prevent oxygen from getting in
and spoiling the product inside. It also helps to keep the carbon dioxide in
carbonated drinks from getting out.
Although PET is most likely to be picked up by recycling programs, this type of
plastic contains antimony trioxide—a matter that is considered as a carcinogen
—capable of causing cancer in a living tissue. The longer a liquid is left in a
PET container the greater the potential for the release of the antimony. Warm
temperatures inside cars, garages, and enclosed storage could also increase the
release of the hazardous matter.
2 – High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

Quite special compared to the other types, HDPE has long virtually unbranched
polymer chains which makes them really dense and thus, stronger and thicker
from PET. HDPE is commonly used as the grocery bag, opaque milk, juice
container, shampoo bottles, and medicine bottle.
Not only recyclable, HDPE is relatively more stable than PET. It is considered
as a safer option for food and drinks use, although some studies have shown that
it can leach estrogen-mimicking additive chemicals that could disrupt human’s
hormonal system when exposed to ultraviolet light.

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3 – Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
PVC is typically used in toys, blister wrap, cling wrap, detergent bottles, loose-
leaf binders, blood bags and medical tubing. PVC or vinyl used to be the second
most widely used plastic resin in the world (after polyethylene), before the
manufacture and disposal process of PVC has been declared as the cause of
serious health risks and environmental pollution issues.
In the term of toxicity, PVC is considered as the most hazardous plastic. The
use of it may leach a variety of toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A (BPA),
phthalates, lead, dioxins, mercury, and cadmium. Several of the chemicals
mentioned may cause cancer; it could also cause allergic symptoms in children
and disrupt the human’s hormonal system. PVS is also rarely accepted by
recycling programs. This is why PVC is better best to be avoided at all cost.
4 – Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

As said before, Polyethylenes are the most used family of plastics in the world.
This type of plastic has the simplest plastic polymer chemical structure, making
it very easy and very cheap to process. LDPE polymers have significant chain
branching including long side chains making it less dense and less crystalline
(structurally ordered) and thus a generally thinner more flexible form of
polyethylene.
LDPE is mostly used for bags (grocery, dry cleaning, bread, frozen food bags,
newspapers, garbage), plastic wraps; coatings for paper milk cartons and hot &
cold beverage cups; some squeezable bottles (honey, mustard), food storage
containers, container lids. Also used for wire and cable covering.
Although some studies have shown that LDPE could also cause unhealthy
hormonal effects in humans, LDPE is considered as a safer plastic option for
food and drink use. Unfortunately, this type of plastic is quite difficult to be
recycled.
5 – Polypropylene (PP)

Stiffer and more resistant to heat, PP is widely used for hot food containers. Its
strength quality is somewhere between LDPE and HDPE. Besides in thermal
vests, and car parts, PP is also included in the disposable diaper and sanitary pad
liners.
Same as LDPE, PP is considered a safer plastic option for food and drink use.
And although it bears all those amazing qualities, PP isn’t quite recyclable and
could also cause asthma and hormone disruption in human.

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6 – Polystyrene (PS)
Polystyrene is the Styrofoam we all commonly used for food containers,
egg cartons, disposable cups and bowls, packaging, and also bike helmet.
When exposed with hot and oily food, PS could leach styrene that is
considered as brain and nervous system toxicant, it could also affect genes,
lungs, liver, and immune system. On top of all of those risks, PS has a low
recycling rate.
7 – Other
Number 7 is for all plastics other than those identified by number 1-6 and
also plastics that may be layered or mixed with other types of plastics,
such as bioplastics. Polycarbonate (PC) is the most common plastic in this
category, isn’t used as much in recent years due to it being associated with
bisphenol A (BPA).  PC is also known by various name: Lexan, Makrolon,
and Makroclear. Ironically, PC is typically used for baby bottles, sippy
cups, water bottles, water gallon, metal food can liner,  ketchup container,
and dental sealants. Due to its toxicity, several countries have banned the
use of PC for baby bottles and infant formula packaging.
The BPA that contained inside PC have been linked to numerous health
problems including chromosome damage in female ovaries, decreased
sperm production in males, early onset of puberty, various behavioural
changes, altered immune function, sex reversal in frogs, impaired brain
and neurological functions, cardiovascular system damage, adult-onset
(Type II) diabetes, obesity, resistance to chemotherapy, increased risk of
breast cancer, prostate cancer, infertility, and metabolic disorders.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC or Vinyl) is an economical and versatile
thermoplastic polymer widely used in building and construction
industry to produce door and window profiles, pipes (drinking
and wastewater), wire and cable insulation, medical devices, etc.
It is the world’s third largest thermoplastic material by volume
after polyethylene and polypropylene.

It is a white, brittle solid material available in powder form or

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granules. Due to its versatile properties, such as lightweight,
durable, low cost and easy processability, PVC is now replacing
traditional building materials like wood, metal, concrete, rubber,
ceramics, etc. in several applications.

Key Properties of PVC Polymer

PVC is a very versatile and cost-effective material. Its main properties and
benefits include:

1. Electrical Properties: PVC is a good insulation material, thanks to its good

dielectric strength.
Durability: PVC is resistant to weathering, chemical rotting, corrosion,
shock and abrasion. It is therefore the preferred choice for many long-life
and outdoor products.
Flame Retardancy: Because of its high chlorine content, PVC products are
self- extinguishing. Its oxidation index is ≥45. Antimony trioxide has been
used extensively, usually in combination with phosphate ester plasticizers,
giving excellent fire performance and mechanical properties.

Cost/Performance Ratio: PVC has good physical as well as mechanical

properties and provides excellent cost-performance advantages. It has long
life span and need low maintenance.

Mechanical Properties: PVC is abrasion-resistant, lightweight and tough.

Chemical Resistance: PVC is resistant to all inorganic chemicals. It has very

good resistance against diluted acids, diluted alkalis and aliphatic
hydrocarbons. Attacked by ketones; some grades swollen or attacked by
chlorinated and aromatic hydrocarbons, esters, some aromatic ethers and
amines, and nitro- compounds

Some of the most significant properties of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) are:

1. Density: PVC is very dense compared to most plastics (specific

gravity around 1.4)
2. Economics: PVC is readily available and cheap.

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 3. Hardness: Rigid PVC is very hard.
4. Strength: Rigid PVC has extremely good tensile strength.

Polyvinyl Chloride is a “thermoplastic” (as opposed to “thermoset”) material

which has to do with the way the plastic responds to heat. Thermoplastic
materials become liquid at their melting point (a range for PVC between the
very low 100 degrees Celsius and higher values like 260 degrees Celsius
depending on the additives). A major useful attribute about thermoplastics
is that they can be heated to their melting point, cooled, and reheated again
without significant degradation. Instead of burning, thermoplastics like
polypropylene liquefy, which allows them to be easily injection molded and
then subsequently recycled. By contrast, thermoset plastics can only be
heated once (typically during the injection molding process). The
first heating causes thermoset materials to set (similar to a 2-part epoxy)
resulting in a chemical change that cannot be reversed. If you tried to heat
a thermoset plastic to a high temperature a second time it would simply
burn. This characteristic makes thermoset materials poor candidates for
recycling.

What are the Advantages of Polyvinyl Chloride?

1. Polyvinyl Chloride is readily available and relatively inexpensive.

2. Polyvinyl Chloride is very dense and thus very hard and resists
impact deformation very well relative to other plastics.
3. Polyvinyl Chloride has very good tensile strength.
4. Polyvinyl Chloride is very resistant to chemicals and alkalies.

What are the Disadvantages of Polyvinyl Chloride?

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 1. Polyvinyl Chloride has very poor heat stability. For this reason
additives which stabilize the material at higher temperatures are
typically added to the material during production.
2. Polyvinyl Chloride emits toxic fumes when melted and/or subject to a
fire.

Although there are some shortcomings, Polyvinyl Chloride is a great

material overall. It has a unique blend of qualities that make it particularly
useful for the construction business.

Advantages and Disadvantages of plastics

Disadvantages
1.when plastics are burned,they produce toxic gases and smoke
2. most plastic wastes littering the roadsides cause disease causing
microorganisms.
3. plastics dumped in water bodies pose a threat to aquatic life.
4. the toxic substances present in plastics which are dumped in water bodies can
cause reproductive failure in aquatic organisms.
5. plastics prevent the rainwater from seeping into the ground.
6.dumping of plastics in the ground affects the plants growing in the area as
they dont get enough water from the soil.
advantages
1. plastics are poor conductors of heat which makes them suitable for making
handles of cooking vessels.
2. plastics are poor conductors of electricity .so they are used in electrical
appliances
3. they are insoluble in water.
4. they do not corrode or rust.
Rubber
Elastomer commonly known as rubber is a linear polymer which possesses elasticity
and good resistance to corrosive fluids.

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The properties of rubber depend upon the type of fillers and adhesives used.

Properties/Characteristics of Rubber:

1. It is elastic; because of this property a rubber band can be stretched to 9 or 10 times

its original length and when the load is removed it regains its original length.
2. It is strong and tough. Because of this property it can be put to use even under
abnormal conditions.
3. It is highly impermeable to both water and air and therefore, it can be used to retain
water as in rubber bottles, hoses etc.
4. It exhibits a great resistance to abrasion, tearing and cutting over a wide range of
temperature—7 to 115°C.
5. It is a bad conductor of heat.
6. It can contain liquids and gases.
7. The synthetic rubber offers great resistance to acids, petroleum products etc.
8. Its properties such as hardness, strength, abrasion, resistance etc., can be modified
to the desired extent by compounding techniques.
9. When two fresh surfaces of milled rubber are pressed together, they coalesce to form
a single piece. This property (known as tackiness) of rubber makes the manufacturing of
composite articles such as a tyre, from a separate piece very simple.
10. The plasticity of rubber makes it pliable and amenable to all manufacturing
processes.
11. By vulcanizing the rubber, its mechanical properties can be considerably improved.
12. Rubber insulation and other rubber products require shaping prior to vulcanisation
because the vulcanised rubber cannot be shaped by mechanical pressing once it has
acquired its characteristic plasticity. By vulcanising rubber in moulds, products of rather
intricate shape can be obtained.
13. The electrical insulating properties of pure rubber are inferior to those of vulcanised
rubbers.
14. Ordinary electrical insulating rubbers, have the following electrical characteristics
under normal conditions –
Volume resistivity- 1 x 1014 to 1 x 1015 ohm cm.
Loss tangent- 0.01 to 0.03 at 50 Hz.
15. The electric strength of organic rubbers strongly depends on the kind of current
involved, the degree of stretch, and the time during which the voltage remains applied.
When left unstretched and subjected to a short-time 50 Hz test voltage, rubber will have
an electric strength within the following limits, -depending on the pure rubber constant.

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For a 20 to 25% rubber content: 20 to 30 kV/mm
For 30 to 35% rubber content: 30 to 45 kV/mm
The D.C. electric strength of rubber is 2 to 2.5 times the electric strength at 50 Hz.
16. Although rubber is practically water and gas tight its electrical characteristics are
affected by moisture, especially for rubbers, compounded with considerable quantities of
the substances which increase the sensitivity to moisture. Only specially compounded
rubbers can maintain their electrical characteristics nearly unchanged when kept
continuously in contact with moisture.
17. For normal rubbers the maximum operating temperature is usually considered to be
55°C, for rubbers of great heat resistance it is equal to 65°C. For butyl rubbers the
working temperature can be as high as 90°C. 9.2.3.

Uses of Rubber:
The following are some of the uses of rubber:
1. Thermal insulation
2. Lining of reservoir
3. Rain water and flexible tubing
4. Belting of all types
5. Tyres and tubes
6. Adhesive
7. Hose pipes, printing roller etc.
9. Mounting material
9. As a buffer
10. Gasketina material.

Types of Rubber:
There are generally two types of rubber:
1. Natural rubber
2. Synthetic rubber

Physical Properties of Crude Natural Rubber:

The physical properties of crude natural rubber are indicated below:
1. At low temperature rubber becomes stiff and when it frozen, it attains fibrous structure
2. Raw rubber when heated to 130°C becomes soft and plastic. The plasticity can be
varied within certain ranges by chemicals.
3. Co-efficient of cubical expansion is 670 x 10 -8. When rubber is extended heat is
produced. This is called Joule’s effect. When rubber is stretched to 82% it generates 680
calories/gm of heat.

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4. Heat of combustion of raw rubber is 10547 calories/gm.
5. Specific gravity of raw rubber at 0°C is 0.95 and 0.934 at 20°C.
6. Specific heat of raw rubber at room temperature is 0.502.
2. Synthetic Rubber:
Rubber produced by artificial chemical process is known as “synthetic rubber”.
Synthetic rubbers, or “elastomes” are derived from such raw materials as coke,
limestone, petroleum, natural gas, salt, alcohol, sulphur, ammonia and coal tar.
Elastomers are not strictly speaking synthetic rubber, for rubber has never been
synthesized. They are rubber like materials which have many of the characteristic
properties of rubber and some of which resemble rubber in their chemical nature.
The processing of synthetic rubbers involves approximately the same steps and
equipments as that of crude rubber. Their properties while similar to those of rubber, are
capable of wider variation. Some elastomers are more resistant that rubber to sunlight,
others have greater solvent resistance; and some have greater elasticity

Forms of Rubber:
The important forms of rubber are described below:
1. Gutta Percha Rubber:
It is a variety of natural rubber, prepared from the leaves of tress known as the dichopsis
gutta and palaginum gutta (mostly grown in Malaya peninsula).
It becomes soft and sticky at a temperature of about 100°C.
As compared to other varieties of rubber, it absorbs less water.
Uses:
It is extensively used for preparing ropes of submarine and as an insulating material in
electrical works.
2. Foam Rubber:
It is prepared by adding the chemically producing gases in the liquid latex and stirring
the mixture till foam is formed. It is then converted into solid foam and is given the
desired shape.
Uses:
It is wisely used for packing pads, pillows etc.
3. Sponge Rubber:
It is prepared by adding sodium bicarbonate during the process of vulcanisation. The
evaporation of moisture leaves pores which result in sponge rubber.
Uses:
It is used as a heat and sound insulating material.
4. Guayle Rubber:
It is a variety of natural rubber available in North America.

86
It is prepared from the branches of guayule,
It contains 70 percent of hydrocarbon, 20 percent of resin, 10 percent of insoluble
materials, cellulose, liquid etc.
5. Smoked Rubber:
It is a variety of crude rubber.
The rubber pieces after coagulation are dried in room filled with smoke at a temperature
of about 40°C to 50°C.
It is so named as drying is carried out in a smoke room.
6. Polybutadiene Rubber:
It is a variety of synthetic rubber (produced by The Indian Petrochemicals Corporation
Ltd., near Baroda); commercially known as Cisrub.
It has high abrasion resistance and strength.
Uses:
It is nicely used in producing beltings, floor tiles, automotive moulded goods, hoses,
tyres, seals, gaskets etc.

Applications of Aluminium in Construction and

Building

Why aluminium
Aluminium is the second most widely specified metal in buildings after steel, and is used
in all construction sectors, from commercial buildings to domestic dwellings. 40% of the
UK annual production of aluminium is utilized within the construction industry, which
equates to roughly 150,000 tonnes of aluminium per annum, of which approximately
65,000 tonnes is extruded products, and 25,000 tonnes sheet materials.

Aluminium extruded, rolled, and cast products are commonly used for window
frames and other glazed structures ranging from shop fronts to large roof
superstructures for shopping centres and stadiums; for roofing, siding, and curtain
walling, as well as for cast door handles, catches for windows, staircases, heating
and air-conditioning systems. Most recently; aluminium has played a significant role
in the renovation of historic buildings. The characteristics and properties of
aluminium as a material have lead to revolutionary and innovative changes in

87
building techniques and architectural and engineering projects. Aluminium is leading
the way into the future of the construction industry.

Strength-to-Weight Ratio
Aluminium’s high strength-to-weight ratio is one of its major advantages in the
construction industry. Aluminium has a density of 2.7, which means that it is a third
the density of steel. The strength of the metal can be adjusted to suit the application
by proper alloying

Rigidity and Stability in Aluminium Frames

Aluminium components also offer comparably high strength and rigidity, making
them particularly suitable for applications such as sash and frames of windows and
patio doors. The material’s rigidity ensures that, while slim, aluminium frames remain
stable under normal loads. This is particularly valued in high-rise buildings, where
stability is an essential property of applications such as facades, cladding and
windows.

Aluminium Facades and Cladding

Increasingly, aluminium facades are being used to clad non-residential buildings.

Low maintenance – low cost-in-use

While Aluminium has a natural, built-in durability (it forms a protective layer of oxide as
soon as it is exposed to air), most Aluminium construction products are treated or
coated.
Fabricated for the fast track
One of the principal reasons for Aluminium’s enduring and growing popularity is its
compatibility with today’s fast track construction techniques and just-in-time ordering.
Guaranteed performance through quality control
Although basic material costs will always be important to specifiers, they should be
balanced against the cost of fabrication and subsequent service performance.
Aluminum recyclable at end of building’s life
The ability to recycle aluminum building products is also becoming more important as
more building owners decide to deconstruct rather than demolish older buildings.
Aluminum Can Be Formed into Variety of Shapes:
Because it is ductile, aluminum can be formed into a number of shapes and profiles. Its
uses are by no means limited to flat panels.

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PROPERTIES, ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS
Properties
1. Durability:
Aluminium building products are made from alloys, which are weather-proof, corrosion-
resistant and immune to the harmful effects of UV rays, ensuring optimal performance
over a very long serviceable lifetime.
2. Design flexibility:
The extrusion process offers an almost infinite range of forms and sections, allowing
designers to integrate numerous functions into one profile. Rolled products may be
manufactured flat, curved, shaped into cassettes, or sandwiched with other materials. In
addition, aluminium can be sawed, drilled, riveted, screwed, bent, welded and soldered
in the workshop or on the building site.
3. Hundreds of surface finishes:
Aluminium can be anodized or painted in any colour, to any optical effect, using any
number of surface touches, in order to meet a designer’s decorative needs. Such
processes also serve to enhance the material’s durability and corrosion resistance, as
well as providing an easy-to-clean surface.
4. High reflectivity:
This characteristic feature makes aluminium a very efficient material for light
management. Aluminium solar collectors can be installed to lower energy consumption
for artificial lighting and heating in winter, while aluminium shading devices can be used
to reduce the need for air conditioning in summer.
5. Fire safety:
Aluminium does not burn and is therefore classed as a non-combustible construction
material. Aluminium alloys will nevertheless melt at around 650°C, but without releasing
harmful gases. Industrial roofs and external walls are increasingly made of thin
aluminium cladding panels, intended to melt during a major fire, allowing heat and
smoke to escape and thereby minimizing damage.
6. Optimal security:
Where high security is required, specially designed, strengthened aluminium frames can
be used. While the glass for such applications may well be heavy, the overall weight of
the structure remains manageable thanks to the light weight of the aluminium frame.

Advantages
1. Lightweight
Aluminium is one of the lightest available commercial metals with a density
approximately one third that of steel or copper.

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2. Excellent Corrosion Resistance
Aluminium has excellent resistance to corrosion due to the thin layer of aluminium oxide
that forms on the surface of aluminium when it is exposed to air
3. Strong at Low Temperatures
Where as steel becomes brittle at low temperatures, aluminium increases in tensile
strength and retains excellent toughness.
4. Easy to Work
Aluminium can be easily fabricated into various forms such as foil, sheets, geometric
shapes, rod, tube and wire.
5. Easy Surface Treatment
For many applications, aluminium requires no protective or decorative coating; the
surface supplied is entirely adequate without further finishing
Disadvantages:
1. Thermal insulation was almost definitely insufficient: aluminium being a good thermal
conductor.
2. Poor water proofing due to the inadequately designed/executed joints between the
roof aluminium sheets
3. General noise caused by rain or hail falling on aluminium roof and wall sheets.
Applications
The best application can be obtained in some typical cases, which are characterised in
getting profit at least of one of the main basic properties: lightness, corrosion resistance
and functionality. The structural applications which best fit these properties in the field of
civil engineering are the following:
1. Long-span roof systems in which live loads are small compared with dead loads, as in
the case of reticular space structures and geodetic domes covering large span areas, like
halls and auditoriums.

2. Structures located in inaccessible places far from the fabrication shop, for which
transport economy and ease of erection are of extreme importance, like for instance
electrical transmission towers, which can be carried by helicopter.

3. Structures situated in corrosive or humid environments such as swimming pool roofs,

river bridges, hydraulic structures and offshore super-structures.

4. Structures having moving parts, such as sewage plant crane bridges and moving
bridges, where lightness means economy of power under service.

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5. Structures for special purposes, for which maintenance operations are particularly
difficult and must be limited, as in case of masts, lighting towers, antennas towers, sign
motorway portals, and so on

Paneling and false ceiling

Why do you need a false ceiling?

A residential and commercial building is incomplete without a proper roof. A roof is the
topmost and an important part of the building offering protection from the elements such as
wind, high or low temperatures, sunlight, snow and rain. Besides providing protection, the
bottom of the roof serves as a place where occupants of a building can exhibit their aesthetic
sense by creating attractive false ceilings using decorative ceiling panels that can please the
eye.

In addition to aesthetics, false ceilings also offer functional features that enhance their utility
in more ways than one. For instance, false ceilings provide good acoustics where required
sounds can be enhanced and at the same time unwanted sounds can be minimized. They
provide space for housing electric wires, pipes, and air-conditioning ducts. False ceilings can
reflect and diffuse light obviating the need for unnecessary artificial lighting thus lowering
energy consumption. These ceiling panels offer fire safety and moisture resistance features
as well.

Thus, a well-planned false ceiling provides both functional and aesthetic features that can
enhance the working environment manifold.

False ceilings can be of different types based on their applications. These ceiling tiles use
different materials to provide various kinds of features. Generally used false ceiling panels
are amenable to intricate designs and can enhance aesthetic features of the ceiling.

Types of false ceiling panels

False ceilings can be classified primarily based on the type of materials used.
Each material offers unique advantages and disadvantages. A combination of
materials can offer both functional and aesthetic features.

Some popular types of false ceiling panels include:

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 Plaster of Paris false ceilings
 Gypsum false ceilings
 Wood false ceilings
 Fibre false ceilings
 Metal false ceilings
 Glass false ceilings
 PVC false ceilings
 Fabric and synthetic leather false ceilings

Plaster of Paris false ceiling

Plaster of Paris (POP) is among the most popular materials used in a variety of
commercial as well as residential roofing applications. POP is basically gypsum
sans its water content (created by heating gypsum to a temperature when water
evaporates) available in powdered form. It hardens when water is added and
makes for a good ceiling material. POP is maintenance free and highly durable
besides being good insulators of cold and heat. POP false ceilings are amenable
to various designs and can give different finishes including uniform and smooth
finish as well as designs of various shapes. It is also an excellent material for
enhancing light conditions. The major drawback of POP is its tendency to crack
over time.

Gypsum false ceiling panels

Gypsum is a sulfate of calcium available as an evaporite mineral. It is a popular
material for false ceilings because of its thermal and sound insulation,
lightweight and fire resistance properties. It is also a soft material. Square
gypsum boards can be hung from an iron framework to build a false ceiling.
Gypsum is available naturally in shades of brown, white, red, yellow and grey.
It is also available as a clear or colourless material. The aesthetic looks of
gypsum boards can be enhanced by finishing them with laminates and paints.
Gypsum boards are also amenable to wallpaper and texture finishes. Gypsum is
quite flexible and can easily provide different shape and texture options – plain,
curved, stepped and coffered.

Wood ceiling panels

Wooden false ceilings have excellent natural patterns and textures that can
please the eye. Wood is a good material to work with. Wooden panels can come
in the form of hollow blocks, boards or panels. They are easy to install often
with just screws and nails. They are most suitable for cold climates. They are
durable but are susceptible to termite attacks and warping. They can be finished
in several ways including painting with appropriate shades of colours.

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Wood panels are among the more expensive panels because of their high cost of
material and the higher cost of maintenance. However, if budget isn’t an issue,
wood ceiling panels can offer highly pleasing aesthetics giving the ceiling a rich
and sophisticated look.

Fibre ceiling tiles

Fibre false ceilings are also known as acoustic or soundproofing ceilings for
their sound and heat insulation properties which are achieved by mixing natural
and synthetic materials such as bitumen, tars, vegetable fibre, wood and stone.
Because of the reinforcements, fibre ceiling tiles acquire toughness, hardness
and resistance to fire making them highly suitable for commercial applications
in noisy places such as shopping malls, retail showrooms and offices.
Fibre false ceilings are gaining popularity in commercial applications because
they are available at low costs, can be installed easily and offer many functional
benefits. However, fibre ceiling panels are not suitable for residential
applications because they lack aesthetic appeal.

Glass ceiling panels

Being a non-crystalline but transparent material, glass is a good material to
work with for improving the aesthetics of a false ceiling. Due to its brittle
nature, it has limited uses but the brittleness can be reduced by adding suitable
additives.
Their transparency can be used effectively to make small spaces look bigger.
Glass ceiling panels can be a suitable roofing solution in establishments such as
libraries, restaurants, book stores and jewellery shops. Glass is susceptible to
design elements such as colouring, laminating and patterning. Besides, glass is a
good heat insulator.

PVC false ceiling panels

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is an ideal plastic material for false ceilings in
garages, basements, kitchens, toilets and bathrooms. PVC ceiling panels are a
highly cost-effective alternative to other costlier panels. These panels are easy
to install and maintain. They are lightweight and resistant to moisture and
termites. They do not get affected by UV light and hence are colour fast. They
can also be finished in a variety of ways giving flexibility in design

Metal ceiling tiles

Metals such as aluminium and galvanized iron are widely used in false ceilings.
Metals are hard and durable by their very nature. These ceiling panels can be
installed easily and require very little maintenance. They can also be easily

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removed and reinstalled which makes it ideal to house water pipes, AC ducts
and electric wires away from public glare. Metal ceiling panels can be finished
in innovative ways to increase the aesthetic appeal of the ceiling

Fabric or synthetic leather false ceiling panels

Fabric and synthetic leather false ceilings are more ornamental than functional.
They can create a special ambience because they can be created in many
intricate designs to match with the rest of the interiors. Since they are
functionally weak but aesthetically strong, they are useful in temporary
situations such as exhibitions or events
Typically, false ceilings are drop ceilings which mean that they hang from the
main ceiling. The panels described above are drop ceiling panels used to create
the ceilings that are visible to the people inside a building or room. A stretch
ceiling is a variation of the drop ceiling wherein certain types of materials can
be used to stretch between two perimeter tracks. Given the types of materials
that can be used as ceiling panels, ceilings can be made to come alive with a
little imagination and innovation.

Building Façade

What Is a Facade?
When we look at different kinds of buildings, we may have very different reactions to them. Some
are tall and imposing, with massive arched doorways and towering spires. Others are welcoming,
perhaps with a large porch or wide windows. How these building entrances look is no accident.
Someone designed them with a lot of attention to their front facade.
A facade is the exterior wall or face of a building, and it usually involves design elements like
deliberate placement of windows or doors. Depending on architectural style, these elements
have a certain order to them. While the word ''facade'' can signify any external wall of a building
with a design element, it often refers to the front wall with an entrance. Often, the front facade
has more elaborate or special architectural treatment than the rest of the structure. A facade can
be imposing, decorative, or rather simple.

A climate-based building facade is a filter, between exterior and interior that

creates comfortable internal living conditions.
Climate-based component facade design strategies include:
Hot Climates:
 Passive cooling
 Shaded walls and glazing
 Natural ventilation
 Reflected daylighting
 Light exterior colors
 Insulation (min.): RSI 2.8 (R 16)
 Glazing: double

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Mixed Climates:
 Warm Season: Passive cooling, shaded gazing, reflected daylighting.
 Cold Season: Passive solar heating, daylighting.
 Insulation (min.): RSI 3.5 (R 20)
 Glazing: double (thermal break)
Cold Climates:
 Passive solar heating, daylighting.
 Insulation (min.): RSI 4.1 (R 23)
 Glazing: double (thermal break, moveable insulation)  

Strategies may vary with a detailed analysis. For masonry walls, use 1/3 the insulation value
(minimum) in hot, 1/2 in temperate, and 2/3 in cold climates. Locate insulation on the
exterior face of masonry walls.

Glass

Engineering Properties of Glass

1. Transparency
2. Strength
3. Workability
4. Transmittance
5. U value
6. Recycle property

1. Transparency of Glass
Transparency is the main property of glass which allows the vision of outside
world through it. The transparency of glass can be from both sides or from one
side only. In one side transparency, glass behaves like mirror from the other
side.

2. Strength of Glass
Strength of glass depends on modulus of rupture value of glass. In general
glass is a brittle material but by adding admixtures and laminates we can
make it as more strong.

3. Workability of Glass
A glass can be molded into any shape or it can be blown during melting. So,
workability of glass is superior property of glass.

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4. Transmittance
The visible fraction of light that passing through glass is the property of visible
transmittance.

5. U value of Glass
U value represents the amount of heat transferred through glass. If a glass is
said to be insulated unit then it should have lower u value.

6. Recycle Property of Glass

Any glass can be 100% recyclable. It can also be used as raw material in
construction industry.

Types of Glass and their Uses

The types of glass used in construction are:

1. Float glass
2. Shatterproof glass
3. Laminated glass
4. Extra clean glass
5. Chromatic glass
6. Tinted glass
7. Toughened glass
8. Glass blocks
9. Glass wool
10. Insulated glazed units

1. Float Glass
Float glass is made of sodium silicate and calcium silicate so, it is also called as
soda lime glass. It is clear and flat so, it causes glare. These glasses are
available from 2mm to 20mm thickness ranges. They have a weight range of 6
to 36 kg/m2. These are used as shop fronts, public places etc.

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2. Shatterproof Glass
Shatterproof glass is used for windows, skylights, floors etc. Some type of
plastic polyvinyl butyral is added in its making process. So, it cannot form
sharp edged pieces when it breaks.

3. Laminated Glass
Laminated glass is the combination of layers of normal glass. So, it has more
weight than normal glass. It has more thickness and is UV proof and
soundproof. These are used for aquariums, bridges etc.

4. Extra Clean Glass

Extra clean glass has two special properties, photocatalytic and hydrophilic.
Because of these properties, it acts as stain proof and gives beautiful
appearance. Maintenance is also easy.

5. Chromatic Glass
Chromatic glass is used in ICU’s, meeting rooms etc. it can control the
transparent efficiency of glass and protects the interior from daylight. The
chromatic glass may be photochromic which has light sensitive lamination,
thermos-chromatic which has heat sensitive lamination and electrochromic
which has electric lamination over it.

6. Tinted Glass
Tinted glass is nothing but colored glass. A color producing ingredients is
mixed to the normal glass mix to produce colored glass which does not affect
other properties of glass. Different color producing ingredients are tabulated
below:

7. Toughened Glass
Toughened glass is strong glass which has low visibility. It is available in all
thicknesses and when it is broken it forms small granular chunks which are

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dangerous. This is also called as tempered glass. This type of glass is used for
fire resistant doors, mobile screen protectors etc.

8. Glass Blocks
Glass block or glass bricks are manufactured from two different halves and
they are pressed and annealed together while melting process of glass. These
are used as architectural purpose in the construction of walls, skylights etc.
They provide aesthetic appearance when light is passed through it.

9. Glass Wool
Glass wool is made of fibers of glass and acts as good insulating filler. It is fire
resistant glass.

10. Insulated Glazed Units

Insulated glazed glass units contains a glass is separated into two or three
layers by air or vacuum. They cannot allow heat through it because of air
between the layers and acts as good insulators. These are also called as double
glazed units.

Glass is used in the following non-exhaustive list of products:

 Packaging (jars for food, bottles for drinks, flacon for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals)
 Tableware (drinking glasses, plate, cups, bowls)
 Housing and buildings (windows, facades, conservatory, insulation, reinforcement structures)
 Interior design and furnitures (mirrors, partitions, balustrades, tables, shelves, lighting)
 Appliances and Electronics (oven doors, cook top, TV, computer screens, smart-phones)
 Automotive and transport (windscreens, backlights, light weight but reinforced structural
components of cars, aircrafts, ships, etc.)
 Medical technology, biotechnology, life science engineering, optical glass
 Radiation protection from X-Rays (radiology) and gamma-rays (nuclear)
 Fibre optic cables (phones, TV, computer: to carry information)
 Renewable energy (solar-energy glass, windturbines) 
All of this is made possible by the countless properties of the glass substance.

Abrasive

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An abrasive is a material, often a mineral, that is used to shape or finish a workpiece through
rubbing[1] which leads to part of the workpiece being worn away by friction. While finishing a
material often means polishing it to gain a smooth, reflective surface, the process can also
involve roughening as in satin, matte or beaded finishes. In short, the ceramics which are used to
cut, grind and polish other softer materials are known as abrasives.
Abrasives are extremely commonplace and are used very extensively in a wide variety of
industrial, domestic, and technological applications. This gives rise to a large variation in the
physical and chemical composition of abrasives as well as the shape of the abrasive. Some
common uses for abrasives include grinding,
polishing, buffing, honing, cutting, drilling, sharpening, lapping, and sanding
Some naturally occurring abrasives are:

 Calcite (calcium carbonate)
 Emery (impure corundum)
 Diamond dust (synthetic diamonds are used extensively)
 Novaculite
 Pumice
 Iron(III) oxide
 Sand
 Corundum
 Garnet
 Sandstone

Adhesives
Adhesive, also known as glue, cement, mucilage, or paste,is any non metallic substance
applied to one or both surfaces of two separate items that binds them together and resists their
separation

The use of adhesives offers many advantages over binding techniques such
as sewing, mechanical fastening, thermal bonding, etc. These include the ability to bind different
materials together, to distribute stress more efficiently across the joint, the cost effectiveness of
an easily mechanized process, an improvement in aesthetic design, and increased design
flexibility. Disadvantages of adhesive use include decreased stability at high temperatures,
relative weakness in bonding large objects with a small bonding surface area, and greater
difficulty in separating objects during testing.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF GLUES: 

White Craft Glue:
This is the most common craft glue for porous lightweight materials such as paper, cardboard, cloth, and kids’
crafts. 
Water is the carrier; this means easy clean up and low toxicity.  Keep in mind that the glue must dry before
strength is significant and the project often requires clamping to hold it in place until the glue is completely set
and dry.  This also means that white craft glue should not be used in applications that require water resistance.
White craft glue dries clear and is somewhat flexible. Get creative and add fillers, like fine glitter, pigment, or
water-based food coloring for decorative effects. 
~1 hour set time, with final cure in 24 hours.
Yellow Wood Glue:

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Yellow wood glue is also water based – and is made of the same vinyl acetate polymers as craft glue.  It is
designed to work with wood and is immediately tacky for better hold in the uncured state.  It is also generally
more rigid, hence it is easier to sand.   Some wood glue can also be white and dry clear.  Make sure to read the
labels.  Again, you can add sawdust or another powdered filler for special effects. 
Wood glues set in ~less than 1 hr.   That said, it could take as long as 24 hours to reach full strength. 
Three types of wood adhesives are available: 
1. Type-I exhibits some waterproof properties.
2. Type-II will perform better in exterior conditions. These adhesives generally have a longer open time and
can bond at colder temperatures. Both types I and II can be used for exterior applications, such as outdoor
furniture and trim.
3. Type-III is not water resistant and is designed for interior use only. Type-III is good for interior woodwork
and trim projects.
Note: True water resistance for immersion in water requires a marine glue.
Super Glue (also known as cyanoacrylate adhesives):
Bottom Line: Cyanoacrylates are good for projects involving: wood, metal, ceramic, leather, glass, and some
plastic where bond line is very tight.
Hot glue:
Pressure sensitive adhesives (PSA):
Spray adhesives:
Fabric adhesives:
Epoxy:
Polyurethane:
Glue Sticks:

Asbestos
Asbestos is a group of six naturally occurring fibrous minerals composed of thin,
needle-like fibers. Exposure to asbestos causes several cancers and diseases,
including mesothelioma and asbestosis. Although asbestos strengthens and
fireproofs materials, it is banned in many countries

Asbestos is a naturally occurring mineral composed of soft and flexible fibers that are
resistant to heat, electricity and corrosion. These qualities make the mineral useful,
but they also make asbestos exposure highly toxic.

Asbestos is an effective insulator, and it can be used in cloth, paper, cement, plastic
and other materials to make them stronger. But when someone inhales or ingests
asbestos dust, some of the mineral fibers can become forever trapped in their body.

Over decades, trapped asbestos fibers can cause inflammation, scarring and
eventually genetic damage. A rare and aggressive cancer called mesothelioma is
almost exclusively caused by asbestos exposure. Asbestos also causes other forms
of cancer as well as progressive lung disease.

Where Does Asbestos Come From?

Although asbestos comes from all over the world, the main exporters are Russia,
Kazakhstan and China. The toxic mineral was once mined throughout North
America.

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Asbestos may be found in large deposits or as contaminates in other minerals such
as talc and vermiculite. Chrysotile asbestos is usually found as veins within
serpentine rock.

While most commercial asbestos deposits contain 5% to 6% asbestos, some

deposits, such as the Coalinga deposit in California, contain 50% or more asbestos.

Asphalt
Asphalt, also known as bitumen  is a sticky, black, and
highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in
natural deposits or may be a refined product, and is classed as a pitch.
Before the 20th century, the term asphaltum was also used.The word is
derived from the . The Pitch Lake is the largest natural deposit of asphalt
in the world, estimated to contain 10 million tons. It is located in La
Brea in southwest Trinidad, within the Siparia Regional Corporation.
The primary use (70%) of asphalt is in road construction, where it is
used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to
create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous
waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt and for
sealing flat roofs.
Asphalt softens when heated and is elastic under certain conditions. The
mechanical properties of asphalt are of little significance except when it
is used as a binder or adhesive. The principal application of asphalt is
in road surfacing, which may be done in a variety of ways. Light oil “dust
layer” treatments may be built up by repetition to form a hard surface, or
a granular aggregate may be added to an asphalt coat, or earth materials
from the road surface itself may be mixed with the asphalt.
Other important applications include canal and reservoir linings, dam
facings, and other harbour and sea works; asphalt so used may be a thin,
sprayed membrane, covered with earth for protection against weathering
and mechanical damage, or thicker surfaces, often including riprap
(crushed rock). Asphalt is also used for roofs, coatings, floor tilings,
soundproofing, waterproofing, and other building-construction elements
and in a number of industrial products, such as batteries. For certain
applications an asphaltic emulsion is prepared, in which fine globules of
asphalt are suspended in water.

Plaster of paris

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Plaster of paris, quick-setting gypsum plaster consisting of a fine
white powder (calcium sulfate hemihydrate), which hardens when
moistened and allowed to dry. Known since ancient times, plaster of
paris is so called because of its preparation from the
abundant gypsum found near Paris.
Plaster of paris does not generally shrink or crack when dry, making
it an excellent medium for casting molds. It is commonly used to
precast and hold parts of ornamental plasterwork placed on ceilings
and cornices. It is also used in medicine to make plaster casts to
immobilize broken bones while they heal, though many
modern orthopedic casts are made of fibreglass or thermoplastics.
Some sculptors work directly in plaster of paris, as the speed at
which the plaster sets gives the work a sense of immediacy and
enables the sculptor to achieve the original idea quickly.
In medieval and Renaissance times, gesso (usually made of plaster
of paris mixed with glue) was applied to wood panels, plaster, stone,
or canvas to provide the ground for tempera and oil painting.
Plaster of paris is prepared by heating calcium sulfate dihydrate,
or gypsum, to 120–180 °C (248–356 °F). With an additive to retard
the set, it is called wall, or hard wall, plaster, which can provide
passive fire protection for interior surfaces.

Types Of Plaster of Paris

Gypsum plaster
Gypsum plaster, or plaster of Paris, is produced by heating gypsum to about 300 degree F (150
degree C)

CaSO4�2H2O + heat ? CaSO4�0.5H2O + 1.5H2O (released as steam).

When the dry plaster powder is mixed with water, it re-forms into gypsum. The setting of
unmodified plaster starts about 10 minutes after mixing and is complete in about 45 minutes; but
not fully set for 72 hours If plaster or gypsum is heated above 392degreeF (200degree C), anhydrite
is formed, which will also re-form as gypsum if mixed with water.

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Lime plaster
Lime plaster is a mixture of calcium hydroxide and sand (or other inert fillers). Carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere causes the plaster to set by transforming the calcium hydroxide into calcium carbonate
(limestone). Whitewash is based on the same chemistry.

To make lime plaster, limestone (calcium carbonate) is heated to produce quicklime (calcium oxide).
Water is then added to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), which is sold as a wet putty or a
white powder.

Cement plaster
Cement plaster is a mixture of suitable plaster, sand, portland cement and water which is normally
applied to masonry interiors and exteriors to achieve a smooth surface. Interior surfaces sometimes
receive a final layer of gypsum plaster. Walls constructed with stock bricks are normally plastered
while face brick walls are not plastered. Various cement-based plasters are also used as proprietary
spray fireproofing products. These usually use vermiculite as lightweight aggregate. Heavy versions
of such plasters are also in use for exterior fireproofing, to protect LPG vessels, pipe bridges and
vessel skirts.

Acoustic Insulation Materials

Polyester Acoustic Insulation Products

Polyester is a pliable, allergy-friendly, non-toxic, fibrous material with high

tensile strength and excellent water resistance qualities. This makes it one of
the most robust and versatile materials available to create bulk fibrous sound
absorbing products from.

As Polyester acoustic insulation, it provides a high-performance

soundproofing solution widely used in residential & commercial construction,
as well as industrial settings and usually comes in the following forms:

 Batts
 Sound Blankets
 Sound Control Batts
 Underfloor Batts
 Wall Batts
 ceiling batts

Polyester acoustic insulation is available in a wide variety of densities

and thickness to meet the requirements of just about any project. The

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 higher the density and thickness, the more effective the product is at
absorbing sound.

Fibreglass Acoustic Insulation Products

 Acoustic Ceiling Batts 

 Sound Control Batts 
 Acoustic Underfloor Insulation 
 Acoustic Wall Batts
 Thermo / Acoustic Batts

Acoustic Foam Insulation 

Mass Loaded Vinyl (MLV)

 Walls
 Under floors
 industrial applications

Acoustic Pipe Lagging

Fiberglass – Types, Properties, and Applications

A fiberglass is a form of fiber-reinforced plastic where glass fiber is the reinforced plastic. This is
the reason perhaps why fiberglass is also known as glass reinforced plastic or glass fiber
reinforced plastic. The glass fiber is usually flattened into a sheet, randomly arranged or woven
into a fabric. According to the use of the fiberglass, the glass fibers can be made of different
types of glass.
Fiberglass is lightweight, strong and less brittle. The best part of fiberglass is its ability to get
molded into various complex shapes. This pretty much explains why fiberglass is widely used in
bathtubs, boats, aircraft, roofing, and other applications

Types and forms of fiberglass: 

Depending on the raw materials used and their proportions to make fiberglass, fiberglass can be
classified into following major types:

 A-glass: A glass is also called as alkali glass and is resistant to chemicals. Due to the
composition of A glass fiber, it is close to window glass. In some parts of the world, it is
used to make process equipment.
 C-glass: C-glass offers very good resistance to chemical impact and is also called as
chemical glass.
 E-glass: It is also called as electrical glass and is a very good insulator of electricity.
 AE-glass: This is alkali resistant glass.
 S glass: It is also called as structural glass and is known for its mechanical properties.

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Fiberglass comes in various forms to suite various applications, the major ones being:

 Fiberglass Tape: Fiberglass tapes are made up of glass fiber yarns and are known for
their thermal insulation properties. This form of fiberglass finds wide applications in
wrapping vessels, hot pipelines, and the likes.
 Fiberglass Cloth: Fiberglass cloth is smooth and is available in various variants like
glass fiber yarns and glass filament yarns. It is widely used as heat shields, in fire
curtains and others.
 Fiberglass Rope: Ropes are braided from glass fiber yarns and are used for packing
purposes.

Properties of fiberglass

 Mechanical strength: Fiberglass has a specific resistance greater than steel. So, it is
used to make high-performance
 Electrical characteristics: Fiberglass is a good electrical insulator even at low
thickness.
 Incombustibility: Since fiberglass is a mineral material, it is naturally incombustible. It
does not propagate or support a flame. It does not emit smoke or toxic products when
exposed to heat.
 Dimensional stability: Fiberglass is not sensitive to variations in temperature and
hygrometry. It has a low coefficient of linear expansion.
 Compatibility with organic matrices: Fiberglass can have varying sizes and has the
ability to combine with many synthetic resins and certain mineral matrices like cement.
 Non-rotting: Fiberglass does not rot and remains unaffected by the action of rodents and
insects.
 Thermal conductivity: Fiberglass has low thermal conductivity making it highly useful in
the building industry.
 Dielectric permeability: This property of fiberglass makes it suitable for electromagnetic
windows.

Applications of Fiberglass in various Industries

Materials with high-temperature insulation provide an effective thermal barrier for industrial
gaskets. Since fiberglass is durable, safe and offers high thermal insulation, fiberglass is one of
the widely preferred materials in industrial gaskets. They not only provide a better insulation but
also help in protecting the machinery, conserving the energy and ensure the safety of the
professional workforce. This is the reason perhaps why fiberglass is widely used in industries
given below:

 Beverage industry: Fiberglass grating is used in many areas like bottling lines and in
brew houses.
 Car washes: Recently, fiberglass grating is greatly used for rust resistance and to give a
contrast color to areas that previously looked forbidden. It brightens the inside of the
carwash tunnel making the car look cleaner than it was.
 Chemical industry: In this industry, the fiberglass grating is used for anti-slip safety
feature of the embedded grit surface and the chemically resistant feature of different
resin compounds. The chemicals being used are matched with the resins.
 Cooling towers: Since cooling towers are always wet, they have to be protected from
rust, corrosion, and other safety issues. Due to the excellent properties of fiberglass, it is
used in these towers as screening to keep people and animals away from the danger
zones.
 Docks and marinas: The docks get corroded, rusted and damaged by the salty sea
water. So, fiberglass is used here for protection.

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  Food processing: In the chicken and beef processing plants, fiberglass grating is used
for slip resistance and for holding up to blood which is corrosive. Most of the areas of
food processing also use fiberglass as other grating materials are not suitable.
 Fountains and aquariums: All sizes of fountains and aquariums use fiberglass to
support rocks to help in circulation and filtering from under the rocks. In large public
fountains, fiberglass grating is used to protect spray headers and lights from getting
damaged. This also keeps people from drowning in the fountains.
 Manufacturing: The embedded grit surface of fiberglass grating ensures slip resistance
in the areas that are wet or in places where hydraulic fluids or oils are present.
 Metals and mining: Fiberglass grating is used in electronic refining areas prone to
chemical corrosion. Other grating materials cannot be used here.
 Power generation: Many areas of the power generation industry like tank farms,
scrubbers, and others use fiberglass. The reason for this is the non-conductive property
of fiberglass.
 Plating plants: This application uses fiberglass grating due to the anti-slip property of the
surface.
 Pulp and paper industry: The property of fiberglass which makes it chemical corrosion
resistant is useful in pulp and bleach mills. Recently, fiberglass is used in many areas
due to its corrosion resistance and anti-slip properties.
 Automotive industry: Fiberglass is extensively used in automobile industry. Almost
every car has fiberglass components and body kits.
 Aerospace & Defense: Fiberglass is used to manufacture parts for both military and
civilian aerospace industry including test equipment, ducting, enclosures, and others.

Thermocol
EPACK manufactures thermocol sheets at industrial scale. We are the leading
thermocol sheets manufacturer based in Greater Noida. We create high
quality sheets with consistent quality. Get Thermocol sheets in different sizes
and thickness as per the customer’s requirements.

we are the largest EPSThermocol sheetsmanufacturer and supplier in all

over India have been able to offer premium quality Thermocol packaging
sheets to our valuable customers. Plain Thermocol Sheet is now widely being
used by construction industry due to its unique features.

Owing to the high quality standards, these thermocol products find their
application in encasing various fragile & valuable items such as gift articles,
glass products, and electronic components during transportation.

Thermocol Sheet is used for packaging, roofing, construction, decoration and

art & craft. We DO NOT supply THERMOCOL SHEET ROLLS for Disposable
like cup, plates, glass, dona etc.

EPS Thermocol Sheets Thickness: 8mm, 10mm, 12mm, 15mm,25mm,40mm,

50mm, 75mm, 100mm, 150mm, 200mm, 300mm, 500mm 650mm

Plain Thermocol Sheet is now widely being used by construction industry due

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to its unique features. The quality and size required for the industry is
available in various sizes with different densities and top class quality with us.
Thermocol Sheet Features:
Shock absorption capability for roads
Used for making plinth of buildings
Also used in slabs, roofs, exterior walls & expansion joints
Moisture resistance
Light-weight
Precisely designed

Plywood
Plywood is a material manufactured from thin layers or "plies" of wood veneer that are glued
together with adjacent layers having their wood grain rotated up to 90 degrees to one another. It
is an engineered wood from the family of manufactured boards which include medium-density
fibreboard (MDF) and particle board (chipboard).

Plywood is ideal for applications in residential and light-duty construction and is made from thin
sheets of veneer that have been peeled from debarked wood. These thin layers, also called
plies, are glued together in alternating, perpendicular directions to create a cross-graining
pattern. This pattern results in added strength and stability that resists shrinkage and expansion,
should it come in contact with moisture. 

Plywood is an engineered wood from the manufactured boards family, which also includes
particle board and oriented strand board (OSB). The types of wood species that are used in
engineered plywood include ash, oak, birch, maple, cedar, spruce and pine.

Uses
Plywood is a popular choice in construction because of its low cost. It is usually used in areas
that are hidden from view in a post-construction capacity. 

The most common uses for plywood include support for floors, walls, roofs and garages in
residential construction. 

When used for roofing, plywood panels are covered and protected by a variety of building
materials that keep the elements at bay, including roof felt, underlayment, flashing and
shingles. When used in flooring, plywood functions as the subfloor that supports hardwoods,
tile and carpet floors. 

Plywood makes up the majority of the walls and floors in attics, and are sometimes found in
laundry rooms, closets and other unfinished areas in the home. It can also be made into
fencing materials, packaging materials, scaffolding, shelving, sheds, shipping containers,
cabinets and furniture.
Ratings, Grades & Sizes
Plywood is sold in various ratings, grades and sizes. Make your selection based on the type of
project you’re working on.

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Ratings
There are two ratings that convey where and how to use plywood. The first rating is Exposure
1, which means the panels can withstand exposure to the elements during construction, but
are not suitable for long-term exposure post-construction. 

An Exterior rating means the panels have been waterproofed and are able to withstand
extended exposure to inclement weather.

Grades
The Home Depot carries four grades of plywood: A, B, C and D. A is the best and most
expensive, and D the least expensive. 

A-grade plywood features a smooth, sanded surface without knots. Any wood defects have
been repaired with synthetic filler, so the veneer can be painted, making it ideal for furniture
or cabinet doors. B-grade plywood also features a smooth, sanded surface, but may have
more repaired defects up to 1-inch across. 

C-grade is unsanded and may have several minor defects that will need to be repaired with
knots up to 1 1/2 inches across, discoloration and sanding defects. C-grade plywood should
be used when appearance is not important, such as on subfloors or garages. D-grade is also
unsanded with defects that have not been repaired and knot holes up to 2 1/2 inches across,
discoloration and sanding defects. 

You may also find ratings with two-letter classifications, such as BC. BC-grade is a mix
grade plywood with one side graded a B, while the other side is graded a C.

Sizes
The most common size for plywood sheets is 4 x 8 feet, followed by 5 x 5 feet. The Home
Depot also carries pre-cut project panels that are available in different sizes that may vary by
store. These project panels help eliminate waste, cut costs, and are easier to transport than
full-size panels. 

The most common thickness of plywood is 1/2 inch, but can range from 1/8 inch to 3/4
inches.
Need help identifying a tool or material? Find products fast with image search in The Home
Depot app. Snap a picture of an item you like and we'll show you similar products.

Particle board 
Particle board – also known as particleboard, low-density fibreboard (LDF),
and chipboard – is an engineered wood product manufactured from wood chips and
a synthetic resin or other suitable binder, which is pressed and extruded. Particle
board is often confused with oriented strand board (also known as flakeboard,
waferboard, or chipboard), a different type of fiberboard that uses machined wood
flakes and offers more strength.
article board is cheaper, denser and more uniform than conventional wood
and plywood and is substituted for them when cost is more important than strength

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and appearance. Particleboard can be made more appealing by painting or the use
of wood veneers on visible surfaces. Though it is denser than conventional wood, it
is the lightest and weakest type of fiberboard, except for insulation board. Medium-
density fibreboard and hardboard, also called high-density fiberboard, are stronger
and denser than particleboard. Different grades of particleboard have different
densities, with higher density connoting greater strength and greater resistance to
failure of screw fasteners.

Laminated Particle Board:

Laminated particle board is manufactured by attaching a thin layer
of laminates on the surface of plain particle board. The lamination
enhances beauty and increases durability of particle board. Laminated
particle board is widely used to make modular kitchen, as well as
wardrobes and shelves, particularly shutters, as it avoids subsequent
polishing and painting.
Veneered Particle Board:
Veneers are a very thin slice of wood which is obtained from a tree log.
Veneered particle board is manufactured by attaching veneer on the top
surface of the plain particle board. Veneered particle boards have more
resistance to warping, as they are properly sealed. They provide the
aesthetics of a natural wood in low budget cost.
Cement Bonded Particle Board:
As the name implies, this board uses cement as a bonding agent and
has high resistant to moisture, fire and rot. Cement bonded particle
board is manufactured using cement (60%), wood waste particulate like
wood chips, sawdust, wooden shavings (20%) and water (20%). Due to
cement content, these boards are more durable, fire-resistant and
termite resistant. The cement bonded particle board has high expansion
and shrinkage properties in presence of moisture. They are generally
used in the production of fire resistant furniture, false ceiling, internal and
external walls and permanent shuttering for concrete floors and walls.

Melamine Particle Board:

A sheet of melamine-impregnated decor paper is attached on the top
surface of the plain particle board under heat and pressure. Also,
melamine-urea formaldehyde resin is used along with wax emulsion to
bond the particle board and make it water resistant. Melamine particle
boards are very durable and have resistant to scratches. They have
application in various fields such as wall claddings, wall paneling,
modular kitchen, wardrobes, and office furniture. They are available in

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various colours and textures to impart decorative look to the interior of
your house.
FIBRE BOARDS
Fibreboard is a type of engineered wood product that is made out of wood fibres.
Types of fibreboard (in order of increasing density) include particle board, medium-
density fibreboard (MDF), and hardboard (HDF, HB).

Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) is used mainly by the furniture industry, but also
for interior mouldings as well as substrates for laminate flooring. The homogenous
structure of the MDF board gives it good bending strength, smooth surface and good
screw retaining properties, making it suitable for many different applications.

Fiberboard is engineered wood sheets made from various materials,

such as recycled paper, wood waste, hardwood, and softwood flakes, as
well as sawmill off-cuts. It is used in various applications, such as low-
slope roofing, structural sheathing, sound-proofing, and flooring
underlayment. There are three major types of fiberboard with varied
densities— particle board, which has the lowest density, medium-
density fiberboard (MDF), and high-density fiberboard.

Particle Board
Particleboard is composed of wood flakes mixed together using a resin
solution such as melamine based resin. It has a density of 160-450
kg/m³ and is used in various construction projects such as
underlayment in bathrooms, laundries, and kitchen floor coverings as
well as in furniture design. Particleboard is the weakest and lightest
among the fiberboards and is prone to discoloration and warping when
exposed to high moisture. Due to its vulnerability in areas with high
moisture levels, particleboard is not ideal for outdoor use. However, it
is cheaper than conventional plywood and is available in large flat
sheets.

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There are two main materials used in the production of particleboard
today—rubber-wood and the tropical-mix particle board—with a
difference in density, strength, and color. Tropical-mix wood
particleboard is made from wood waste and timber residues with a
bending strength greater than that of rubber-wood particle boards.
Tropical-mix wood particle board also has higher moisture resistance
and is more compact compared to rubberwood particleboard. You can
easily identify the two types of particle board by their color—tropical
mix wood is brown while rubberwood is yellowish. Both types of
particleboards are perfect for furniture making and lamination
purposes.

MDF (Medium Density Fiberboard)

Medium-density fiberboard is another type of fiberboard composed of
flakes of hardwood and softwood combined by applying a resin binder
and wax with a density ranging from 600-800 kg/m³. It is commonly
used in the shopfitting business, loudspeaker enclosures, and on
school projects. MDF is much denser than conventional plywood and is
often used as a substitute to plywood where greater strength and
flexibility are required.

New types of medium density fiberboard are made from recycled

paper, wood scraps, sawmill off-cuts, carbon fibers, and bamboo
shreds, making it an environmental friendly fiberboard. Medium-sized
particleboard is also split-resistant, malleable, cheap, and a perfect
veneer substrate. However, MDF is heavier than plywood, vulnerable to
breaking when soaked in water, and shrinks when exposed to low
humidity environments.

111
Different types of medium density fiberboards are moisture-resistant,
nuclear radiation-resistant, and fire-resistant that can easily be
identified through its color. Green MDF is moisture-resistant, yellow
MDF is nuclear resistant, and blue and red MDF is fire resistant.

High-Density Fiberboard
Also called hardboard, high-density fiberboard is made of highly
compressed wood fibers that are much denser, harder and stronger
compared to particleboard and medium-density fiberboard. With a
density of 600-1450 kg/m³, high-density fiberboard is ideal for high-
quality furniture, flooring, cabinet-making, automobile dashboard
panels, and construction projects.

Hardboard
Hardboard is similar to particle board and medium-density fiberboard, but is denser and much
stronger and harder because it is made out of exploded wood fibers that have been highly
compressed. Consequently, the density of hardboard is 31 pounds per cubic foot (500 kg/m3) or
more and is usually about 50–65 pounds per cubic foot (800–1,040 kg/m3). It differs from particle
board in that the bonding of the wood fibers requires no additional adhesive, the original lignin in
the wood fibers sufficing to bond the hardboard together,although resin is often added.
Hardboard is produced in either a wet or dry process. The wet process, known as the Mason
Method,leaves one smooth side and one textured side, while the dry processed hardboard is
smooth on both sides. Masonite is produced using the wet process only.
Unlike solid wood, hardboard is very homogeneous with no grain. A wood veneer can
be glued onto it to give the appearance of solid wood. Other overlays include Formica, laminated
papers, ceramics, and vinyl. It has many uses, such as a substrate. It is used
in construction, flooring, furniture, home appliances, automobiles and cabinetry, and is popular
among acrylic and oil painters as a painting surface due to its economical price (though it must
be coated with gesso or canvas before use). Hardboard has often been used as the surface
material in clipboards, especially older models. It is also used as the final layer in many
skateboard ramps and the half-pipe. Hardboard is also used to make puzzles, game boards, and
other toys.
Tempered hardboard is hardboard that has been coated with a thin film of linseed oil and then
baked; this gives it more water resistance, impact resistance, hardness, rigidity and tensile
strength. An earlier tempering process involved immersing the board in linseed oil or tung oil until
it was 5 to 6 percent saturated, and heating to 170 °C (338 °F). Tempered hardboard is used in
construction siding.

112
 MODULE 3
Building construction

Masonry Walls
Masonry walls are the most durable part of any building or structure. Masonry is
the word utilized for development with mortar as a coupling material with singular
units of blocks, stones, marbles, rocks, solid squares, tiles, and so forth. Mortar is
a blend of restricting material with sand. Restricting materials can be concrete,
lime, soil or any other constructing materials.
Professionals do the Masonry projects and the unit works for various purposes.
Some works for building constructions, some makes barriers for boundaries to
separate property line and some make house wall for structural used.

Types of Masonry Wall

Masonry walls render strengths, lastingness to the structure and help to maintain
indoor and outdoor temperature as well as it keeps protect the buildings from the
outside world. Depending on the motor mix materials, there are various types of
Masonry Walls used in building constructions.
Types or Categories:

 Load bearing masonry wall

 Reinforced masonry wall
 Hollow/Cavity masonry wall
 Composite masonry wall
 Post-tensioned masonry wall

Brief descriptions of these masonry wall types are given below.

Load bearing Masonry Wall

Based on load bearing walls could be Load Bearing and Non-load Bearing walls.
Load bearing wall is a wall that bears a load reposing upon it, which depends on
weight constructing and the work of foundation structure. Usually, this type of wall
used for large buildings. e.g. housing or tall buildings construction work. It is
mainly made with brick, concrete block, or stone. Load bearing wall helps to
transfer weight from root to the foundation. This type of wall depends on types of

113
buildings and their number of stories that are assessed to a suitable thickness to
bear the weight above them. Without this wall, there is a chance for instability in
walls’ foundation works. Another, this type of wall can also be exterior and
interior. Load bearing walls are flexible because it is easy to spend a little amount
of money than other types of walls, as it is the traditional framed structure of
constructing buildings. The load bearing walls can be reinforced or unreinforced
masonry walls.
Non-load bearing walls that are only intended to support themselves and the
weight of the cladding or sheathings attached. This kind of walls provides no
structural support and may be interior or exterior walls

Hollow/Cavity Masonry Wall

Hollow masonry walls are made with cement blocks. This type of masonry walls
is used to stop dampness from getting inside of the building. It creates a hollow
area between the outside and inside of masonry walls. Cavity wall will also assist
with climate control. Modern masonry walls are constructed from hollow masonry
units or combined hollow and solid masonry units.
Solid walls are systematically certified by metal ties, masonry investments or by
collective reinforcement.

Composite Masonry Walls

Composite Masonry walls are made with the combination of two or more building
materials; stones and bricks or hollow bricks and bricks. The purpose of this type
of walls construction is –reduce the overall cost of construction and make the
structure durable by providing materials of better quality and good workmanship
in the faces. Composite masonry walls work to improve the appearance of a
structure by covering up the inferior works by use of superior quality of material in
the desired positions. This type of walls is better because it is cost-effective and
optically appealing.
Types of Composite Masonry walls:

 Brick Backed Ashlar

 Brick facing with Rubble or Concrete Backing
 Stone facing with Brick, Rubble or concrete Backing

Brick Masonry and Stone Masonry

Masonry - Masonry may be defined as the construction of building units

such as stone, bricks or concrete blocks bonded together with suitable
mortar.

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                                                                               Masonry is used for
the construction of foundation, walls, columns and other components of
a building. Difference between brick masonry and stone masonry are as
follows.

S.No. Brick Masonry Stone Masonry

They are of uniform They are not of uniform
1. shape and size. in shape and size.

2 They are lightweight. They are heavy in weight.

They do not require any
3 dressing. They required dressing.
Bricks are easily Stones are not easily
4 available available.
In bricks, laying is easy
5 than stone masonry. Stone laying is not easy.
In brickwork mortar In stonework mortar
6 joints are thin. joints are thick.
They provide better water
7 They are less watertight tightness.
They are good fire- They are not good fire-
8 resistant than stone. resistant than brickwork.
9 The cost of The cost of construction
115
 construction of of stonework is more than
brickwork is less. brickwork.
It is much stronger than
10 It is not much strong. brickwork.

Laterite as building material


Laterite is well known in Asian countries as a
buildingmaterial for more than 1000 years.

Laterite is a residue ferruginous rock first discovered in
theMalabar region of kerala & Karnataka.

These are highly weathered soils, which contain
large,though extremely variable, proportions of iron
andaluminium oxides, as well as quartz and other minerals.

The colours can vary from ochre through red, brown,
violetto black, depending largely on the concentration of
ironoxides.

The special characteristics of laterites, by which
theydiffer from other soils, are:

Soft occurrences tend to harden on exposure to
air,which is why blocks have traditionally (eg in
India)been cut in situ, allowed to harden and then used
formasonry wall construction (hence the name
wasderived from
“later”,
 the latin word for
“brick”)


The darker the laterite, the harder, heavier and
moreresistant to moisture it is

116
Stone masonry
Stone masonry Stone masonry is used for the construction of walls, columns, lintels, arches, beams,
etc., of a building. Stones are abundantly available in nature and when cut and dressed to proper
shapes, they provide an economical material for the construction of various parts of building.

Types of Stone Masonry - Rubble

Masonry and Ashlar Masonry
Definition:

The art of building a structure in stone with any suitable masonry is called stone
masonry. Following are the types of stone masonry

Types of Stone Masonry

Types of Stone Masonry

Stone masonry can broadly be classified into the following two types:

1. Rubble Masonry
2. Ashlar Masonry
Rubble Masonry:

The type of stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly dressed stone are
laid in a suitable mortar is called rubble masonry. In this masonry the joints are not of
uniform thickness. Rubble masonry is further sub-divided into the following three
types:

117
 Types of Rubble Masonry

1. Random rubble masonry

2. Squared rubble masonry

3. Dry rubble masonry

Rubble masonry is the type of stone masonry in which either undressed or

hammer dressed stones are used is called random rubble masonry. Further
random rubble masonry is also divided into the following three types:

Un-coursed Random Rubble Masonry:

The random rubble masonry in which stones are laid without forming courses
is known as un coursed random rubble masonry. This is the roughest and
cheapest type of masonry and is of varying appearance. The stones used in
this masonry are of different sizes and shapes. before lying, all projecting
corners of stones are slightly knocked off. Vertical joints are not plumbed,
joints are filled and flushed. Large stones are used at corners and at jambs to
increase their strength. Once "through stone" is used for every square meter
of the face area for joining faces and backing.

Applications of Random Rubble Masonry:

Used for construction of walls of low height in case of ordinary buildings.

Coursed Random Rubble Masonry:

The random rubble masonry in which stones are laid in layers of equal height is
called random rubble masonry. In this masonry, the stones are laid in somewhat
level courses. Headers of one coursed height are placed at certain intervals. The
stones are hammer dressed.

Applications of Coursed Random Rubble Masonry:

CRRM is used for construction of residential buildings, go downs, boundary walls

etc.

Squared Rubble Masonry:

The rubble masonry in which the face stones are squared on all joints and beds by
hammer dressing or chisel dressing before their actual laying, is called squared
rubble masonry.
There are two types of squared rubble masonry.

118
Coursed Square Rubble Masonry:

The square rubble masonry in which chisel dressed stones laid in courses is called
coarse square rubble masonry. This is a superior variety of rubble masonry. It
consists of stones, which are squared on all joints and laid in courses. The stones
are to be laid in courses of equal layers. and the joints should also be uniform.

Applications of Coursed Square Rubble Masonry:

Used for construction of public buildings, hospitals, schools, markets, modern

residential buildings etc and in hilly areas where good quality of stone is easily
available.

Un coursed square rubble masonry:

The squared rubble in masonry which hammer dressed stones are laid without
making courses is called un coursed square rubble masonry. It consists of stones
which are squared on all joints and beds by hammer dressing. All the stones to be
laid are of different sizes.

Suitability: Used for construction of ordinary buildings in hilly areas where a good

variety of stones are cheaply available.

Dry rubble masonry:

The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without using any mortar is called dry
rubble masonry or sometimes shortly as "dry stones". It is an ordinary masonry and
is recommended for constructing walls of height not more than 6m. In case the
height is more, three adjacent courses are laid in squared rubble masonry mortar at
3m intervals.

Ashlar Masonry:

It is the type of stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or
lime mortar is known as ashlars masonry. In this masonry are the courses are of
uniform height, all the joints are regular, thin and have uniform thickness. This type
of masonry is much costly as it requires dressing of stones.

Suitability: This masonry is used for heavy structures, architectural buildings, high

piers and abutments of bridges.

Ashlars masonry is further sub divided into the following types:

Types of Ashlar Masonry

i. Ashlars fine or coarse ashlar masonry
ii. Random coarse ashlars masonry
iii. Rough tooled ashlar masonry
iv. Rock or quarry faced ashlars masonry
v. Chamfered ashlars masonry
119
vi. Block in coarse masonry
vii. Ashlar facing
Ashlar fine or coursed ashlar masonry:

In this type of stone masonry stone blocks of same height in each course are used.
Every stone is fine tooled on all sides. Thickness of mortar is uniform through out. It
is an expensive type of stone masonry as it requires heavy labor and wastage of
material while dressing. Satisfactory bond can be obtained in this type of stone
masonry.

Random coursed ashlar masonry:

This type of ashlar masonry consists of fine or coursed ashlar but the courses are of
varying thicknesses, depending upon the character of the building.

Rough tooled ashlar masonry:

This type of ashlar masonry the sides of the stones are rough tooled and dressed
with chisels. Thickness of joints is uniform, which does not exceed 6mm.

Rock or quarry faced ashlar masonry:

This type of ashlar masonry is similar to rough tooled type except that there is chisel-
drafted margin left rough on the face which is known as quarry faced.

Chamfered ashlar masonry:

It is similar to quarry faced except that the edges are beveled or chamfered to 450
for depth of 2.5 cm or more.

Block-in course masonry:

It is the name given to a class of ashlar masonry which occupies an intermediate

place between rubble and ashlars. The stones are all squared and properly dressed.
It resembles to coursed rubble masonry or rough tooled ashlar masonry.

Ashlar facing:

Ashlar facing is the best type of ashlars masonry. Since this is type of masonry is
very expensive, it is not commonly used throughout the whole thickness of the wall,
except in works of great importance and strength. For economy the facing are built in
ashlars and the rest in rubble.

General principles to be followed in the construction of stone

masonry:

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1. The stone used shall be hard, durable and tough. All stones should
be laid on its natural bed.
2. The pressure acting on the stones should not act parallel to the
bedding planes. This will try to split the stones. Sometimes stones
used in corbels are laid with pressure acting parallel to bedding
planes.
3. The bond stones and headers should not be of dumb-bell shape.
4. Large flat stones should be laid under the ends of girders, roof
trusses, etc.
5. In all slopping retaining walls, the beds of the stones and the plan
of the courses should be at right angles to the slope.
6. All laid fine dressed stone work should be protected against
damage during further construction by means of wooden boxes.
7. Jambs for door and window openings should be made of quoins
which are equal in height to the course. They should be in breadth
equal to at least 1½ times the height of the course and their length
should be at least twice the height.
8. All the surfaces should be kept wet while the work is in progress
and also till the mortar has set.
9. Double scaffolding will be used wherever it is difficult to fit in the
stones later on.
10.All the portions of the masonry should be raised uniformly.
Wherever this is not possible, the stone work built earlier should be
raked (stepped) so that the new work can be bonded well with the
old.
11.Sufficient through stones should be used and they should form
¼th of the area in elevation.

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12. The hearting of the masonry should be properly packed with
mortar and chips, if necessary, to avoid any hollows or very thick
mortar joints.
13.Vertical faces of the masonry walls should be checked with a
plumb rule and the battered faces should be tested with wooden
template corresponding to the batter and a plumb rule to ensure a
constant batter.
14.The stones used in the masonry should be wetted before use to
avoid moisture being sucked from the mortar.
15.Masonry should not be allowed to take tension.
Brick masonry
Brick masonry is made with bricks bonded together with the help of mortar.
Sometimes, mud mortar can be used to construct temporary sheds but for
permanent structures mortar made of cement or lime are used.
Most of the brick bonds demand the same size or at least compatible sizes
bricks or other masonry units. Uniform size bricks or masonry units create
even, repeatable designs which can be applied over any area size. There
are many bond patterns which include some method of interlocking each
row of brick to the neighbouring courses. If bricks are stacked up in single-
file columns, the stacks can effortlessly topple down. But if they are stacked
in a way that joints are staggered, or are offset, amid neighbouring courses,
the bricks are basically interlaced together. Basically, bonds are essential
to add strength to the construction and make a mortared wall even
stronger.
 
1. Stretcher Bond / Running Bond
One of the most common brick bonds, also popularly called running bonds.
This bond is very easy to lay, in fact, is one of the simplest ones used
today. Stretcher bond is suitable when walls of half brick thickness need to
be constructed. Different types of wall construction done using this kind of
bond are:

 Sleeper walls
 Partition walls
 Division walls (internal dividers)
 Chimney stacks

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Stretcher bonds are not very suitable for stand-alone structural walls, but
very useful for construction of walls with less thickness. Note, this bond will
fail if the thickness of the walls is more than half of the total length of the
brick used.

2. Header Bond
A header is the shorter face of the brick. In header bond brick masonry all
bricks are constructed in the header course. In this bond, the overlap is
performed corresponding to a half width of the bricks. The three-quarter
brickbats are utilized in alternative courses as quoins. This bond is mainly
used for the construction of one brick thick walls.

 
3. English Bond
One of the most commonly utilized variations of brick bonds in masonry
works. This bond essentially comprises of alternating courses of headers
and stretchers. Headers are laid centred over the stretchers in the course
below and each alternate row is vertically aligned. To break the
continuousness of vertical joints, a quoin closer is used at the start and end
of a wall after the first header. A quoin close is a brick that is cut lengthwise
into 2 halves and used in the corners in brick walls. This type of bond is
mainly used to construct strong one brick thickness walls.

 
4. Flemish Bond
For this type of bond, each course is made up of alternate headers and
stretchers. Each header is centered on a stretcher above and below and
every alternate course begins with a header in the corner. For breaking the
vertical joints in the successive courses, quoin closers are introduced in

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alternate courses next to the header. This bond can be significantly sub-
divided into two diverse types:

 Single Flemish Bond – A combination of English bond and Flemish

Bond. The front exposed surface of the wall is composed of Flemish
bong and the back surface is composed of English bond in every
single course.
 Double Flemish Bond – This bond takes a similar appearance both
in the front and the back elevations.

Walls with Flemish Bond are complex to erect and demand greater skills.
 

5. Stack Bond
In a stack bond, all the bricks are plainly loaded on top of each other and
held with mortar where all bonds are perfectly aligned. Because of its weak
masonry structure and less strength, Stack bonds are perfect for decorative
purposes. This bond is a non-structural bond, hence not suitable for walls
which require to transfer loads. 
6. Dutch Bond
A modified form of the English cross bond which consists of alternate
courses of headers and stretchers. In this arrangement of the brick bond,
every single stretching course begins at a quoin with a 3-quarter bat. Every
alternate stretching course has a header set next to the 3-quarter bat brick
provided at the quoin. This bond is perfect to construct strong corners
along the wall which are subjected to excess loads. 

7. Common Bond / American Bond

This bond is very similar to the English Bond, but this one has courses of
headers inserted in every five or six courses. Header courses are centered
with the previous header course. This header bond basically acts as a tie
brick between the fronting and the backing. To achieve the sufficient offset

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in a standard common bond, queen closers are inserted at both ends of the
header courses. The common bond is normally used in exterior load-
bearing walls.

 
8. Facing Bond
This bond is primarily adopted for thick walls, where the facing and backing
are chosen to be constructed with bricks of diverse thickness. Typically,
this bond consists of heading and stretching courses arranged in a manner
that one heading course comes after quite a lot of stretching courses. The
load distribution of walls using this bond is not uniform because of the
difference between the facing and the total number of joints in the backing.
This can also lead to unequal settlement of the 2 thickness of the wall.
 

9. Diagonal Bond
Best suited for walls of two to four brick thickness. This bond is normally
introduced at every 5th or 7th course along the height of the wall. Bricks in
this bond are placed end to end in such a manner that extreme corners of
the sequence remain in contact with the stretchers. 

10. Rat Trap Bond

In this bond, bricks are laid on edge or placed in a vertical position instead
of the conventional horizontal position. This creates a cavity (hollow space)
within the wall. This feature helps in keeping enhanced thermal comfort and
keep the interiors cooler than the outside and vice versa. This type of walls
consumes a smaller number of materials due to the internal cavity. The Rat

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Trap Bond looks very similar to the Flemish Bond in appearance. Skilled
labor and extra care are needed to design this bond.
 

Advantages of Brick Masonry

 size and shape of the bricks is generally uniform, hence
construction process of the brick masonry is not hard. Therefore
there is no need of skilled labour for the construction work.
 The bricks used in brick masonry are generally light weight.
Unlike clay bricks, there are many bricks which are available in
the market which are very light weight. They are made out of
different materials like fly ash, aluminium powder, quartz sand
etc. Hence handling of bricks on the construction site is
comparatively easy as compared to stone masonry.
 As compared to stone masonry and concrete block (AAC)
masonry, the dead load of brick masonry is comparatively less.
 Unlike stone masonry, construction of thinner brickwalls can be
easily done with brick masonry.
 Brick is one of the most important asset of the construction
world. Mostly in any type of construction work bricks are used.
Hence the availability of the bricks is easy in every corner of the
city. Compared to stone masonry they are available only at the
sites where stone quarries are located.
 Mortar joints in brick masonry are less compared to other
masonry work. Therefore the overall cost is very much reduced.
They are moreover good resistant to fire and extreme weathers.
They can be used in any wall construction where stone and
concrete block masonry cannot be used.
 While the construction of the building, openings for doors and
windows can be easily made in the brick masonry construction.
 Different types of mortars can be used in the construction of this
masonry. We can use mud mortar for the small construction
works which are temporarily constructed.

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Disadvantages of Brick Masonry
 Brick masonry cannot do well in earthquake. It is susceptible to
damage caused by earthquake.
 It is time consuming construction process. Hence, Nowadays in
case of rapid construction AAC blocks are preferred rather than
bricks.
 It is comparatively not strong and durable as compared to stone
masonry.
 In case of brick masonry construction plastering is required to
make a smooth finish which can increase the cost of the
construction.
 Naturally bricks absorbs water and hence there is possibility of
dampness in the brickwall. Due to which plaster and paint can be
damaged frequently.

What is a Partition Wall?

A partition wall defined as a wall or division made up of bricks, studding,
glass or other such material and provided for dividing from one room to
another room.

Figure: Partition wall

around a room.

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Partition Wall can be constructed as a load-bearing wall or non-load bearing
wall. The load-bearing partition wall is known as the internal wall. These internal
walls do not carry any weight. Sometimes partition wall may be folded,
collapsible, or fixed type. Partition walls or walls can be constructed in various
shapes like –thin, light, or thick, heavy, etc. Mainly, these walls' requirements are
based on building materials and design.

Types of Partition Walls

Nowadays, a building has multi-rooms and the partition walls divide these rooms.
To occupy room privacy and service, partition walls are the best choice and may
be constructed for various purposes in different types and shapes. However,
depending on building materials, design, and requirements, partition walls can be
of different types. Such as:

1. Brick Partitions Wall

2. Reinforced Brick Wall
3. Hollow & Clay Brick Partition Wall
4. Concrete Partitions Wall
5. Glass Partitions Wall
6. Straw Board Partitions
7. Plaster Slab Partition Wall
8. Metal lath Partition Wall
9. A.C. sheet or G.I. Sheet Partitions Wall
10.Wooden Partition Wall
11.Lumber Partitions
12.Asbestos Cement Partitions
13.Double Glazed Window

Brick Partition Wall

Brick walls are known for their stretcher bond as the wall is plastered at both
sides. Raw materials are used to make this wall, which makes it economical.
They tend to be hard, durable, reusable, and recyclable. It also comes with less
environmental pollution due to the manufacturing process. Brick Partition walls
are only made of plain bricks and can be three types. Such as- Reinforced Bricks,
bricks-nogged, or hollow bricks. The height of the plain brick partition of half brick
stiffness is not more than 2m. Reinforced brick partition walls reinforce the form
of wire mesh or hoop iron or steel bars. The brick-nogging partition wall consists
of brickwork built up within a schema of wooden members. Brick partition is non-
flammable and sound-proof. Brick wall also comes with a few disadvantages:

 It takes a lot of time to construct brick walls.

 Brick walls cannot be used in seismic zones.
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  It causes fluorescence when the brick wall is not exposed to the air.
 Brick walls are hard to clean.

Reinforced Brick Wall

Reinforced brick is much more durable due to the placement of reinforcements.
Reinforcements, which are in front of wire mesh strips or iron bare, are placed at
every third or fourth course. The thickness of the wall is equal to 10cm or half a
brick. The implements used for construction are low- tech. It does not require
shuttering and concrete. This type of partition wall is utilized when a superior
longitudinal bond is required and when the partition needs to help other
superimposed burdens.

Hollow & Clay Brick Partition Wall

Hollow concrete block partitions are designed for individual units of concrete.
Clay blocks used are well ready from clay or earthenware, and that they are
either solids or hollow. Hollow clay blocks of section 30*20 cm with thickness
varied from five cm to 15 cm can even be used. The blocks are supplied with
grooves on the prime, bottom, and sides, surfaces are kept glazed in several
colors. They do not modify their volume and are lighter in weight. These varieties
of walls are light-weight, rigid, economical, durable, and fireplace resistant.

Concrete Partitions
The concrete partition wall consists of a concrete slab, plain or reinforced,
supported laterally by vertical members. These slabs may be either precast or
cast in situ. It may be either formed or solid unmoved. Unique concrete posts are
used for the development of constructed concrete partition walls solid in place
walls, 10 cm thick and below, their social control consisting of soft-cast steel bars
placed within the center of the wall thickness. The concrete combines 1:2:4. It
helps in resisting horizontal loads like earthquakes to a great extent. Even though
it is rigid and stable both in vertical and horizontal directions, the framework is
costly.

Glass Partition Walls

Glass partition walls are made up of sheet or hollow glass blocks. Glass sheet
partition is built by fixing a sheet of glass in a wooden structure. The hollow glass
block partition wall is constructed from hollow glass blocks. Hollow glass blocks
are translucent glass units that are light-weight and manufactured in various
thicknesses, shapes, and sizes. Glass partition walls are cheap, accessible in
construction, and provide reasonable privacy. It offers sensible aesthetics,
permits light-weight. This kind of wall is damp, sound, and warmth proof, simple
to wash and maintain. During these partition walls, sheets of glass are fastened

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within the framework of wood or metal. Hollow blocks don't want timber
frameworks.

Straw Board Partitions

Straw Board partition walls are useful where the transference of partitions is
frequent. This type of partition wall is made of compressed straw-covered thick
paper or hardboard. Straw board partition walls are heat-sound proof and easy to
construct.

Plaster Slab Partition Wall

Plaster slab partition walls are manufactured from burnt mineral or plaster of
Paris, mixed with wood. This sort of partition wall is 5cm to 10cm thick slabs that
are ready in iron or timber molds. Within the plaster slabs, appropriate grooves
are provided to create rigid joints. During this partition, walls, nails, and screws
are often simply driven into these slabs. The plaster slab surface of this partition
wall may be left smooth or rough, and the formwork is not plastered. However,
the rough surface acts as a key for the plaster.

Metal Lath Partition Wall

Metal lath partition walls are skinny, strong, durable, and inconsiderably
incombustible. It needs a framework of steel or timber for fixing it in position. Lath
is tied by galvanized iron wire to soft-cast steel bars or channels spaced 15 to 30
cm apart. It will be plastered on both sides and maybe improved insulation
against heat and sound. The metal lath and plaster partition walls-cavity. Metal
lath on either side of specially formed steel channels spaced at 30 to 45 cm
apart. The channels are usually 3 to 10cm deep.

A. C. Sheet or G.I. Sheet Partitions Wall

These partition walls are economical, light-weight, and rigid if appropriately
created. It is fastened to the border of wood or steel. Each slab consists of a core
or furrowed asbestos cement sheet (5mm) with the plain asbestos cement sheet
(10mm) connected to that on either facet.

Wooden Partition Wall

Wooden partition walls are lighter in weight and simple to construct, neither
sound-proof nor fire-proof. This partition wall is not appropriate for damp
locations. Wooden partitions contain wooden edges that are connected to a
sidewall and tied down to the floor. You can cover the divider with sheets or

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mortar on the two sides to make a strong partition. Wood partition walls are two
types –

a. Common Partitions
b. Trussed Partitions.

Standard partitions are composed of vertical members referred to as studs

bridged between the higher horizontal (head) and lower horizontal (sill) members.
Trussed partitions are designed on the principle of the truss are helpful wherever
it is attainable to produce solely. Wood partitions are light-weight and easy to
construct, but they are prone to rot, and insect infestation and are not fire-
resistant either.

Lumber Partitions
Timber partitions are the wood framework that is supported on the ground below
or by sidewalls. The structure consists of a rigid arrangement of timber members,
which can be plastered or lined with boarding etc. from each side. It is not
noncombustible.

Asbestos Cement Partitions

Asbestos cement partitions are light-weight in weight, impervious, durable,
watertight, and fire-proof. Asbestos cement sheets are the produce of asbestos
cement sheets and fixed into the timber framework. Sheets are fixed in position
and associated with cement adhesive. They are primarily adopted in works of a
transitory character.

Double Glazed Window

A double-glazed window is employed for acoustic insulation. During this window,
air capacity between two panes is kept 50mm or a lot. The air contained among
the slender cavity is sort of 'stiff' and transmits vibration at low frequencies.
Precise joints give this system a "frameless" glazed look. Double glazed window
partition walls are widely used in all offices, private meeting areas, and board
rooms.

MODERN BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
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Building construction methods have experienced significant facelift in recent times with
innovative technologies being harnessed optimally for improving the qualitative index of
buildings.

This has spelled considerable advantages for end users like us who can remain immune from
recurrent expenses on repairs and other incidental building-related jobs. Construction lead time
has also been reduced and building costs have been rationalized.

This post takes you through 8 techniques that have given the much-needed fillip to the most
primitive human pursuit that still exists i.e. construction.

1)  3D Volumetric Construction

Using this modular construction technology, 3D units are produced in controlled factory settings
using needful construction and building materials.

Finished units are transported to site in various modules, basic structural blocks or final touched
up units with all amenities installed, for assembly. Blocks can be erected rapidly at site and
properties of concrete like fire retardant, sound resistivity, thermal mass etc. are retained.

2) Precast Flat Panel Modules

These are primarily wall and floor modules which are manufactured away from the actual site and
then transported to site for erection. Load bearing components like decorative cladding and
insulation panels can also be produced.

Also called cross-wall construction, the technology has gained momentum due to seamless
adherence to specifications and ease as well as swiftness of constructio

3) Tunnel Formwork System

With this tunnel technique, construction is paced up for cellular structures of repetitive patterns
through the building of monolithic walls or units in a single operation per day.

Expeditious work is achieved by deploying formwork and readily mixed concrete with the

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convenience and agility of factory conditions. Formworks in tunnel form are stacked and used at
the site with cranes.

4) Flat Slabbing Technology

This technique utilizes the simplicity of contemporary formwork for quickly building flat slabs to
facilitate easy and swift placing of horizontal amenities and for partitioning.
Maximization of pre-fabricated services occurs as services can be carried out in an uninterrupted
manner in zones underneath the floor slabs.
Every top-notch  building Construction Company is using the same as internal layouts can be
conveniently modified for accommodating alterations at a later date. Further, reinforcement
needed is lesser which cuts down labour costs significantly.

5) Pre-cast Foundation Technique

Foundations can be built swiftly with precast concrete units which are produced in a factory and
are high on quality quotient. Strength is imparted to foundation related building construction
materials through interconnected concrete piles.

This technique allows construction work to progress even in inclement weather and minimizes
excavation activity.

6) Hybrid Concrete Building Technique

This technique expedites construction turnaround time by blending the advantages of concrete
pre-casting with the in-situ building. Quality improves, whereas the cost of construction
plummets.

Hybrid concrete structures are easy to build, competitive in nature and perform consistently.

7) Thin Joint Masonry Technique

Utilization of this technique leads to the reduction of the quantum of mortar applied by slashing it
depth from 10mm to lesser than 3mm. Consequently, mortar can be laid swiftly with enhanced
productivity on the longer wall panels.

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With large sized concrete blocks, higher construction efficiency along with significant cost
reduction can be achieved. Within a single day, the number of mortar courses laid is higher as
curing of mortar takes place quickly without compromising on bonding strength resulting in the
elimination of floating problem.

8) Insulating Concrete Formwork (ICF) Technique

ICF technique employs polystyrene blocks that feature twin walls and can be rapidly put together
for creating building wall formwork. The formwork is then pumped in with high quality, ready
mixed, factory-made concrete.
The building construction process becomes fool-proof and the resultant structure has a high level
of sound and thermal insulation.

What is a Damp Proof

Course?
A damp proof course is one of the most important elements of a property. The
DPC protects the property against moisture rising from the ground . This page will
provide a deeper understanding of what is a damp proof course and what the best
types of damp proof treatments are. Excess moisture gaining access to your
property can result in a range of different damp issues causing damage to the
fabric. It is therefore vital that you ensure that your property has an effective
damp proof course in place to repel water from the ground.
It is immensely important for all property owners to ensure that their
property is protected with an effective damp proof course.
The damp proof course prevents damp from the ground rising up the
walls and damaging your property. Properties which have no appropriate
damp protection layer or has a damaged damp course may be affected
by excess moisture rising from the ground . This excess moisture can affect
plaster, decoration and can even result in wet rot, or dry rot affecting
unprotected timbers.
Most properties which exist today should have a damp-proof course
which is evident at a minimum of 150 mm above ground level. This may
appear as a mortar course with a bitumen or plastic DPC sheet poking
through. These materials tend to be very effective, unless the building
movement result in them cracking or the DPC is bridged or the older
bitumen material breaks down due to old age. Damp-proof courses are

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required in all new build properties in order to prevent rising damp from
occurring.

Different Types of Damp Proof

Courses
There are various types of remedial damp-proof courses which can be installed
into your property. The appropriate damp proof course will be chosen to suit the
construction of the property.

1. Damp Proof Course Injection – This system involves a cream or liquid being
injected into the wall in order to act as a water repelling layer to stop the damp
from the ground rising above the damp proof course. This is commonly known
as a chemical damp proof course. The system is injected in holes that are
drilled into the wall at least 150mm above the external ground level.
2. Mortar Injection Damp Proof Course – This is similar to the use of creams
or liquid injected into the wall. Instead of cream or liquid being used a
chemical enhanced mortar is used and caulked into the holes drilled in the
wall. This is used where the construction of the wall may be of random rubble
and are prone to having voids within the structure. The mortar fills the hole in
the masonry and the chemical is drawn from the mortar into the wall structure
to block the rising damp.
3. Electro Osmotic Damp Proof Course – When the use of chemicals is not
appropriate or the client requests that a non-chemical damp proof course be
installed then an Electro Osmosis Damp Proof Course can be fitted. Copper
and titanium wiring are used to install a small electric charge into the wall
which reverses the polarity of the capillarity in the wall and pulls the rising
damp below the level of the new damp course.
DO ALL PROPERTIES HAVE A DAMP-PROOF COURSE?
A damp-proof course is a standard element which is required when building a
property. Damp-Proof Coursing was made compulsory in 1875, however many
DPC’s installed in the immediate period after this were laid shoddily and no

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longer fulfil their purpose. Initially DPCs consisted of slate or lead barriers, fitted
into the walls to protect against rising damp. More modern properties used
bitumen felt and todays properties use a plastic DPC. A DPC may fail because it
was not fitted properly or may fail due to deterioration, localised damage or
bridging. If the DPC fails then your property may be suffering from rising damp.
Rising damp is moisture which defies gravity and moves upwards through walls
as a result of capillary action. Tide marks being present on your walls or
deterioration of your plaster or decoration are the most visible indication your
property is suffering from rising damp.

What Causes Damp Walls?

The most important step with regards to fixing your properties damp walls
is identifying the cause of your damp problem . In order to do this, you need to
ensure you have carried out the appropriate inspection of your property both
internally and externally. However, to the untrained eye it can be very difficult to
accurately identify the source of your damp issue. For this reason, we would
always recommend the use of a damp proofing specialist who will save you time
and money by providing you with an accurate diagnosis of the source of the
problem and the appropriated action required to resolve the damp issue.
Damp problems on walls can be caused by a number of different issues:

 Defective roof coverings or rainwater gutters or down pipes

 Defective external render or masonry
 Condensation Issues
 Defective Cavity Wall Insulation
 Inadequate window and door pointing
 Defective Damp proof course
 Plumbing leaks
 Defective drains
 External flooding
It is crucial that a specialist accurately identifies the source of your damp
problem. As misdiagnosis will give the wrong remedial repair work which will
not solve the damp problem and will cost you more as the work will need to be
done twice.

HowI Know If I Have Damp Walls?

If you suspect that your wall is affected by damp then you should inspect the outside and
inside off your property looking for defects that could cause damp to affect your wall. You

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could then use a moisture meter which will tell you if the wall has a higher moisture
content than it normally should be. However, if you suspect damp is affecting your property
and you feel unsure of diagnosing the problem it is best to get advice as the longer you
leave the damp area the more damage it can cause to the fabric of your property.

What is Internal Waterproofing?

Internal Waterproofing is the process of making the interior of
a house dry and free from water.Internal Waterproofing
ensures that the inside of a huge stays dry irrespective of the
state of water around the house outside.

Related Article: What is External Waterproofing?

Benefits of Internal Waterproofing

 1.Internal Waterproofing is best for areas that cannot be
accessed from the exterior due confines space.

2. Internal Waterproofing is a cost-effective solution

especially for uncompleted living areas where the external
waterproofing is not yet appropriate due to the state of the
project.
3. Internal Waterproofing prevents mold from developing in
the home. Mold not only destroy where it grows but also
creates health problems for the inhabitants of the home.
4. Internal Waterproofing improves the quality of air in the
home.
5. Internal Waterproofing promotes the health of the dwellers
of a home. People with bronchitis will not be exposed to any
risk since mold cannot develop. No allergic reaction could
happen to anyone having prevented mold development in the
home.

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Internal Waterproofing requires knowing the areas of the
house, which are more susceptible to seepage from the
exterior for correct waterproofing process.
1. Floor and Wall

An internal drainage system can be installed in the home to

re-route water inflow to the right point of discharge. Internal
Waterproofing ensures that water flows towards the wall and
from water, the footing is intercepted and re-routed properly.

2. Sump Pump

The underlying purpose of any Basement

Waterproofing procedure is to create a point where the water
in the system will be discharged. When new or additional
drainage option cannot be created or the existing drainage
system has been blocked, a Sump Pump is more appropriate
waterproof the home. Draintony will dig a pit in the basement
of the home and that will be the lowest point of the
waterproofing system. A high-quality plastic liner will be
installed inside, the pit and water will flow into it through
gravity drainage.
A Sump Pump has a component, a trigger that senses water
build-up. The trigger removes water in the sump pit pumps to
the outside of the building. For an effective sump pump
system, high-quality line pumps and plumbing materials
should be used.
Internal Waterproofing should be done by trained
professionals to ensure that a thorough and quality job is
done. Internal Waterproofing by a professional should lasts
for a long time with all its benefits well delivered.

nterior waterproofing (or sometime known as internal waterproofing) repairs you

basement leaks from the inside of your home and is the best solution for a damp or

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wet basement. When your basement becomes damp and moist, it is best to have an
interior waterproofing done in your basement to prevent the growth of mold and
mildew, which will create harmful smells and bacteria that affect your health. This is
also one the waterproofing solutions that will help take care of hydrostatic pressure
that builds up and causes a wet basement.

The waterproofing materials include an interior air-gap drainage membrane, drainage

tile (weeping tile), drainage tile connector pieces, 3/4 inch gravel and cement.

Floor and Wall

Internal Waterproofing can add drainage on the inside of your home,
rerouting water inflow to a proper point of discharge. The main benefit of
installing an internal waterproofing system is that it has the ability to
intercept water making its way through the wall, and from under the
footing.

Basement walls that are being penetrated will be drained out by our
drainage membrane, providing a barrier between your wall and living area.
Water travelling beneath the footing can show up as moisture spots and
leaks on your basement floor, which will also be protected by the drainage
board and drained through new weeping tiles.
 

Sump Pump
The main component of any waterproofing system is a point to discharge
the water in the system. When existing drainage has been blocked or there
are no additional drainage options, your consultant may suggest a sump
pump. A pit is dug out in your basement, which will be the lowest point of
your waterproofing system. A high quality plastic liner is installed inside of
the pit allowing water to flow into it through gravity drainage.

Water build up is sensed by the trigger of a sump pump, which ejects water
from the sump pit to the outside of the home. We only use top of the line
pumps and plumbing products, and we also provide battery back-up pumps
that will continue to work even when your power goes out. The City of

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Toronto is currently offering a subsidy for sump pump installations, so ask
your sales representative to explain how you can save up to $1750.

Prestressed concrete
Basic Concept A prestressed concrete structure is different from a conventional reinforced concrete
structure due to the application of an initial load on the structure prior to its use. The initial load or
‘prestress’ is applied to enable the structure to counteract the stresses arising during its service
period. The prestressing of a structure is not the only instance of prestressing. The concept of
prestressing existed before the applications in concrete. Two examples of prestressing before the
development of prestressed concrete are provided.

For concrete, internal stresses are induced (usually, by means of tensioned steel) for the following
reasons.

• The tensile strength of concrete is only about 8% to 14% of its compressive strength.

• Cracks tend to develop at early stages of loading in flexural members such as beams and slabs.

• To prevent such cracks, compressive force can be suitably applied in the perpendicular direction.

• Prestressing enhances the bending, shear and torsional capacities of the flexural members.

• In pipes and liquid storage tanks, the hoop tensile stresses can be effectively counteracted by
circular prestressing.

Formwork
Formwork is the term used for the process of creating a temporary mould into
which concrete is poured and formed. Traditional formwork is fabricated using timber, but it
can also be constructed from steel, glass fibre reinforced plastics and other materials.

While formwork is a broad term that is used in relation to the forming process using a wide
variety of materials, shuttering is a term that is often used to refer to the process of
using plywood to form the mould.

Shuttering is perhaps the most popular type of formwork and is

normally constructed on site using timber and plywood. A special grade of plywood is
necessary for shuttering, and it must be water-resistant. It is easy to produce, although it can
be time consuming for larger structures. It is used when the labour costs are lower than
the cost of producing re-usable formwork from materials such as steel or plastic. It also has
the advantage of beingat a significant amount of concrete can be poured at once.

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 Simple plank shuttering can be used for the construction of a path or hardstanding. The
planks should be trimmed so they are level with the top surface of the slab, allowing a
tidy concrete finish to be achieved.

Formwork specifications

When selecting formwork, the type of concrete and temperature of the pour are

important considerations as they both effect the pressure exerted.

The formwork sides must be capable of resisting the hydrostatic pressure of the

wet concrete which will diminish to zero within several hours depending on the rate of setting
and curing.

The formwork base or soffit must be capable of resisting the initial dead load of the

wet concrete and the dead load of the dry set concrete.

Once the concrete has gained sufficient strength the formwork can be struck (removed). A

minimum value of 5 N/mm2 is recommended in all cases when striking vertical formwork as
so not to damage the permanent concrete in the process.

High quality workmanship and inspection are necessary to ensure a high standard and

appearance of the resulting concrete structure.

Both shuttering and formwork in its various forms will be supported by falsework. This refers

to poles, stabilisers, or other units that keep the shuttering or formwork in place as
the concrete dries. For more information, see Falsework.

Beam formwork

Formwork for beams takes the form of a three-sided box which is supported and propped in

the correct position and to the desired level. The removal time for the formwork will vary
with air temperature, humidity and consequent curing rate. Typical striking times are as
follows (using air temperature of 7-16 ºC):

 Beam sides: 9-12 hours.

 Beam soffits: 8-14 days.
 Beam props: 15-21 days.

Column formwork

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 This consists of a vertical mould of the desired shape and size of the column to be poured.
As a means of keeping the formwork material thickness to a minimum,
horizontal steel or timber clamps (or yokes) are used at equal centres for batch filling and at
varying centres for filling that is completed in one pour.

The head of the column formwork can be used to provide support for the beam formwork,

but while this gives good top lateral restraint it can make the formwork complex.
Alternatively, the column can be cast to the underside of the beams. Later on, a collar
of formwork can be clamped around the cast column to complete the casting and support
the incoming beam formwork.

Plastic formwork

Re-usable plastic formwork is generally used for quick pours of concrete.

The formwork is assembled either from interlocking panels or from a modular system and is
used for relatively simple concrete structures. It is not as versatile as timber formwork due
to the prefabrication requirements and is best suited for lost-cost, repetitive structures such
as mass housing schemes.

Stay-in-place structural formwork is generally assembled on site using prefabricated fibre-
reinforced plastic. It is used for concrete columns and piers and stays in place, acting as
permanent axial and shear reinforcement for the structural member. It also provides
resistance to environmental damage for both the concrete and reinforcing bars.

Proprietary systems are used to support vertical formwork while concrete cures, consisting

of a series of tubes and ties.

Requirements of good formwork

The following requirements should be satisfied by good formwork:

 Strong enough to withstand dead and live loads.

 Capable of retaining its shape by being efficiently propped and braced horizontally and
vertically.
 Joints should prevent leakage of cement grout.
 Should be capable of being removed in various parts without damaging the concrete.
 Material used be suitable for reuse.
 Should be set accurately to the desired line.
 As lightweight as possible.
 Material should not warp or distort on exposure to the elements.
 Should rest on a firm base.

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Formwork Materials:
The selection of materials suitable for formwork should be based on the price,
safety during construction, and the quality required in the finished product.
Approval of formwork materials by the engineer/architect, if required by the
contract documents, should be based on how the quality of materials affects
the quality of finished work. Where the concrete surface appearance is critical,
the engineer/architect should give special notice and make provision for
preconstruction mockups. Materials used for the construction of concrete
formwork range from traditional materials such as Timber, steel, aluminum,
and plywood to nontraditional materials such as fiberglass. The systems used
can be a combination of two materials. Wood products are the most widely
used material for formwork. The objective of this section is to introduce
Timber as an important material for formwork. Permanent forms are any form
that remains in place after the concrete has developed its design strength. The
form may or may not become an integral part of the structure. Metal deck
forms are used in floor and roof slabs cast over steel joists or beams.
Timber: Timber is widely used for many construction applications including
concrete formwork. Timber is harvested from trees and is classified as
hardwood and softwood. Hardwood comes from trees that have broad leaves
such as oaks, maples, and basswood. Softwood comes from trees that have
needlelike leaves such as pines, cedars, and firs. Softwoods are most
commonly used in construction of formwork. Timber is suitable for
constructing concrete forms is available in a variety of sizes, grades, and
species groups. The form designer of timber for constructing the forms. Timber
is commonly available material and has excellent strength, weight and cost
factor. A special type of timber is known as plywood. It is used extensively for
formwork for concrete, especially for sheathing (the material serving as the
contact face of), decking, and form linings. The relatively large sheets of
plywood have reduced the cost of building and at the same time have provided
smooth surface. That reduces cost of finishing of concrete surfaces, availability
in a variety of thicknesses and lengths, and ease of handling during
construction. Plywood is a manufactured wood product consist a number of
veneer sheets, or plies Type of plywood can be grouped as exterior and
interior. For formwork the exterior plywood is used. Adhesive used to bond the
piles in manufacturing of exterior plywood is watertight and gives maximum

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number of reuses. The plywood industry manufactures special plywood called
Ply form specifically for use in forming concrete structures.

Metals: The initial cost of metal formwork is more than timber formwork but
the number of reuses of metal formwork is higher than that of timber. In long
run metal formwork can be economical. In heavy construction works metal
formwork may require a lifting mechanism to handle the formwork panels or
props. Steel sheet formwork has the problem of rusting also. To avoid rusting,
in every use the surfaces should be oiled with an appropriate releasing agent.
In metal formwork usage, the metal sheets are prepared as panels of standard
sizes. This brings the difficulties of erecting irregular dimensions of formwork.
For certain uses, forms made of steel have several advantages over forms
made of other materials. They can provide adequate rigidity and strength.
Steel or aluminum or magnesium is the most widely used metalsshould
determine what is economically available before specifying a particular grade
or species group
Steel: The major advantages of steel sections in formwork are the ability of
steel to form longer spans and its indefinite potential for reuse when handled
with reasonable care. Steel sections are used in the fabrication of different
formwork components, namely: (1) Steel panel forms. (2) Horizontal and
vertical shores. (3) Steel pan and dome components used for joist and waffle
slabs. (4) Steel pipes for formwork bracing. Other heavy forms and formwork
are also made of steel, such as bridge formwork. Steel is used for formwork
when other materials are impossible to use because of their low strength. Steel
forms are typically patented, and allowable loads are generally published by
the manufacturers.

Aluminum: Aluminum stems from have lighted weight which reduces handling
costs and offsets its higher initial material cost. When compared to steel
panels, aluminum panels used for ganged forms weight approximately 50%
less. The major problem with aluminum forms is corrosion: Pure aluminum is
attacked chemically by wet concrete. Aluminum alloys have proven to be very
successful in resisting corrosion. Support trusses fabricated with aluminum
alloys have been effectively used for flying forms. These forms are lightweight
and allow large lengths of deck forms to be moved easily. Cast aluminum alloy

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molds have also been used successfully to form ornamental concrete products.
Aluminum wall forms have also been used to produce textures on the surfaces
of concrete walls. Forms made from aluminum are in many respects similar to
those made of steel. However, because of their lower density, aluminum forms
are lighter than steel forms, and this is their primary advantage when
compared with steel. Because the strength of aluminum in handling, tension,
and compression is less than the strength of steel, it is necessary to use larger
sections when forms are made of aluminum. Because wet concrete can
chemically attack aluminum, it is desirable to use aluminum alloys in resisting
corrosion from the concrete.
Glass-Reinforced Plastic: Forms fabricated from glass-reinforced plastic have
agood strength, light weight, and high number of reuses. Glass-reinforced
plastic also produces highquality concrete finishes. Glass-reinforced plastic
forms are very flexible and can form complex or nonstandard shapes with little
capital investment. Plastic formwork could be reinforced or un-reinforced.
Plastic is reinforced by glass fibers. Reinforced plastics are specially produced
for a specific formwork type. Un-reinforced plastics are produced in sheet form
with smooth or textured surfaces. Plastic formwork is lighter but less durable
than metal formwork. To fabricate glass-reinforced plastic forms, models of
plaster, wood, or steel are prepared to the exact desired dimensions. The
model is then waxed, polished, and sprayed with a parting agent to prevent
sticking of the resin to the master pattern. Glass mat is then fitted over the
model and thoroughly saturated with a brushcoat of polyester resin. When the
resin has set and the heat dissipated, another layer of glass mat and polyester
resin is added, and this process is repeated until the desired thickness of the
fiberglass sheet is achieved. Another method to build glass-reinforced plastic
forms is through the use of a spray gun to apply the resin to chopped strands
of fiberglass, which are used as the reinforcing material. To increase the
number of potential reuses with any of the methods of fabrication mentioned,
an extra thickness of resin is molded into the contact surface or additional
stiffening and supports are added by means of built-up ribs, wood struts, steel
rods, or aluminum tubing

Difference Between Shoring,

Scaffolding, And Underpinning
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In the construction industry it is essential to know the
difference between the three supports and structure
strengthening methods – scaffolding, shoring, and
underpinning. Many property developers tend to confuse
between the three terms. However, in civil engineering, the
terms have completely different meanings and stand for
different purposes and outcomes. It is vital to know the
difference between the three, so that developers can use the
right approach in the right situation to avail of the best
results in the construction process.

Scaffolding and its types

Scaffoldings are temporary structures that help a worker to

stand on and perform duties at levels above the ground
surface. So, if a person needs to do brickwork for the
21st storey of a building, then the worker will climb on the
scaffolding with the equipment and then apply the concrete
with bricks.

The key types of scaffolding include single scaffolding

(typically used by bricklayers) or double scaffolding
(generally used by masons). Other popular types include
the cantilever scaffolding, suspended scaffolding and
ladder scaffolding.

Good quality scaffolding can help prevent a lot of

accidental injuries to workers. It is vital to keep the height
of the scaffolding to a minimum of 1.8m and have a
minimum width of 425mm. the rule of thumb is to provide

146
 enough space so that the worker can stand easily and do
the work.

APPLICATIONS OF SCAFFOLDS

Scaffolding is necessary in following situations.

 To support the working platforms where masons can stand and carry on their duties
such as plastering, brick laying or painting etc.
 Scaffolding is also provided where demolition or maintenance work of the building
has to be carried out.

KEY POINTS TO CONSIDER DURING SCAFFOLDING

 Construction and design of scaffold comes under safety regulation of building site.
For example when a person is liable to fall from more than 2m, the platforms of the
scaffolds are to be provided with a guard rail to a height of 1m and also a tie board
at least 200 mm above the platform.
 About 35 to 40 percent of all the accidents that takes place in building construction
sites is due to faulty scaffolding. Therefore strict supervision should be followed
according to standard practice during scaffolding erection.
 All scaffolding should be properly fixed so that they do not fall away from wall
laterally. Similarly it should be stable longitudinally also.
 The platform should be wide enough to accommodate a person working on it. It
should not be less than 425 mm in width when the height is more than 1.8 m.
 When materials are to be stored on the platform then the width of the platform
should not be less than 850 mm.
 Workmen should not work under the scaffolding.

TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING

The following different types of scaffolding are in common use.

1. Single scaffolding or bricklayers scaffolding

2. Double scaffolding or masons scaffolding
3. Cantilever or needle scaffolding
4. Birds cage scaffolding
5. Ladder or trestle scaffolding
6. Suspended scaffolding

2. Shoring and its types

Experts in piling services offer shoring to prevent any untoward

incident due to shaky foundation of improper alignment of surround
walls and structures. It can provide reinforce the underground
excavations at the time of laying the foundation. It can also help with
temporary support to unsafe structures above the ground surface.

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 Complex building constructions have benefited from advanced forms of
shoring and piling works that provide stability and support when
carrying out the construction work. The excavation work is simply too
dangerous to work in. All around, a worker may face unsafe and
unstable structures that can give way if not held in place. Shoring seeks
to remove this danger with supporting structure all around the workers
so that they can do the work in a safe environment. Raking shores,
horizontal shores, and dead shores are the three main types of shoring
used in construction and development work.

APPLICATIONS OF SHORING

Shoring is provided in following situations

When a building wall shows sign of bulging or leaning outward

At the time of dismantling or reconstructing a defective building wall, shoring is provided

to support the floors or roofs connected to that wall.

Shoring is also provided to support super structure when large openings are required to
be made in the walls.

KEY POINTS TO CONSIDER DURING SHORING

Temporary support by means of shores to unsafe structures may be given externally or

internally or may be from both sides.

To maintain equilibrium, it is essential that the lines of actions of overturning forces in

floors and roofs, the forces in walls and the reaction of the shores must meet at a single
point.

Shoring can be made of timber or steel considering the load it has to withstand.

Shoring should be strong enough to resist the acting forces, consistent with economy

TYPES OF SHORING

Depending on the supporting characteristic or their positions in the space, shorings are
classified into following 3 types.

1. Raking or inclined shores

2. Flying or horizontal shores
3. Dead or vertical shores

3. Underpinning

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If the foundation of an existing structure needs repairs, then
it is not a wise move to demolish the entire structure to
reach the foundation. With underpinning, it becomes easier
to reach the foundation of an existing structure to carry out
reinforcement or repair work. It is also used to deepen the
shallow footings of an existing building.

APPLICATIONS OF UNDERPINNING

The following situations demand underpinning.

 When defective foundation of wall is to be replaced with new foundation or when

existing foundation of a wall is required to be strengthened to enable it to carry more
loads.
 To strengthen shallow footings of the existing building when a building with deep
foundation is to be constructed adjoining to it.
 To safe guard against the danger of excessive or differential settlement of
foundations of existing structure.
 To increase depth of foundation to increase its bearing capacity so as to sustain
heavier loads.
 During construction of basement of an existing building structure.

KEY POINTS TO CONSIDER DURING UNDERPINNING

 Building should be first examined for presence of any weakness such as poor
brickwork or masonry and for effects of settlement which may arise during the
underpinning operation.
 Temporary support should be provided by adequate shoring and by strutting up of
openings and inside of floors.
 In case of underpinning below high rise buildings, check must be made to measure
any movement of the building by means of plumb bob or total station.

TYPES OF UNDERPINNING

There are several methods of underpinning of foundation of which the three popular
methods are as follow.

1. Pit method – it involves strengthening by excavation and building below the

existing foundation.
2. Pile method – it involves supporting the building on newly built piles of various
types without excavation.
3. Pier method – this is a combination of pit and a pile method where first excavation
is done below the foundation and a pir is built up for the new foundation.

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Diff erence between Plastering and Pointi ng

PLASTERING

Applying mortar coats on the surfaces of walls, columns, ceiling etc. to get smooth finish
is termed as plastering. Mortar used for plastering may be lime mortar, cement mortar or
lime-cement mortar. Lime mortar used shall have fat lime to sand ratio of 1 : 3 or 1 : 4. If
hydraulic lime is used mix proportion (lime: sand) is 1 : 2. Cement mortar of 1 : 4 or 1 : 6
mix is very commonly used for plastering, richer mix being used for outer walls. To
combine the cost effectiveness of lime mortar and good quality of cement mortar many
use lime-cement mortar of proportion (cement : lime : sand) of 1 : 1 : 6 or 1 : 1 : 8 or 1 : 2
: 8.

The objective of plastering are:

1. To conceal defective workmanship

2. To give smooth surface to avoid catching of dust.
3. To give good look.
4. To protect the wall from rain water and other atmospheric agencies.
5. To protect surfaces against vermit. 

Requirement of good plaster are:

1. It should adhere to the background easily.

2. It should be hard and durable.
3. It should prevent penetration by moisture
4. It should be cheap.

Lime mortar is usually applied in 3 coats while cement mortar is applied in two or three
coats for the stone and brick masonry. For concrete surfaces cement mortar may be
applied in two or three coats.

For concrete building blocks many times only one coat of cement mortar is applied.

The first coat provides means of getting level surface. The final coat provides smooth
surface. If three coats are used second coat is known as floating coat. The average
thickness of first coat is 10 to 15 mm. Middle coat thickness is 6–8 mm. The final coat is
just 2 to 3 mm thick. If single coat is used its thickness is kept between 6 to 12 mm.

coats are used on concrete surfaces not exposed to rain.

POINTING
Instead of plastering entire surface of the masonry, special mortar finishing work is done
to the exposed joints. This is called pointing. It consists of raking the joints to a depth of
10 mm to 20 mm and filling it with richer mortar mixes. In case of lime mortar pointing
mix used is 1 : 2 and in case of cement mortar pointing mix used is 1 : 3. Pointing is
ideally suited for stone masonry because stones are having attractive colours and good
resistance to penetration by water. Pointing gives perfection to weaker part of masonry
(i.e. to joints) and it adds to aesthetic view of the masonry.

150
The table below gives the comparison between plastering and pointing.

SL.NO PLASTERING POINTING

1. It is applied to entire surface. It is provided only at exposed joints.

2. It provides smooth surface. It does not provide smooth surface.

It conceals defective workmanship in the It is used to expose beauty of well built

3.
masonry construction masonry work.

It provides a base for applying white/ White washing or colour washing are
4.
colour washing ruled out.

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 MODULE 4

Components of a Building.
All buildings have the same components such as foundation, walls, floors,
and roof.

In addition, we have to decorate them with plaster, paint, etc., to make

them aesthetically beautiful
Parts of a Building: CIVIL WORKS.
The important parts of an ordinary building are shown in Figures 1.1 and
1.2.
They are as follows:

1. Foundation,
2. Plinth,
3. Walls and columns,
4. Floors,
5. Lintels and chajjas,
6. Roof,
7. Doors and windows,
8. Stairs and lifts,
9. Finishing work (plastering and painting),
10. Building services,
11. Fencing and external works.,

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A building can be divided into substructure (foundation) and superstructure,
the plinth level being the dividing line between them.

In building construction, we study how the civil works are carried out in the
field after they have been planned by an architect and structurally designed
by an engineer.

1. Foundation.
Foundation is a very important part of a building.

All the loads of superstructure are transmitted to the foundation.

A foundation engineer should know how to examine the soil profile and
arrive at a suitable foundation.

The following are some of the different types of foundation generally used:

1. Strip foundation (shallow foundations)

2. Footing foundation (shallow foundations)
3. Raft foundation (shallow foundations)
4. Pile foundation (deep foundations)
5. Pier foundation (deep foundations).
In framed construction, we use footings as the foundation for the column
and the brickwork for walls starts from grade beams connecting c

153
(Grade beams on under-reamed piles are also called capping beams).

2. Plinth
The plinth is a dividing line between the substructure and superstructure.

Thus, the projecting part of the wall above the ground level to the floor level
is the plinth.

The plinth is usually kept at least 45 cm (1.5 ft) above the general ground
level of the building.

3. Plinth Beam.
It is capped by a beam called plinth beam.
The provision of a plinth beam and damp-proof course at plinth level are
very important in building construction.

4. Damp Proof Course (D.P.C).

The damp proof course is a layer provided in building to prevent the
entering of dampness from the ground to the building components.

5. Walls and Columns.

Walls are mostly made of masonry.

It may be of brick, block-work, stonework, etc.

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Buildings may also be constructed as a framed structure with columns and
footings and
then Walled.

Most of the flats and high-rise buildings are built this way.

In many places in the masonry, we use arches and lintels.

6.Floors.
Floor is an important part of a building.
It is the place where the inhabitants perform their most activities.

It is constructed on the filling and laid over the plinth level.

Floors are usually made from different types of materials, such as, timber,
brick, R.C.C.
Top floors are nowadays usually made of reinforced concrete.

7. Roof.
A roof is an important part of all buildings.

The most important item in housing is to have a “roof over one’s head.”

A roof is a layer which covers the structure from the top.

It also prevents the building and inhabitants from the ill effects of  the
environment.

Depending on the finances available and also the climatic conditions, we

can have different kinds of roofs.

Roofs can be sloped or flat.

Many types of roofs and roofing materials are available nowadays.

8. Fabrication of Doors and Windows.

Openings are necessary in buildings for passages inside and outside the
buildings.

We also need windows for lighting and ventilation.

A detailed study of doors and windows is an important part of building
construction as the expenditure on this item alone can go up to 15 to 20
percent of the total cost of civil works.

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Traditionally, doors and windows were made of wood and hence, this work
is sometimes referred to as woodwork in buildings.

Other woodworks like provision of cupboards are also important, but it

comes under the subject of interior decoration.

9. Stairs and Lifts.

Nowadays most buildings are made more than one storey high.

Which means there should be a way to go from one storey of the building
to another.

Knowledge of various elements of a staircase and the construction of a

simple staircase is essential to all those involved in building construction.
Study of the layout and design of ornamental staircases is a special
subject.

Usually, vertical transportation devices like electric lifts are to be provided

in buildings having more than four floors including the ground floor.

We must also be familiar with these devices.

10. Building Finishes.

The final appearance of a building depends very much on its finishing.

We have to deal with the following:

1. Plastering and pointing

2. Painting of walls, woodwork, grillwork, etc.
It is essential that we have a knowledge of the finishing to be used on the
various materials of construction such as plaster, wood, metals, etc.
11. Building Services.
Water supply, drainage, sanitation, electric supply lifts, external works,
construction of cupboard, etc. are considered as items outside of civil
works and are called building services.
Water supply, drainage, and sanitation (building service).
These works are considered separate from civil works and are
also estimated separately.
Design and details of these will be studied in public health engineering
under building services.

However, an elementary treatment of the subject is always included in

basic building construction.

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Electrical works (building service).
Lighting and supply of electricity for various pieces of equipment used in
buildings also come under building services.

The supply and distribution of electricity in a building is a specialized work

to be carried out by an electrical engineer.

However, the basics of these works are also usually dealt with in
elementary building construction.

TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS -SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

Shallow foundations are also called spread footings or open footings. The 'open' refers to the
fact that the foundations are made by first excavating all the earth till the bottom of the
footing, and then constructing the footing. During the early stages of work, the entire footing
is visible to the eye, and is therefore called an open foundation. The idea is that each footing
takes the concentrated load of the column and spreads it out over a large area, so that the
actual weight on the soil does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

There are several kinds of shallow footings: individual footings, strip footings and raft foundations.

In cold climates, shallow foundations must be protected from freezing. This is because water in the soil around the
foundation can freeze and expand, thereby damaging the foundation. These foundations should be built below
the frost line, which is the level in the ground above which freezing occurs. If they cannot be built below the frost
line, they should be protected by insulation: normally a little heat from the building will permeate into the soil and
prevent freezing.

INDIVIDUAL FOOTINGS

Individual footings awaiting concreting of the footing column.

Individual footings are one of the most simple and common types of foundations.
These are used when the load of the building is carried by columns. Usually, each
column will have its own footing. The footing is just a square or rectangular pad of
concrete on which the column sits. To get a very rough idea of the size of the footing,
the engineer will take the total load on the column and divide it by the safe bearing

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capacity (SBC) of the soil. For example, if a column has a vertical load of 10T, and
the SBC of the soil is 10T/m2, then the area of the footing will be 1m2. In practice,
the designer will look at many other factors before preparing a construction design
for the footing.

Individual footings connected by a plinth beam. Note that the footings have been cast on top of beds of plain
cement concrete (PCC), which has been done to create a level, firm base for the footing.
Individual footings are usually connected by a plinth beam, a horizontal beam that is
built at ground or below ground level.
STRIP FOOTINGS
Strip footings are commonly found in load-bearing masonry construction, and act as
a long strip that supports the weight of an entire wall.  These are used where the
building loads are carried by entire walls rather than isolated columns, such as in
older buildings made of masonry.
RAFT OR MAT FOUNDATIONS

Raft Foundations, also called Mat Foundations, are most often used when
basements are to be constructed. In a raft, the entire basement floor slab acts as the
foundation; the weight of the building is spread evenly over the entire footprint of the
building. It is called a raft because the building is like a vessel that 'floats' in a sea of
soil.

Mat Foundations are used where the soil is week, and therefore building loads have
to be spread over a large area, or where columns are closely spaced, which means
that if individual footings were used, they would touch each other.

PILE FOUNDATIONS
A pile is basically a long cylinder of a strong material such as concrete that is pushed
into the ground so that structures can be supported on top of it.

Pile foundations are used in the following situations:

1. When there is a layer of weak soil at the surface. This layer cannot support
the weight of the building, so the loads of the building have to bypass this

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 layer and be transferred to the layer of stronger soil or rock that is below the
weak layer.
2. When a building has very heavy, concentrated loads, such as in a high rise
structure.

Pile foundations are capable of taking higher loads than spread footings.

There are two types of pile foundations, each of which works in its own way.

End Bearing Piles

In end bearing piles, the bottom end of the pile rests on a layer of especially
strong soil or rock. The load of the building is transferred through the pile onto the
strong layer. In a sense, this pile acts like a column. The key principle is that the
bottom end rests on the surface which is the intersection of a weak and strong layer.
The load therefore bypasses the weak layer and is safely transferred to the strong
layer.

Friction Piles

Friction piles work on a different principle. The pile transfers the load of the
building to the soil across the full height of the pile, by friction. In other
words, the entire surface of the pile, which is cylindrical in shape, works to
transfer the forces to the soil. 

To visualise how this works, imagine you are pushing a solid metal rod
of say 4mm diameter into a tub of frozen ice cream. Once you have pushed it in, it is
strong enough to support some load. The greater the embedment depth in the ice
cream, the more load it can support. This is very similar to how a friction pile works.
In a friction pile, the amount of load a pile can support is directly proportionate to its
length.

FLOORING

Requirements of a good floor are,

1. Appearance : The floor finishing should have a nice appearance as regards to its colour,
texture, decorative values and architectural appearance in confirmity with building.

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2. Initial cost : The cost of the floor is an important factor in selection of any type of flooring.
The factor depends on funds available and importance of the building.
3. Durability : It should have resistance to temperature changes, wear, humidity,
disintegration and decay as the life of the floor is dependent on these factors.
4. Noiselessness : It should not produce noise.
5. Damp proof : Dampness and damp proofing are the important factors which requires
careful consideration specially in the construction of ground floor.
6. Cleanliness : A good floor must be easily cleaned and washed.
7. Maintenance : The maintenance cost of floor should be low.
8. Indentation : In superior type of floors covering no indentation mark should be formed on
it by the movement of loads on it.
9. Slipperiness : Surface of the floor finish should not be too slippery.
10. Fire resistant : The floor finishing materials should have maximum amount of resistance
to fire.

Different Types Of Materials Used In Flooring

Flooring can enhance the appearance of any space to a great degree, making it
more vibrant. The type of flooring for a particular space should be selected according
the amount of traffic, exposure to water, sunlight etc. Different flooring types could
also change the feel of a space, making it seem sophisticated or luxurious. When it
comes to flooring tiles, each type of material has its own characteristics. Below are
some of the common flooring types used in residential projects.

Ceramic Tile

Ceramic tiles are made from clay and then heated. They come in two forms: glazed
and unglazed. They are hardwearing, resistant to water and easy to clean which is
why they are commonly used in kitchen and bathroom floor and walls.

Porcelain Tile

This is as type of ceramic tiles but more dense and moisture-resistant, therefore, it is
best for high-moisture spaces like bathrooms. These tiles are available in matte,
unglazed or polished finish. They offer great durability, natural stain resistance, wear
and damage resistance, have minimal water absorption, and through-bodied color
which makes them suitable for both indoor and outdoor installations. Porcelain tiles
are hard to cut due to their density and hardness, so the cost and labor involved is
often higher.

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Quarry Tile

Quarry tile is unglazed ceramic tile. It is inexpensive and durable which make it a
natural option to be used in industrial, commercial and residential tile applications. It
is also less prone to chips and scratches. In colder climates, freeze-resistant grades
of quarry tile are used to prevent weather related problems. In residential
applications, it is used for kitchens and pathways because it has a naturally coarse
surface, making it less slippery than some other surfaces when wet.

Mosaic Tile

Mosaic tiles are made of porcelain or clay composition. They are mostly less than six
square inches in size and cut into various shapes like square, rectangle, octagon etc.
Mosaic tiles are used mostly in smaller areas, such as a bathroom or kitchen
backsplash, or even small counter space areas. The entire sheet is laid in a bed of
adhesive and all the gaps in between the tiny tiles are grouted. Glass mosaic does a
great job of capturing and distributing light throughout the room

Paver Tile

As evident from its name, paver tiles are used mostly in paved outdoor areas. They
are made from pressed clay or concrete making them suitable for exterior walkways,
floors, pool decking, pool linings, and patios. Thy can bear high traffic and are
resistant to wear. Since they do not offer great aesthetics their use in interior is
limited to spaces where aesthetics are not of great concern, such as mudrooms,
furnace rooms, work areas, etc.

PVC / Vinyl Tiles

Vinyl tiles are fixed to the floor tops with the help of adhesives. These provide some
degree of sound and heat insulation and are also very easy to clean. Vinyl tiles come
in a great range of colours and patterns and can be made to imitate other materials
like marble, granite etc. They are generally more wear resistant than other types.

Natural Stone Tiles

Marble

Marble is a type of metamorphic rock that has rich veining and is available in a
variety of colors. It is porous and has to be sealed before installation. It imparts a
luxurious and unique look and is most often used in bathroom walls and flooring, as
well as tub decks, fireplace surrounds, furniture and sculptures.

Granite

Granite is a type of igneous rock that is very dense and hard. It has a grainy type of
look and minerals within it typically appear as small flecks throughout the stone.

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Granite is highly impervious and once polished, resists scratching. It is a great
choice for flooring in kitchens and high-traffic areas. Granite tiles are naturally
antibacterial and aren’t damaged by water contact

Travertine

It is a type of limestone that found in earthy colors, most commonly beige. It is used
for bathroom flooring, kitchen backsplashes, shower mosaics, floors, fireplace
surrounds, vanities, shower walls, tub decks and mosaics. Travertine is a soft,
porous stone with a natural surface that has divots. Special care and surface sealing
is required to maintain travertine.

Limestone

It is a form of marble but less dense. It’s surface can be textured or polished to be
smooth. It is not recommended for kitchen or high-traffic flooring applications since it
can easily be stained and is prone to scratches. Limestone generally available in
earthy colors such as off-white, grey or beige.

Slate

It is a fine grained metamorphic rock that is extremely dense and very durable.  It is
mostly available in darker earthy tones like blacks, grays, mustard and greens, and
is best suited for floors, walkways and roofing, and for kitchen countertops and wet
bars. The surface of slate is naturally textured.

Sandstone

Sandstone has a grainy look and feel. Its hardness depends on the degree of
solidification. It is mostly used outdoors in gardening and landscaping projects in
pathways and borders. It subject to suffer from weather and environmental impacts
and is therefore used in places where aesthetic detail is not that important.

Types of Materials used for Flooring are:

Wood Flooring - Wood flooring is the classic option and it comes in oak, maple, and
bamboo. With proper care and maintenance, wood floors can last a long time.
Cleaning wooden floors only require sweeping and the application of polishing shine
solution while scrubbing from time to time.

Cork Flooring -  Cork floors are made by peeling off the bark while saving the tree.
They are great at insulating the home and keeping it relatively sound-proof. It is anti-
allergenic unlike most flooring types and resists against insects well. Since, cork is all
natural, it is environmentally friendly and sustainable.

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Laminate Flooring -  Laminate flooring presents itself as an option for those who
want to capture the grandeur of wood or stone without breaking the bank. Laminate
is hardy and will show no signs of fading or stains for a decade. It is not easily
affected by moisture like wood and it will require less care than authentic wood or
stone flooring. Clean-up consists only of brooming away dust and dirt and mopping.

Linoleum Flooring -  Linoleum flooring is a composite of cork wood dust, limestone,

recycled wood flour, and linseed oil. It is considered to be one of the more
environmentally safe choices when it comes to flooring materials. Linoleum floors are
tough against impacts or dents. Oils cannot also affect linoleum flooring nor damage
it. A floor using this type of tile provides a smooth and comfortable feel.

Tile Flooring -  Tile flooring come in various types like ceramic, porcelain, quarry, and
mosaic. Installers will need grout in order to properly lay them down on the floor.
When tiles are glazed, they can be stain-resistant. It shares the same quality of heat
resistance with stone floors and as such, they can be used near fireplaces, furnaces,
and stoves as well.

Vinyl Flooring -  Although synthetic by origin, vinyl flooring achieves the rich, deep,
and elegant look of wooden floors. This floor type also comes in different colors and
patterns since vinyl manufacturing processes have been upgraded throughout the
decades. Vinyl floors are durable and will ably resist impacts and scratches against
their surfaces. Vinyl floors are cost effective and are the easiest ones to invest on at
the outset.

Different Types of Doors and Windows in a Building

DOORS

The function of a door is to give access to building and to different parts of

the building and to deny the access whenever necessary. Number of doors
should be minimum possible. The size of the door should be of such
dimension as will facilitate the movement of the largest object likely to use
the doors. In case of the residential buildings, the size of the door should
not be less than 0.9 m × 2.0 m. Larger doors may be provided at main
entrance to the building to enhance the aesthetic view.

Location of doors and windows,

1. The doors and windows should be located in opposite walls galing each other for good
ventilation and free air circulation.

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2. From the point of utility and privacy of the occupants doors should preferably be located
near the corner of a room.
3. The no. of doors should be kept minimum to increase the utility of accomodation. The
location and size of a door should be based on its functinal requirements.
4. To derive maximum day lighting, windows in a room should be located on the northern
side.
5. The sill of the window should generally be located at a height of about 0.6 to 0.7 m above
the floor level.
6. Doors and windows should be so located that no dark corner or shadow is left in the room
and light and ventilation are evenly distributed.
7. The location of the door should meet the functional requirements of the room.

TYPES OF DOORS

Various types of doors are in use which may be classified on the basis of
arrangement of shutters, method of constructions, principles of working
operations and materials used. Commonly used doors are briefly explained
below:
[1] BATTENED AND LEDGED DOORS

Battens are 100 mm to 150 mm wide and 20 mm thick wooden boards.

Their length is that of door opening. The battens are connected by
horizontal planks, known as ledges of size 100 to 200 mm wide and 30 mm
thick. Usually three ledges are used one at top, one at bottom and the third
one at mid-height. This is the simplest form of door and the cheapest also.
Battens are secured by tongued and grooved joint.

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[2] BATTENED, LEDGED AND BRACED DOORS

If doors are wide apart from using battens and ledges diagonal members,
known as braces, are provided to strengthen the door.
[3] FRAMED AND PANELLED DOORS

This type of door consists of vertical members, called styles and horizontal
members called rails. The styles and rails are suitably grooved to receive
panels. The panels may be of wood, A.C. sheet, glasses etc. The panels
may be flat or of raised type to get good appearance. These are very
commonly used doors. They may be of single shutter or of double shutter.
If glass panels are used they may be called as glazed doors.

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[4] FLUSH DOORS

The shutters of these doors are made of plywood or block boards. They are
of uniform thickness. These shutters are available with different attractive
vineer finishes. The time consumed in making such doors at site is quite
less. These doors are suitable for interior portion of a building. Nowadays
flush doors are commonly used in residential and office buildings.
[5] LOUVERED DOORS

Whenever privacy as well as ventilation is required such doors can be

used. Louvers are the glass, wooden or A.C. sheet strips fixed in the frame
of shutter such that they prevent vision but permit free passage of air. The
doors may be fully or partially louvered. Such doors are commonly used for
public bathrooms and latrines.
[6] REVOLVING DOORS

It consist of a centrally placed pivot to which four radiating shutters are

attached. The central pivot is supported on ball bearing at the bottom and
has a bush bearing at the top. The shutters may be partly or fully made up
of glass. A circular space of entrance is provided within which shutters
rotate. As shutters rotate they give entrance on one side and exit on other
side. These doors are preferred in public buildings like stores, banks,

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hotels, theatres where continuous use of doors is necessary. They are very
much required in entrance to air conditioned public buildings.

[7] SWING DOORS

Swing door has its shutter attached to the frame by means of double action
springs. Hence shutter can move both inward and outward. They may be
single shuttered or double shuttered. Such doors are preferred in offices
and banks. Since these doors can open on both sides it is desirable to
provide glass panels or peep holes to enable user to see the persons from
other side.

[8] SLIDING DOORS

In this type of doors, shutter slides on the sides. For this purpose runners
and guide rails are provided. Sliding shutters may be one, two or even
three. Such doors are used in banks, offices etc.

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[9] COLLAPSIBLE DOORS

Steel channels 16 to 20 mm wide are used as verticals. They are placed

with 12 to 20 mm gap. Steel flats 16 mm to 20 mm wide and 5 mm thick are
hinged to them The rollers are provided at their top as well as at bottom so
that shutter can be pulled or pushed side ways with slight force. There may
be single or double shutters. Usually these doors are used for additional
safety. They are commonly used for front doors, bank locker rooms, school
and college entrance doors.
[10] ROLLING DOORS

It consists of a frame, a drum and a shutter made of thin steel plates. The
width of the door may vary from 2 to 3 m. The shutter moves on steel
guides provided on sides and can easily roll up. For this counterbalancing
is made with helical springs on the drum. The shutter can be easily pulled
down.This type of doors are commonly used as additional doors to shops,
offices, banks, factory, buildings from the point of safety.

WINDOWS

Windows are provided to give light and ventilation. They are located at a
height of 0.75 m to 0.90 m from the floor level. In hot and humid regions,
the window area should be 15 to 20 per cent of the floor area. It is
preferable to have at least two openings in two different walls. Another
thumb rule used to determine the size of the window opening is for every
30 m3 inside volume there should be at least 1 m2 window opening.

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Various windows used may be classified on the basis of materials used,
types of shutters, types of openings of shutters and the position of
windows. Timber, steel and aluminium are commonly used to make window
frames. Timber may get termite attacks, steel may rust but aluminium do
not have any such defects. However they are costly. Shutters of windows
may be panelled, glazed or louvered. Louvered windows are generally
used for bathrooms and toilets where vision is not to be allowed but
ventilation is required. Lower parts panelled and upper parts glazed
windows are commonly used. Instead of panelled one may think of using
translucent glasses. Window shutters may be fixed, centrally pivoted,
sliding type or double hung.

TYPES OF WINDOWS

Depending upon the position of windows, they may be classified as:

[1] CASEMENT WINDOWS

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Casement windows are common type of windows, provided in the outer
walls. They are provided over 50 to 75 mm sill concrete at a height of 750
to 900 mm from floor level.
[2] BAY WINDOWS

Bay windows are provided on the projected portion of walls.

[3] CORNER WINDOWS

Corner windows are provided in the corner of a room. They need heavy
lintels. Corner post of window should be strong enough to take load due to
deflection of lintel and impact load from the shutters.

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[4] CLEAR STORY WINDOWS

Clear storey windows are provided when the height of the room is much
more than adjacent room/verandas. It is provided between the gap of low
height room and the top of room with greater height.
[5] GABLE WINDOWS

Gable windows are provided in the gable portion of the building. They are
required in the stair cases or in the halls with gable walls.
[6] SKY LIGHT WINDOWS

Sky light windows are provided on a sloping roof. It projects above the top
sloping surface. The common rafters are to be trimmed suitably.

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[7] DORMER WINDOWS

Dormer windows are vertical windows on the sloping roof.

[8] VENTILATORS

Ventilators are provided close to roof level or over the door frames. They
help in pushing out exhaust air. They may be provided with two split and
separated glasses or with hung shutters.

What is Lintel?
A lintel is one type of beam which is utilized to support the above wall or partition
material when openings like doors, windows, and so forth are necessary to provide a
building structure. The primary function of the lintel is to take loads originating from the
high wall and transfer its heap to the side walls.
The lintel beam generally ends in the masonry wall to convey the weight carried by them
to the masonry walls, and its width is the same as the wall width. The lintel can likewise
be utilized as an enlivening compositional component.

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Types of Lintel
While timber is as yet utilized in the development of homes, heavier materials, for
example, block, concrete, and stone, can likewise be used, particularly in the event of
business structures and private condo squares. Thus, the utilization of stirred steel lintels
has developed increasingly well known. Depending on the costing and availability of
materials, different materials are used for lintel construction. Lintels are classified into
the following types according to the elements of their development:

1. Timber lintel
2. Stone lintel
3. Reinforced concrete lintel
4. Brick lintel
5. Reinforced brick lintel
6. Steel lintel

After seeing these six types of lintel you may ask a simple question.
Which one of these lintels should you use for your construction project?
It's you who should decide the answer. But to help you decide, a brief description of
these six types of lintels are discussed below.

Timber Lintel
Wooden or Timber Lintels are the most seasoned sorts of the lintel. They are
fundamentally used in the hilly areas where timbers are accessible. But in open
areas, uses of timber are constrained as a result of the significant expense and
accessibility of present-day materials. If there should be an occurrence of more great
dividers, timber lintel is made out of two wooden pieces avoided as much as possible
with the assistance of wooden separation pieces. Sometimes, timber lintels are
reinforced by the arrangement of mild steel plates at their top and base; such lintels are
called flitched lintels. It has a few other disadvantages-

 It is less durable.
 Timber being combustible it is vulnerable to fire.
 These lintels tend to be structurally weak.
 Without appropriate ventilation, timber is obligated to rot.

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Stone Lintel
Rectangular bits of stone can be utilized as a lintel. This type of lintel is mainly used in
this area where the stone is plentifully accessible. On the off chance that the length of
the opening is long, by then, in any event, two bits of timber are joined to give the lintel
all things considered openings. They are merely used in mountainous buildings as they
weigh too much and due to the non-availability of other materials for their construction.
Its use is intrinsically bound to stone masonry structures. Stone lintels must be utilized
according to an understanding of the characteristic layering. The thickness of the stone
lintel is a significant factor for its design. As a thumb rule, the thickness is taken as 4 cm.
Per 30cm length of span and the minimum thickness should be 8 cm. This sort of lintel
will be firm and solid. There are a few inconveniences also of the stone lintel.

 Its high cost and secondly its inability to withstand excessive transverse stress.
 Due to their weak tensile nature, they are not used in buildings where vibratory
loads are subjected to the structure. 
 It is difficult to deploy them in cities as its transportation is a very complex task.

Reinforced Concrete Lintel

At present, reinforced concrete lintels are very common in use. In this type,
reinforcement is used to overcome the low malleable issue in concrete. They are
developed in present-day structures. They are suitable for heavy loads and larger spans.
Their thickness is kept around up to 8 centimeters for every meter. RCC lintels can be

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either precast or cast-in-situ. Generally, precast reinforced cement concrete lintels are
used when the lintel span is smaller. Lintel width should be the same as wall width. The
depth of the lintel depends on the length of the span and the loading's magnitude.
Concrete, though strong in compression, is fragile to tensile stress, so main
reinforcement bars are used at the bottom to resist the tensile stress. Half of these bars
are cranked at the ends. Shear stirrups are provided to withstand shear stress.
Typically, cement, sand, and aggregates are mixed in 1:2:4 ratio to form cement
concrete mortar. This lintel has a handful of advantages:

 They are durable, rigid and strong.

 The reinforced concrete lintel has fire-resisting properties.
 They are economical and easy in construction.
 The main advantage of the RC lintels is adaptability to suit any size and shape.

Brick Lintels
Brick lintels are constructed with hard, well burnt first-class brick. It can be formed as
bricks on end, bricks on edge, and coursed bricks laid horizontally over openings. This
type of lintel is used when the opening is small (less than 1m) with light loadings. Their
depth varies from 10 cm (thickness of one brick) to 20 cm depending upon the span.
Bricks with frogs filled with mortar give more shear resistance at end joints than the
standard blocks.

Reinforced Brick Lintels

Heavy loadings and more substantial span length are the problems for brick lintels.
These can be overcome by using the reinforcement bars. Reinforced brick lintels thus
provide more support than the brick lintels. The depth of the reinforced brick lintels is
equal to 10 cm. or multiple of 10 cm (or one brick thickness). The arrangement of the
bricks should be such that there is enough space in lengthwise between the adjacent
bricks for the insertion of mild steel bars as reinforcement. After insertion bars, the
remaining gap is filled with 1:3 cement mortar. 6 mm bars are used as vertical stirrups at
every 3rd vertical joint. 8 to 10 mm bars placed at the bottom are used as primary
reinforcement.

Steel Lintels
Steel lintels can be suitable when the superimposed loads are heavy, and the opening
gaps are significant. Steel lintels are preferable when the depth of lintel plays an
essential role because the designer cannot ignore the depth of reinforced concrete
lintels due to heavy loads. These lintels consist of channel sections or rolled steel joists
or channel sections either used singly or in the combination of two or three units.
Depending upon the requirements, the lintel can be a single section or combinations of
two or more. Single steel joist is either embedded in concrete or cladded with stone
facing to keep the same width as the wall. Combination of two or more units are placed
side by side and held in position by tube separator. Relieving with water is accomplished
in any event for ten days. It has many advantages:

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  Steel lintels can be utilized to help heavier loads over more prominent
separations without the need to change or strengthen.
 Steel lintels are impervious to rust, erosion, or distorting.
 Steel lintels are more practical and less labor-intensive.

Sunshades
A sunshade is a metal louver installed horizontally over a window
and/or vertically in front of a window to prevent the infiltration of
solar heat or glare while allowing daylight views. Initially metal
sunshades were called "eyebrows" and simply added an additional
dimension to a relatively flat surface. They were seen as more of a
building's aesthetic feature than a functional feature. They were
also one of the first products pulled off of the building to reduce cost
to the owner.

Types of Arches 
A roman arch which is also known as a semi-circular arch. It forms a semi-circle. It is
generally made of brick masonry.

Semi-circular arch or Roman Arch

Segmental Arch

A Syrian arch which is also known as a Segmental arch. It forms a partial curve since it
has a small rise in the centre and is semi-elliptical across the top.

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 Segmental or Syrian Arch

Flattened Gothic Arches

Flattened Gothic arches are also known as Tudor arches. Tudor arches have a low rise
because of which they are named as flattened gothic arches. Gothic arches are
generally narrower than the flattened gothic arches.

Tudor arch or Flattened Gothic Arch

Flat arches

Flat arches are also known as straight arches. As the name itself suggests, the arch
spans straight across the opening without any curvation.

Flat Arch

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Gothic Arches

Gothic arches are narrow arches with a pointed opening. It was considered to be a more
sinuous and elegant successor to the roman arch style. Gothic arches have been used
in cathedrals of the Middle ages across Europe.

Gothic arch

Horseshoe Arches

A Moorish arches are also called Horseshoe arches. The arch resembles the look of a
horseshoe magnet. The curved arch line extends beyond the semi-circular line of the
arch.

Horseshoe Arch or Moorish Arch

Vertical Transportation
Vertical transportation systems include all kinds of transportation media
within buildings, such as lifts, escalators, hydraulic hoists and passengers

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conveyors etc. It may be considered the most important building services
system for high-rise buildings.
Location of staircase – The stairs should be located sufficient light and ventilation should be
easily accessible from different corners of the building. In public buildings minimum two
stairs should be provided. Generally stairs are provided near the main entrance in the public
buildings and in the residential building they are provided in the center to provide easy
access to all the users and maintain privacy at the same time.
Requirements- Location
Length of flight- No of step maximum 12 and minimum 3
Pitch of stair- The slope should never exceed 40 degree and should not be flatter than
25degree.
Landing – The width of landing should not be less than the width of stair.
Width- Stair width depends upon the purpose and importance of he building. The minimum
width 90cm and maximum 1.8m.
Balustrade- It should be provided stairs from the safety .
Hand rail- It should be provided at a height 75cm for the protection of users.
Risers and threads – It should have uniform rise and thread.

Types of Stairs

1. Straight Stairs

Straight Stair with Central Landing

What are straight stairs?

Straight stairs are stairs without any changes in direction. They are certainly one of
the most common types of stairs found in both residential and commercial
properties. Below are examples of straight floating stairs made with a variety of
stringer styles, railing types, and wood species.

Advantages of Straight Stairs:

 Straight stairs tend to be the easiest to go up and down, or, ascend/descend, as we
say in the industry.
 They are typically the easiest to build, however, this depends a lot on the level of
detail in the design.

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  Straight stairs only need to be connected at the top and the bottom (no intermediate
supporting structure is required).
 They work well with minimalist designed homes due to their inherent simplicity.
 By selecting thinner treads, open risers, and thin metal stringers, straight stairs can
be made more transparent than other types of stairs, allowing less obstruction to the
view beyond.
 No landing is required if the number of risers is kept under 16 or the overall vertical
height is less than 12 feet.
 It’s relatively easy to build railings and handrails for straight stairs.
 Measuring for railings for straight stairs is simpler than for other stair designs.
Disadvantages of Straight Stairs:
 Straight stairs use up a fair amount of linear space, which has to be planned for in
your design.
 Some of the other stair types create a privacy barrier between the floors of your
home. Straight stairs do not offer this privacy.
 A stair 12-feet high requires a landing to break up the span. The addition of a landing
will use up a lot more space and therefore these types of stairs are seldom used in
residential construction. You will see these more frequently in large commercial
buildings.

2. L Shaped Stairs

L Shaped Stair
What are L shaped stairs?

The L shaped stair is a variation of the straight stair with a bend in some portion of
the stair. This bend is usually achieved by adding a landing at the transition point.
The bend is often 90 degrees, however, it does not have to be. If the landing is
closer to the top or bottom of the stairs it is sometimes referred to as a long L stair or
a quarter turn stair.

Advantages of L Shaped Stairs:

 L shaped stairs can be more visually interesting.
 They provide a visual barrier between floors so, they can add some privacy.
 L shaped stairs can help somewhat with sound transmission between floors if the stairs are
contained within walls.
 Some believe they are safer than straight stairs as the central landing reduces the number of
treads one could fall in a given flight.
 The landing can provide a place to stop and rest while ascending.
 They can be located in a corner of a room if this works better for your design.
Disadvantages of L Shaped Stairs:
 L shaped stairs are a bit more difficult to build than straight stairs.
 A support is typically required for the landing in an L type stair. Often, this is built into the
surrounding walls so it goes unnoticed. In modern dwellings, however, it is usually desirable
to open up the space by leaving the stair structure visible. In these cases, the supporting

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 structure can be visually minimized by taking advantage of the strength of steel to create
slim supporting members. Through careful engineering, it is possible to eliminate the landing
support altogether.
 Handrails for these types of stairs require more skill and planning to construct than handrails
for straight stairs.
 In climates where basements are used, stairs are typically stacked over each other for
efficient use of space. Since basements are often used for storage, large items can be
difficult to move in and out of the basement.

3. U Shaped Stairs

U Shaped Stair

What are U shaped stairs?

U shaped stairs are essentially two parallel flights of straight stairs joined by a landing that
creates a 180-degree turn in the walk line.

Advantages of U Shaped Stairs:

 U shaped stairs can be easier to fit into an architectural plan.
 They offer some architectural interest.
 The landing(s) can offer a resting point partway up the stairs.
Disadvantages of U Shaped Stairs:
 These types of stairs are a bit more difficult to build than simpler stair types.

4. Winder Stairs

Winder Stair

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What are winder stairs?

Winder stairs are a variation of an L shaped stair but instead of a flat landing, they have pie-
shaped or triangular steps at the corner transition.

Advantages of Winder Stairs:

 The main advantage of winder stairs is that they require less space than many other
types of stairs. They are very common in older homes and often used as a secondary
staircase. For example, they are common in homes where the grand staircase is in
the entryway. In these cases, the winder stair is often used as an access to the
kitchen.
 They have more visual interest than other stair types. Winder stairs seem to create a
more seamless transition, visually, as they meander around corners. For this reason,
they have gained popularity in modern homes. Their compactness has also made
them attractive in sustainable home designs.
Disadvantages of Winder Stairs:
 Winder stairs are a little harder to navigate than L stairs.
 It can be more difficult to add a handrail to these than some of the other types of
stairs.
 Like with L shaped stairs, a center support is typically required.

5. Spiral Stairs

Spiral Stair
What are spiral stairs?

Spiral stairs follow a helical arc. They usually have a very compact design and the
treads radiate around a central pole.

Advantages of Spiral Stairs:

 One of the key advantages of spiral stairs is their compactness. They are very
popular on beach front decks where space is at a premium. They are also used
extensively on city lofts for the same reason.
 Spiral stairs can be attractive and there are many variations on railings styles which
can have a major impact on the overall appearance of the stair.
 Since the center pole and landing typically provide the structural support for the
stairs, they do not need much in the way of extra support structures, making
installation easier than with many other types of stairs.

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Disadvantages of Spiral Stairs:
 Spiral stairs are more difficult to navigate than other types of stairs. It is for this
reason that codes do not allow them to be used as the primary access to a full
second floor of a home. Walkability improves as the outside diameter gets larger, so
if you have space, you may want to consider going a bit larger. We recommend going
5 feet in diameter if you can.
 It is difficult to carry large items up spiral stairs.
 Only one person can go up or down the stairs at the same time.

6. Curved Stairs

Curved Stair
What are curved stairs?

Like spiral stairs, curved stairs follow a helical arc. However, they tend to have a
much larger radius and typically do not make a full circle. Curved stairs add elegance
to any home or business. For this reason, they are almost always located at the
entry where they make the best first impression.

Advantages of Curved Stairs:

 Curved staircases are often very elegant and traditional but this type of design can equally
be adapted to contemporary architecture.
 They are relatively easy to walk up if the radius is large.
Disadvantages of Curved Stairs:
 Curved stairs are by far the most difficult to build of the various types of stairs. In fact,
building curved stairs represents a pinnacle of achievement for any stair builder or
fabricator. For this reason, they are the most costly to build.

7. Ladders

Library Ladder

What are architectural ladders?

Ladders, like stairs, can serve as a means of access. However, building codes do not allow
ladders to serve as a primary means of access. Keuka Studios can design custom ladders for
applications such as libaries, lofts, and docks.
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Advantages of Ladders:
 Ladders are the most compact way to get from one floor to another.
 They are very cost effective due to their simple design.
 Ladders may have wheels or fold up to move them out of the way when not in use or
to prevent access.
 They can be used to access shelves that would be too high to reach normally.
Disadvantages of Ladders:
 Ladders are the most difficult to navigate than stairs, especially while descending.
 Ladders can not be used as a primary staircase.

Standards of staircase as per KBR

 Staircases.-

(1) Any building having more than four floors including basement or sunken floors, shall have at least
two staircases, one of which may be an external stairway:

Provided that when the second staircase provided as external stair way conforms to the provisions of
fire escape staircase, a separate fire escape stair need not be provided.

Note:- An external stair is one which is connected to public areas and/or common areas on all floors
and leads directly to ground, has at least two sides abutting external wall, these two sides being
provided as open or with break open glass and has landing areas accessible from the external side or
a external stair which is wholly open and removed from the main building, such an external stair shall
be removed and away from the main stairway.

(2) The minimum width of stair shall be not less than 1.20 metres [X X X]

(3) The minimum width of tread shall be 30 cms [x x x]

(4) The height of riser shall not exceed 15 cms. [x x x].

(5) The height of handrail shall be not less than 90 cms.

(6) The width of passages giving access to the staircase in any building shall not at any point, be less
than the width of the stair.

Ceiling Materials
Wood
Wooden boards are commonly used for the general structure of a home, and are thus typically a
component of the ceiling. However, decorative planks are often used to cover the ceiling, as well.
An entire ceiling may be covered in planks, just like a wooden floor, or may have strategically
placed planks to add interest to an otherwise plain ceiling. Many types of decorative molding are
also made from wood.

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 Plaster and Plasterboard
Plaster is a traditional material for covering a ceiling that has been used for centuries. Creating a
plaster ceiling involves applying several layers of a plaster paste over strips of wood. It creates a
smooth, hard, attractive surface that is easily decorated with paints or more plaster. Plasterboard
is made from a similar material, but is cheaper and easier to install because it does not require
waiting for several coats of plaster to dry. Plasterboard is prefabricated into sheets that attach to
the ceiling with screws or nails and then are sealed.
Metal
Metal is often used as both a structural and decorative component in a ceiling. A drop or
suspended ceiling is a ceiling that hangs below a pre-existing ceiling and often hides unattractive
features, such as pipes in a basement, or to control sound in a noisy location, such as an office.
These ceilings are typically composed of wires and a metal grid that holds ceiling tiles. However,
metal is also used as a decorative covering for a ceiling, usually found in embossed tiles or sheets.
Tiles
Ceiling tiles are different from floor or wall tiles in that weight is an issue when decorating a
ceiling. Ceiling tiles are lightweight and made from a wide variety of materials, such as plastic,
metal, fiberglass, mineral fiber, wood fiber, vinyl-coated gypsum and even cork. Most tiles are
designed for installation in a suspended ceiling system, though some are designed to stick to a
ceiling and are ideal for decorating a plain ceiling that is in good condition. Along with their
decorative purpose, ceiling tiles are often designed to control noise levels in a room.

False ceiling

A false ceiling is a secondary ceiling hung below the main (structural) ceiling. In
simpler words, it is a second ceiling concealing the original. It is also referred to as
dropped ceiling, suspended ceiling, T-bar ceiling or grid ceiling.

False ceilings are generally used for aesthetic purposes. But, they are also good for
thermal insulation and sound absorption. Plaster of Paris is popularly used to build
false ceilings because it can be easily moulded into various designs. However,
gypsum boards, modular ceilings, metal ceilings are also used on a large scale.

General Benefits Of False Ceiling

The general advantage that everyone is familiar with is – it improves aesthetical
appearance and proportion of interior spaces but this benefit is just the tip of an
iceberg as there are a whole lot of benefits that false ceiling provides few of them are
listed below:

 Hides ducting and other structural elements that hinder the beauty of the room.
 Works as a heat insulator.
 Works as an acoustical barrier by reducing echo problems. (Especially in theatres,
conference halls, auditorium etc.)
 Performs as an anti-microbial element (required specially in health care centres,
hospitals and clinics).

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 False ceiling can also act as a fire separator if the material used in making ceiling
tiles are mineral fibre or fire rated wood panels.
 The space left between struts and ceiling tiles acts as a duct which carries all the
wiring and hidden lighting system.
Classification Of False Ceiling Based On Materials
The classification is totally based on 3 criteria:

1. Place of application
2. Ambience needed
3. Economy available

Roof
Roof, covering of the top of a building, serving to protect
against rain, snow, sunlight, wind, and extremes of temperature.
Roofs have been constructed in a wide variety of forms—
flat, pitched, vaulted, domed, or in combinations—as dictated by
technical, economic, or aesthetic considerations. The earliest roofs
constructed by man were probably thatched roofs that were made
of straw, leaves, branches, or reeds; they were usually set at a slope,
or pitch, so that rainfall could drain off them. Conical thatched roofs
are a good example of this type and are still widely used in the rural
areas of Africa and elsewhere. Thicker branches and timbers
eventually came to be used to span a roof, with clay or some other
relatively impermeable substance pressed into the interstices
between them. Gabled and flat roofs were possible with these
materials. With the invention of brick and cut stone for building, the
basic roof forms of the dome and vault appeared.
Two main types of roofs are flat roofs and sloping ones. The flat roof
(see the Figure) has historically been widely used in the Middle
East, the American Southwest, and anywhere else where the climate
is arid and the drainage of water off the roof is thus of secondary
importance. Flat roofs came into widespread use in Europe and the
Americas in the 19th century, when new waterproof roofing
materials and the use of structural steel and concrete made them
more practical. Flat roofs soon became the most commonly used
type to cover warehouses, office buildings, and other commercial
buildings, as well as many residential structures.

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Roof classification

The importance of the roof

Compressed earth block structures must be protected by a good roof, particularly in

regions where the climate is marked by an heavy rainy season. The roof is the
"good hat" of compressed earth block structures. it diverts the flow of rain away
from the wall and plays an essential part in preserving it from the problem of
humidity which is a major risk.

Using compressed earth blocks for the roof

Traditionally, in most of the regions of the world, the compressed earth block is
only rarely used to build roofs. Regions with a desert or semi-desert climate have
inherited a tradition of adobe roofs, in the form of vaults and domes, but changing
to the use of compressed earth blocks is not yet very marked. Over the last
decades, architects and builders have confirmed their interest in building roofs
using earth blocks in several projects, notably in contexts where the cost of
traditional roofing materials (wood, concrete) is an important handicap. Earth roofs
have a definite economic advantage, as the cost of the roof alone can reach up to
50% of the overall building cost.

Main roof types

Flat roofs

These are generally built following the floor principle described before, either
using wooden beams, concrete or steel struts and compressed earth block vaulting.
The main problems are waterproofing, thermal expansion (in hot climates),
drainage of the flat roof (minimum slope of 1 to 2%), evacuating water using

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suitable systems of spouts or channels and protecting the edges of the roof with
parapets.

Sloping roofs

These are built in very conventional ways, with timber frame covered with tiles,
felt or corrugated iron sheets. The slope must be sufficiently great and the roof
overhang must be sufficiently wide (minimum 30 cm) for the rainwater to be
projected away from the wall. The main problems are those of the stability of the
gable-end walls (slenderness ratio) and the anchoring of the timber frame in the
loadbearing walls (use of a ring-beam).

Curved roofs

These are built in the form of vaults or cupolas. The main problems are of the same
kind as those of flat roofs, notably water-proofing, thermal expansion and
removing water away from the walls. Peripheral protection is ensured by parapet
systems.

What are the types of roof truss and what are the uses
for each type?
A roof truss is a prefabricated structure designed to support a roof on a building. They come in two
main types: flat and pitched. Those types can be broken down into more specific roof truss types that
can suit all manner of construction projects. Typically triangular in shape, they are made off site and
usually lifted into place before being secured.
‘Truss’ refers to the triangular construction of the structure. The structure will often include these
triangle shapes in various configurations to fit the pitch, size or design of a roof. Triangles are very
efficient shapes that allow finite control of load which is why they are used in construction. As they
have to support the entire weight of a roof, they need to be strong and stable, which a triangle most
definitely is.
Common Types of Roof Truss
A roof truss is made up of a couple of different elements. The exterior frame members are called
chords and the interior triangle structures are webs. These two elements can be manufactured in
different shapes and sizes depending on the requirements of the job. In roof trusses that have them,
there is also the king post, a vertical support to help maintain structural integrity.
Here are some common types of roof truss:
King Post Truss
A king post truss is typically used for short spans. They are often used in extensions, garages,
porches and outbuildings. Many old buildings boast open, visible king post trusses.
Queen Post Truss
A queen post truss is typically a vertical upright with two triangles either side. These are not
commonly used anymore as they have been succeeded by the Fink truss.
Raised Tie Truss
Raised tie trusses are used to create vaulted ceilings. The lower chord is raised to create a flatter
profile for higher ceilings with angled edges.

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Steel Roof Trusses vs Wood Roof Trusses
Wood/Timber Roof Trusses

Benefits of Wood Trusses

When considering steel trusses vs wood trusses, wooden trusses are generally less
expensive.  Timber also is more fire resistant than unprotected steel beams, because
wood doesn’t ignite until it reaches over 250 degrees. After it catches fire, it develops a
protective coating. Contrastingly, steel weakens at temperatures over 230 degrees and
loses most of its strength at over 750 degrees, and most house fires burn from 700
degrees to 1000 degrees.  Large wood trusses are less likely to burn because the interior
of the timber remains cooler than the unprotected steel.
Disadvantages of Wood Trusses

There are disadvantages to wood trusses to consider as

well when considering steel trusses vs. wood trusses.  Wood can warp and bow, causing
the roof to become damaged or even collapse over time.  In addition, wood can rot or
become infested with bugs if not maintained and treated properly. Timber is also more
likely to become damaged by adverse weather conditions or lifting in high winds. 
However, because timber tends to be more cost effective than metal, it is still a popular
roof truss materials choice.

Steel Roof Trusses

Benefits of Steel Trusses

While steel trusses are more expensive than wooden trusses, they can span further than
timber and can be manufactured to exact standards.  They are also more lightweight,
allowing larger shipments and reducing the time it takes to get to the project.  This
material is also fire resistant and compatible with nearly any type of roofing system. 
There is no risk of an insect infestation and no chemical treatments are necessary to
maintain the trusses.  Steel can also be easily recycled, making it environmentally
friendly.

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The Disadvantages of Steel Trusses

When considering steel trusses vs wood trusses, steel

trusses require more skilled labor.  They also allow more heat to escape from the home
and are not as energy efficient.  Sound is more easily transmitted with steel trusses.  It
also moves more with temperature fluctuations.  In addition, the steel can rust where it is
cut, drilled, welded or scratched.  There is also a risk of electrocution when working with
steel trusses.  The wires in the steel can rub over time creating a hazard to anyone who
touches the steel truss.

Picking the right type of truss depends on the style of the roof and the conditions
inherent to the location.  In a humid climate, wooden trusses may be the right choice,
while in a commercial location steel trusses may provide more support.  An experienced
professional can help determine which building material is the right choice for a home or
business.

What is a Roof Covering?

The roofing system is a much more complex set of materials and engineering
than most people give it credit for. Different components all work together to
keep your home safe from the weather, elements and even some man made
harm. One of the most important aspects of the roof is the roof covering, so
what is roof covering? Let’s look at what the roof covering is designed to do and
some of the different material choices.
Roofs have been around ever since humans started living in shelters so you can imagine
there are several different types of roof covering available all around the world. The
most popular roof covering in the entire world is roofing tiles while here in the United
States, asphalt shingles dominate the market. These are just two of the most popular
roof coverings. Other popular materials include slate tiles, metal roofing, wood shakes
and even green roofs in certain parts of the world.

Common Roof Covering Options

Asphalt Roofing

Asphalt roofing is the most common form of roof covering in the United States. The reason is
simple: they are economical, easy to install and easy to maintain. There are many kinds of

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asphalt shingles on the market, including Energy Star certified products that may be eligible for a
tax credit.

Clay Tile Roofing

Clay tile roofing is one of the oldest forms of roofing. Originally brought to America in the
17th century by European settlers, it has remained an architectural and aesthetic staple in many
parts of the United States. Today, it is common to see “clay roofing” made of various aggregates.

Flat Roof Covering Options

Choosing the best flat roof covering for your home depends on your climate, budget and
intended usage. The main forms of flat roof coverings include rubber, PVC, modified bitumen and
tar and gravel. The most important thing when choosing a flat roof covering is hiring a qualified
installer.

Metal Roofing

Metal roofing has been an architectural staple for thousands of years. Its durability and aesthetic
has made it a natural choice for endless varieties of buildings since the 3rd Century BC. Most
metal roof covering comes with a 30 to 50 year warranty, with most types lasting far longer.

Photo By American Weather Star-Roof-Coating-System licensed

by CC BY-SA 3.0

PVC Flat Roofing

PVC or vinyl flat roofing is one of the most common forms of flat roof coverings. It is a lightweight
choice, very long-lasting and very resistant to leaks due to its heat-welded seams. It is also a
great choice for cool roofs, as it primarily comes in white.

Rubber Roofing

Rubber roofing is an eco and budget friendly choice for your home. It is long lasting roof
covering, and is relatively easy to install and maintain. Rubber roofing is available in a number of
different color and style options, and can be designed to look like slate, asphalt or cedar. You
can also choose a rubber roll, which is virtually leak-proof.

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Shingle Roofing

Shingle roofing generally refers to asphalt shingles, but encompasses any roof covering system
comprised of tiles or shingles that interlock or overlap in a way that channels water off of a
pitched roof. Most shingle types are comprised of materials that are locally available.

Slate Roofing

A slate roof isn’t just a roof for those who love it – it is American history, architectural beauty, a
work of art. It tells a story of the land it came from, and the men who labored and handcrafted the
rock into tiles. Slate roofing is one of the most durable roofing materials available today. A
properly installed slate roof covering can easily last for 100 years, requiring little maintenance

Spray Foam Roofing

Spray foam roofing, also known as Spray Polyurethane Foam (SPF) roofing is a lightweight flat
roofing option. It is essentially a liquid plastic sprayed overtop of the roofing substrate, which
foams and expands to cover your flat roof seamlessly.

Tar and Gravel Roofing

Tar and gravel roofing, also known as built-up roofing, has been the go-to flat roof technology for
decades. A tar and gravel roof covering consists of a waterproof base layer, multiple layers of
roofing felt laminated together with bitumen, and a surface layer of mineral aggregate. There are
a wide variety of materials available for each layer.

Wood Shingle Roofing

Wood shingle or shake roofing used to be a common roof covering in the United States. They fell
out of favor due to fire concerns, and the advent of asphalt shingles. Modern day wood shingles
are treated with fire retardant, and are making a comeback due to their beautiful look, durability
and high-wind resistance.

What is a Slab?
Slabs are constructed to provide flat surfaces, usually horizontal in building floors,
roofs, bridges, and other types of structures. The slab may be supported by walls or by
reinforced concrete beams usually cast monolithically with the slab or by structural steel
beams or by columns, or by the ground. Slabs are classified into 16 types. 
Different Types of concrete slabs in construction:-
There are 16 different types of Slabs in Construction. Some of them are outdated and many
of them are frequently used everywhere. In this article, ill give a detailed explanation of each
slab where to use particular slab. Below are the types of concrete slabs.
Flat Slab:-
The flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab supported directly by concrete columns or caps.
Flat slab doesn’t have beams so it is also called as beam-less slab. They are supported on
columns itself. Loads are directly transferred to columns. In this type of construction, a plain
ceiling is obtained thus giving attractive appearance from an architectural point of view. The
plain ceiling diffuses the light better and is considered less vulnerable in the case of fire than
the traditional beam slab construction. The flat slab is easier to construct and requires
less formwork. This is one of the types of concrete slabs.

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Home

STRUCTURE

16 Different types of slabs in construction | Where to use?

16 Different types of slabs in construction | Where

to use?
 Krishna  May 21, 2017  60 Comments

What is a Slab?
Slabs are constructed to provide flat surfaces, usually horizontal in building floors,
roofs, bridges, and other types of structures. The slab may be supported by walls or by
reinforced concrete beams usually cast monolithically with the slab or by structural steel
beams or by columns, or by the ground. Slabs are classified into 16 types. 
Different Types of concrete slabs in construction:-
There are 16 different types of Slabs in Construction. Some of them are outdated and many
of them are frequently used everywhere. In this article, ill give a detailed explanation of each
slab where to use particular slab. Below are the types of concrete slabs.
Since this is a lengthy article, we have created a table of contents below for easy navigation.
Contents [show]
Flat Slab:-
The flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab supported directly by concrete columns or caps.
Flat slab doesn’t have beams so it is also called as beam-less slab. They are supported on
columns itself. Loads are directly transferred to columns. In this type of construction, a plain
ceiling is obtained thus giving attractive appearance from an architectural point of view. The
plain ceiling diffuses the light better and is considered less vulnerable in the case of fire than
the traditional beam slab construction. The flat slab is easier to construct and requires
less formwork. This is one of the types of concrete slabs.
The thickness of the Flat slab is minimum 8″ or 0.2m. 

Flat Slabs are used at:

1. To provide plain ceiling surface giving better diffusion of light
2. Easy constructability with the economy in the formwork
3. Larger headroom or shorter storey height & pleasing appearance.
4. This kind of slabs are provided in parking
5. Flat slabs are generally used in parking decks, commercial buildings, hotels or places where
beam projections are not desired.

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Advantages of Flat Slab:
1. It minimizes floor-to-floor heights when there is no requirement for a deep false ceiling.
Building height can be reduced
2. Auto sprinkler is easier.
3. Less construction time.
4. It increases the shear strength of the slab.
5. Reduce the moment in the slab by reducing the clear or effective span.
Disadvantages of Flat slab:
1. In flat plate system, it is not possible to have large span.
2. Not suitable for supporting brittle (masonry) partitions.
3. Higher slab thickness.
 

 
Pitch roof slab:
Pitch roof is an inclined slab, generally constructed on resorts for a natural
look. Compared to traditional roofing materials Tile-sheets used in pitch
roof slab  are extremely lightweight. This weight saving reduces the timber
or steel structural requirements resulting in significant cost savings. Tile-
sheets are tailor made for each project offering labour cost savings and
reduced site wastage. And the thickness of the slab is depends on the tiles
we using it may be 2″-8″. This is a one of the types of concrete slabs.

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