Mathematics Cheat Sheet

ALL IN ONE
MATHEMATICS CHEAT SHEET

V2.10
Euler’s Identity:
iπ
e +1=0
CONTAINING FORMULAE FOR ELEMENTARY, HIGH SCHOOL

AND UNIVERSITY MATHEMATICS
COMPILED FROM MANY SOURCES BY ALEX SPARTALIS
2009-2013
4/9/2013 9:44:00 PM
Page 1 of 330
REVISION HISTORY
2.1. 08/06/2012
UPDATED: Format
NEW: Multivariable Calculus
UPDATED: Convergence tests
UPDATED: Composite Functions
2.2. 10/07/2012
NEW: Three Phase – Delta & Y
NEW: Electrical Power
2.3. 14/08/2012
NEW: Factorial
NEW: Electromagnetics
NEW: Linear Algebra
NEW: Mathematical Symbols
NEW: Algebraic Identities
NEW: Graph Theory
UPDATED: Linear Algebra
UPDATED: Linear Transformations
2.4. 31/08/2012
NEW: Graphical Functions
NEW: Prime numbers
NEW: Power Series Expansion
NEW: Inner Products
UPDATED: Pi Formulas
UPDATED: General Trigonometric Functions Expansion
UPDATED: Linear Algebra
UPDATED: Matrix Inverse
2.5. 10/09/2012
NEW: Machin-Like Formulae
NEW: Infinite Summations To Pi
NEW: Classical Mechanics
NEW: Relativistic Formulae
NEW: Statistical Distributions
NEW: Logarithm Power Series
NEW: Spherical Triangle Identities
NEW: Bernoulli Expansion
UPDATED: Pi Formulas
UPDATED: Logarithm Identities
UPDATED: Riemann Zeta Function
UPDATED: Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
2.6. 3/10/2012
NEW: QR Factorisation
NEW: Jordan Forms
NEW: Macroeconomics
NEW: Golden Ratio & Fibonacci Sequence
NEW: Complex Vectors and Matrices
NEW: Numerical Computations for Matrices
UPDATED: Prime Numbers
UPDATED: Errors within Matrix Formula
2.7. 25/10/2012
NEW: USV Decomposition
NEW: Ordinary Differential Equations Using Matrices
NEW: Exponential Identities
UPDATED: Matrix Inverse
CORRECTION: Left and Right Matrix Inverse
2.8. 31/12/2012
NEW: Applications of Functions
NEW: Higher Order Integration
NEW: Root Expansions
Page 2 of 330
NEW: Mathematical Constants
UPDATED: Applications of Integration
UPDATED: Basic Statistical Operations
UPDATED: Pi
UPDATED: Identities Between Relationships
UPDATED: Vector Space Axioms
2.9. 4/03/2012
UPDATED: Prime Numbers
UPDATED: Martricies
2.10. 9/04/2012
NEW: Boolean Algebra
NEW: Functions of Random Variables
NEW: Transformation of the Joint Density
UPDATED: Venn Diagrams:
UPDATED: Basic Statistical Operations:
UPDATED: Discrete Random Variables:
UPDATED: Common DRVs:
UPDATED: Undetermined Coefficients
UPDATED: Variation of Parameters
Page 3 of 330
CONTENTS
REVISION HISTORY 2
CONTENTS 4
PART 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS 26
1.1 SI PREFIXES: 26
1.2 SI BASE UNITS: 26
1.3 SI DERIVED UNITS: 27
1.4 UNIVERSAL CONSTANTS: 28
1.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC CONSTANTS: 28
1.6 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR CONSTANTS: 28
1.7 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CONSTANTS: 29
1.8 ADOPTED VALUES: 30
1.9 NATURAL UNITS: 31
1.10 MATHEMATICAL CONSTANTS: 31
PART 2: MATHEMTAICAL SYMBOLS 33
2.1 BASIC MATH SYMBOLS 33

2.2 GEOMETRY SYMBOLS 33
2.3 ALGEBRA SYMBOLS 34
2.4 LINEAR ALGEBRA SYMBOLS 35
2.5 PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS SYMBOLS 35
2.6 COMBINATORICS SYMBOLS 37
2.7 SET THEORY SYMBOLS 37
2.8 LOGIC SYMBOLS 38
2.9 CALCULUS & ANALYSIS SYMBOLS 39
PART 3: AREA, VOLUME AND SURFACE AREA 40
3.1 AREA: 40
TRIANGLE: 40
RECTANGLE: 40
SQUARE: 40
PARALLELOGRAM: 40
RHOMBUS: 40
TRAPEZIUM: 40
QUADRILATERAL: 40
RECTANGLE WITH ROUNDED CORNERS: 40
REGULAR HEXAGON: 40
REGULAR OCTAGON: 40
REGULAR POLYGON: 40
3.2 VOLUME: 40
CUBE: 40
CUBOID: 40
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PRISIM: 40
PYRAMID: 40
TETRAHEDRON: 40
OCTAHEDRON: 40
DODECAHEDRON: 40
ICOSAHEDRON: 40
3.3 SURFACE AREA: 40
CUBE: 40
CUBOIDS: 40
TETRAHEDRON: 41
OCTAHEDRON: 41
DODECAHEDRON: 41
ICOSAHEDRON: 41
CYLINDER: 41
3.4 MISCELLANEOUS: 41
DIAGONAL OF A RECTANGLE 41
DIAGONAL OF A CUBOID 41
LONGEST DIAGONAL (EVEN SIDES) 41
LONGEST DIAGONAL (ODD SIDES) 41
TOTAL LENGTH OF EDGES (CUBE): 41
TOTAL LENGTH OF EDGES (CUBOID): 41
CIRCUMFERENCE 41
PERIMETER OF RECTANGLE 41
SEMI PERIMETER 41
EULER’S FORMULA 41
3.5 ABBREVIATIONS (3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4) 41
PART 4: ALGEBRA & ARITHMETIC 43
4.1 POLYNOMIAL FORMULA: 43

QUDARATIC: 43
CUBIC: 43
4.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF ARITHMETIC: 45
RATIONAL NUMBERS: 45
IRRATIONAL NUMBERS: 45
4.3 ALGEBRAIC EXPANSION: 45
BABYLONIAN IDENTITY: 45
COMMON PRODUCTS AND FACTORS: 45
BINOMIAL THEOREM: 45
BINOMIAL EXPANSION: 45
DIFFERENCE OF TWO SQUARES: 46
BRAHMAGUPTA–FIBONACCI IDENTITY: 46
DEGEN'S EIGHT-SQUARE IDENTITY: 46
4.4 ROOT EXPANSIONS: 47
4.5 LIMIT MANIPULATIONS: 47
L’HOPITAL’S RULE: 47
4.6 SUMMATION MANIPULATIONS: 48
4.7 COMMON FUNCTIONS: 48
CONSTANT FUNCTION: 48
LINE/LINEAR FUNCTION: 48
PARABOLA/QUADRATIC FUNCTION: 49
CIRCLE: 49
ELLIPSE: 49
HYPERBOLA: 49
4.8 LINEAR ALGEBRA: 50
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VECTOR SPACE AXIOMS: 50
SUBSPACE: 50
COMMON SPACES: 50
ROWSPACE OF A SPANNING SET IN RN 51
COLUMNSPACE OF A SPANNING SET IN RN 51
NULLSPACE: 51
NULLITY: 51
LINEAR DEPENDENCE: 51
BASIS: 51
STANDARD BASIS: 52
ORTHOGONAL COMPLEMENT: 52
ORTHONORMAL BASIS: 52
GRAM-SCHMIDT PROCESS: 52
COORDINATE VECTOR: 53
DIMENSION: 53
4.9 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES: 53
FORM: 53
DOT PRODUCT: 53
INNER PRODUCT: 54
4.10 LINEAR TRANSITIONS & TRANSFORMATIONS: 54
TRANSITION MATRIX: 54
CHANGE OF BASIS TRANSITION MATRIX: 54
TRANSFORMATION MATRIX: 54
4.11 INNER PRODUCTS: 54
DEFINITION: 54
AXIOMS: 54
UNIT VECTOR: 55
CAVCHY-SCHUARZ INEQUALITY: 55
INNER PRODUCT SPACE: 55
ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS: 55
DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS: 55
GENERALISED PYTHAGORAS FOR ORTHOGONAL VECTORS: 55
4.12 PRIME NUMBERS: 55
DETERMINATE: 55
LIST OF PRIME NUMBERS: 55
FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF ARITHMETIC: 56
LAPRANGE’S THEOREM: 56
ADDITIVE PRIMES: 56
ANNIHILATING PRIMES: 56
BELL NUMBER PRIMES: 56
CAROL PRIMES: 56
CENTERED DECAGONAL PRIMES: 56
CENTERED HEPTAGONAL PRIMES: 56
CENTERED SQUARE PRIMES: 57
CENTERED TRIANGULAR PRIMES: 57
CHEN PRIMES: 57
CIRCULAR PRIMES: 57
COUSIN PRIMES: 57
CUBAN PRIMES: 57
CULLEN PRIMES: 57
DIHEDRAL PRIMES: 57
DOUBLE FACTORIAL PRIMES: 57
DOUBLE MERSENNE PRIMES: 58
EISENSTEIN PRIMES WITHOUT IMAGINARY PART: 58
EMIRPS: 58
EUCLID PRIMES: 58
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EVEN PRIME: 58
FACTORIAL PRIMES: 58
FERMAT PRIMES: 58
FIBONACCI PRIMES: 58
FORTUNATE PRIMES: 58
GAUSSIAN PRIMES: 58
GENERALIZED FERMAT PRIMES BASE 10: 58
GENOCCHI NUMBER PRIMES: 59
GILDA'S PRIMES: 59
GOOD PRIMES: 59
HAPPY PRIMES: 59
HARMONIC PRIMES: 59
HIGGS PRIMES FOR SQUARES: 59
HIGHLY COTOTIENT NUMBER PRIMES: 59
IRREGULAR PRIMES: 59
(P, P−5) IRREGULAR PRIMES: 59
(P, P−9) IRREGULAR PRIMES: 59
ISOLATED PRIMES: 59
KYNEA PRIMES: 59
LEFT-TRUNCATABLE PRIMES: 60
LEYLAND PRIMES: 60
LONG PRIMES: 60
LUCAS PRIMES: 60
LUCKY PRIMES: 60
MARKOV PRIMES: 60
MERSENNE PRIMES: 60
MERSENNE PRIME EXPONENTS: 60
MILLS PRIMES: 60
MINIMAL PRIMES: 60
MOTZKIN PRIMES: 60
NEWMAN–SHANKS–WILLIAMS PRIMES: 61
NON-GENEROUS PRIMES: 61
ODD PRIMES: 61
PADOVAN PRIMES: 61
PALINDROMIC PRIMES: 61
PALINDROMIC WING PRIMES: 61
PARTITION PRIMES: 61
PELL PRIMES: 61
PERMUTABLE PRIMES: 61
PERRIN PRIMES: 61
PIERPONT PRIMES: 61
PILLAI PRIMES: 62
PRIMEVAL PRIMES: 62
PRIMORIAL PRIMES: 62
PROTH PRIMES: 62
PYTHAGOREAN PRIMES: 62
PRIME QUADRUPLETS: 62
PRIMES OF BINARY QUADRATIC FORM: 62
QUARTAN PRIMES: 62
RAMANUJAN PRIMES: 62
REGULAR PRIMES: 62
REPUNIT PRIMES: 62
PRIMES IN RESIDUE CLASSES: 62
RIGHT-TRUNCATABLE PRIMES: 63
SAFE PRIMES: 63
SELF PRIMES IN BASE 10: 63
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SEXY PRIMES: 63
SMARANDACHE–WELLIN PRIMES: 63
SOLINAS PRIMES: 63
SOPHIE GERMAIN PRIMES: 63
STAR PRIMES: 63
STERN PRIMES: 64
SUPER-PRIMES: 64
SUPERSINGULAR PRIMES: 64
SWINGING PRIMES: 64
THABIT NUMBER PRIMES: 64
PRIME TRIPLETS: 64
TWIN PRIMES: 64
TWO-SIDED PRIMES: 64
ULAM NUMBER PRIMES: 64
UNIQUE PRIMES: 64
WAGSTAFF PRIMES: 64
WALL-SUN-SUN PRIMES: 65
WEAKLY PRIME NUMBERS 65
WIEFERICH PRIMES: 65
WIEFERICH PRIMES: BASE 3 (MIRIMANOFF PRIMES:) 65
WIEFERICH PRIMES: BASE 5 65
WILSON PRIMES: 66
WOLSTENHOLME PRIMES: 66
WOODALL PRIMES: 66
4.13 GENERALISATIONS FROM PRIME NUMBERS: 66
PERFECT NUMBERS: 66
LIST OF PERFECT NUMBERS: 66
AMICABLE NUMBERS: 67
LIST OF AMICABLE NUMBERS: 67
SOCIABLE NUMBERS: 68
LIST OF SOCIABLE NUMBERS: 68
4.14 GOLDEN RATIO & FIBONACCI SEQUENCE: 71
RELATIONSHIP: 71
INFINITE SERIES: 71
CONTINUED FRACTIONS: 71
TRIGONOMETRIC EXPRESSIONS: 72
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE: 72
4.15 FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM: 72
4.16 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA: 72
AXIOMS: 72
THEOREMS OF ONE VARIABLE: 73
THEOREMS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES: 73
PART 5: COUNTING TECHNIQUES & PROBABILITY 74
5.1 2D 74
TRIANGLE NUMBER 74
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SQUARE NUMBER 74
PENTAGONAL NUMBER 74
5.2 3D 74
TETRAHEDRAL NUMBER 74
SQUARE PYRAMID NUMBER 74
5.3 PERMUTATIONS 74
PERMUTATIONS: 74
PERMUTATIONS (WITH REPEATS): 74
5.4 COMBINATIONS 74
ORDERED COMBINATIONS: 74
UNORDERED COMBINATIONS: 74
ORDERED REPEATED COMBINATIONS: 74
UNORDERED REPEATED COMBINATIONS: 74
GROUPING: 74
5.5 MISCELLANEOUS: 74
TOTAL NUMBER OF RECTANGLES AND SQUARES FROM A A X B RECTANGLE: 74
NUMBER OF INTERPRETERS: 74
MAX NUMBER OF PIZZA PIECES: 74
MAX PIECES OF A CRESCENT: 74
MAX PIECES OF CHEESE: 74
CARDS IN A CARD HOUSE: 75
DIFFERENT ARRANGEMENT OF DOMINOS: 75
UNIT FRACTIONS: 75
ANGLE BETWEEN TWO HANDS OF A CLOCK: 75
WINNING LINES IN NOUGHTS AND CROSSES: 75
BAD RESTAURANT SPREAD: 75
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE: 75
ABBREVIATIONS (5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5) 75
5.6 FACTORIAL: 75
DEFINITION: 75
TABLE OF FACTORIALS: 75
APPROXIMATION: 76
5.7 THE DAY OF THE WEEK: 76
5.8 BASIC PROBABILITY: 76
AXIOM’S OF PROBABILITY: 76
COMMUTATIVE LAWS: 76
ASSOCIATIVE LAWS: 76
DISTRIBUTIVE LAWS: 76
INDICATOR FUNCTION: 76
5.9 VENN DIAGRAMS: 76
COMPLEMENTARY EVENTS: 76
NULL SET: 76
TOTALITY: 76
CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY: 77
UNION: 77
INDEPENDENT EVENTS: 77
MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE: 77
SUBSETS: 77
BAYE’S THEOREM: 77
5.11 BASIC STATISTICAL OPERATIONS: 77
VARIANCE: 77
ARITHMETIC MEAN: 77
GEOMETRIC MEAN: 77
HARMONIC MEAN: 77
STANDARDIZED SCORE: 77
QUANTILE: 77
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5.12 DISCRETE RANDOM VARIABLES: 77
STANDARD DEVIATION: 77
EXPECTED VALUE: 77
VARIANCE: 78
PROBABILITY MASS FUNCTION: 78
CUMULATIVE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION: 78
5.13 COMMON DRVS: 78
BERNOULLI TRIAL: 78
BINOMIAL TRIAL: 78
POISSON DISTRIBUTION: 78
GEOMETRIC BINOMIAL TRIAL: 79
NEGATIVE BINOMIAL TRIAL: 79
HYPERGEOMETRIC TRIAL: 79
5.14 CONTINUOUS RANDOM VARIABLES: 79
PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION: 79
CUMULATIVE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION: 79
INTERVAL PROBABILITY: 79
EXPECTED VALUE: 80
VARIANCE: 80
5.15 COMMON CRVS: 80
UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION: 80
EXPONENTIAL DISTRIBUTION: 80
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION: 81
5.16 BIVARIABLE DISCRETE: 81
PROBABILITY: 81
MARGINAL DISTRIBUTION: 82
EXPECTED VALUE: 82
INDEPENDENCE: 82
COVARIANCE: 82
5.17 BIVARIABLE CONTINUOUS: 82
CONDITIONS: 82
PROBABILITY: 82
MARGINAL DISTRIBUTION: 82
MEASURE: 83
EXPECTED VALUE: 83
INDEPENDENCE: 83
CONDITIONAL: 83
COVARIANCE: 83
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT: 83
BIVARIATE UNIFROM DISTRIBUTION: 83
MULTIVARIATE UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION: 83
BIVARIATE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION: 83
5.18 FUNCTIONS OF RANDOM VARIABLES: 84
SUMS (DISCRETE): 84
SUMS (CONTINUOUS): 84
QUOTIENTS (DISCRETE): 84
QUOTIENTS (CONTINUOUS): 84
MAXIMUM: 85
MINIMUM: 85
ORDER STATISTICS: 85
5.19 TRANSFORMATION OF THE JOINT DENSITY: 86
BIVARIATE FUNCTIONS: 86
MULTIVARIATE FUNCTIONS: 86
JACOBIAN: 86
JOINT DENSITY: 86
ABBREVIATIONS 86
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PART 6: STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 88
6.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES: 88

MEAN SQUARE VALUE OF X: 88
F-STATISTIC OF X: 88
F-STATISTIC OF THE NULL HYPOTHESIS: 88
P-VALUE: 88
RELATIVE EFFICIENCY: 88
6.2 CONTINUOUS REPLICATE DESIGN (CRD): 88
TREATMENTS: 88
FACTORS: 88
REPLICATIONS PER TREATMENT: 88
TOTAL TREATMENTS: 88
MATHEMATICAL MODEL: 88
TEST FOR TREATMENT EFFECT: 89
ANOVA: 89
6.3 RANDOMISED BLOCK DESIGN (RBD): 89
TREATMENTS: 89
FACTORS: 89
TEST FOR BLOCK EFFECT: 90
ANOVA: 90
6.4 LATIN SQUARE DESIGN (LSD): 90
TREATMENTS: 90
FACTORS: 90
ANOVA: 91
6.5 ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE: 91
ASSUMPTIONS: 91
6.6 RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY: 92
DEFINITION: 92
1ST ORDER: 92
2ND ORDER: 92
COMMON DESIGNS 92
CRITERION FOR DETERMINING THE OPTIMATILITY OF A DESIGN: 92
6.7 FACTORIAL OF THE FORM 2N: 92
GENERAL DEFINITION: 92
CONTRASTS FOR A 22 DESIGN: 92
SUM OF SQUARES FOR A 22 DESIGN: 92
HYPOTHESIS FOR A CRD 22 DESIGN: 92
HYPOTHESIS FOR A RBD 22 DESIGN: 93
6.8 GENERAL FACTORIAL: 93
GENERAL DEFINITION: 93
ORDER: 93
DEGREES OF FREEDOM FOR MAIN EFFECTS: 93
DEGREES OF FREEDOM FOR HIGHER ORDER EFFECTS: 93
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6.9 ANOVA ASSUMPTIONS: 93
ASSUMPTIONS: 93
LEVENE’S TEST: 94
6.10 CONTRASTS: 94
LINEAR CONTRAST: 94
ESTIMATED MEAN OF CONTRAST: 94
ESTIMATED VARIANCE OF CONTRAST: 94
F OF CONTRAST: 94
ORTHOGONAL CONTRASTS: 94
6.11 POST ANOVA MULTIPLE COMPARISONS: 94
BONDERRONI METHOD: 94
FISHER’S LEAST SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE: 94
TUKEY’S W PROCEDURE: 94
SCHEFFE’S METHOD: 94
PART 7: PI 96
7.1 AREA: 96
CIRCLE: 96
CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL: 96
AREA OF A SECTOR (DEGREES) 96
AREA OF A SECTOR (RADIANS) 96
AREA OF A SEGMENT (DEGREES) 96
AREA OF AN ANNULUS: 96
ELLIPSE: 96
7.2 VOLUME: 96
SPHERE: 96
CAP OF A SPHERE: 96
CONE: 96
ICE-CREAM & CONE: 96
DOUGHNUT: 96
SAUSAGE: 96
ELLIPSOID: 96
7.3 SURFACE AREA: 96
SPHERE: 96
HEMISPHERE: 96
DOUGHNUT: 96
SAUSAGE: 96
CONE: 96
7.4 MISELANIOUS: 97
LENGTH OF ARC (DEGREES) 97
LENGTH OF CHORD (DEGREES) 97
PERIMETER OF AN ELLIPSE 97
7.6 PI: 97
ARCHIMEDES’ BOUNDS: 97
JOHN WALLIS: 97
ISAAC NEWTON: 97
JAMES GREGORY: 97
SCHULZ VON STRASSNITZKY: 97
JOHN MACHIN: 97
LEONARD EULER: 97
JOZEF HOENE-WRONSKI: 97
FRANCISCUS VIETA: 97
INTEGRALS: 98
INFINITE SERIES: 98
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CONTINUED FRACTIONS: 99
7.7 CIRCLE GEOMETRY: 99
RADIUS OF CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLE FOR RECTANGLES: 99
RADIUS OF CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLE FOR SQUARES: 99
RADIUS OF CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLE FOR TRIANGLES: 99
RADIUS OF CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLE FOR QUADRILATERALS: 99
RADIUS OF INSCRIBED CIRCLE FOR SQUARES: 99
RADIUS OF INSCRIBED CIRCLE FOR TRIANGLES: 99
RADIUS OF CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLE: 99
RADIUS OF INSCRIBED CIRCLE: 100
7.8 ABBREVIATIONS (7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7): 100
7.9 CRESCENT GEOMETRY: 100
AREA OF A LUNAR CRESCENT: 100
AREA OF AN ECLIPSE CRESCENT: 100
7.10 ABBREVIATIONS (7.9): 101
PART 8: APPLIED FIELDS: 102
8.1 MOVEMENT: 102

STOPPING DISTANCE: 102
CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION: 102
CENTRIPETAL FORCE: 102
DROPPING TIME : 102
FORCE: 102
KINETIC ENERGY: 102
MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF A CANNON: 102
PENDULUM SWING TIME: 102
POTENTIAL ENERGY: 102
RANGE OF A CANNON: 102
TIME IN FLIGHT OF A CANNON: 102
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION: 102
ABBREVIATIONS (8.1): 102
8.2 CLASSICAL MECHANICS: 103
NEWTON’S LAWS: 103
INERTIA: 103
MOMENTS OF INERTIA: 104
VELOCITY AND SPEED: 107
ACCELERATION: 107
TRAJECTORY (DISPLACEMENT): 107
KINETIC ENERGY: 108
CENTRIPETAL FORCE: 108
CIRCULAR MOTION: 108
ANGULAR MOMENTUM: 108
TORQUE: 109
WORK: 109
LAWS OF CONSERVATION: 109
ABBREVIATIONS (8.2) 109
8.3 RELATIVISTIC EQUATIONS: 109
KINETIC ENERGY: 109
MOMENTUM: 110
TIME DILATION: 110
LENGTH CONTRACTION: 110
RELATIVISTIC MASS: 110
8.4 ACCOUNTING: 110
PROFIT: 110
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PROFIT MARGIN: 110
SIMPLE INTEREST: 110
COMPOUND INTEREST: 110
CONTINUOUS INTEREST: 110
ABBREVIATIONS (8.4): 110
8.5 MACROECONOMICS: 110
GDP: 110
RGDP: 110
NGDP: 110
GROWTH: 110
NET EXPORTS: 110
WORKING AGE POPULATION: 110
LABOR FORCE: 111
UNEMPLOYMENT: 111
NATURAL UNEMPLOYMENT: 111
UNEMPLOYMENT RATE: 111
EMPLOYMENT RATE: 111
PARTICIPATION RATE: 111
CPI: 111
INFLATION RATE: 111
ABBREVIATIONS (8.5) 111
PART 9: TRIGONOMETRY 112
9.1 CONVERSIONS: 112

9.2 BASIC RULES: 112
SIN RULE: 112
COS RULE: 112
TAN RULE: 112
AUXILIARY ANGLE: 112
PYTHAGORAS THEOREM: 112
PERIODICY: 112
9.3 RECIPROCAL FUNCTIONS 113
9.4 BASIC IDENTITES: 113
9.5 IDENTITIES BETWEEN RELATIONSHIPS: 113
9.6 ADDITION FORMULAE: 114
9.7 DOUBLE ANGLE FORMULAE: 114
9.8 TRIPLE ANGLE FORMULAE: 115
9.9 HALF ANGLE FORMULAE: 115
9.10 POWER REDUCTION: 116
9.11 PRODUCT TO SUM: 117
9.12 SUM TO PRODUCT: 117
9.13 HYPERBOLIC EXPRESSIONS: 117
9.14 HYPERBOLIC RELATIONS: 118
9.15 MACHIN-LIKE FORMULAE: 118
FORM: 118
FORMULAE: 118
IDENTITIES: 119
9.16 SPHERICAL TRIANGLE IDENTITIES: 119
9.17 ABBREVIATIONS (9.1-9.16) 119
PART 10: EXPONENTIALS & LOGARITHIMS 121
10.1 FUNDAMENTAL THEORY: 121

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10.2 EXPONENTIAL IDENTITIES: 121
10.3 LOG IDENTITIES: 121
10.4 LAWS FOR LOG TABLES: 122
10.5 COMPLEX NUMBERS: 122
10.6 LIMITS INVOLVING LOGARITHMIC TERMS 122
PART 11: COMPLEX NUMBERS 123
11.1 GENERAL: 123

FUNDAMENTAL: 123
STANDARD FORM: 123
POLAR FORM: 123
ARGUMENT: 123
MODULUS: 123
CONJUGATE: 123
EXPONENTIAL: 123
DE MOIVRE’S FORMULA: 123
EULER’S IDENTITY: 123
11.2 OPERATIONS: 123
ADDITION: 123
SUBTRACTION: 123
MULTIPLICATION: 123
DIVISION: 123
SUM OF SQUARES: 123
11.3 IDENTITIES: 123
EXPONENTIAL: 123
LOGARITHMIC: 123
TRIGONOMETRIC: 123
HYPERBOLIC: 124
PART 12: DIFFERENTIATION 125
12.1 GENERAL RULES: 125

PLUS OR MINUS: 125
PRODUCT RULE: 125
QUOTIENT RULE: 125
POWER RULE: 125
CHAIN RULE: 125
BLOB RULE: 125
BASE A LOG: 125
NATURAL LOG: 125
EXPONENTIAL (X): 125
FIRST PRINCIPLES: 125
ANGLE OF INTERSECTION BETWEEN TWO CURVES: 126
12.2 EXPONETIAL FUNCTIONS: 126
12.3 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS: 126
12.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: 126
12.5 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS: 127
12.5 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION: 127
FIRST PRINCIPLES: 127
GRADIENT: 128
TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL: 128
CHAIN RULE: 128
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION: 129
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HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES: 129
PART 13: INTEGRATION 130
13.1 GENERAL RULES: 130

POWER RULE: 130
BY PARTS: 130
CONSTANTS: 130
13.2 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS: 130
13.3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SINE): 131
13.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (COSINE): 132
13.5 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (TANGENT): 133
13.6 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SECANT): 133
13.7 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (COTANGENT): 134
13.8 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SINE & COSINE): 134
13.9 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SINE & TANGENT): 136
13.10 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (COSINE & TANGENT): 136
13.11 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SINE & COTANGENT): 136
13.12 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (COSINE & COTANGENT): 136
13.13 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCSINE): 136
13.14 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCCOSINE): 137
13.15 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCTANGENT): 137
13.16 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCCOSECANT): 137
13.17 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCSECANT): 138
13.18 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCCOTANGENT): 138
13.19 EXPONETIAL FUNCTIONS 138
13.20 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 140
13.21 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 141
13.22 INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 143
13.23 ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTIONS 144
13.24 SUMMARY TABLE 144
13.25 SQUARE ROOT PROOFS 145
13.26 CARTESIAN APPLICATIONS 148
AREA UNDER THE CURVE: 148
VOLUME: 148
VOLUME ABOUT X AXIS: 148
VOLUME ABOUT Y AXIS: 149
SURFACE AREA ABOUT X AXIS: 149
LENGTH WRT X-ORDINATES: 149
LENGTH WRT Y-ORDINATES: 149
LENGTH PARAMETRICALLY: 149
LINE INTEGRAL OF A SCALAR FIELD: 149
LINE INTEGRAL OF A VECTOR FIELD: 149
AREA OF A SURFACE: 149
13.27 HIGHER ORDER INTEGRATION 149
PROPERTIES OF DOUBLE INTEGRALS: 150
VOLUME USING DOUBLE INTEGRALS: 150
VOLUME USING TRIPLE INTEGRALS: 151
CENTRE OF MASS: 153
13.28 WORKING IN DIFFERENT COORDINATE SYSTEMS: 153
CARTESIAN: 153
POLAR: 153
CYLINDRICAL: 153
SPHERICAL: 154
CARTESIAN TO POLAR: 154
Page 16 of 330
POLAR TO CARTESIAN: 154
CARTESIAN TO CYLINDRICAL: 154
CYLINDRICAL TO CARTESIAN: 154
SPHERICAL TO CARTESIAN: 154
PART 14: FUNCTIONS 155
14.1 ODD & EVEN FUNCTIONS: 155

DEFINITIONS: 155
COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS: 155
BASIC INTEGRATION: 155
14.2 MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS: 155
LIMIT: 155
DISCRIMINANT: 155
CRITICAL POINTS: 155
14.3 FIRST ORDER, FIRST DEGREE, DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS: 156
SEPARABLE 156
LINEAR 156
HOMOGENEOUS 156
EXACT 157
BERNOULLI FORM: 157
14.4 SECOND ORDE, FIRST DEGREE, DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS: 158
GREG’S LEMMA: 158
HOMOGENEOUS 158
UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS 158
VARIATION OF PARAMETERS 159
EULER TYPE 160
REDUCTION OF ORDER 160
POWER SERIES SOLUTIONS: 161
14.5 ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS USING MATRICES: 163
DERIVATION OF METHODS: 163
FUNDAMENTAL MATRIX: 163
HOMOGENEOUS SOLUTION: 163
INHOMOGENEOUS SOLUTION: 164
TH
N ORDER LINEAR, CONSTANT COEFFICIENT ODE: 164
14.6 APPLICATIONS OF FUNCTIONS 166
TERMINOLOGY: 166
GRADIENT VECTOR OF A SCALAR FIELD: 166
DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES: 166
OPTIMISING THE DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVE: 166
14.7 ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS 166
PART 15: MATRICIES 167
15.1 BASIC PRINICPLES: 167

SIZE 167
15.2 BASIC OPERTAIONS: 167
ADDITION: 167
SUBTRACTION: 167
SCALAR MULTIPLE: 167
TRANSPOSE: 167
SCALAR PRODUCT: 167
SYMMETRY: 167
CRAMER’S RULE: 167
Page 17 of 330
LEAST SQUARES SOLUTION 167
15.3 SQUARE MATRIX: 167
DIAGONAL: 168
LOWER TRIANGLE MATRIX: 168
UPPER TRIANGLE MATRIX: 168
15.4 DETERMINATE: 168
2X2 168
3X3 168
NXN 168
RULES 168
15.5 INVERSE 170
2X2: 170
3X3: 170
MINOR: 170
COFACTOR: 171
ADJOINT METHOD FOR INVERSE: 171
LEFT INVERSE: 171
RIGHT INVERSE: 171
PSEUDO INVERSE: 171
15.6 LINEAR TRANSFORMATION 171
AXIOMS FOR A LINEAR TRANSFORMATION: 172
TRANSITION MATRIX: 172
ZERO TRANSFORMATION: 172
IDENTITY TRANSFORMATION: 172
15.7 COMMON TRANSITION MATRICIES 172
ROTATION (CLOCKWISE): 172
ROTATION (ANTICLOCKWISE): 172
SCALING: 172
SHEARING (PARALLEL TO X-AXIS): 172
SHEARING (PARALLEL TO Y-AXIS): 172
15.8 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS 172
DEFINITIONS: 172
EIGENVALUES: 172
EIGENVECTORS: 172
CHARACTERISTIC POLYNOMIAL: 172
ALGEBRAIC MULTIPLICITY: 173
GEOMETRIC MULTIPLICITY: 173
TRANSFORMATION: 173
LINEARLY INDEPENDENCE: 173
DIGITALIZATION: 173
CAYLEY-HAMILTON THEOREM: 173
ORTHONORMAL SET: 173
QR FACTORISATION: 173
15.9 JORDAN FORMS 174
GENERALISED DIAGONLISATION: 174
JORDAN BLOCK: 174
JORDAN FORM: 174
ALGEBRAIC MULTIPLICITY: 174
GEOMETRIC MULTIPLICITY: 174
GENERALISED CHAIN: 174
POWERS: 175
15.12 SINGULAR VALUE DECOMPOSITION 175
FUNDAMENTALLY: 175
SIZE: 175
PSEUDO INVERSE: 175
PROCEDURE: 175
Page 18 of 330
15.11 COMPLEX MATRICIS: 176
CONJUGATE TRANSPOSE: 176
HERMITIAN MATRIX: 176
SKEW-HERMITIAN: 176
UNITARY MATRIX: 177
NORMAL MATRIX: 177
DIAGONALISATION: 177
SPECTRAL THEOREM: 177
15.12 NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS: 177
RAYLEIGH QUOTIENT: 177
POWER METHOD: 179
15.13 POWER SERIES: 179
PART 16: VECTORS 180
16.1 BASIC OPERATIONS: 180

ADDITION: 180
SUBTRACTION: 180
EQUALITY: 180
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION: 180
PARALLEL: 180
MAGNITUDE: 180
UNIT VECTOR: 180
ZERO VECTOR: 180
DOT PRODUCT: 180
ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS: 180
ANGLE OF A VECTOR IN 3D: 180
PERPENDICULAR TEST: 180
SCALAR PROJECTION: 181
VECTOR PROJECTION: 181
CROSS PRODUCT: 181
16.2 LINES 181
16.3 PLANES 181
GENERALLY: 181
TANGENT PLANE: 181
NORMAL LINE: 182
16.4 CLOSEST APPROACH 182
TWO POINTS: 182
POINT AND LINE: 182
POINT AND PLANE: 182
TWO SKEW LINES: 182
16.5 GEOMETRY 182
AREA OF A TRIANGLE: 182
AREA OF A PARALLELOGRAM: 182
AREA OF A PARALLELEPIPED: 182
16.6 SPACE CURVES 182
WHERE: 182
VELOCITY: 183
ACCELERATION: 183
DEFINITION OF “S”: 183
UNIT TANGENT: 183
CHAIN RULE: 183
NORMAL: 183
CURVATURE: 184
UNIT BINOMIAL: 184
Page 19 of 330
TORTION: 184
ABBREVIATIONS 184
PART 17: SERIES 185
17.1 MISCELLANEOUS 185

GENERAL FORM: 185
INFINITE FORM: 185
PARTIAL SUM OF A SERIES: 185
0.99…=1: 185
17.2 TEST FOR CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE yellow:ask ms gumus 185
TEST FOR CONVERGENCE: 185
TEST FOR DIVERGENCE: 185
GEOMETRIC SERIES 185
P SERIES 185
THE SANDWICH THEOREM 185
THE INTEGRAL TEST 185
THE DIRECT COMPARISON TEST 186
THE LIMIT COMPARISON TEST 186
D’ALMBERT’S RATIO COMPARISON TEST 186
THE NTH ROOT TEST 186
ABEL’S TEST: 186
NEGATIVE TERMS 186
ALTERNATING SERIES TEST 186
ALTERNATING SERIES ERROR 187
17.3 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION: 187
DEFINITION: 187
NTH TERM: 187
SUM OF THE FIRST N TERMS: 187
17.4 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION: 187
DEFINITION: 187
NTH TERM: 187
SUM OF THE FIRST N TERMS: 187
SUM TO INFINITY: 187
GEOMETRIC MEAN: 187
17.5 SUMMATION SERIES 187
LINEAR: 187
QUADRATIC: 187
CUBIC: 187
17.6 APPROXIMATION SERIES 187
TAYLOR SERIES 187
MACLAURUN SERIES 188
LINEAR APPROXIMATION: 188
QUADRATIC APPROXIMATION: 188
CUBIC APPROXIMATION: 188
17.7 MONOTONE SERIES 188
STRICTLY INCREASING: 188
NON-DECREASING: 188
STRICTLY DECREASING: 188
NON-INCREASING: 188
CONVERGENCE: 188
17.8 RIEMANN ZETA FUNCTION 188
FORM: 188
EULER’S TABLE: 188
ALTERNATING SERIES: 189
Page 20 of 330
PROOF FOR N=2: 189
17.9 SUMMATIONS OF POLYNOMIAL EXPRESSIONS 190
17.10 SUMMATIONS INVOLVING EXPONENTIAL TERMS 190
17.11 SUMMATIONS INVOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC TERMS 191
17.12 INFINITE SUMMATIONS TO PI 193
17.13 LIMITS INVOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC TERMS 193
ABBREVIATIONS 193
17.14 POWER SERIES EXPANSION 193
EXPONENTIAL: 193
TRIGONOMETRIC: 194
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHM SERIES: 196
FOURIER SERIES: 197
17.15 BERNOULLI EXPANSION: 197
FUNDAMENTALLY: 197
EXPANSIONS: 198
LIST OF BERNOULLI NUMBERS: 198
PART 18: ELECTRICAL 200
18.1 FUNDAMENTAL THEORY 200

CHARGE: 200
CURRENT: 200
RESISTANCE: 200
OHM’S LAW: 200
POWER: 200
CONSERVATION OF POWER: 200
ELECTRICAL ENERGY: 200
KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW: 200
KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW: 200
AVERAGE CURRENT: 200
RMS CURRENT: 200
∆ TO Y CONVERSION: 200
18.2 COMPONENTS 201
RESISTANCE IN SERIES: 201
RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL: 201
INDUCTIVE IMPEDANCE: 201
CAPACITOR IMPEDANCE: 201
CAPACITANCE IN SERIES: 201
CAPACITANCE IN PARALLEL: 201
VOLTAGE, CURRENT & POWER SUMMARY: 201
18.3 THEVENIN’S THEOREM 201
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: 201
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM: 202
18.4 FIRST ORDER RC CIRCUIT 202
18.5 FIRST ORDER RL CIRCUIT 202
18.6 SECOND ORDER RLC SERIES CIRCUIT 202
CALCULATION USING KVL: 202
IMPORTANT VARIABLES 202
SOLVING: 203
MODE 1: 203
MODE 2: 203
MODE 3: 204
MODE 4: 204
CURRENT THROUGH INDUCTOR: 205
PLOTTING MODES: 205
Page 21 of 330
18.7 SECOND ORDER RLC PARALLEL CIRCUIT 206
CALCULATION USING KCL: 206
IMPORTANT VARIABLES 206
SOLVING: 207
18.8 LAPLANCE TRANSFORMATIONS 207
IDENTITIES: 207
PROPERTIES: 208
18.9 THREE PHASE – Y 209
LINE VOLTAGE: 209
PHASE VOLTAGE: 209
LINE CURRENT: 209
PHASE CURRENT: 209
POWER: 209
18.10 THREE PHASE – DELTA 209
LINE VOLTAGE: 209
PHASE VOLTAGE: 209
LINE CURRENT: 209
PHASE CURRENT: 209
POWER: 209
18.11 POWER 209
INSTANTANEOUS: 209
AVERAGE: 210
MAXIMUM POWER: 210
TOTAL POWER: 210
COMPLEX POWER: 210
18.12 ELECTROMAGNETICS 210
DEFINITIONS: 210
PERMEABILITY OF FREE SPACE: 210
MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY: 210
RELUCTANCE: 210
OHM’S LAW: 210
MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR: 210
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION: 210
MAGNETIC FLUX: 210
ELECTRIC FIELD: 210
MAGNETIC FORCE ON A PARTICLE: 210
PART 19: GRAPH THEORY 211
19.1 FUNDAMENTAL EXPLANATIONS: 211

LIST OF VERTICES: 211
LIST OF EDGES: 211
SUBGAPHS: 211
TREE: 211
DEGREE OF VERTEX: 211
DISTANCE: 211
DIAMETER: 211
TOTAL EDGES IN A SIMPLE BIPARTITE GRAPH: 211
TOTAL EDGES IN K-REGULAR GRAPH: 211
19.2 FACTORISATION: 211
1 FACTORISATION: 211
1 FACTORS OF A K n ,n BIPARTITE GRAPH: 211
1 FACTORS OF A K 2 n GRAPH: 211
19.3 VERTEX COLOURING: 211
Page 22 of 330
CHROMATIC NUMBER: 212
UNION/INTERSECTION: 212
EDGE CONTRACTION: 212
COMMON CHROMATIC POLYNOMIALS: 212
19.4 EDGE COLOURING: 212
COMMON CHROMATIC POLYNOMIALS: 212
PART 98: LIST OF DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS 213
5.18 FINITE DISCRETE DISTRIBUTIONS 213

BERNOULLI DISTRIBUTION 213
RADEMACHER DISTRIBUTION 213
BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION 214
BETA-BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION 215
DEGENERATE DISTRIBUTION 216
DISCRETE UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION 217
HYPERGEOMETRIC DISTRIBUTION 219
POISSON BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION 220
FISHER'S NONCENTRAL HYPERGEOMETRIC DISTRIBUTION (UNIVARIATE) 220
FISHER'S NONCENTRAL HYPERGEOMETRIC DISTRIBUTION (MULTIVARIATE) 221
WALLENIUS' NONCENTRAL HYPERGEOMETRIC DISTRIBUTION (UNIVARIATE) 221
WALLENIUS' NONCENTRAL HYPERGEOMETRIC DISTRIBUTION (MULTIVARIATE) 222
5.19 INFINITE DISCRETE DISTRIBUTIONS 222
BETA NEGATIVE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION 222
MAXWELL–BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION 223
GEOMETRIC DISTRIBUTION 224
LOGARITHMIC (SERIES) DISTRIBUTION 226
NEGATIVE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION 227
POISSON DISTRIBUTION 228
CONWAY–MAXWELL–POISSON DISTRIBUTION 229
SKELLAM DISTRIBUTION 230
YULE–SIMON DISTRIBUTION 230
ZETA DISTRIBUTION 232
ZIPF'S LAW 233
ZIPF–MANDELBROT LAW 234
5.20 BOUNDED INFINITE DISTRIBUTIONS 234
ARCSINE DISTRIBUTION 234
BETA DISTRIBUTION 236
LOGITNORMAL DISTRIBUTION 238
CONTINUOUS UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION 239
IRWIN-HALL DISTRIBUTION 240
KUMARASWAMY DISTRIBUTION 241
RAISED COSINE DISTRIBUTION 242
TRIANGULAR DISTRIBUTION 243
TRUNCATED NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 245
U-QUADRATIC DISTRIBUTION 246
VON MISES DISTRIBUTION 247
WIGNER SEMICIRCLE DISTRIBUTION 248
5.21 SEMI-BOUNDED CUMULATIVE DISTRIBUTIONS 250
BETA PRIME DISTRIBUTION 250
CHI DISTRIBUTION 251
NONCENTRAL CHI DISTRIBUTION 252
CHI-SQUARED DISTRIBUTION 252
INVERSE-CHI-SQUARED DISTRIBUTION 253
NONCENTRAL CHI-SQUARED DISTRIBUTION 255
Page 23 of 330
SCALED-INVERSE-CHI-SQUARED DISTRIBUTION 256
DAGUM DISTRIBUTION 257
EXPONENTIAL DISTRIBUTION 258
FISHER'S Z-DISTRIBUTION 261
FOLDED NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 261
FRÉCHET DISTRIBUTION 262
GAMMA DISTRIBUTION 263
ERLANG DISTRIBUTION 264
INVERSE-GAMMA DISTRIBUTION 265
INVERSE GAUSSIAN/WALD DISTRIBUTION 266
LÉVY DISTRIBUTION 267
LOG-CAUCHY DISTRIBUTION 269
LOG-LOGISTIC DISTRIBUTION 270
LOG-NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 271
MITTAG–LEFFLER DISTRIBUTION 272
PARETO DISTRIBUTION 273
RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION 274
RICE DISTRIBUTION 275
TYPE-2 GUMBEL DISTRIBUTION 276
WEIBULL DISTRIBUTION 277
5.22 UNBOUNDED CUMULATIVE DISTRIBUTIONS 278
CAUCHY DISTRIBUTION 278
EXPONENTIALLY MODIFIED GAUSSIAN DISTRIBUTION 279
FISHER–TIPPETT/ GENERALIZED EXTREME VALUE DISTRIBUTION 281
GUMBEL DISTRIBUTION 282
FISHER'S Z-DISTRIBUTION 283
GENERALIZED NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 283
GEOMETRIC STABLE DISTRIBUTION 285
HOLTSMARK DISTRIBUTION 285
HYPERBOLIC DISTRIBUTION 286
HYPERBOLIC SECANT DISTRIBUTION 287
LAPLACE DISTRIBUTION 288
LÉVY SKEW ALPHA-STABLE DISTRIBUTION 289
LINNIK DISTRIBUTION 291
LOGISTIC DISTRIBUTION 291
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 293
NORMAL-EXPONENTIAL-GAMMA DISTRIBUTION 294
SKEW NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 294
STUDENT'S T-DISTRIBUTION 295
NONCENTRAL T-DISTRIBUTION 297
VOIGT DISTRIBUTION 297
GENERALIZED PARETO DISTRIBUTION 298
TUKEY LAMBDA DISTRIBUTION 299
5.23 JOINT DISTRIBUTIONS 299
DIRICHLET DISTRIBUTION 299
BALDING–NICHOLS MODEL 300
MULTINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION 301
MULTIVARIATE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 301
NEGATIVE MULTINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION 302
WISHART DISTRIBUTION 303
INVERSE-WISHART DISTRIBUTION 303
MATRIX NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 303
MATRIX T-DISTRIBUTION 304
5.24 OTHER DISTRIBUTIONS 304
CATEGORICAL DISTRIBUTION 304
CANTOR DISTRIBUTION 305
Page 24 of 330
PHASE-TYPE DISTRIBUTION 306
TRUNCATED DISTRIBUTION 306
PART 99: CONVERSIONS 308
99.1 LENGTH: 308

99.2 AREA: 310
99.3 VOLUME: 311
99.4 PLANE ANGLE: 314
99.5 SOLID ANGLE: 315
99.6 MASS: 315
99.7 DENSITY: 317
99.8 TIME: 317
99.9 FREQUENCY: 319
99.10 SPEED OR VELOCITY: 319
99.11 FLOW (VOLUME): 320
99.12 ACCELERATION: 320
99.13 FORCE: 321
99.14 PRESSURE OR MECHANICAL STRESS: 321
99.15 TORQUE OR MOMENT OF FORCE: 322
99.16 ENERGY, WORK, OR AMOUNT OF HEAT: 322
99.17 POWER OR HEAT FLOW RATE: 324
99.18 ACTION: 325
99.19 DYNAMIC VISCOSITY: 325
99.20 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY: 326
99.21 ELECTRIC CURRENT: 326
99.22 ELECTRIC CHARGE: 326
99.23 ELECTRIC DIPOLE: 327
99.24 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE: 327
99.25 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE: 327
99.26 CAPACITANCE: 327
99.27 MAGNETIC FLUX: 327
99.28 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY: 328
99.29 INDUCTANCE: 328
99.30 TEMPERATURE: 328
99.31 INFORMATION ENTROPY: 328
99.32 LUMINOUS INTENSITY: 329
99.33 LUMINANCE: 329
99.34 LUMINOUS FLUX: 329
99.35 ILLUMINANCE: 329
99.36 RADIATION - SOURCE ACTIVITY: 329
99.37 RADIATION – EXPOSURE: 330
99.38 RADIATION - ABSORBED DOSE: 330
99.39 RADIATION - EQUIVALENT DOSE: 330
Page 25 of 330
PART 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
1.1 SI PREFIXES:
Prefix Symbol 1000m 10n Decimal Scale

yotta Y 10008 1024 1000000000000000000000000 Septillion
zetta Z 10007 1021 1000000000000000000000 Sextillion
exa E 10006 1018 1000000000000000000 Quintillion
peta P 10005 1015 1000000000000000 Quadrillion
tera T 10004 1012 1000000000000 Trillion
giga G 10003 109 1000000000 Billion
mega M 10002 106 1000000 Million
kilo k 10001 103 1000 Thousand
⁄
hecto h 10002 3 102 100 Hundred
⁄
deca da 10001 3 101 10 Ten
10000 100 1 One
deci d 1000−1⁄3 10−1 0.1 Tenth
centi c 1000−2⁄3 10−2 0.01 Hundredth
milli m 1000−1 10−3 0.001 Thousandth
micro µ 1000−2 10−6 0.000001 Millionth
nano n 1000−3 10−9 0.000000001 Billionth
pico p 1000−4 10−12 0.000000000001 Trillionth
femto f 1000−5 10−15 0.000000000000001 Quadrillionth
atto a 1000−6 10−18 0.000000000000000001 Quintillionth
zepto z 1000−7 10−21 0.000000000000000000001 Sextillionth
yocto y 1000−8 10−24 0.000000000000000000000001 Septillionth
1.2 SI BASE UNITS:
Quantity Unit Symbol

length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic
temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
Page 26 of 330
1.3 SI DERIVED UNITS:
Expression in terms of other SI

Quantity Unit Symbol
units
angle, plane radian* rad m/m = 1
angle, solid steradian* sr m2/m2 = 1
degree K
Celsius temperature Celsius °C
electric capacitance farad F C/V
electric charge, quantity A·s
of electricity coulomb C
electric conductance siemens S A/V
electric inductance henry H Wb/A
electric potential
difference, electromotive W/A
force volt V
electric resistance ohm Ω V/A
energy, work, quantity of N·m
heat joule J
force newton N kg·m/s2
frequency (of a periodic 1/s
phenomenon) hertz Hz
illuminance lux lx lm/m2
luminous flux lumen lm cd·sr
magnetic flux weber Wb V·s
magnetic flux density tesla T Wb/m2
power, radiant flux watt W J/s
pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m2
activity (referred to a 1/s
radionuclide) becquerel Bq
absorbed dose, specific J/kg

energy imparted, kerma gray Gy
dose equivalent, ambient

dose equivalent,
directional dose J/kg
equivalent, personal dose
equivalent, organ dose
equivalent sievert Sv
catalytic activity katal kat mol/s
Page 27 of 330
1.4 UNIVERSAL CONSTANTS:
Relative Standard
Quantity Symbol Value
Uncertainty
speed of light in
299 792 458 m·s−1 defined
vacuum
Newtonian constant of
6.67428(67)×10−11 m3·kg−1·s−2 1.0 × 10−4
gravitation
Planck constant 6.626 068 96(33) × 10−34 J·s 5.0 × 10−8
reduced Planck
1.054 571 628(53) × 10−34 J·s 5.0 × 10−8
constant
1.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC CONSTANTS:
Relative Standard
Quantity Symbol Value (SI units)
Uncertainty
magnetic constant 4π × 10−7 N·A−2 = 1.256
defined
(vacuum permeability) 637 061... × 10−6 N·A−2
electric constant (vacuum 8.854 187 817... × 10−12
defined
permittivity) F·m−1
characteristic impedance
376.730 313 461... Ω defined
of vacuum
8.987 551 787... × 109
Coulomb's constant defined
N·m²·C−2
1.602 176 487(40) × 10−19
elementary charge 2.5 × 10−8
C
927.400 915(23) × 10−26
Bohr magneton 2.5 × 10−8
J·T−1
7.748 091 7004(53) × 10−5
conductance quantum 6.8 × 10−10
S
inverse conductance
12 906.403 7787(88) Ω 6.8 × 10−10
quantum
4.835 978 91(12) × 1014
Josephson constant −1 2.5 × 10−8
Hz·V
2.067 833 667(52) × 10−15
magnetic flux quantum 2.5 × 10−8
Wb
5.050 783 43(43) × 10−27
nuclear magneton 8.6 × 10−8
J·T−1
von Klitzing constant 25 812.807 557(18) Ω 6.8 × 10−10
1.6 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR CONSTANTS:
Page 28 of 330
Relative Standard
Quantity Symbol Value (SI units)
Uncertainty
5.291 772
Bohr radius 108(18) × 10−11 3.3 × 10−9
m
2.817 940
classical
2894(58) × 10−15 2.1 × 10−9
electron radius
m
9.109 382 15(45)
electron mass 5.0 × 10−8
× 10−31 kg
Fermi coupling 1.166 39(1) ×
8.6 × 10−6
constant 10−5 GeV−2
fine-structure 7.297 352 537
6.8 × 10−10
constant 6(50) × 10−3
4.359 744 17(75)
Hartree energy 1.7 × 10−7
× 10−18 J
1.672 621
proton mass 637(83) × 10−27 5.0 × 10−8
kg
3.636 947
quantum of
550(24) × 10−4 6.7 × 10−9
circulation
m² s−1
Rydberg 10 973 731.568
6.6 × 10−12
constant 525(73) m−1
Thomson cross 6.652 458 73(13)
2.0 × 10−8
section × 10−29 m²
weak mixing
0.222 15(76) 3.4 × 10−3
angle
1.7 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CONSTANTS:
Relative
Quantity Symbol Value (SI units) Standard
Uncertainty
atomic mass unit
1.660 538 86(28) ×
(unified atomic mass 1.7 × 10−7
10−27 kg
unit)
6.022 141 5(10) ×
Avogadro's number 1.7 × 10−7
1023 mol−1
1.380 6504(24) ×
Boltzmann constant 1.8 × 10−6
10−23 J·K−1
96
Faraday constant 8.6 × 10−8
485.3383(83)C·mol−1
first 3.741 771 18(19) ×
5.0 × 10−8
radiation 10−16 W·m²
Page 29 of 330
constant for
1.191 042 82(20) ×
spectral 1.7 × 10−7
10−16 W·m² sr−1
radiance
at
T=273.15
Loschmidt 2.686 777 3(47) ×
K and 1.8 × 10−6
constant 1025 m−3
p=101.325
kPa
8.314 472(15)
gas constant 1.7 × 10−6
J·K−1·mol−1
3.990 312 716(27) ×
molar Planck constant 6.7 × 10−9
10−10 J·s·mol−1
at
T=273.15 2.2710 981(40) ×
1.7 × 10−6
K and 10−2 m³·mol−1
molar
p=100 kPa
volume of
an ideal at
gas T=273.15
2.2413 996(39) ×
K and 1.7 × 10−6
10−2 m³·mol−1
p=101.325
kPa
at T=1 K
and p=100 −1.151 704 7(44) 3.8 × 10−6
Sackur- kPa
Tetrode at T=1 K
constant and
−1.164 867 7(44) 3.8 × 10−6
p=101.325
kPa
second radiation 1.438 775 2(25) ×
1.7 × 10−6
constant 10−2 m·K
Stefan–Boltzmann 5.670 400(40) × 10−8
7.0 × 10−6
constant W·m−2·K−4
Wien displacement 2.897 768 5(51) ×
4.965 114 231... 1.7 × 10−6
law constant 10−3 m·K
1.8 ADOPTED VALUES:
Value (SI Relative Standard

Quantity Symbol
units) Uncertainty
conventional value of 4.835 979 ×
defined
Josephson constant 1014 Hz·V−1
conventional value of von
25 812.807 Ω defined
Klitzing constant
1 × 10−3
constant defined
molar mass kg·mol−1
of carbon-12 1.2 × 10−2 defined
Page 30 of 330
kg·mol−1
standard acceleration of
9.806 65
gravity (gee, free-fall on defined
m·s−2
Earth)
standard atmosphere 101 325 Pa defined
1.9 NATURAL UNITS:
Name Dimension Expression Value (SI units)
Planck length Length (L) 1.616 252(81) × 10−35 m
Planck mass Mass (M) 2.176 44(11) × 10−8 kg
Planck time Time (T) 5.391 24(27) × 10−44 s
Planck charge Electric charge (Q) 1.875 545 870(47) × 10−18 C
Planck temperature Temperature (Θ) 1.416 785(71) × 1032 K
1.10 MATHEMATICAL CONSTANTS:

(each to 1000 decimal places)
π≈
3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510582097494459230781640628620899862803482
5342117067982148086513282306647093844609550582231725359408128481117450284102701938521105559
6446229489549303819644288109756659334461284756482337867831652712019091456485669234603486104
5432664821339360726024914127372458700660631558817488152092096282925409171536436789259036001
1330530548820466521384146951941511609433057270365759591953092186117381932611793105118548074
4623799627495673518857527248912279381830119491298336733624406566430860213949463952247371907
0217986094370277053921717629317675238467481846766940513200056812714526356082778577134275778
9609173637178721468440901224953430146549585371050792279689258923542019956112129021960864034
4181598136297747713099605187072113499999983729780499510597317328160963185950244594553469083
0264252230825334468503526193118817101000313783875288658753320838142061717766914730359825349
0428755468731159562863882353787593751957781857780532171226806613001927876611195909216420199
e≈
2.71828182845904523536028747135266249775724709369995957496696762772407663035354759457138217
8525166427427466391932003059921817413596629043572900334295260595630738132328627943490763233
8298807531952510190115738341879307021540891499348841675092447614606680822648001684774118537
4234544243710753907774499206955170276183860626133138458300075204493382656029760673711320070
9328709127443747047230696977209310141692836819025515108657463772111252389784425056953696770
7854499699679468644549059879316368892300987931277361782154249992295763514822082698951936680
3318252886939849646510582093923982948879332036250944311730123819706841614039701983767932068
3282376464804295311802328782509819455815301756717361332069811250996181881593041690351598888
5193458072738667385894228792284998920868058257492796104841984443634632449684875602336248270
4197862320900216099023530436994184914631409343173814364054625315209618369088870701676839642
4378140592714563549061303107208510383750510115747704171898610687396965521267154688957035035
φ≈
Page 31 of 330
1.61803398874989484820458683436563811772030917980576286213544862270526046281890244970720720
4189391137484754088075386891752126633862223536931793180060766726354433389086595939582905638
3226613199282902678806752087668925017116962070322210432162695486262963136144381497587012203
4080588795445474924618569536486444924104432077134494704956584678850987433944221254487706647
8091588460749988712400765217057517978834166256249407589069704000281210427621771117778053153
1714101170466659914669798731761356006708748071013179523689427521948435305678300228785699782
9778347845878228911097625003026961561700250464338243776486102838312683303724292675263116533
9247316711121158818638513316203840052221657912866752946549068113171599343235973494985090409
4762132229810172610705961164562990981629055520852479035240602017279974717534277759277862561
9432082750513121815628551222480939471234145170223735805772786160086883829523045926478780178
8992199027077690389532196819861514378031499741106926088674296226757560523172777520353613936
Page 32 of 330
PART 2: MATHEMTAICAL SYMBOLS
2.1 BASIC MATH SYMBOLS
Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

= equals sign equality 5 = 2+3
≠ not equal sign inequality 5≠4
> strict inequality greater than 5>4
< strict inequality less than 4<5
≥ inequality greater than or equal to 5≥4
≤ inequality less than or equal to 4≤5
() parentheses calculate expression inside first 2 × (3+5) = 16
[] brackets calculate expression inside first [(1+2)*(1+5)] = 18
+ plus sign addition 1+1=2
− minus sign subtraction 2−1=1
± plus - minus both plus and minus operations 3 ± 5 = 8 and -2
∓ minus - plus both minus and plus operations 3 ∓ 5 = -2 and 8
* asterisk multiplication 2*3=6
× times sign multiplication 2×3=6
· multiplication dot multiplication 2·3=6
÷ division sign / obelus division 6÷2=3
/ division slash division 6/2=3
– horizontal line division / fraction
mod modulo remainder calculation 7 mod 2 = 1

. period decimal point, decimal separator 2.56 = 2+56/100
ab power exponent 23 = 8
a^b caret exponent 2 ^ 3= 8
√a square root √a · √a = a √9 = ±3
3
√a cube root 3
√8 = 2
4
√a forth root 4
√16 = ±2
n
√a n-th root (radical) for n=3, n√8 = 2
% percent 1% = 1/100 10% × 30 = 3
‰ per-mille 1‰ = 1/1000 = 0.1% 10‰ × 30 = 0.3
ppm per-million 1ppm = 1/1000000 10ppm × 30 = 0.0003
ppb per-billion 1ppb = 1/1000000000 10ppb × 30 = 3×10-7
ppt per-trillion 1ppb = 10-12 10ppb × 30 = 3×10-10
2.2 GEOMETRY SYMBOLS
∠ angle formed by two rays ∠ABC = 30º
∡ measured angle ∡ABC = 30º

∢ spherical angle ∢AOB = 30º
∟ right angle = 90º α = 90º
º degree 1 turn = 360º α = 60º
´ arcminute 1º = 60´ α = 60º59'
Page 33 of 330
´´ arcsecond 1´ = 60´´ α = 60º59'59''
AB line line from point A to point B
ray line that start from point A
| perpendicular perpendicular lines (90º angle) AC | BC

|| parallel parallel lines AB || CD
equivalence of geometric shapes and
≅ congruent to
size ∆ABC ≅ ∆XYZ
~ similarity same shapes, not same size ∆ABC ~ ∆XYZ
∆ triangle triangle shape ∆ABC ≅ ∆BCD
| x-y | distance distance between points x and y | x-y | = 5
π = 3.141592654...
π pi constant is the ratio between the circumference c = π·d = 2·π·r
and diameter of a circle
rad radians radians angle unit 360º = 2π rad
grad grads grads angle unit 360º = 400 grad
2.3 ALGEBRA SYMBOLS

x x variable unknown value to find when 2x = 4, then x = 2
≡ equivalence identical to
≜ equal by definition equal by definition
:= equal by definition equal by definition

~ approximately equal weak approximation 11 ~ 10
≈ approximately equal approximation sin(0.01) ≈ 0.01
∝ proportional to proportional to f(x) ∝ g(x)

∞ lemniscate infinity symbol
≪ much less than much less than 1 ≪ 1000000
≫ much greater than much greater than 1000000 ≫ 1
() parentheses calculate expression inside first 2 * (3+5) = 16
[] brackets calculate expression inside first [(1+2)*(1+5)] = 18
{} braces set
⌊x⌋ floor brackets rounds number to lower integer ⌊4.3⌋= 4
⌈x⌉ ceiling brackets rounds number to upper integer ⌈4.3⌉= 5
x! exclamation mark factorial 4! = 1*2*3*4 = 24
|x| single vertical bar absolute value | -5 | = 5
f (x) function of x maps values of x to f(x) f (x) = 3x+5
(f ◦g) function composition (f ◦g) (x) = f (g(x)) f (x)=3x, g(x)=x-1 ⇒(f ◦g)(x)=3(x-1)
(a,b) open interval (a,b) ≜ {x | a < x < b} x ∈ (2,6)

[a,b] closed interval [a,b] ≜ {x | a ≤ x ≤ b} x ∈ [2,6]
∆ delta change / difference ∆t = t1 - t0
∆ discriminant ∆ = b2 - 4ac
summation - sum of all values in range of
∑ sigma ∑ xi= x1+x2+...+xn
series
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∑∑ sigma double summation
product - product of all values in range of

∏ capital pi ∏ xi=x1·x2·...·xn
series
e constant / Euler's
e e = 2.718281828... e = lim (1+1/x)x , x→∞
number
Euler-Mascheroni
γ γ = 0.527721566...
constant
φ golden ratio golden ratio constant
2.4 LINEAR ALGEBRA SYMBOLS

· dot scalar product a·b
× cross vector product a×b
A⊗B tensor product tensor product of A and B A⊗B
inner product
[] brackets matrix of numbers
() parentheses matrix of numbers
|A| determinant determinant of matrix A
det(A) determinant determinant of matrix A
|| x || double vertical bars norm
AT transpose matrix transpose (AT)ij = (A)ji
A† Hermitian matrix matrix conjugate transpose (A†)ij = (A)ji
A* Hermitian matrix matrix conjugate transpose (A*)ij = (A)ji

A -1 inverse matrix A A-1 = I
rank(A) matrix rank rank of matrix A rank(A) = 3
dim(U) dimension dimension of matrix A rank(U) = 3
2.5 PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS SYMBOLS

P(A) probability function probability of event A P(A) = 0.5
probability of events
P(A ∩ B) probability that of events A and B P(A∩B) = 0.5
intersection
probability of events
P(A ∪ B) probability that of events A or B P(A∪B) = 0.5
union
conditional probability probability of event A given event B
P(A | B) P(A | B) = 0.3
function occured
probability density
f (x) P(a ≤ x ≤ b) = ∫ f (x) dx
function (pdf)
cumulative distribution
F(x) F(x) = P(X ≤ x)
function (cdf)
µ population mean mean of population values µ = 10
E(X) expectation value expected value of random variable X E(X) = 10
expected value of random variable X
E(X | Y) conditional expectation E(X | Y=2) = 5
given Y
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var(X) variance variance of random variable X var(X) = 4
σ2 variance variance of population values σ2 = 4
standard deviation of random variable
std(X) standard deviation std(X) = 2
X
standard deviation value of random
σX standard deviation σX = 2
variable X
median middle value of random variable x
covariance of random variables X and
cov(X,Y) covariance cov(X,Y) = 4
Y
correlation of random variables X and
corr(X,Y) correlation corr(X,Y) = 3
Y
correlation of random variables X and
ρX,Y correlation ρX,Y = 3
Y
summation - sum of all values in range
∑ summation
of series
∑∑ double summation double summation
value that occurs most frequently in

Mo mode
population
MR mid-range MR = (xmax+xmin)/2
Md sample median half the population is below this value
Q1 lower / first quartile 25% of population are below this value
50% of population are below this value
Q2 median / second quartile
= median of samples
Q3 upper / third quartile 75% of population are below this value
x sample mean average / arithmetic mean x = (2+5+9) / 3 = 5.333
s2 sample variance population samples variance estimator s 2 = 4
sample standard population samples standard deviation
s s=2
deviation estimator
zx standard score zx = (x-x) / sx

X~ distribution of X distribution of random variable X X ~ N(0,3)
N(µ,σ2) normal distribution gaussian distribution X ~ N(0,3)
U(a,b) uniform distribution equal probability in range a,b X ~ U(0,3)
exp(λ) exponential distribution f (x) = λe-λx , x≥0
gamma(c, λ) gamma distribution f (x) = λ c xc-1e-λx / Γ(c), x≥0
χ 2(k) chi-square distribution f (x) = xk/2-1e-x/2 / ( 2k/2 Γ(k/2) )

F (k1, k2) F distribution
Bin(n,p) binomial distribution f (k) = nCk pk(1-p)n-k
Poisson(λ) Poisson distribution f (k) = λke-λ / k!
Geom(p) geometric distribution f (k) = p (1-p) k

hyper-geometric
HG(N,K,n)
distribution
Bern(p) Bernoulli distribution
Page 36 of 330
2.6 COMBINATORICS SYMBOLS

n! factorial n! = 1·2·3·...·n 5! = 1·2·3·4·5 = 120
nPk permutation 5P3 = 5! / (5-3)! = 60
n Ck
combination 5 C3 = 5!/[3!(5-3)!]=10
2.7 SET THEORY SYMBOLS

{} set a collection of elements A={3,7,9,14}, B={9,14,28}
objects that belong to set A and set
A∩B intersection A ∩ B = {9,14}
B
objects that belong to set A or set
A∪B union A ∪ B = {3,7,9,14,28}
B
subset has less elements or equal to
A⊆B subset {9,14,28} ⊆ {9,14,28}
the set
proper subset / strict subset has less elements than the
A⊂B subset set {9,14} ⊂ {9,14,28}
A⊄B not subset left set not a subset of right set {9,66} ⊄ {9,14,28}
set A has more elements or equal
A⊇B superset {9,14,28} ⊇ {9,14,28}
to the set B
proper superset / strict
A⊃B set A has more elements than set B {9,14,28} ⊃ {9,14}
superset
A⊅B not superset set A is not a superset of set B {9,14,28} ⊅ {9,66}
2A power set all subsets of A
Ƅ (A) power set all subsets of A
A=B equality both sets have the same members A={3,9,14}, B={3,9,14}, A=B
all the objects that do not belong to
Ac complement
set A
objects that belong to A and not to
A\B relative complement A={3,9,14}, B={1,2,3}, A-B={9,14}
B
objects that belong to A and not to
A-B relative complement A={3,9,14}, B={1,2,3}, A-B={9,14}
B
objects that belong to A or B but
A∆B symmetric difference A={3,9,14}, B={1,2,3}, A ∆ B={1,2,9,14}
not to their intersection
objects that belong to A or B but
A⊖B symmetric difference A={3,9,14}, B={1,2,3}, A ⊖ B={1,2,9,14}
not to their intersection
a∈A element of set membership A={3,9,14}, 3 ∈ A
x∉A not element of no set membership A={3,9,14}, 1 ∉ A
(a,b) ordered pair collection of 2 elements
set of all ordered pairs from A and
A×B cartesian product
B
|A| cardinality the number of elements of set A A={3,9,14}, |A|=3
#A cardinality the number of elements of set A A={3,9,14}, #A=3
Page 37 of 330
‫א‬ aleph infinite cardinality
Ø empty set Ø={} C = {Ø}
U universal set set of all possible values
natural numbers set (with
ℕ0 zero) ℕ0 = {0,1,2,3,4,...} 0 ∈ ℕ0
natural numbers set
ℕ1 (without zero) ℕ1 = {1,2,3,4,5,...} 6 ∈ ℕ1
ℤ integer numbers set ℤ = {...-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...} -6 ∈ ℤ

ℚ rational numbers set ℚ = {x | x=a/b, a,b∈ℕ} 2/6 ∈ ℚ
ℝ real numbers set ℝ = {x | -∞ < x <∞} 6.343434 ∈ ℝ
complex numbers set ℂ = {z | z=a+bi, -∞<a<∞, -

ℂ 6+2i ∈ ℂ
∞<b<∞}
2.8 LOGIC SYMBOLS
· and and x· y
^ caret / circumflex and x^y
& ampersand and x&y
+ plus or x+y
∨ reversed caret or x∨y
| vertical line or x|y
x' single quote not - negation x'
x bar not - negation x
¬ not not - negation ¬x
! exclamation mark not - negation !x
⊕ circled plus / oplus exclusive or - xor x⊕y
~ tilde negation ~x
⇒ implies
⇔ equivalent if and only if
∀ for all
∃ there exists
∄ there does not exists
∴ therefore
∵ because / since
Page 38 of 330
2.9 CALCULUS & ANALYSIS SYMBOLS

limit limit value of a function
represents a very small number, near
ε epsilon
zero ε→0
e e constant / Euler's number e = 2.718281828... e = lim (1+1/x)x , x→∞
y' derivative derivative - Leibniz's notation (3x3)' = 9x2
y '' second derivative derivative of derivative (3x3)'' = 18x
y(n) nth derivative n times derivation (3x3)(3) = 18
derivative derivative - Lagrange's notation d(3x3)/dx = 9x2
second derivative derivative of derivative d2(3x3)/dx2 = 18x
nth derivative n times derivation
time derivative derivative by time - Newton notation

time second derivative derivative of derivative
partial derivative ∂(x2+y2)/∂x = 2x
∫ integral opposite to derivation
∬ double integral integration of function of 2 variables
∭ triple integral integration of function of 3 variables
∮ closed contour / line integral
∯ closed surface integral
∰ closed volume integral

[a,b] closed interval [a,b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}
(a,b) open interval (a,b) = {x | a < x < b}
i imaginary unit i ≡ √-1 z = 3 + 2i
z* complex conjugate z = a+bi → z*=a-bi z* = 3 + 2i
z complex conjugate z = a+bi → z = a-bi z = 3 + 2i
∇ nabla / del gradient / divergence operator ∇f (x,y,z)
vector
unit vector
x*y convolution y(t) = x(t) * h(t)
ℒ Laplace transform F(s) = ℒ{f (t)}
ℱ Fourier transform X(ω) = ℱ{f (t)}
δ delta function
Page 39 of 330
PART 3: AREA, VOLUME AND SURFACE AREA
3.1 AREA:
a 2 sin B sin C
= s (s − a )(s − b )(s − c )
1 1
Triangle: A = bh = ab sin C =
2 2 2 sin A
Rectangle: A = lw
Square: A = a2
Parallelogram: A = bh = ab sin A
Rhombus: A = a 2 sin A
a+b
Trapezium: A = h 
 s 
Quadrilateral: A= (s − a )(s − b )(s − c )(s − d ) − abcd × cos 2  ∠AB + ∠CD 

 2 
d1 d 2 sin I
A=
2
Rectangle with rounded corners: A = lw − r 2 (4 − π )
3 3 × a2
Regular Hexagon: A=
2
Regular Octagon: (
A = 2 1+ 2 × a2 )
2
na
Regular Polygon: A=
 180 
4 tan  
 n 
3.2 VOLUME:
Cube: V = a3
Cuboid: V = abc
Prisim: V = A(b ) × h
V = × A(b ) × h
1
Pyramid:
3
2
Tetrahedron: V= × a3
12
2
Octahedron: V= × a3
3
15 + 7 5
Dodecahedron: V= × a3
4
Icosahedron: V=
(
53+ 5 )
× a3
12
3.3 SURFACE AREA:
Cube: SA = 6a 2
Cuboids: SA = 2(ab + bc + ca )
Page 40 of 330
Tetrahedron: SA = 3 × a 2
Octahedron: SA = 2 × 3 × a 2
Dodecahedron: SA = 3 × 25 + 10 5 × a 2
Icosahedron: SA = 5 × 3 × a 2
Cylinder: SA = 2πr (h + r )
3.4 MISCELLANEOUS:
Diagonal of a Rectangle d = l 2 + w2
Diagonal of a Cuboid d = a2 + b2 + c2
a
Longest Diagonal (Even Sides) =
 180 
sin  
 n 
a
Longest Diagonal (Odd Sides) =
 90 
2 sin  
 n 
Total Length of Edges (Cube): = 12a
Total Length of Edges (Cuboid): = 4(a + b + c )
Circumference C = 2πr = πd
Perimeter of rectangle P = 2(a + b )
P
Semi perimeter s=
2
Euler’s Formula Faces + Verticies = Edges + 2
3.5 ABBREVIATIONS (3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4)

A=area
a=side ‘a’
b=base
b=side ‘b’
C=circumference
C=central angle
c=side ‘c’
d=diameter
d=diagonal
d1=diagonal 1
d2=diagonal 2
E=external angle
h=height
I=internal angle
l=length
n=number of sides
P=perimeter
r=radius
Page 41 of 330
r1=radius 1
s=semi-perimeter
SA=Surface Area
V=Volume
w=width
Page 42 of 330
PART 4: ALGEBRA & ARITHMETIC
4.1 POLYNOMIAL FORMULA:
Qudaratic: Where ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ,
− b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
Cubic: Where ax + bx + cx + d = 0 ,
3 2
b
Let, x = y −
3a
3 2
 b   b   b 
∴ a y −  + b y −  + c y −  + d = 0
 3a   3a   3a 
 b2   2b 3 bc 
ay 3 +  c −  y +  d + 2
−  = 0
 3a   27a 3a 
 b2   2b 3 bc 
 c −   d + 2
− 
3a  3a 
y3 +  y+
27a
=0
a a
 b2   2b 3 bc 
 c −   d + 2
− 
3a  3a 
y3 +  y = −
27a
a a
 b 
2
 c − 
3a 
Let, A =  = 3st...(1)
a
 2b 3 bc 
 d + − 
 27 a 2 3a 
Let, B = − = s 3 − t 3 ...(2)
a
∴ y 3 + Ay = B
y 3 + 3sty = s 3 − t 3
Solution to the equation = s − t
Let, y = s − t
∴ (s − t ) + 3st (s − t ) = s 3 − t 3
3
(s 3
− 3s 2 t + 3st 2 − t 3 ) + (3s 2 t − 3st 2 ) = s 3 − t 3
Solving (1) for s and substituting into (2) yields:
Let, u = t 3
A3
∴ u + Bu − 2
=0
27
Page 43 of 330
ie : αu 2 + βu + γ = 0
α =1
β =B
A3
γ =−
27
− β ± β 2 − 4αγ
u=
2α
4 A3
− B ± B2 +
27
u=
2
4 A3
3
−B± B + 2
27
∴t = 3 u =
2
Substituting into (2) yields:
3
 3 
 − B ± B2 + 4A 
3 27 
s3 = B + t 3 = B +  
 2 
 
 
3
 3 
 − B ± B2 + 4A 
3 27 
∴s = 3 B +  
 2 
 
 
Now, y = s − t
3
 3 
4 A3
 − B ± B2 + 4A  − B ± B 2
+
3 27  3 27
∴y = 3 B+  −
 2  2
 
 
b
Now, x = y −
3a
 
3 
 3  3 
  − B ± B2 + 4 A  − B ± B2 +
4 A

  3
27  3
27  b
x = 3 B+  − −
  2  2  3a
   
   
 
 b 
2
 2b 3
bc 
 c −   d + 2
− 
3a  3a 
Where, A =  &B = −
27 a
a a
Page 44 of 330
4.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF ARITHMETIC:
Rational Numbers: Every rational number can be written as r =

(r − 1) + (r + 1)
2
( ) 1 x is rational
Irrational Numbers: lim lim cos 2 n (m!×π × x ) = 
m →∞ n →∞
0 x is irrational
4.3 ALGEBRAIC EXPANSION:
Babylonian Identity:
(c1800BC)
Common Products And Factors:
Binomial Theorem:
For any value of n, whether positive, negative, integer or non-integer, the value of the nth
power of a binomial is given by:
Binomial Expansion:
For any power of n, the binomial (a + x) can be expanded
Page 45 of 330
This is particularly useful when x is very much less than a so that the first few terms provide a
good approximation of the value of the expression. There will always be n+1 terms and the
general form is:
Difference of two squares:
Brahmagupta–Fibonacci Identity:
Also,
Degen's eight-square identity:
Note that:
Page 46 of 330
and,
4.4 ROOT EXPANSIONS:
1
k
( kx ± ky ) =(
2
x± y ) 2
x± y=
1
k
( kx ± ky ) 2
2
 x 
x± y= y ± 1
 y 
x± y=
1
x
(
x ± xy ) 2
2
 x y
x ± y = k  ± 
 k k 
4.5 LIMIT MANIPULATIONS:
(
lim(an ± bn ) = lim(an ) ± lim(bn ))( )
( )
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
lim(kan ) = k lim(an )
lim(a b ) = (lim(a ))(lim(b ))
n→∞ n→∞
lim( f (a )) = f (lim(a ))
n n n n
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
n n
n→∞ n→∞
L’Hopital’s Rule:
 f ' ( x) 
Iflim( f ( x) ) = lim( g ( x) ) = 0 or ± ∞, and lim  exists (ie g ' ( x) ≠ 0, x = a ), then it follows that
x→a x →a x→a g ' ( x ) 
 
 f ( x)   f ' ( x) 
lim  = lim 
x→a g ( x )  x →a g ' ( x ) 
   
Proof:
 f ( x)   f ( x) ÷ (x − a )   ( f ( x) − f (a) ) ÷ (x − a ) 
lim  = lim  = lim 
x→a g ( x )
  x→a  g ( x) ÷ ( x − a )  x→a  ( g ( x ) − g ( a ) ) ÷ ( x − a ) 
 ( f ( x) − f (a) ) 
lim 
x→a
 (x − a )   f ' ( x)  f ' (a)
= = lim =
 (g ( x) − g (a) )  x → a
 g ' ( x)  g ' (a )
lim 
x→a
 (x − a ) 
Page 47 of 330
4.6 SUMMATION MANIPULATIONS:
, where C is a constant
4.7 COMMON FUNCTIONS:
Constant Function:
y=a or f (x)=a
Graph is a horizontal line passing through the point (0,a)
x=a
Graph is a vertical line passing through the point (a,0)
Line/Linear Function:
y = mx + c
Graph is a line with point (0,c) and slope m.
Where the gradient is between any two points ( x1 , y1 ) & ( x2 , y 2 )
Page 48 of 330
rise y 2 − y1
m= =
run x2 − x1
Also, y = y1 + m( x − x1 )
The equation of the line with gradient m .and passing through the point
( x1 , y1 ) .
Parabola/Quadratic Function:
y = a ( x − h) 2 + k
The graph is a parabola that opens up if a > 0 or down if a < 0 and has a
vertex at (h,k).
y = ax 2 + bx + c
The graph is a parabola that opens up if a > 0 or down if a < 0 and has a
 − b  − b 
vertex at  , f   .
 2a  2a  
x = ay 2 + by + c
The graph is a parabola that opens right if a > 0 or left if a < 0 and has a
  − b   − b 
vertex at  g  ,    . This is not a function.
  2a   2a  
Circle:
(x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 = r 2
Graph is a circle with radius r and center (h,k).
Ellipse:
(x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 =1
a2 b2
Graph is an ellipse with center (h,k) with vertices a units right/left from
the center and vertices b units up/down from the center.
Hyperbola:
(x − h )2 − ( y − k )2 =1
a2 b2
Graph is a hyperbola that opens left and right, has a center at (h,k) ,
vertices a units left/right of center and asymptotes that pass through
b
center with slope ± .
a
( y − k )2 − (x − h )2 =1
b2 a2
Page 49 of 330
Graph is a hyperbola that opens up and down, has a center at (h,k) ,
vertices b units up/down from the center and asymptotes that pass
b
through center with slope ± .
a
4.8 LINEAR ALGEBRA:
Vector Space Axioms:
A real vector space is a set X with a special element 0, and three operations:
• Addition: Given two elements x, y in X, one can form the sum x+y, which is also an
element of X.
• Inverse: Given an element x in X, one can form the inverse -x, which is also an
element of X.
• Scalar multiplication: Given an element x in X and a real number c, one can form the
product cx, which is also an element of X.
These operations must satisfy the following axioms:
Additive axioms. For every x,y,z in X, we have

1. x+y = y+x.
2. (x+y)+z = x+(y+z).
3. 0+x = x+0 = x.
4. (-x) + x = x + (-x) = 0.
Multiplicative axioms. For every x in X and real numbers c,d, we have
5. 0x = 0
6. 1x = x
7. (cd)x = c(dx)
Distributive axioms. For every x,y in X and real numbers c,d, we have
8. c(x+y) = cx + cy.
9. (c+d)x = cx +dx.
A normed real vector space is a real vector space X with an additional operation:
• Norm: Given an element x in X, one can form the norm ||x||, which is a non-negative
number.
This norm must satisfy the following axioms, for any x,y in X and any real number c:
10. ||x|| = 0 if and only if x = 0.

11. || cx || = |c| ||x||.
12. || x+y || <= ||x|| + ||y||
A complex vector space consists of the same set of axioms as the real case, but elements
within the vector space are complex. The axioms are adjusted to suit.
Subspace: When the subspace is a subset of another vector space, only axioms (a) and (b)
need to be proved to show that the subspace is also a vector space.
Common Spaces:
Page 50 of 330
Real Numbers ℜ, ℜ 2 , ℜ 3 ,..., ℜ n (n denotes dimension)
Complex Numbers: C, C 2 , C 3 ,..., C n (n denotes dimension)
Polynomials P1 , P2 , P3 ,..., Pn (n denotes the highest order of x)
All continuous functions C [a, b](a & b denote the interval) (This is never a vector
space as it has infinite dimensions)
Rowspace of a spanning set in Rn

Stack vectors in a matrix in rows
Use elementary row operations to put matrix into row echelon form
The non zero rows form a basis of the vector space
Columnspace of a spanning set in Rn

Stack vectors in a matrix in columns
Use elementary row operations to put matrix into row echelon form
Columns with leading entries correspond to the subset of vectors in the set that form a
basis
Nullspace:
Solutions to A x = 0 A
Using elementary row operations to put matrix into row echelon form, columns with
no leading entries are assigned a constant and the remaining variables are solved with
respect to these constants.
Nullity:
The dimension of the nullspace
Columns( A) = Nullity ( A) + Rank ( A)
Linear Dependence:
c1r1 + c2 r2 + ... + cn rn = 0
Then, c1 = c 2 = c n = 0
If the trivial solution is the only solution, r1 , r2 ,...rn are
independent.
r ( A) ≠ r ( A | b) : No Solution
r ( A) = r ( A | b) = n : Unique Solution
r ( A) = r ( A | b) < n : Infinite Solutions
Basis: S is a basis of V if:

S spans V
S is linearly dependant
S = {u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u n }
Page 51 of 330
x 
y
The general vector within the vector space is: w =  
z 
 
...
w = c1u1 + c2 u 2 + c3u3 + ... + cn u n
u11 u 21 u31 ... u n1   c1 
u u 22 u32 ... u n 2  c2 
Therefore,  12
[w] = u13 u 23 u33 ... u n3  c3 

  
 ... ... ... ... ...   ... 
u1n u 2 n u 3n ... u nn  cn 
If the determinant of the square matrix is not zero, the matrix is invertible.
Therefore, the solution is unique. Hence, all vectors in w are linear
combinations of S. Because of this, S spans w.
Standard Basis:
 1   0   0   0  
        
 0   1   0   0  
 
Real Numbers S (ℜ ) =  0 ,  0 ,  1 ,...,  0  
n
... ... ... ... 

        
 0   0   0   1  
Polynomials {
S ( Pn ) = 1, x, x 2 , x 3 ,..., x n }
Any set the forms the basis of a vector space must contain the same number of linearly
independent vectors as the standard basis.
Orthogonal Complement:
W ⊥ is the nullspace of A, where A is the matrix that contains {v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn } in rows.
dim(W ⊥ ) = nullity ( A)
Orthonormal Basis:
A basis of mutually orthogonal vectors of length 1. Basis can be found with the Gram-
Schmidt process outline below.
0 i ≠ j
< vi , v j >= 
1 i = j
u = v1 + v2 + v3 + ...+ vn )

In an orthonormal basis:
u = c1v1 + c2 v2 + c3v3 + ... + cn vn )
Gram-Schmidt Process:
This finds an orthonormal basis recursively.
Page 52 of 330
In a basis B = {u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u n }
q1 = u1
^ q1
v1 = q1 =
q1
Next vector needs to be orthogonal to v1 ,
q2 = u 2 − v1
Similarly
q3 = u3 − < u3 , v1 > v1 − < u3 , v2 > v2
qn = u n − < u3 , v1 > v1 − v2 − ...− < u3 , vn > vn
^ qn
vn = q n =
qn
Therefore, orthogonal basis is: B' = {v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn }
Coordinate Vector:
If v = c1e1 + c2 e2 + ... + cn en
 c1 
c 
vB =  2 
 ... 
 
c n 
For a fixed basis (usually the standard basis) there is 1 to 1 correspondence between
vectors and coordinate vectors.
Hence, a basis can be found in Rn and then translated back into the general vector
space.
Dimension:
Real Numbers dim(ℜ n ) = n

Polynomials dim( Pn ) = n + 1
Matricis dim( M p ,q ) = p × q
If you know the dimensions and you are checking if a set forms a basis of the vector
space, only Linear Independence or Span needs to be checked.
4.9 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES:
 a1 + ib1 
 a + ib 
Form: C = 2
n 2
 ... 
 
a n + ibn 
Dot Product:
_ _ _
u • v = u1 v1 + u 2 v 2 + ... + u n v n
Where:
Page 53 of 330
u •v = v•u ≠ v•u
(u + v) • w = u • w + v • w
su • v = s (u • v), s ∈ C
u •u ≥ 0
u • u = 0 iff u = 0
Inner Product:
u = u •u = u1 + u 2 + ... + u n
2 2 2
d (u , v) = u − v
Orthogonal if u • v = 0
Parallel if u = sv, s ∈ C
4.10 LINEAR TRANSITIONS & TRANSFORMATIONS:
Transition Matrix: From 1 vector space to another vector space
T (u ) = T (c1u1 + c2 u 2 + c3u3 + ... + cn u n )

T (u ) = c1T (u1 ) + c2T (u 2 ) + c3T (u3 ) + ... + cnT (u n )
Nullity(T)+Rank(T)=Dim(V)=Columns(T)
Change of Basis Transition Matrix:

−1
vB ' = M B ' M B vB
v B ' = C BB 'v B
For a general vector space with the standard basis: S = {s1 , s 2 ,..., s n }
M B = [(v1 ) S | ... | (vn ) S ]
M B ' = [(u1 ) S | ... | (u m ) S ]
Transformation Matrix: From 1 basis to another basis

V = span({v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn })
B1 = {v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn }
U = span({u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u m })
B2 = {u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u m }
A = [(T (v1 ) )B 2 | (T (v2 ) )B 2 | ... | (T (vn ) )B 2 ]

−1
A' = C B 'B AC B 'B
4.11 INNER PRODUCTS:
Definition: An extension of the dot product into a general vector space.

Axioms:
1. =< v, u >
2. =< u, v > + 
3. < ku , v >= k < u, v >
Page 54 of 330
≥ 0
4.
= 0 iff u = 0
^ u
Unit Vector: u =
u
Cavchy-Schuarz Inequality: 2 ≤ × < v, v >
Inner Product Space:
1
u =< u, u > 2 = < u, u >
u =< u, u >
2
2
 < u, v > 
 ≤ u × v ⇒ 
2 2
 ≤ 1 ⇒ −1 ≤ ≤ 1
2

 u v  u v
u ≥ 0, u = 0 iff u = 0
ku = k u
u+v = u + v
Angle between two vectors:
As defined by the inner product,
< u, v >
cos(θ ) =
u v
Orthogonal if: = 0
Distance between two vectors:
As defined by the inner product,
d (u , v) = u − v
Generalised Pythagoras for orthogonal vectors:
u+v = u + v
2 2 2
4.12 PRIME NUMBERS:
 
 3 
 1+   
Determinate: ∆( N ) =   N  = 1 if N is odd and prime
  N +1  
 0 if N is odd and composite

  2 
 2k + 1  N   
1 +

∑ 
k =1  N
× 
 2k + 1  
List of Prime Numbers:
2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61 67 71
73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113 127 131 137 139 149 151 157 163 167 173
179 181 191 193 197 199 211 223 227 229 233 239 241 251 257 263 269 271 277 281
283 293 307 311 313 317 331 337 347 349 353 359 367 373 379 383 389 397 401 409
419 421 431 433 439 443 449 457 461 463 467 479 487 491 499 503 509 521 523 541
547 557 563 569 571 577 587 593 599 601 607 613 617 619 631 641 643 647 653 659
661 673 677 683 691 701 709 719 727 733 739 743 751 757 761 769 773 787 797 809
811 821 823 827 829 839 853 857 859 863 877 881 883 887 907 911 919 929 937 941
Page 55 of 330
947 953 967 971 977 983 991 997 1009 1013 1019 1021 1031 1033 1039 1049 1051 1061 1063 1069
1087 1091 1093 1097 1103 1109 1117 1123 1129 1151 1153 1163 1171 1181 1187 1193 1201 1213 1217 1223
1229 1231 1237 1249 1259 1277 1279 1283 1289 1291 1297 1301 1303 1307 1319 1321 1327 1361 1367 1373
1381 1399 1409 1423 1427 1429 1433 1439 1447 1451 1453 1459 1471 1481 1483 1487 1489 1493 1499 1511
1523 1531 1543 1549 1553 1559 1567 1571 1579 1583 1597 1601 1607 1609 1613 1619 1621 1627 1637 1657
1663 1667 1669 1693 1697 1699 1709 1721 1723 1733 1741 1747 1753 1759 1777 1783 1787 1789 1801 1811
1823 1831 1847 1861 1867 1871 1873 1877 1879 1889 1901 1907 1913 1931 1933 1949 1951 1973 1979 1987
1993 1997 1999 2003 2011 2017 2027 2029 2039 2053 2063 2069 2081 2083 2087 2089 2099 2111 2113 2129
2131 2137 2141 2143 2153 2161 2179 2203 2207 2213 2221 2237 2239 2243 2251 2267 2269 2273 2281 2287
2293 2297 2309 2311 2333 2339 2341 2347 2351 2357 2371 2377 2381 2383 2389 2393 2399 2411 2417 2423
2437 2441 2447 2459 2467 2473 2477 2503 2521 2531 2539 2543 2549 2551 2557 2579 2591 2593 2609 2617
2621 2633 2647 2657 2659 2663 2671 2677 2683 2687 2689 2693 2699 2707 2711 2713 2719 2729 2731 2741
2749 2753 2767 2777 2789 2791 2797 2801 2803 2819 2833 2837 2843 2851 2857 2861 2879 2887 2897 2903
2909 2917 2927 2939 2953 2957 2963 2969 2971 2999 3001 3011 3019 3023 3037 3041 3049 3061 3067 3079
3083 3089 3109 3119 3121 3137 3163 3167 3169 3181 3187 3191 3203 3209 3217 3221 3229 3251 3253 3257
3259 3271 3299 3301 3307 3313 3319 3323 3329 3331 3343 3347 3359 3361 3371 3373 3389 3391 3407 3413
3433 3449 3457 3461 3463 3467 3469 3491 3499 3511 3517 3527 3529 3533 3539 3541 3547 3557 3559 3571
Fundamental Theory of Arithmetic:

That every integer greater than 1 is either prime itself or is the product
of a finite number of prime numbers.
Laprange’s Theorem:
That every natural number can be written as the sum of four square
integers.
Eg: 59 = 7 2 + 32 + 12 + 0 2
Ie: x = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + d 2 ; a, b, c, d , x ∈ N 0
Additive primes:
Primes: such that the sum of digits is a prime.
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 23, 29, 41, 43, 47, 61, 67, 83, 89, 101, 113, 131…
Annihilating primes:
Primes: such that d(p) = 0, where d(p) is the shadow of a sequence of natural numbers
3, 7, 11, 17, 47, 53, 61, 67, 73, 79, 89, 101, 139, 151, 157, 191, 199
Bell number primes:

Primes: that are the number of partitions of a set with n members.
2, 5, 877, 27644437, 35742549198872617291353508656626642567,
359334085968622831041960188598043661065388726959079837. The next term has 6,539 digits.
Carol primes:
Of the form (2n−1)2 − 2.
7, 47, 223, 3967, 16127, 1046527, 16769023, 1073676287, 68718952447, 274876858367, 4398042316799,
1125899839733759, 18014398241046527, 1298074214633706835075030044377087
Centered decagonal primes:

Of the form 5(n2 − n) + 1.
11, 31, 61, 101, 151, 211, 281, 661, 911, 1051, 1201, 1361, 1531, 1901, 2311, 2531, 3001, 3251, 3511, 4651,
5281, 6301, 6661, 7411, 9461, 9901, 12251, 13781, 14851, 15401, 18301, 18911, 19531, 20161, 22111, 24151,
24851, 25561, 27011, 27751
Centered heptagonal primes:

Of the form (7n2 − 7n + 2) / 2.
Page 56 of 330
43, 71, 197, 463, 547, 953, 1471, 1933, 2647, 2843, 3697, 4663, 5741, 8233, 9283, 10781, 11173, 12391, 14561,
18397, 20483, 29303, 29947, 34651, 37493, 41203, 46691, 50821, 54251, 56897, 57793, 65213, 68111, 72073,
76147, 84631, 89041, 93563
Centered square primes:

Of the form n2 + (n+1)2.
5, 13, 41, 61, 113, 181, 313, 421, 613, 761, 1013, 1201, 1301, 1741, 1861, 2113, 2381, 2521, 3121, 3613, 4513,
5101, 7321, 8581, 9661, 9941, 10513, 12641, 13613, 14281, 14621, 15313, 16381, 19013, 19801, 20201, 21013,
21841, 23981, 24421, 26681
Centered triangular primes:

Of the form (3n2 + 3n + 2) / 2.
19, 31, 109, 199, 409, 571, 631, 829, 1489, 1999, 2341, 2971, 3529, 4621, 4789, 7039, 7669, 8779, 9721, 10459,
10711, 13681, 14851, 16069, 16381, 17659, 20011, 20359, 23251, 25939, 27541, 29191, 29611, 31321, 34429,
36739, 40099, 40591, 42589
Chen primes:
Where p is prime and p+2 is either a prime or semiprime.
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 47, 53, 59, 67, 71, 83, 89, 101, 107, 109, 113, 127, 131, 137, 139,
149, 157, 167, 179, 181, 191, 197, 199, 211, 227, 233, 239, 251, 257, 263, 269, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 337,
347, 353, 359, 379, 389, 401, 409
Circular primes:
A circular prime number is a number that remains prime on any cyclic rotation of its digits (in base 10).
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 31, 37, 71, 73, 79, 97, 113, 131, 197, 199, 311, 337, 373, 719, 733, 919, 971, 991, 1193,
1931, 3119, 3779, 7793, 7937, 9311, 9377, 11939, 19391, 19937, 37199, 39119, 71993, 91193, 93719, 93911,
99371, 193939, 199933, 319993, 331999, 391939, 393919, 919393, 933199, 939193, 939391, 993319, 999331
Cousin primes:
Where (p, p+4) are both prime.
(3, 7), (7, 11), (13, 17), (19, 23), (37, 41), (43, 47), (67, 71), (79, 83), (97, 101), (103, 107), (109, 113), (127,
131), (163, 167), (193, 197), (223, 227), (229, 233), (277, 281)
Cuban primes:
x3 − y3
, x = y + 1 ⇒ ( y + 1) − y 3
3
Of the form
x− y
7, 19, 37, 61, 127, 271, 331, 397, 547, 631, 919, 1657, 1801, 1951, 2269, 2437, 2791, 3169, 3571, 4219, 4447,
5167, 5419, 6211, 7057, 7351, 8269, 9241, 10267, 11719, 12097, 13267, 13669, 16651, 19441, 19927, 22447,
23497, 24571, 25117, 26227, 27361, 33391, 35317
Of the form
x3 − y3
,x = y+2⇒
( y + 2) − y 3 3
x− y 2
13, 109, 193, 433, 769, 1201, 1453, 2029, 3469, 3889, 4801, 10093, 12289, 13873, 18253, 20173, 21169, 22189,
28813, 37633, 43201, 47629, 60493, 63949, 65713, 69313, 73009, 76801, 84673, 106033, 108301, 112909,
115249
Cullen primes:
Of the form n×2n + 1.
3, 393050634124102232869567034555427371542904833
Dihedral primes:
Primes: that remain prime when read upside down or mirrored in a seven-segment display.
2, 5, 11, 101, 181, 1181, 1811, 18181, 108881, 110881, 118081, 120121, 121021, 121151, 150151, 151051,
151121, 180181, 180811, 181081
Double factorial primes:

Of the form n!! + 1. Values of n:
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0, 1, 2, 518, 33416, 37310, 52608
Of the form n!! − 1. Values of n:

3, 4, 6, 8, 16, 26, 64, 82, 90, 118, 194, 214, 728, 842, 888, 2328, 3326, 6404, 8670, 9682, 27056, 44318
Double Mersenne primes:

2 p −1 −1
A subset of Mersenne primes: of the form 2 − 1 for prime p.
7, 127, 2147483647, 170141183460469231731687303715884105727
Eisenstein primes without imaginary part:

Eisenstein integers that are irreducible and real numbers (primes: of the form 3n − 1).
2, 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 41, 47, 53, 59, 71, 83, 89, 101, 107, 113, 131, 137, 149, 167, 173, 179, 191, 197, 227, 233,
239, 251, 257, 263, 269, 281, 293, 311, 317, 347, 353, 359, 383, 389, 401
Emirps:
Primes which become a different prime when their decimal digits are reversed.
13, 17, 31, 37, 71, 73, 79, 97, 107, 113, 149, 157, 167, 179, 199, 311, 337, 347, 359, 389, 701, 709, 733, 739,
743, 751, 761, 769, 907, 937, 941, 953, 967, 971, 983, 991
Euclid primes:
Of the form pn# + 1 (a subset of primorial prime:).
3, 7, 31, 211, 2311, 200560490131
Even prime:
Of the form 2n.
2
Factorial primes:
Of the form n! − 1 or n! + 1.
2, 3, 5, 7, 23, 719, 5039, 39916801, 479001599, 87178291199, 10888869450418352160768000001,
265252859812191058636308479999999, 263130836933693530167218012159999999,
8683317618811886495518194401279999999
Fermat primes:
2n +1
Of the form 2 +1
3, 5, 17, 257, 65537
Fibonacci primes:
Primes in the Fibonacci sequence
2, 3, 5, 13, 89, 233, 1597, 28657, 514229, 433494437, 2971215073, 99194853094755497,
1066340417491710595814572169, 19134702400093278081449423917
Fortunate primes:
Fortunate numbers that are prime
3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 47, 59, 61, 67, 71, 79, 89, 101, 103, 107, 109, 127, 151, 157, 163, 167, 191, 197, 199,
223, 229, 233, 239, 271, 277, 283, 293, 307, 311, 313, 331, 353, 373, 379, 383, 397
Gaussian primes:
Prime elements of the Gaussian integers (primes: of the form 4n + 3).
3, 7, 11, 19, 23, 31, 43, 47, 59, 67, 71, 79, 83, 103, 107, 127, 131, 139, 151, 163, 167, 179, 191, 199, 211, 223,
227, 239, 251, 263, 271, 283, 307, 311, 331, 347, 359, 367, 379, 383, 419, 431, 439, 443, 463, 467, 479, 487,
491, 499, 503
Generalized Fermat primes base 10:

Of the form 10n + 1, where n > 0.
11, 101
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Genocchi number primes:
The only positive prime Genocchi number is 17
Gilda's primes:
Gilda's numbers that are prime.
29, 683, 997, 2207, 30571351
Good primes:
Primes: pn for which pn2 > pn−i pn+i for all 1 ≤ i ≤ n−1, where pn is the nth prime.
5, 11, 17, 29, 37, 41, 53, 59, 67, 71, 97, 101, 127, 149, 179, 191, 223, 227, 251, 257, 269, 307
Happy primes:
Happy numbers that are prime.
7, 13, 19, 23, 31, 79, 97, 103, 109, 139, 167, 193, 239, 263, 293, 313, 331, 367, 379, 383, 397, 409, 487, 563,
617, 653, 673, 683, 709, 739, 761, 863, 881, 907, 937, 1009, 1033, 1039, 1093
Harmonic primes:
Primes p for which there are no solutions to Hk ≡ 0 (mod p) and Hk ≡ −ωp (mod p) for 1 ≤ k ≤ p−2, where ωpis the
Wolstenholme quotient.
5, 13, 17, 23, 41, 67, 73, 79, 107, 113, 139, 149, 157, 179, 191, 193, 223, 239, 241, 251, 263, 277, 281, 293, 307,
311, 317, 331, 337, 349
Higgs primes for squares:

Primes p for which p−1 divides the square of the product of all earlier terms.
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 79, 101, 107, 127, 131, 139, 149, 151, 157, 173,
181, 191, 197, 199, 211, 223, 229, 263, 269, 277, 283, 311, 317, 331, 347, 349
Highly cototient number primes:

Primes that are a cototient more often than any integer below it except 1.
2, 23, 47, 59, 83, 89, 113, 167, 269, 389, 419, 509, 659, 839, 1049, 1259, 1889
Irregular primes:
Odd primes p which divide the class number of the p-th cyclotomic field.
37, 59, 67, 101, 103, 131, 149, 157, 233, 257, 263, 271, 283, 293, 307, 311, 347, 353, 379, 389, 401, 409, 421,
433, 461, 463, 467, 491, 523, 541, 547, 557, 577, 587, 593, 607, 613, 617, 619
(p, p−5) irregular primes:

Primes p such that (p, p−5) is an irregular pair.
37
(p, p−9) irregular primes:

Primes p such that (p, p−9) is an irregular pair
67, 877
Isolated primes:
Primes p such that neither p−2 nor p+2 is prime.
2, 23, 37, 47, 53, 67, 79, 83, 89, 97, 113, 127, 131, 157, 163, 167, 173, 211, 223, 233, 251, 257, 263, 277, 293,
307, 317, 331, 337, 353, 359, 367, 373, 379, 383, 389, 397, 401, 409, 439, 443, 449, 457, 467, 479, 487, 491,
499, 503, 509, 541, 547, 557, 563, 577, 587, 593, 607, 613, 631, 647, 653, 673, 677, 683, 691, 701, 709, 719,
727, 733, 739, 743, 751, 757, 761, 769, 773, 787, 797, 839, 853, 863, 877, 887, 907, 911, 919, 929, 937, 941,
947, 953, 967, 971, 977, 983, 991, 997
Kynea primes:
Of the form (2n + 1)2 − 2.
7, 23, 79, 1087, 66047, 263167, 16785407, 1073807359, 17180131327, 68720001023, 4398050705407,
70368760954879, 18014398777917439, 18446744082299486207
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Left-truncatable primes:
Primes that remain prime when the leading decimal digit is successively removed.
2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 23, 37, 43, 47, 53, 67, 73, 83, 97, 113, 137, 167, 173, 197, 223, 283, 313, 317, 337, 347, 353,
367, 373, 383, 397, 443, 467, 523, 547, 613, 617, 643, 647, 653, 673, 683
Leyland primes:
Of the form xy + yx, with 1 < x ≤ y.
17, 593, 32993, 2097593, 8589935681, 59604644783353249, 523347633027360537213687137,
43143988327398957279342419750374600193
Long primes:
b p −1 − 1
Primes p for which, in a given base b, gives a cyclic number. They are also called full reptend primes:.
p
Primes p for base 10:
7, 17, 19, 23, 29, 47, 59, 61, 97, 109, 113, 131, 149, 167, 179, 181, 193, 223, 229, 233, 257, 263, 269, 313, 337,
367, 379, 383, 389, 419, 433, 461, 487, 491, 499, 503, 509, 541, 571, 577, 593
Lucas primes:
Primes in the Lucas number sequence L0 = 2, L1 = 1, Ln = Ln−1 + Ln−2.
2, 3, 7, 11, 29, 47, 199, 521, 2207, 3571, 9349, 3010349, 54018521, 370248451, 6643838879, 119218851371,
5600748293801, 688846502588399, 32361122672259149
Lucky primes:
Lucky numbers that are prime.
3, 7, 13, 31, 37, 43, 67, 73, 79, 127, 151, 163, 193, 211, 223, 241, 283, 307, 331, 349, 367, 409, 421, 433, 463,
487, 541, 577, 601, 613, 619, 631, 643, 673, 727, 739, 769, 787, 823, 883, 937, 991, 997
Markov primes:
Primes p for which there exist integers x and y such that x2 + y2 + p2 = 3xyp.
2, 5, 13, 29, 89, 233, 433, 1597, 2897, 5741, 7561, 28657, 33461, 43261, 96557, 426389, 514229, 1686049,
2922509, 3276509, 94418953, 321534781, 433494437, 780291637, 1405695061, 2971215073, 19577194573,
25209506681
Mersenne primes:
Of the form 2n − 1.
3, 7, 31, 127, 8191, 131071, 524287, 2147483647, 2305843009213693951, 618970019642690137449562111,
162259276829213363391578010288127, 170141183460469231731687303715884105727
Mersenne prime exponents:

Primes p such that 2p − 1 is prime.
2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89, 107, 127, 521, 607, 1279, 2203, 2281, 3217, 4253, 4423, 9689, 9941, 11213,
19937, 21701, 23209, 44497, 86243, 110503, 132049, 216091, 756839, 859433, 1257787, 1398269, 2976221,
3021377, 6972593, 13466917, 20996011, 24036583
Mills primes:
Of the form θ 3n
, where θ is Mills' constant. This form is prime for all positive integers n.
2, 11, 1361, 2521008887, 16022236204009818131831320183
Minimal primes:
Primes for which there is no shorter sub-sequence of the decimal digits that form a prime. There are exactly 26
minimal primes::
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 19, 41, 61, 89, 409, 449, 499, 881, 991, 6469, 6949, 9001, 9049, 9649, 9949, 60649, 666649,
946669, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049
Motzkin primes:
Primes that are the number of different ways of drawing non-intersecting chords on a circle between n points.
2, 127, 15511, 953467954114363
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Newman–Shanks–Williams primes:
Newman–Shanks–Williams numbers that are prime.
7, 41, 239, 9369319, 63018038201, 489133282872437279, 19175002942688032928599
Non-generous primes:
Primes p for which the least positive primitive root is not a primitive root of p2.
2, 40487, 6692367337
Odd primes:
Of the form 2n − 1.
3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 101, 103, 107, 109, 113,
127, 131, 137, 139, 149, 151, 157, 163, 167, 173, 179, 181, 191, 193, 197, 199...
Padovan primes:
Primes in the Padovan sequence P(0) = P(1) = P(2) = 1, P(n) = P(n−2) + P(n−3).
2, 3, 5, 7, 37, 151, 3329, 23833, 13091204281, 3093215881333057,
1363005552434666078217421284621279933627102780881053358473
Palindromic primes:
Primes that remain the same when their decimal digits are read backwards.
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 101, 131, 151, 181, 191, 313, 353, 373, 383, 727, 757, 787, 797, 919, 929, 10301, 10501, 10601,
11311, 11411, 12421, 12721, 12821, 13331, 13831, 13931, 14341, 14741
Palindromic wing primes:

a (10 m − 1)
m
Primes of the form ± b × 10 2
9
101, 131, 151, 181, 191, 313, 353, 373, 383, 727, 757, 787, 797, 919, 929, 11311, 11411, 33533, 77377, 77477,
77977, 1114111, 1117111, 3331333, 3337333, 7772777, 7774777, 7778777, 111181111, 111191111,
777767777, 77777677777, 99999199999
Partition primes:
Partition numbers that are prime.
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 101, 17977, 10619863, 6620830889, 80630964769, 228204732751, 1171432692373,
1398341745571, 10963707205259, 15285151248481, 10657331232548839, 790738119649411319,
18987964267331664557
Pell primes:
Primes in the Pell number sequence P0 = 0, P1 = 1, Pn = 2Pn−1 + Pn−2.
2, 5, 29, 5741, 33461, 44560482149, 1746860020068409, 68480406462161287469,
13558774610046711780701, 4125636888562548868221559797461449
Permutable primes:
Any permutation of the decimal digits is a prime.
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 31, 37, 71, 73, 79, 97, 113, 131, 199, 311, 337, 373, 733, 919, 991, 1111111111111111111,
11111111111111111111111
Perrin primes:
Primes in the Perrin number sequence P(0) = 3, P(1) = 0, P(2) = 2, P(n) = P(n−2) + P(n−3).
2, 3, 5, 7, 17, 29, 277, 367, 853, 14197, 43721, 1442968193, 792606555396977, 187278659180417234321,
66241160488780141071579864797
Pierpont primes:
Of the form 2u3v + 1 for some integers u,v ≥ 0.
These are also class 1- primes:.
2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 37, 73, 97, 109, 163, 193, 257, 433, 487, 577, 769, 1153, 1297, 1459, 2593, 2917, 3457,
3889, 10369, 12289, 17497, 18433, 39367, 52489, 65537, 139969, 147457
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Pillai primes:
Primes p for which there exist n > 0 such that p divides n!+ 1 and n does not divide p−1.
23, 29, 59, 61, 67, 71, 79, 83, 109, 137, 139, 149, 193, 227, 233, 239, 251, 257, 269, 271, 277, 293, 307, 311,
317, 359, 379, 383, 389, 397, 401, 419, 431, 449, 461, 463, 467, 479, 499
Primeval primes:
Primes for which there are more prime permutations of some or all the decimal digits than for any smaller
number.
2, 13, 37, 107, 113, 137, 1013, 1237, 1367, 10079
Primorial primes:
Of the form pn# −1 or pn# + 1.
3, 5, 7, 29, 31, 211, 2309, 2311, 30029, 200560490131, 304250263527209,
23768741896345550770650537601358309
Proth primes:
Of the form k×2n + 1, with odd k and k < 2n.
3, 5, 13, 17, 41, 97, 113, 193, 241, 257, 353, 449, 577, 641, 673, 769, 929, 1153, 1217, 1409, 1601, 2113, 2689,
2753, 3137, 3329, 3457, 4481, 4993, 6529, 7297, 7681, 7937, 9473, 9601, 9857
Pythagorean primes:
Of the form 4n + 1.
5, 13, 17, 29, 37, 41, 53, 61, 73, 89, 97, 101, 109, 113, 137, 149, 157, 173, 181, 193, 197, 229, 233, 241, 257,
269, 277, 281, 293, 313, 317, 337, 349, 353, 373, 389, 397, 401, 409, 421, 433, 449
Prime quadruplets:
Where (p, p+2, p+6, p+8) are all prime.
(5, 7, 11, 13), (11, 13, 17, 19), (101, 103, 107, 109), (191, 193, 197, 199), (821, 823, 827, 829), (1481, 1483,
1487, 1489), (1871, 1873, 1877, 1879), (2081, 2083, 2087, 2089), (3251, 3253, 3257, 3259), (3461, 3463, 3467,
3469), (5651, 5653, 5657, 5659), (9431, 9433, 9437, 9439)
Primes of binary quadratic form:

Of the form x2 + xy + 2y2, with non-negative integers x and y.
2, 11, 23, 37, 43, 53, 71, 79, 107, 109, 127, 137, 149, 151, 163, 193, 197, 211, 233, 239, 263, 281, 317, 331, 337,
373, 389, 401, 421, 431, 443, 463, 487, 491, 499, 541, 547, 557, 569, 599, 613, 617, 641, 653, 659, 673, 683,
739, 743, 751, 757, 809, 821
Quartan primes:
Of the form x4 + y4, where x,y > 0.
2, 17, 97, 257, 337, 641, 881
Ramanujan primes:
Integers Rn that are the smallest to give at least n primes: from x/2 to x for all x ≥ Rn (all such integers are
primes:).
2, 11, 17, 29, 41, 47, 59, 67, 71, 97, 101, 107, 127, 149, 151, 167, 179, 181, 227, 229, 233, 239, 241, 263, 269,
281, 307, 311, 347, 349, 367, 373, 401, 409, 419, 431, 433, 439, 461, 487, 491
Regular primes:
Primes p which do not divide the class number of the p-th cyclotomic field.
3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 41, 43, 47, 53, 61, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 107, 109, 113, 127, 137, 139, 151,
163, 167, 173, 179, 181, 191, 193, 197, 199, 211, 223, 227, 229, 239, 241, 251, 269, 277, 281
Repunit primes:
Primes containing only the decimal digit 1.
11, 1111111111111111111, 11111111111111111111111
The next have 317 and 1,031 digits.
Primes in residue classes:

Of the form an + d for fixed a and d. Also called primes: congruent to d modulo a.
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Three cases have their own entry: 2n+1 are the odd primes:, 4n+1 are Pythagorean primes:, 4n+3 are the integer
Gaussian primes:.
2n+1: 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53
4n+1: 5, 13, 17, 29, 37, 41, 53, 61, 73, 89, 97, 101, 109, 113, 137
4n+3: 3, 7, 11, 19, 23, 31, 43, 47, 59, 67, 71, 79, 83, 103, 107
6n+1: 7, 13, 19, 31, 37, 43, 61, 67, 73, 79, 97, 103, 109, 127, 139
6n+5: 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 41, 47, 53, 59, 71, 83, 89, 101, 107, 113
8n+1: 17, 41, 73, 89, 97, 113, 137, 193, 233, 241, 257, 281, 313, 337, 353
8n+3: 3, 11, 19, 43, 59, 67, 83, 107, 131, 139, 163, 179, 211, 227, 251
8n+5: 5, 13, 29, 37, 53, 61, 101, 109, 149, 157, 173, 181, 197, 229, 269
8n+7: 7, 23, 31, 47, 71, 79, 103, 127, 151, 167, 191, 199, 223, 239, 263
10n+1: 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 101, 131, 151, 181, 191, 211, 241, 251, 271, 281
10n+3: 3, 13, 23, 43, 53, 73, 83, 103, 113, 163, 173, 193, 223, 233, 263
10n+7: 7, 17, 37, 47, 67, 97, 107, 127, 137, 157, 167, 197, 227, 257, 277
10n+9: 19, 29, 59, 79, 89, 109, 139, 149, 179, 199, 229, 239, 269, 349, 359
10n+d (d = 1, 3, 7, 9) are primes: ending in the decimal digit d.
Right-truncatable primes:
Primes that remain prime when the last decimal digit is successively removed.
2, 3, 5, 7, 23, 29, 31, 37, 53, 59, 71, 73, 79, 233, 239, 293, 311, 313, 317, 373, 379, 593, 599, 719, 733, 739, 797,
2333, 2339, 2393, 2399, 2939, 3119, 3137, 3733, 3739, 3793, 3797
Safe primes:
Where p and (p−1) / 2 are both prime.
5, 7, 11, 23, 47, 59, 83, 107, 167, 179, 227, 263, 347, 359, 383, 467, 479, 503, 563, 587, 719, 839, 863, 887, 983,
1019, 1187, 1283, 1307, 1319, 1367, 1439, 1487, 1523, 1619, 1823, 1907
Self primes in base 10:

Primes that cannot be generated by any integer added to the sum of its decimal digits.
3, 5, 7, 31, 53, 97, 211, 233, 277, 367, 389, 457, 479, 547, 569, 613, 659, 727, 839, 883, 929, 1021, 1087, 1109,
1223, 1289, 1447, 1559, 1627, 1693, 1783, 1873
Sexy primes:
(5, 11), (7, 13), (11, 17), (13, 19), (17, 23), (23, 29), (31, 37), (37, 43), (41, 47), (47, 53), (53, 59), (61, 67), (67,
73), (73, 79), (83, 89), (97, 103), (101, 107), (103, 109), (107, 113), (131, 137), (151, 157), (157, 163), (167,
173), (173, 179), (191, 197), (193, 199)
Smarandache–Wellin primes:
Primes which are the concatenation of the first n primes: written in decimal.
2, 23, 2357
The fourth Smarandache-Wellin prime is the 355-digit concatenation of the first 128 primes: which end with 719.
Solinas primes:
Of the form 2a ± 2b ± 1, where 0 < b < a.
3, 5, 7, 11, 13
Sophie Germain primes:

Where p and 2p+1 are both prime.
2, 3, 5, 11, 23, 29, 41, 53, 83, 89, 113, 131, 173, 179, 191, 233, 239, 251, 281, 293, 359, 419, 431, 443, 491, 509,
593, 641, 653, 659, 683, 719, 743, 761, 809, 911, 953
Star primes:
Of the form 6n(n − 1) + 1.
13, 37, 73, 181, 337, 433, 541, 661, 937, 1093, 2053, 2281, 2521, 3037, 3313, 5581, 5953, 6337, 6733, 7561,
7993, 8893, 10333, 10837, 11353, 12421, 12973, 13537, 15913, 18481
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Stern primes:
Primes that are not the sum of a smaller prime and twice the square of a nonzero integer.
2, 3, 17, 137, 227, 977, 1187, 1493
Super-primes:
Primes with a prime index in the sequence of prime numbers (the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, ... prime).
3, 5, 11, 17, 31, 41, 59, 67, 83, 109, 127, 157, 179, 191, 211, 241, 277, 283, 331, 353, 367, 401, 431, 461, 509,
547, 563, 587, 599, 617, 709, 739, 773, 797, 859, 877, 919, 967, 991
Supersingular primes:
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 41, 47, 59, 71
Swinging primes:
Primes which are within 1 of a swinging factorial: n≀ ±1.
2, 3, 5, 7, 19, 29, 31, 71, 139, 251, 631, 3433, 12011
Thabit number primes:

Of the form 3×2n − 1.
2, 5, 11, 23, 47, 191, 383, 6143, 786431, 51539607551, 824633720831, 26388279066623,
108086391056891903, 55340232221128654847, 226673591177742970257407
Prime triplets:
Where (p, p+2, p+6) or (p, p+4, p+6) are all prime.
(5, 7, 11), (7, 11, 13), (11, 13, 17), (13, 17, 19), (17, 19, 23), (37, 41, 43), (41, 43, 47), (67, 71, 73), (97, 101,
103), (101, 103, 107), (103, 107, 109), (107, 109, 113), (191, 193, 197), (193, 197, 199), (223, 227, 229), (227,
229, 233), (277, 281, 283), (307, 311, 313), (311, 313, 317), (347, 349, 353)
Twin primes:
(3, 5), (5, 7), (11, 13), (17, 19), (29, 31), (41, 43), (59, 61), (71, 73), (101, 103), (107, 109), (137, 139), (149,
151), (179, 181), (191, 193), (197, 199), (227, 229), (239, 241), (269, 271), (281, 283), (311, 313), (347, 349),
(419, 421), (431, 433), (461, 463)
Two-sided primes:
Primes which are both left-truncatable and right-truncatable. There are exactly fifteen two-sided primes::
2, 3, 5, 7, 23, 37, 53, 73, 313, 317, 373, 797, 3137, 3797, 739397
Ulam number primes:

Ulam numbers that are prime.
2, 3, 11, 13, 47, 53, 97, 131, 197, 241, 409, 431, 607, 673, 739, 751, 983, 991, 1103, 1433, 1489, 1531, 1553,
1709, 1721, 2371, 2393, 2447, 2633, 2789, 2833, 2897
Unique primes:
The list of primes p for which the period length of the decimal expansion of 1/p is unique (no other prime gives
the same period).
3, 11, 37, 101, 9091, 9901, 333667, 909091, 99990001, 999999000001, 9999999900000001,
909090909090909091, 1111111111111111111, 11111111111111111111111, 900900900900990990990991
Wagstaff primes:
Of the form (2n+1) / 3.
3, 11, 43, 683, 2731, 43691, 174763, 2796203, 715827883, 2932031007403, 768614336404564651,
201487636602438195784363, 845100400152152934331135470251,
56713727820156410577229101238628035243
Page 64 of 330
Wall-Sun-Sun primes:
 p
A prime p > 5 if p2 divides the Fibonacci number F  p
, where the Legendre symbol   is defined as
p − 
5
5
 p   1 if p ≡ ±1 (mod 5)
 =
(mod 5)
As of 2011, no Wall-Sun-Sun primes: are known.
 5  − 1 if p ≡ ±2
Wedderburn-Etherington number primes:
Wedderburn-Etherington numbers that are prime.
2, 3, 11, 23, 983, 2179, 24631, 3626149, 253450711, 596572387
Weakly prime numbers

Primes that having any one of their (base 10) digits changed to any other value will always result in a composite
number.
294001, 505447, 584141, 604171, 971767, 1062599, 1282529, 1524181, 2017963, 2474431, 2690201, 3085553,
3326489, 4393139
Wieferich primes:
Primes p for which p2 divides 2p−1 − 1.
1093, 3511
Wieferich primes: base 3 (Mirimanoff primes:)

11, 1006003
Wieferich primes: base 5

Primes p for which p2 divides 5p−1 − 1
2, 20771, 40487, 53471161, 1645333507, 6692367337, 188748146801

66161, 534851, 3152573

5, 491531

3, 487, 56598313

71

2693, 123653

863, 1747591

3, 46021, 48947
Page 65 of 330
3, 7, 13, 43, 137, 63061489
Wilson primes:
Primes p for which p2 divides (p−1)! + 1.
5, 13, 563
Wolstenholme primes:
 2 p − 1
Primes p for which the binomial coefficient   ≡ 1 (mod p 4 )
 p − 1 
16843, 2124679
Woodall primes:
Of the form n×2n − 1.
7, 23, 383, 32212254719, 2833419889721787128217599, 195845982777569926302400511,
4776913109852041418248056622882488319
4.13 GENERALISATIONS FROM PRIME NUMBERS:
Perfect Numbers: A perfect number is a positive integer that is equal to the sum of its
proper positive divisors, excluding the number itself. Even perfect
numbers are of the form 2p−1(2p−1), where (2p−1) is prime and by
extension p is also prime. It is unknown whether there are any odd
perfect numbers.
List of Perfect Numbers:
Rank p Perfect number Digits Year Discoverer

1 2 6 1 Known to the Greeks
First seen in the medieval manuscript,
5 13 33550336 8 1456 Codex Lat. Monac.
6 17 8589869056 10 1588 Cataldi
7 19 12 1588 Cataldi
8 31 19 1772 Euler
9 61 37 1883 Pervushin
10 89 54 1911 Powers
11 107 65 1914 Powers
12 127 77 1876 Lucas
13 521 314 1952 Robinson
14 607 366 1952 Robinson
15 1279 770 1952 Robinson
16 2203 1327 1952 Robinson
17 2281 1373 1952 Robinson
18 3217 1937 1957 Riesel
19 4253 2561 1961 Hurwitz
20 4423 2663 1961 Hurwitz
21 9689 5834 1963 Gillies
22 9941 5985 1963 Gillies
Page 66 of 330
23 11213 6751 1963 Gillies
24 19937 12003 1971 Tuckerman
25 21701 13066 1978 Noll & Nickel
26 23209 13973 1979 Noll
27 44497 26790 1979 Nelson & Slowinski
28 86243 51924 1982 Slowinski
29 110503 66530 1988 Colquitt & Welsh
30 132049 79502 1983 Slowinski
31 216091 130100 1985 Slowinski
32 756839 455663 1992 Slowinski & Gage
33 859433 517430 1994 Slowinski & Gage
34 1257787 757263 1996 Slowinski & Gage
35 1398269 841842 1996 Armengaud, Woltman, et al.
36 2976221 1791864 1997 Spence, Woltman, et al.
37 3021377 1819050 1998 Clarkson, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
38 6972593 4197919 1999 Hajratwala, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
39 13466917 8107892 2001 Cameron, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
40 20996011 12640858 2003 Shafer, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
41 24036583 14471465 2004 Findley, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
42 25964951 15632458 2005 Nowak, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
Cooper, Boone, Woltman, Kurowski, et
43 30402457 18304103 2005 al.
Cooper, Boone, Woltman, Kurowski, et
44 32582657 19616714 2006 al.
45 37156667 22370543 2008 Elvenich, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
46 42643801 25674127 2009 Strindmo, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
47 43112609 25956377 2008 Smith, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
Amicable Numbers: Amicable numbers are two different numbers so related that the sum of
the proper divisors of each is equal to the other number.
List of Amicable Numbers:
Amicable Pairs Amicable Pairs Amicable Pairs

220 284 1,328,470 1,483,850 8,619,765 9,627,915
1,184 1,210 1,358,595 1,486,845 8,666,860 10,638,356
2,620 2,924 1,392,368 1,464,592 8,754,130 10,893,230
5,020 5,564 1,466,150 1,747,930 8,826,070 10,043,690
6,232 6,368 1,468,324 1,749,212 9,071,685 9,498,555
10,744 10,856 1,511,930 1,598,470 9,199,496 9,592,504
12,285 14,595 1,669,910 2,062,570 9,206,925 10,791,795
17,296 18,416 1,798,875 1,870,245 9,339,704 9,892,936
63,020 76,084 2,082,464 2,090,656 9,363,584 9,437,056
66,928 66,992 2,236,570 2,429,030 9,478,910 11,049,730
67,095 71,145 2,652,728 2,941,672 9,491,625 10,950,615
69,615 87,633 2,723,792 2,874,064 9,660,950 10,025,290
79,750 88,730 2,728,726 3,077,354 9,773,505 11,791,935
100,485 124,155 2,739,704 2,928,136 10,254,970 10,273,670
122,265 139,815 2,802,416 2,947,216 10,533,296 10,949,704
122,368 123,152 2,803,580 3,716,164 10,572,550 10,854,650
141,664 153,176 3,276,856 3,721,544 10,596,368 11,199,112
142,310 168,730 3,606,850 3,892,670 10,634,085 14,084,763
171,856 176,336 3,786,904 4,300,136 10,992,735 12,070,305
Page 67 of 330
176,272 180,848 3,805,264 4,006,736 11,173,460 13,212,076
185,368 203,432 4,238,984 4,314,616 11,252,648 12,101,272
196,724 202,444 4,246,130 4,488,910 11,498,355 12,024,045
280,540 365,084 4,259,750 4,445,050 11,545,616 12,247,504
308,620 389,924 4,482,765 5,120,595 11,693,290 12,361,622
319,550 430,402 4,532,710 6,135,962 11,905,504 13,337,336
356,408 399,592 4,604,776 5,162,744 12,397,552 13,136,528
437,456 455,344 5,123,090 5,504,110 12,707,704 14,236,136
469,028 486,178 5,147,032 5,843,048 13,671,735 15,877,065
503,056 514,736 5,232,010 5,799,542 13,813,150 14,310,050
522,405 525,915 5,357,625 5,684,679 13,921,528 13,985,672
600,392 669,688 5,385,310 5,812,130 14,311,688 14,718,712
609,928 686,072 5,459,176 5,495,264 14,426,230 18,087,818
624,184 691,256 5,726,072 6,369,928 14,443,730 15,882,670
635,624 712,216 5,730,615 6,088,905 14,654,150 16,817,050
643,336 652,664 5,864,660 7,489,324 15,002,464 15,334,304
667,964 783,556 6,329,416 6,371,384 15,363,832 16,517,768
726,104 796,696 6,377,175 6,680,025 15,938,055 17,308,665
802,725 863,835 6,955,216 7,418,864 16,137,628 16,150,628
879,712 901,424 6,993,610 7,158,710 16,871,582 19,325,698
898,216 980,984 7,275,532 7,471,508 17,041,010 19,150,222
947,835 1,125,765 7,288,930 8,221,598 17,257,695 17,578,785
998,104 1,043,096 7,489,112 7,674,088 17,754,165 19,985,355
1,077,890 1,099,390 7,577,350 8,493,050 17,844,255 19,895,265
1,154,450 1,189,150 7,677,248 7,684,672 17,908,064 18,017,056
1,156,870 1,292,570 7,800,544 7,916,696 18,056,312 18,166,888
1,175,265 1,438,983 7,850,512 8,052,488 18,194,715 22,240,485
1,185,376 1,286,744 8,262,136 8,369,864 18,655,744 19,154,336
1,280,565 1,340,235
Sociable Numbers: Sociable numbers are generalisations of amicable numbers where a

sequence of numbers each of whose numbers is the sum of the factors of
the preceding number, excluding the preceding number itself. The
sequence must be cyclic, eventually returning to its starting point
.
List of Sociable Numbers:
C4s
1264460
1547860
1727636
1305184
2115324
3317740
3649556
2797612
2784580
3265940
3707572
Page 68 of 330
3370604
4938136
5753864
5504056
5423384
7169104
7538660
8292568
7520432
C5 Poulet 1918 5D
12496 2^4*11*71
14288 2^4*19*47
15472 2^4*967
14536 2^3*23*79
14264 2^3*1783
C6 Moews&Moews 1992 11D

21548919483 3^5*7^2*13*19*17*431
23625285957 3^5*7^2*13*19*29*277
24825443643 3^2*7^2*13*19*11*20719
26762383557 3^4*7^2*13*19*27299
25958284443 3^2*7^2*13*19*167*1427
23816997477 3^2*7^2*13*19*218651
C6 Moews&Moews 1995 11D/12D

90632826380 2^2*5*109*431*96461
101889891700 2^2*5^2*31*193*170299
127527369100 2^2*5^2*31*181*227281
159713440756 2^2*31*991*1299709
129092518924 2^2*31*109*9551089
106246338676 2^2*17*25411*61487
C6 Needham 2006 13D

1771417411016 2^3*11*20129743307
1851936384424 2^3*7*1637*20201767
2118923133656 2^3*7*863*43844627
2426887897384 2^3*59*5141711647
2200652585816 2^3*43*1433*4464233
2024477041144 2^3*253059630143
C6 Needham 2006 13D

3524434872392 2^3*7*17*719*5149009
4483305479608 2^3*89*6296777359
4017343956392 2^3*13*17*3019*752651
4574630214808 2^3*607*6779*138967
4018261509992 2^3*31*59*274621481
3890837171608 2^3*61*22039*361769
Page 69 of 330
C6 Needham 2006 13D
4773123705616 2^4*7*347*122816069
5826394399664 2^4*101*3605442079
5574013457296 2^4*53*677*1483*6547
5454772780208 2^4*53*239*2971*9059
5363145542992 2^4*307*353*3093047
5091331952624 2^4*318208247039
C8 Flammenkamp 1990 Brodie ? 10D

1095447416 2^3*7*313*62497
1259477224 2^3*43*3661271
1156962296 2^3*7*311*66431
1330251784 2^3*43*3867011
1221976136 2^3*41*1399*2663
1127671864 2^3*11*61*83*2531
1245926216 2^3*19*8196883
1213138984 2^3*67*2263319
C8 Flammenkamp 1990 Brodie ? 10D

1276254780 2^2*3*5*1973*10781
2299401444 2^2*3*991*193357
3071310364 2^2*767827591
2303482780 2^2*5*67*211*8147
2629903076 2^2*23*131*218213
2209210588 2^2*13^2*17*192239
2223459332 2^2*131*4243243
1697298124 2^2*907*467833
C9 Flammenkamp 1990 9D/10D

805984760 2^3*5*7*1579*1823
1268997640 2^3*5*17*61*30593
1803863720 2^3*5*103*367*1193
2308845400 2^3*5^2*11544227
3059220620 2^2*5*2347*65173
3367978564 2^2*841994641
2525983930 2*5*17*367*40487
2301481286 2*13*19*4658869
1611969514 2*805984757
C28 Poulet 1918 5D/6D

14316 2^2*3*1193
19116 2^2*3^4*59
31704 2^3*3*1321
47616 2^9*3*31
83328 2^7*3*7*31
177792 2^7*3*463
295488 2^6*3^5*19
629072 2^4*39317
589786 2*294893
294896 2^4*7*2633
Page 70 of 330
358336 2^6*11*509
418904 2^3*52363
366556 2^2*91639
274924 2^2*13*17*311
275444 2^2*13*5297
243760 2^4*5*11*277
376736 2^5*61*193
381028 2^2*95257
285778 2*43*3323
152990 2*5*15299
122410 2*5*12241
97946 2*48973
48976 2^4*3061
45946 2*22973
22976 2^6*359
22744 2^3*2843
19916 2^2*13*383
17716 2^2*43*103
This list is exhaustive for known social numbers where
C>4
4.14 GOLDEN RATIO & FIBONACCI SEQUENCE:
Relationship:
ϕ = 1.6180339887498948482045868343656381177203091798058
Infinite Series:
Continued Fractions:
Page 71 of 330
Trigonometric Expressions:
Fibonacci Sequence:
ϕ n − (1 − ϕ ) n ϕ n − (−ϕ ) − n
F ( n) = =
5 5
1   1 + 5   1 − 5  
n n
F ( n) =   − 
5   2   2  
 
4.15 FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM:
a n + b n ≠ c n for integers a, b & c and n > 2
Proposed by Fermat in 1637 as an extension of Diophantus’s explanation of the case when n=2.
Case when n=3 was proved by Euler (1770)
Case when n=4 was proved by Fermat
Case when n=5 was proved by Legendre and Dirichlet (1885)
Case when n=7 was proved by Gabriel Lamé (1840)
General case when n>2 was proved by Andrew Wiles (1994). The proof is too long to be
written here. See: http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~anindya/fermat.pdf
4.16 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:
Axioms:
Axiom Dual Name
B = 0 if B ≠ 1 B = 1 if B ≠ 0 Binary Field
0 =1 1= 0 NOT
0•0 = 0 1+1 = 1 AND/OR
1•1 = 1 0+0 = 0 AND/OR
0 •1 = 1• 0 = 0 0 +1 = 1+ 0 = 1 AND/OR
Page 72 of 330
Theorems of one variable:
Theorem Dual Name
B •1 = B B+0= B Identity
B•0 = 0 B +1 = 1 Null Element
B•B = B B+B= B Idempotency
Involution
B=B
B•B = 0 B + B =1 Complements
Theorems of several variables:

Theorem Dual Name
B•C = C • B B+C =C + B Commutativity
(B • C ) • D = B • (C • D ) (B + C ) + D = B + (C + D ) Associativity
(B • C ) + (B • D ) = B • (C + D ) (B + C ) • (B + D ) = B + (C • D ) Distributivity
B • (B + C ) = B B + (B • C ) = B Covering
(B • C ) + (B • C ) = B (B + C ) • (B + C ) = B Combining
(B • C ) + (B • D ) + (C • D ) = B • C + B • D (B • C ) + (B • D ) + (C • D ) = B • C +Consesnus
( )
B1 • B2 • ... = B1 + B2 + ... (
B1 + B2 + ... = B1 • B2 • ...) De Morgan’s
Page 73 of 330
PART 5: COUNTING TECHNIQUES & PROBABILITY
5.1 2D
n(n + 1)
Triangle Number Tn =
2
n = Tn + Tn −1
2
Square Number Tn = n 2
n(3n − 1)
Pentagonal Number Tn =
2
5.2 3D
n 3 + 3n 2 + 2n
Tetrahedral Number Tn =
6
2n + 3n 2 + n
3
Square Pyramid Number Tn =
6
5.3 PERMUTATIONS
Permutations: = n!
n!
Permutations (with repeats): =
(groupA)!×(groupB )!×...
5.4 COMBINATIONS
n!
Ordered Combinations: =
(n − p )!
n n!
Unordered Combinations: =   =
 p  p!(n − p )!
Ordered Repeated Combinations: = n p
Unordered Repeated Combinations: =
( p + n − 1)!
p!×(n − 1)!
 n  n − n1  n − n1 − n2  n!
Grouping: =    ... =
 n1  n2  n3  n1!n2 !n3!...nr !
5.5 MISCELLANEOUS:
Total Number of Rectangles and Squares from a a x b rectangle:
∑ = Ta × Tb
Number of Interpreters: = TL −1
c(c + 1)
Max number of pizza pieces: = +1
2
c(c + 3)
Max pieces of a crescent: = +1
2
c 3 + 5c
Max pieces of cheese: = +1
6
Page 74 of 330
l (3l + 1)
Cards in a card house: =
2
n−d
Different arrangement of dominos: = 2 × n!
b 
a − MOD  
Unit Fractions:
a
=
1
+ a
b   
INT   + 1 b INT   + 1
b b
a   a  
Angle between two hands of a clock: θ = 5.5m − 30h
Winning Lines in Noughts and Crosses: = 2(a + 1)
P
Bad Restaurant Spread: =
1− s
1   1 + 5   1 − 5  
n n
Fibonacci Sequence: =   − 
5   2   2  
 
ABBREVIATIONS (5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5)

a=side ‘a’
b=side ‘b’
c=cuts
d=double dominos
h=hours
L=Languages
l=layers
m=minutes
n= nth term
n=n number
P=Premium/Starting Quantity
p=number you pick
r=number of roles/turns
s=spread factor
T=Term
θ=the angle
5.6 FACTORIAL:
Definition: n!= n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × ... × 2 × 1

Table of Factorials:
0! 1 (by definition)
1! 1 11! 39916800
2! 2 12! 479001600
3! 6 13! 6227020800
4! 24 14! 87178291200
5! 120 15! 1307674368000
6! 720 16! 20922789888000
7! 5040 17! 355687428096000
Page 75 of 330
8! 40320 18! 6402373705728000
9! 362880 19! 121645100408832000
10! 3628800 20! 2432902008176640000
1
n+
Approximation: n!≈ 2π × n 2
× e −n (within 1% for n>10)
5.7 THE DAY OF THE WEEK:

This only works after 1753
  31m   y   y   y  
= MOD7 d + y +  + − +  
  12   4  100   400  
d=day
m=month
y=year
SQUARE BRAKETS MEAN INTEGER DIVISION
INT=Keep the integer
MOD=Keep the remainder
5.8 BASIC PROBABILITY:
Axiom’s of Probability:
1. P(Ω ) = 1 for the eventspace Ω
2. P( A) ∈ [0,1] for any event A.
3. If A1 and A2 are disjoint, then P( A1 ∪ A2 ) = P( A1 ) + P( A2 )
∞  ∞
Generally, if Ai are mutually disjoint, then P U Ai  = ∑ P( Ai )
 i =1  i =1
A∪ B = B∪ A
Commutative Laws:
A∩ B = B∩ A
( A ∪ B ) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )
Associative Laws:
( A ∩ B ) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C )
( A ∪ B ) ∩ C = ( A ∩ C ) ∪ (B ∩ C )
Distributive Laws:
( A ∩ B ) ∪ C = ( A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
1 if point is ∈ D
Indicator Function: ΙD = 
0 if point is ∉ D
5.9 VENN DIAGRAMS:
Complementary Events: 1 − P ( A) = P A()

Null Set: P(Φ ) = 0
m
P( A) = ∑ P ( A | Bi ) P( Bi )
Totality: i =1
P( A) = P ( A | B1 ) P( B1 ) + P( A | B2 ) P ( B2 ) + ...
where Bi ∩ B j = Φ for i ≠ j
P( A) = P( A ∩ B ) + P( A ∩ B ' )
Page 76 of 330
P( A ∩ B )
Conditional Probability: P( A | B ) =
P (B )
P( A ∩ B ) = P(B ) ⋅ P( A | B ) = P( A) ⋅ P (B | A) (Multiplication Law)
Union: P( A ∪ B ) = P( A) + P(B ) − P( A ∩ B ) (Addition Law)
Independent Events: P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A) ⋅ P ( B )
P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A) ⋅ P ( B )
P (B | A) = P (B )
P( A1 ∩ A2 ∩ ... ∩ Ak ) = P( A1 )P( A2 )...P( Ak )
Mutually Exclusive: P( A ∩ B ) = 0
P( A ∩ B ') = P( A)
P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A) + P ( B )
P ( A ∪ B ') = P ( B ')
Subsets: if A ⊂ B then P( A) ≤ P(B )
Baye’s Theorem:
P( A | B ) P( B) P( A | B ) P( B)
P( B | A) = =
P ( A) P ( A | B) P ( B) + P( A | B' ) P( B' )
m
Event’s Space: P( A) = ∑ P( A ∩ Bi )
i =1
5.11 BASIC STATISTICAL OPERATIONS:
Variance: v =σ2
µ −a a b µ a+b
Arithmetic Mean: = = = ⇒µ=
b−µ a b µ 2
µ=
∑ xi
ns
b−µ µ b
Geometric Mean: = = ⇒ µ = ab
µ −a a µ
b−µ b 2
Harmonic Mean: = ⇒µ=
µ −a a 1/ a + 1/ b
x −µ
Standardized Score: z= i
σ
Confidence Interval:
Quantile: The pth of quantile of the distribution F is defined to be the value xp such that
F ( x p ) = p or P( X ≤ x p ) = p
∴ x p = F −1 ( p )
x0.25 is the lower quartile
x0.5 is the median
x0.75 is the upper quartile
5.12 DISCRETE RANDOM VARIABLES:
∑ (x )
2
−x
Standard Deviation: σ= i
ns
Expected Value:
Page 77 of 330
i
E[ X ] = ∑ P ( xi ) × xi
1
E[aX + b] = aE[ X ] + b
Variance:
∑ (x )
2
−x
v= i
ns
v = (E [x − E[ x]])
2
v = E[ x 2 ] − (E[ x])
2
var[aX + b] = a 2 var[ X ]
Probability Mass Function: P( x) = f ( x) = P( X = x)
Cumulative Distribution Function: F ( x) = P( X ≤ x)
F ( x + 0) = F ( x)
5.13 COMMON DRVs:
Bernoulli Trial:
Definition: 1 trial, 1 probability that is either fail or success
Example: Probability of getting a 6 from one roll of a die
Outcomes: S X = {0,1}
 p x =1
Probability: PX ( x) = 
1 − p x = 0
Expected Value: E[ X ] = p
Variance: Var[ X ] = p − p 2 = p(1 − p )
Binomial Trial:
Definition: Repeated Bernoulli Trials
Example: Probability of getting x 6s from n rolls of a die
Outcomes: S X = {0,1,2,3,...n}
n
PX ( x ) =   ⋅ ( p ) ⋅ (1 − p )
x n− x
Probability:
 x
Expected Value: E[ X ] = np
Variance: Var[ X ] = np(1 − p )
n=number to choose from

p=probability of x occurring
x=number of favorable results
Poisson Distribution:
Definition: The limit of the binomial distribution as n → ∞, p → 0
Example: Probability of getting x 6s from n rolls of a die
Outcomes: S X = {0,1,2,3,...n}
λ x −λ
Probability: PX ( x ) = e , λ = np
x!
Expected Value: E[ X ] = np = λ
Variance: Var[ X ] = np = λ
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Geometric Binomial Trial:
Definition: Number of Bernoulli Trials to get 1st Success.
Example: Probability of getting the first 6s from n rolls of a die
Outcomes: S X = {0,1,2,3,...}
PX (x ) = p (1 − p )
x −1
Probability:
1
Expected Value: E[ X ] =
p
1− p
Variance: Var[ X ] = 2
p
Negative Binomial Trial:

Definition: Number to 1st get to n successes.
Example: Probability of getting the first n 6s from x rolls of a die
 x − 1 x
Probability: PX ( x ) =   p (1 − p )n− x
 n − 1
k
p
kn(1 − p )
Variance: Var[ X ] =
p2
Hypergeometric Trial:
Definition: Number of choosing k out of m picks from n possiblities without replacement
Example: An urn with black balls and other coloured balls. Finding the probability of
getting m black balls out of n without replacement.
 r  n − r 
  
 k  m − k 
Probability: PX ( x ) =
n
 
 m
mr
n
n = number of balls
r = number of black balls
m = number of balls drawn from urn without replacement
k = number of black balls drawn from urn
5.14 CONTINUOUS RANDOM VARIABLES:

Probability Density Function: = f (x )
∞
If ∫ f ( x)dx = 1 & f ( x) ≥ 0 for − ∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞
−∞
x
Cumulative Distribution Function: = F ( x ) = P ( X ≤ x ) = ∫ f ( x ) dx

−∞
b
Interval Probability: P(a ≤ X ≤ b) = F (b) − F (a) = ∫ f ( x)dx
a
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∞
Expected Value: E ( x) = ∫ x × f ( x)dx
−∞
∞
E ( g ( x)) = ∫ g ( x) × f ( x)dx
−∞
Variance: Var ( X ) = E ( X 2 ) − ( E ( X )) 2
5.15 COMMON CRVs:
Uniform Distribution:
Declaration: X ~ Uniform(a, b)
 1
 a≤ x≤b
PDF: f ( x) =  b − a
 0 otherwise
 0 x<a
x−a
x
CDF: F ( x ) = ∫ f ( x ) dx =  a≤ x≤b
−∞ b − a
 1 x>b
a+b
Expected Value: =
2
Variance: =
(b − a)
2
12
Exponential Distribution:
Declaration: X ~ Exponential (λ )
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 0 x<0
PDF: f ( x ) =  −λx
λe x≥0
x
 0 x<0
CDF: F ( x) =
−∞
∫ f ( x)dx = 1 − e λ − x
x≥0
1
Expected Value: =
λ
1
Variance: = 2
λ
Normal Distribution:
Declaration: X ~ Normal ( µ , σ 2 )
x−µ
Standardized Z Score: Z=
σ
−1 x − µ 
2
−1
1   1 z2
σ 
PDF: f ( x) = e2 = e2
σ 2π σ 2π
CDF: Φ(Z ) (The integration is provided within statistic tables)

Expected Value: =µ
=σ
2
Variance:
5.16 BIVARIABLE DISCRETE:
Probability:
P ( X = x, Y = y ) = f ( x, y )
P( X ≤ x, Y ≤ y ) = ∑ f ( x, y ) over all values of x & y
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Marginal Distribution:
f X ( x ) = ∑ f ( xi , y )
y
f Y ( y ) = ∑ f ( x, yi )
x
Expected Value:
E[ X ] = ∑ x × f X ( x)
x
E[Y ] = ∑ y × f Y ( y )
y
E[ X , Y ] = ∑∑ x × y × f X ,Y ( x, y )
x y
Independence: f ( x, y ) = f X ( x ) × f Y ( y )
Covariance: Cov = E[ X , Y ] − E[ X ] × E[Y ]
5.17 BIVARIABLE CONTINUOUS:
Conditions:
∞ ∞
f X ,Y ( x, y ) ≥ 0 & ∫ ∫ f (x, y )dxdy = 1
X ,Y
−∞−∞
Probability:
y x
P( X ≤ x, Y ≤ y ) = FX ,Y ( x, y ) = ∫∫f X ,Y ( x, y )dxdy
−∞−∞
x
P( X < x) = P ( X < x,−∞ < Y < ∞) = ∫f
−∞
X ( x)dx
P(Y < y ) = P(−∞ < X < ∞, Y < y ) = ∫f

−∞
Y ( y )dy
Where the domain is:

D = {( x, y ) : x ∈ (a, b ), y ∈ (α ( x ), β ( x ))}
b β (x )
∫ f X ,Y ( x, y )dxdy = ∫ ∫ f ( x, y )dydx
X ,Y
D
a α( )
x
Where the domain is:
D = {( x, y ) : x ∈ (γ ( x ), δ ( x )), y ∈ (c, d )}
d δ (x )
∫ f X ,Y ( x, y )dxdy = ∫ ∫ f (x, y )dxdy

X ,Y
D
c γ (x )
Where the domain is the event space:
b β (x) d δ (x )
∫ α∫( ) f X ,Y ( x, y )dydx = ∫ ∫ f (x, y )dxdy = 1

X ,Y
a x c γ (x)
Marginal Distribution:
b
f X ( x ) = ∫ f X ,Y ( x, y )dy where a & b are bounds of y
a
Page 82 of 330
b
f Y ( y ) = ∫ f X ,Y ( x, y )dx where a & b are bounds of x
a
Measure:
mes(D ) = ∫ f X ,Y ( x, y )dxdy where f X ,Y ( x, y ) = 1
D
mes(D ) = ∫ dxdy (In this case, mes(D) is the area of D)

D
Expected Value:
∞
E[ X ] = ∫ x × f X ( x)dx
−∞
∞
E[Y ] = ∫ y× f
−∞
Y ( y )dy
∞ ∞
E[ X , Y ] = ∫ ∫ x× y× f
− ∞−∞
X ,Y ( x, y )dxdy
Independence: f ( x, y ) = f X ( x ) × f Y ( y )
f ( x, y )
Conditional: f X |Y ( x | y ) = X ,Y
fY ( y)
f X |Y ( x | y ) = f X ( x | Y = y )
P( X ∈ A | Y = y ) = ∫ f X (x | Y = y )dx
A
Covariance: Cov = E[ X , Y ] − E[ X ] × E[Y ]
Cov( X , Y )
Correlation Coefficient: ρ X ,Y =
σ XσY
Bivariate Unifrom Distribution:
k if (x, y) ∈ D
f X ,Y ( x, y ) = k × Ι D ( x, y ) = 
0 if (x, y) ∉ D
y x
FX ,Y ( x, y ) = ∫∫f X ,Y ( x, y )dxdy
−∞−∞
1 1
k= =
∫D
dxdy mes( D)
Multivariate Uniform Distribution:
k if ( x1 , x2 ,...) ∈ D
f X 1 , X 2 ,... ( x1 , x2 ,...) = k × Ι D ( x1 , x2 ,...) = 
0 if ( x1 , x2 ,...) ∉ D
FX 1 , X 2 ,... ( x1 , x2 ,...) = ∫ f X 1 , X 2 ,... ( x1 , x2 ,...)dx1dx2 ...
D
1
k=
mes( D)
Bivariate Normal Distribution:
 −1  (x−µ X )2 + ( y − µY )2 − 2 ρ ( x − µ X )( y − µY )  
 
( )
f X ,Y ( x, y ) =
1  2 1− ρ 2 σ X2 σ Y2 σ XσY 
×e  
2πσ X σ Y 1 − ρ 2
where µ X , µY ∈ ℜ & σ X , σ Y > 0 & ρ ∈ (− 1,1)
Page 83 of 330
Note that the curves in ℜ 2 where f X ,Y ( x, y ) = k are circles if ρ = 0 and
elipses if ρ ≠ 0 provided σ X = σ Y . The centre is at the point (µ X , µY )
5.18 FUNCTIONS OF RANDOM VARIABLES:
Sums (Discrete):
Z = X +Y
Z = z iff X = x, Y = z − x
f Z ( z ) = P (Z = z ) = ∑ P ( X = x , Y = z − x ) = ∑ f X , Y ( x , z − x )
x x
If X & Y are independent: (ie: the convolution of f X ( x ) & fY ( x ) )

f Z ( z ) = ∑ f X , Y ( x, z − x ) = ∑ f X ( x ) f Y ( z − x )
x x
Sums (Continuous):
Z = X +Y
Z ≤ z iff ( X , Y ) is in the region {x + y ≤ z}
∞ z−x
FZ ( z ) = P(Z ≤ z ) = ∫ ∫ f (x, y )dydx
X ,Y
−∞ −∞
∞ z−x ∞ z−x ∞
d  
f Z (z ) = (z ) = ∫ ∫ f X ,Y (x, y )dydx = ∫  ∫ f X ,Y (x, y )dy dx = ∫ f X ,Y (x, z − x )dx
dFZ d
 
z dz − ∞ − ∞ −∞
dz  − ∞  −∞
If X & Y are independent: (ie: the convolution of f X ( x ) & fY ( x ) )

∞ ∞
f Z (z ) = ∫ f (x, z − x )dx = ∫ f (x ) f (z − x )dx
X ,Y X Y
−∞ −∞
Quotients (Discrete):
Z =Y /X
Z = z iff X = x, Y = zx
f Z ( z ) = P(Z = z ) = ∑ P( X = x, Y = zx ) =∑ f X ,Y ( x, zx )
x x
If X & Y are independent:
f Z ( z ) = ∑ f X ,Y ( x, z − x ) = ∑ f X (x ) fY ( zx )
x x
Quotients (Continuous):
Z =Y /X
Z ≤ z iff ( X , Y ) is in the region {y / x ≤ z}
If x > 0 , then y < zx . If x < 0 , then y > zx . Thus,
0 ∞ ∞ zx
FZ ( z ) = P(Z ≤ z ) = ∫∫ f X ,Y ( x, y )dydx + ∫ ∫ f (x, y )dydx
X ,Y
− ∞ zx 0 −∞
Page 84 of 330
0 ∞ ∞ zx
f Z (z ) = (z ) = d ∫ ∫ f X ,Y (x, y )dydx + d ∫ ∫ f X ,Y (x, y )dydx
dFZ
z dz − ∞ zx dz 0 − ∞
∞ ∞ ∞
d   d  
0 zx 0
= 
∫ dz  zx∫ X ,Y
f ( x , y )dy 
 dx + 
∫0 dz  −∫∞ X ,Y
f ( x , y )dy 
 dx = ∫ X ,Y
− xf ( x , zx )dx + ∫0 xf X ,Y (x, zx )dx
−∞   −∞
∞
f Z (z ) = ∫ x f (x, zx )dx
X ,Y
−∞
If X & Y are independent:
∞
f Z (z ) = ∫ x f (x ) f (zx )dx
X Y
−∞
Maximum:
Assuming that X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n are independant random variables with cdf F and density f.
Z = max ( X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n )
Z ≤ z iff X i ≤ z , ∀i
FZ ( z ) = P(Z ≤ z ) = P( X 1 ≤ z , X 2 ≤ z ,..., X n ≤ z ) = P( X 1 ≤ z ) × P( X 2 ≤ z ) × ... × P( X n ≤ z ) = (FX ( z ))
n
f Z ( z ) = (FX ( z )) = nFX ( z ) f X ( z )
d n n−1
dz
Minimum:
Z = min ( X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n )
Z > z iff X i > z , ∀i
FZ ( z ) = P(Z ≤ z ) = 1 − P(Z > z ) = 1 − P( X 1 > z , X 2 > z ,..., X n > z )
= 1 − P( X 1 > z ) × P( X 2 > z ) × ... × P ( X n > z ) = 1 − (1 − FX ( z ))
n
f Z (z ) =
d
dz
( n
)
1 − (1 − FX ( z )) = n(1 − FX ( z )) f X ( z )
n −1
Order Statistics:
Sorting X i in non decreasing order:
X (1) ≤ X (2 ) ≤ ... ≤ X (n )
The kth order statistic of a statistical sample is equal to its kth smallest value.
Particularly: X (1) = min ( X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n ) and X ( n ) = max ( X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n )
Let 1 < k < n . The event x < X (k ) ≤ x + dx occurs if:
1. k − 1 observations are less than x
2. one observation is in the interval (x, x + dx ]
3. n − k observations are greater than x + dx
The probability of any particular arrangment of this type is:
= f (x)F (x) (1− F(x))

k −1 n−k
dx
By the combination law:
f K (k ) = f (x )F ( x ) (1 − F ( x ))
n! k −1 n−k
(k − 1)!(n − k )!
Page 85 of 330
5.19 TRANSFORMATION OF THE JOINT DENSITY:
Bivariate Functions:
Let X and Y have joint density f X ,Y ( x, y )
Let g1 : ℜ → ℜ & g 2 : ℜ2 → ℜ
2
U = g1 ( X , Y ) & V = g 2 ( X , Y )
Assuming that g1 & g 2 can be inverted. There exist h1 : ℜ2 → ℜ & h2 : ℜ2 → ℜ so that
X = h1 (U ,V ) & Y = h2 (U ,V )
Multivariate Functions:
Let X 1 ,..., X n have joint density f X ( x1 ,.., xn )
Let g i : ℜn → ℜ
Yi = g i ( X 1 ,..., X n )
Assuming that g i can be inverted. There exist hi : ℜn → ℜ so that
X i = hi (Y1 ,..., Yn )
Jacobian:
 ∂g1 ∂g1 
 ∂x ( x, y ) ∂y ( x, y ) ∂g ∂g ∂g ∂g
J ( x, y ) =   = 1 ( x, y ) × 2 ( x , y ) − 1 ( x, y ) × 2 ( x, y )
∂ ∂
 2 ( x, y )
g g 2
(x, y ) ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
 ∂x ∂y 

 ∂g1 ∂g1 
 x (x ) ... x ( x )
 1 
J ( x, y ) =  ...
n
... ... 
 ∂g n ( x ) ... ∂g n ( x )
 x1 xn 
 
There is an assumption that the derivateves exist and that J ( x, y ) ≠ 0∀x, y
Joint Density:
f X ,Y (h1 (u, v ), h2 (u , v ))
fU ,V (u , v ) =
J (h1 (u , v ), h2 (u, v ))
f X (h1 ( x1 ,..., xn ),..., hn ( x1 ,..., xn ))
fY ( y1 ,..., yn ) =
J (h1 ( x1 ,..., xn ),..., hn ( x1 ,..., xn ))
ABBREVIATIONS
σ = Standard Deviation
µ = mean
ns = number of scores
p = probability of favourable result
v = variance
xi = Individual x score
x = mean of the x scores
Page 86 of 330
z = Standardized Score
Page 87 of 330
PART 6: STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
6.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES:
y..
y.. = ∑∑ yij , y.. =
i =1 j =1 N
yi .
yi. = ∑ yij , yi. =
j =1 n1
y. j
y. j = ∑ yij , y. j =
i =1 a
SS x
Mean Square Value of x: MS x =
df ( x )
MS x
F-Statistic of x: F=
MSE
SS ÷ (a − 1)
F-Statistic of the Null Hypothesis: F0 = TREATMENT ~ Fa −1, N − a
SS ERROR ÷ ( N − a )
P-Value: p = P ( F > F0 )
Relative Efficiency: Multiplication of CRD observations that need to be carried out to
ignore the effect of a block (or similar).
6.2 CONTINUOUS REPLICATE DESIGN (CRD):
Treatments: =a
Factors: =1
Replications per treatment: = ni
Total Treatments: = N = nT = n1 + n2 + ... + nt
Mathematical Model:
 i = 1,2,..., a
yij = µ i + ε ij , 
 j = 1,2,..., ni
 i = 1,2,..., a
yij = µ + τ i + ε ij , 
 j = 1,2,..., ni
yij ~ N ( µ + τ i ,σ 2 )
a: number of levels of the factor,

ni :is the number of observations on the ith level of the factor,
yij :is the ijth observation and
Page 88 of 330
εij :random experimental error, normally independently distributed with mean
0 and variance σ2
a
∑µ i
µ: overall mean = i =1
a
µi: treatment mean
a
τi: ith treatment effect = yi . − y.. where ∑τ
i =1
i =0
Test for Treatment Effect:
ANOVA:
Source of Variation Degrees of Freedom Sum of Squares
( )  a y 2 y2
a
SS TREATMENT = ∑ ni yi . − y.. =  ∑ i .  − ..
2
Treatment t-1
i =1  i =1 ni  N
( )
a ni
SS ERROR = ∑∑ yij − yi.
2
Error nT - 1 = SST − SSTREATMENT
i =1 j =1
( )  a ni 2  y.. 2
a ni
SS T = ∑∑ yij − y.. =  ∑∑ yij  −
2
Total nT - t
i =1 j =1  i =1 j =1  N
6.3 RANDOMISED BLOCK DESIGN (RBD):
Treatments: =a
Factors: =1
Replications per treatment: = b
Total Treatments: = N = ab
Mathematical Model:
 i = 1,2,..., a
yij = µ ij + ε ij , 
 j = 1,2,..., b
 i = 1,2,..., a
yij = µ + τ i + β j + ε ij , 
 j = 1,2,..., ni

b :is the number of blocks
0 and variance σ2
µ: overall mean
Page 89 of 330
τi: ith treatment effect
βj: jh block effect
Test for Block Effect:
MSECRD (b − 1)MS BLOCK + b(a − 1)MSE

Relative Efficiency: RE RBD / CRD = =
MSE RBD (ba − 1)MSE
ANOVA:
Source of Degrees of Sum of Squares
Variation Freedom
( )
2
a
1 a 2 y
SSTREATMENT = b∑ yi. − y.. =  ∑ yi .  − ..
2
Treatment a-1
i =1 b  i =1  N
( )
2
b
1 b 2 y
SS BLOCK = a ∑ y. j − y..  ∑ y. j  − ..
2
Block b-1 =
i =1 a  i =1  N
( )
a b
SS ERROR = ∑∑ yij − yi . − y. j + y..
2
Error (a-1)(b-1) = SS T − SS TREATMENT − SS BLOCKS
i =1 j =1
( )  a b 2
a b 2
y..
SS T = ∑∑ yij − y.. =  ∑∑ yij  −
2
Total ab-1  
i =1 j =1  i =1 j =1  N
6.4 LATIN SQUARE DESIGN (LSD):

a=4 design 1 2 3 4
1 y111 y 221 y331 y 441
2 y 212 y322 y 432 y142
3 y313 y 423 y133 y 243
4 y 414 y124 y 234 y344
Treatments: =a
Factors: =1
Replications per treatment: = a
Total Treatments: = N = a2
Mathematical Model:
 i = 1,2,..., a

yijk = µ ijk + ε ijk ,  j = 1,2,..., a
k = 1,2,..., a
 i = 1,2,..., a

yij = µ + τ i + β j + γ k + ε ij ,  j = 1,2,..., a
k = 1,2,..., a

yijk :is the ijkth observation and
Page 90 of 330
εijk :random experimental error, normally independently distributed with
mean 0 and variance σ2
µ: overall mean
βj: jth row effect
γ k: kth column effect
MSECRD MS ROWS + MS COLUMNS + (a − 1)MSE

Relative Efficiency: RE LSD / CRD = =
MSE LSD (a + 1)MSE
ANOVA:
Source of Degrees of Sum of Squares
Variation Freedom
( )
a
SSTREATMENT = a ∑ yi.. − y...
2
Treatment a-1
i =1
( )
a
SS ROWS = a ∑ y. j . − y...
2
Rows a-1
i =1
( )
a
SS COLUMNS = a ∑ y..k − y...
2
Columns a-1
i =1
( )
a a a
SS ERROR = ∑∑∑ yijk − yi.. − y. j . − y..k + 2 y...
2
Error a 2 − 3a + 2
i =1 j =1 k =1
( )
a a a
SS T = ∑∑∑ yijk − y...
2
Total a2 −1
i =1 j =1 k =1
6.5 ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE:
Mathematical Model:
 i = 1,2,..., a
( )
yij = µ + τ i + β xij − x + ε ij , 
 j = 1,2,..., ni

ni :is the number of observations on the ith level of the factor,
0 and variance σ2
µ: overall mean
β: linear regression coefficient indicating dependency of yij on xij
xij :is the ijth covariate
Assumptions:
• Treatment do not influence the covariate
o May be obvious from the nature of the covariates.
o Test through ANOVA on Covariates.
• The regression coefficient β is the same for all treatments
o Perform analysis of variance on covariates
• The relationship between the response y and covariate x is linear.
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o For each treatment fit a linear regression model and assess its quality
6.6 RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY:
Definition: Creating a design such that it will optimise the response
1st order:
2nd order:
Common Designs:
• Designs for first order model
o 2 level factorial designs + some centre points
• Designs for second order model
o 2 level factorial designs + some centre points + axial runs (central composite designs)
o 3 levels designs; 2 level factorial designs and incomplete block designs (Box-Behnken designs)
• Latin Hypercube Designs
o Space filling Multilevel designs
Criterion for determining the optimatility of a design:

X Matrix is determined as the coefficients of β in whatever order studied.
6.7 FACTORIAL OF THE FORM 2n:
General Definition: A 2n consists of n factors each studied at 2 levels.
Contrasts for a 22 design:

ab − b + a − I ab − a + b − I ab − a − b + I
MA = ;MB = ; M AB =
2n 2n 2n
Sum of Squares for a 22 design:
SS A =
(ab − b + a − I )2 ; SS = (ab − a + b − I )2 ; SS = (ab − a − b + I )2
B AB
22 n 22 n 22 n
SSTREATMENT = SS A + SS B + SS AB
Hypothesis for a CRD 22 design:

Test for interaction effect of factor AB:
Page 92 of 330
And only if the interaction is not significant:
Test for Main effect of factor A: Test for Main effect of factor B:
Hypothesis for a RBD 22 design:

Test for block effect:
Test for interaction effect of factor AB:
Test for Main effect of factor A: Test for Main effect of factor B:
6.8 GENERAL FACTORIAL:
General Definition: Factor A at xA levels, Factor B at xB levels, Factor C at xC levels, etc.

Order: x A × x B × xC × ...
Degrees of freedom for Main Effects:
df(A) = xA - 1
df(B) = xB – 1
df(C) = xC – 1
etc.
Degrees of freedom for Higher Order Effects:
df(AB)= df(A) df(B) etc.
df(ABC)= df(A) df(B) df(C) etc.
6.9 ANOVA ASSUMPTIONS:
Assumptions:
• Normality
o ANOVA applied to the absolute deviation of a response from the mean
o Plot of observed values against expected value => Linear plot will imply normality
• Constant Variance
o Plot of residual agains predicted values => Random plot with no vertical funnelling structure
will imply constant variance
o Levene’s Test
• Independence
o Plot of residuals in time sequence => Random plot will imply independence
Page 93 of 330
Levene’s Test:
 i = 1,2,..., a
d ij = yij −ψ i 
 j = 1,2,..., ni
Where ψ i =
o Mean of observations at the ith level
o Or Median of observations at the ith level
o Or 10% trimmed mean of observations at the ith level.
6.10 CONTRASTS:
a
Linear Contrast: l = α 1 µ1 + α 2 µ 2 + ... + α n µ n ; ∑ α i = 0

i =1
^ ^ a
Estimated Mean of Contrast: E (l ) = ∑ α i µ i
i =1
^ ^ a
αi2
Estimated Variance of Contrast: v (l ) = s 2 ∑ where s2 is MSE of corresponding
i =1 ni
a
^
E (l )
^
∑α µ i i
F of Contrast: f = = i =1
^ ^ a
αi 2
v(l ) s 2
∑n
i =1 i
Orthogonal Contrasts: if ∑α β
i
i i =0
6.11 POST ANOVA MULTIPLE COMPARISONS:

When the null hypothesis is rejected and the optimum treatment combination needs to be found,
Bonderroni Method:
• Let m be the number of different treatments performed
α
• Perform each individual test at level of significance
m
• Difference of the contrast is significant if F(l) > Critical Value of F using new level of significance
Fisher’s Least Significant Difference:

1 1 1 1
• LSDij = tα / 2,dfTREATMENT ,df ERROR s + = tα / 2,dfTREATMENT ,df ERROR MSE +
ni n j ni n j
• Difference is significant if yi. − y j . > LSD
Tukey’s W Procedure:
MSE
• Difference is significant if yi. − y j . ≥ qα (t , v)
n
• q is a conservative statistic read from the tables
Scheffe’s Method:
^ ^
• S = v(l ) (a − 1) Fα ,df 1,df 2
• a is the number of treatments, df1 = a-1, df2 = degrees of freedom for MSE
Page 94 of 330
^ ^
• Difference is significant if E (l ) > S
Page 95 of 330
PART 7: PI
7.1 AREA:
Cd πd 2
Circle: A = πr = 2
=
4 4
Cyclic Quadrilateral: (s − a )(s − b)(s − c )(s − d )
Q
Area of a sector (degrees) A = × πr 2
360
1
Area of a sector (radians) A = r 2θ
2
r2  Q 
Area of a segment (degrees) A =  × π − sin Q 
2  180 
( )
2
 w
A = π r2 − r1 = π 
2 2
Area of an annulus:
2
π
Ellipse: A= lw = πr1 r2
4
7.2 VOLUME:
Cylinder: V = πr 2 h
4
Sphere: V = πr 3
3
1
Cap of a Sphere: V = πh 3r1 + h 2
6
2
( )
1 2
Cone: V = πr h
3
Ice-cream & Cone: V = πr 2 (h + 2r )
1
3
π2
Doughnut: V = 2π 2 r2 r1 =
2
(b + a )(b − a )2
4
πw  w 
2
Sausage: V= l − 
4  3
4
Ellipsoid: V = πr1 r2 r3
3
7.3 SURFACE AREA:

Sphere: SA = 4πr 2
Hemisphere: SA = 3πr 2
Doughnut: (
SA = 4π 2 r2 r1 = π 2 b 2 − a 2 )
Sausage: SA = πwl
Cone: (
SA = πr r + r 2 + h 2 )
Page 96 of 330
7.4 MISELANIOUS:
Q Q
Length of arc (degrees) l= ×C = × πr
360 180
Q
Length of chord (degrees) l = 2r × sin   = 2 r 2 − h 2
2
 
 1 + 3(r1 − r2 )
2

Perimeter of an ellipse

P ≈ π (r1 + r2 )
(r1 + r2 )2 

 3(r1 − r2 ) 
2
 10 + 4 − 
 (r1 + r2 )2 
7.6 PI:
π ≈ 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288...
C
π=
d
θ  θ 
Archimedes’ Bounds: 2 k n sin  k  < π < 2 k n sin  k 
2  2 
π 2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 ∞
4n 2
John Wallis: = × × × × × × × × ... = ∏ 2
2 1 3 3 5 5 7 7 9 n =1 4n − 1
π 1 1  1  1× 3  1  1× 3 × 6  1 
Isaac Newton: = +  +  +   + ...
6 2 2  3 × 23  2 × 4  5 × 25  2 × 4 × 6  7 × 2 7 
π 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
James Gregory: = 1 − + − + − + − ...
4 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
π 1 1 1
Schulz von Strassnitzky: = arctan  + arctan  + arctan 
4 2 5 8
π 1  1 
John Machin: = 4 arctan  − arctan 
4 5  239 
π2 1 1 1 1
Leonard Euler: = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
6 1 2 3 4
π 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31
= × × × × × × × × × × ...
4 4 4 8 12 12 16 20 24 28 32
where the numerators are the odd primes; each denominator is the
multiple of four nearest to the numerator.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
`π = 1+ + + − + + + + − + + − + ...
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
If the denominator is a prime of the form 4m - 1, the sign is positive;
if the denominator is 2 or a prime of the form 4m + 1, the sign is
negative; for composite numbers, the sign is equal the product of the
signs of its factors.
1 1
     
4 n  ( 1 + i ) − ( 1 − i )   
 n n
Jozef Hoene-Wronski: π = lim
n→ ∞ i
2 2 2+ 2 2+ 2+ 2
Franciscus Vieta: = × × × ...
π 2 2 2
Page 97 of 330
Integrals:
Infinite Series:
1 ∞ (− 1)  1 
n
25 1 28 26 22 22
6 ∑
 − − + − − − +  =π
2 n=0 2  4n + 1 4n + 3 10n + 1 10n + 3 10n + 5 10n + 7 10n + 9 
10 n 
See also: Zeta Function within Part 17
Page 98 of 330
Continued Fractions:
7.7 CIRCLE GEOMETRY:

a2 + b2
Radius of Circumscribed Circle for Rectangles: r =
2
a
Radius of Circumscribed Circle for Squares: r=
2
a
Radius of Circumscribed Circle for Triangles: r =
2 sin A
Radius of Circumscribed Circle for Quadrilaterals:
r= ×
1 (ab + cd )(ac + bd )(ad + bc )
4 (s − a )(s − b )(s − c )(s − d )
a
Radius of Inscribed Circle for Squares: r =
2
A
Radius of Inscribed Circle for Triangles: r =
s
a
Radius of Circumscribed Circle: r=
 180 
2 sin  
 n 
Page 99 of 330
a
Radius of Inscribed Circle: r=
 180 
2 tan  
 n 
7.8 ABBREVIATIONS (7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7):

A=Angle ‘A’
A=Area
a=side ‘a’
B=Angle ‘B’
b=side ‘b’
B=Angle ‘B’
c=side ‘c’
C=circumference
d=diameter
d=side ‘d’
h=shortest length from the center to the chord
r=radius
r1=radius 1 ( r1 < r2 )
r2=radius 2 ( r2 < r3 )
r3=radius 3
l=length
n=number of sides
P=perimeter
Q=central angle
s=semi-perimeter
w=width
w=length of chord from r1
7.9 CRESCENT GEOMETRY:

1
Area of a lunar crescent: A = πcd
4
Area of an eclipse crescent:
   w2 + l 2 − b 2     w2 + l 2 − b 2   
 2π  cos −1    sin 2 cos −1   
   
 2 wl   2wl  
A = w2 π −  + 

 360 2 
 
 
   w2 + l 2 − b 2    w2 + l 2 − b 2   
 2π  cos −1    sin 2 cos −1   
   
 2 wl   2wl  
− b 2 π −  + 

 360 2 
 
 
Page 100 of 330

7.10 ABBREVIATIONS (7.9):
A=Area
b=radius of black circle
c=width of the crescent
d=diameter
l=distance between the centres of the circles
w=radius of white circle
Page 101 of 330

PART 8: APPLIED FIELDS:
8.1 MOVEMENT:
v2
Stopping distance: s=
− 2a
v2
Centripetal acceleration: a=
r
mv 2
Centripetal force: FC = ma =
r
2h
Dropping time : t=
g
ma
Force: F= 3
 v2  2
1 − 2 
 c 
1
Kinetic Energy: E k = mv 2
2
Maximum height of a cannon: h=

( u sin θ )
2
g
l
Pendulum swing time: t = 2π
g
Potential Energy: E p = mgh
2u sin θ
Range of a cannon: s = t (u cos θ ) = × (u cos θ )
g
2u sin θ
Time in flight of a cannon: t=
g
mm
Universal Gravitation: F = G 12 2
r
ABBREVIATIONS (8.1):
a=acceleration (negative if retarding)
c=speed of light ( 3× 10 8 ms-1)
Ek=Kinetic Energy
Ep=potential energy
F=force
g=gravitational acceleration (≈9.81 on Earth)
G=gravitational constant = 6.67 × 10 −11
h=height
l=length of a pendulum
m=mass
m1=mass 1
m2=mass 2
Page 102 of 330
r=radius
r=distance between two points
s=distance
t=time
u=initial speed
v=final speed
θ=the angle
8.2 CLASSICAL MECHANICS:
Newton’s Laws:
First law: If an object experiences no net force, then its velocity is constant; the object is either at rest (if its
velocity is zero), or it moves in a straight line with constant speed (if its velocity is nonzero).
Second law: The acceleration a of a body is parallel and directly proportional to the net force F acting on the
body, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass m of the body, i.e.,
F = ma.
Third law: When two bodies interact by exerting force on each other, these forces (termed the action and the
reaction) are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction.
Inertia:
Page 103 of 330

Moments of Inertia:
Description Diagram Formulae

Two point masses, M
and m, with reduced
mass and separated
by a distance, x.
Rod of length L and
mass m
(Axis of rotation at the
end of the rod)
Rod of length L and

mass m
Thin circular hoop of

radius r and mass m
Thin circular hoop of

radius r and mass m
Thin, solid disk of

radius r and mass m
Page 104 of 330

Thin cylindrical shell
with open ends, of
radius r and mass m
Solid cylinder of
radius r, height h and
mass m
Thick-walled
cylindrical tube with
open ends, of inner
radius r1, outer radius or when defining the normalized thickness tn = t/r and letting
r2, length h and mass m r = r2,
then
Sphere (hollow) of
radius r and mass m
Ball (solid) of radius r

and mass m
Page 105 of 330

Right circular cone
with radius r, height h
and mass m
About a diameter:
Torus of tube radius a,
cross-sectional radius
b and mass m.
About the vertical axis:
Ellipsoid (solid) of
semiaxes a, b, and c
with axis of rotation a
and mass m
Thin rectangular plate

of height h and of
width w and mass m
(Axis of rotation at the
end of the plate)
Thin rectangular plate

of height h and of
width w and mass m
Solid cuboid of height

h, width w, and depth
d, and mass m
Page 106 of 330

Solid cuboid of height
D, width W, and length
L, and mass m with the
longest diagonal as the
axis.
Plane polygon with
vertices , , ,
..., and
mass uniformly
distributed on its
interior, rotating about
an axis perpendicular
to the plane and
passing through the
origin.
Infinite disk with mass
normally distributed
on two axes around the
axis of rotation
(i.e.
Where : is
the mass-density as a
function of x and y).
Velocity and Speed:

∆P
v AVE =
∆t
Acceleration:
∆V
a AVE =
∆t
Trajectory (Displacement):
Page 107 of 330

Kinetic Energy:
Centripetal Force:
Circular Motion:
, or
Angular Momentum:
Page 108 of 330

Torque:
Work:
Laws of Conservation:
Momentum:
Energy: ∑E IN = ∑ EOUT
Force: ∑F NET = 0 ⇒ ∑ FUP = ∑ FDN , ∑ FL = ∑ FR , ∑ cm = ∑ acm
ABBREVIATIONS (8.2)
a=acceleration
EK=Kinetic Energy
Er=rotational kinetic energy
F=force
I=mass moment of inertia
J=impulse
L=angular momentum
m=mass
P=path
p=momentum
t=time
v=velocity
W=work
τ=torque
8.3 RELATIVISTIC EQUATIONS:

Kinetic Energy:
Page 109 of 330

Momentum:
Time Dilation:
Length Contraction:
Relativistic Mass:
.
8.4 ACCOUNTING:
Profit: p = s−c
p
Profit margin: m = × 100
c
Simple Interest: = P(1 + tr )
= P(1 + r )
t
Compound Interest:
Continuous Interest: = Pe rt
ABBREVIATIONS (8.4):
c=cost
I=interest
m=profit margin (%)
p=profit
P=premium
r=rate
s=sale price
t=time
8.5 MACROECONOMICS:
GDP: y = AE = AD = C + I + G + NX
y = Summation of all product quantities multiplied by cost
RGDP: RGDP = Summation of all product quantities multiplied by base year cost
NGDP: NGDP = Summation of all product quantities multiplied by current year cost
RGDPCURRENT − RGDPBASE
Growth: Growth = ×100
RGDPBASE
Net Exports: NX = X - M
Working Age Population: WAP = Labor Force + Not in Labor Force
Page 110 of 330

Labor Force: LF = Employed + Unemployed
Unemployment: UE = Frictional + Structural + Cyclical
Natural Unemployment: NUE = Frictional + Structural
UE
Unemployment Rate: ∆UE% = ×100
LF
E
Employment Rate: ∆E% = × 100
LF
LF UE + E
Participation Rate: ∆P% = ×100 = ×100
WAP WAP
CPI: CPI = Indexed Average Price of all Goods and Services
CPI CURRENT − CPI BASE
Inflation Rate: Inflation Rate = × 100
CPI BASE
ABBREVIATIONS (8.5)
AD=Aggregate Demand
AE=Aggregate Expenditure
C=Consumption
CPI=Consumer Price Index
E=Employed
G=Government
I=Investment
LF=Labor Force
M=Imports
NGDP=Nominal GDP
NUE=Natural Unemployment
NX=Net Export
P=Participation
RGDP=Real GDP (Price is adjusted to base year)
UE=Unemployed
WAP=Working Age Population
X=Exports
Y=GDP
Page 111 of 330

PART 9: TRIGONOMETRY
9.1 CONVERSIONS:
Degrees 30° 60° 120° 150° 210° 240° 300° 330°
Radians
33⅓ 66⅔ 133⅓ 166⅔ 233⅓ 266⅔ 333⅓ 366⅔

Grads
grad grad grad grad grad grad grad grad
Degrees 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°
Radians
Grads 50 grad 100 grad 150 grad 200 grad 250 grad 300 grad 350 grad 400 grad
9.2 BASIC RULES:

sin θ
tan θ =
cos θ
a b c sin A sin B sin C

Sin Rule: = = or = =
sin A sin B sin C a b c
b +c −a
2 2 2
Cos Rule: cos A = or a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A
2bc
Tan Rule:
Auxiliary Angle:
Pythagoras Theorem: a 2 + b2 = c2
Periodicy:
sin (nπ ) = 0, n ∈ Ζ
cos(nπ ) = (− 1) , n ∈ Ζ
n
Page 112 of 330

9.3 RECIPROCAL FUNCTIONS
1
secθ =
cos θ
1
csc θ =
sin θ
1 cos θ
cot θ = =
tan θ sin θ
9.4 BASIC IDENTITES:
Pythagorean Identity:
9.5 IDENTITIES BETWEEN RELATIONSHIPS:
tan (θ ) sec 2 (θ ) − 1
sin (θ ) = ± 1 − cos 2 (θ ) = ±
1 1
= =± =±
1 + tan 2 (θ ) csc(θ ) sec(θ ) 1 + cot 2 (θ )
csc 2 (θ ) − 1 cot (θ )
cos(θ ) = ± 1 − sin 2 (θ ) = ±
1 1
=± = =±
1 + tan 2 (θ ) csc(θ ) sec(θ ) 1 + cot 2 (θ )
Page 113 of 330

sin (θ ) 1 − cos 2 (θ )
tan (θ ) = ± = ± sec 2 (θ ) − 1 =
1 1
=± =±
1 − sin 2 (θ ) cos(θ ) csc (θ ) − 1
2 cot (θ )
1 + tan 2 (θ ) sec(θ )
csc(θ ) = = ± 1 + cot 2 (θ )
1 1
=± =± =±
sin (θ ) 1 − cos (θ )
2 tan (θ ) sec (θ ) − 1
2
1 − sin 2 (θ ) cos(θ )
cot (θ ) = ± = ± csc 2 (θ ) − 1 = ±
1 1
=± =
sin (θ ) 1 − cos (θ ) tan (θ )
2
sec (θ ) − 1
2
1  1   k 
arctan  = arctan  + arctan 
 x  x+k   x + kx + 1 
2
9.6 ADDITION FORMULAE:

Sine:
Cosine:
Tangent:
Arcsine:
Arccosine:
Arctangent:
9.7 DOUBLE ANGLE FORMULAE:

Sine:
Generally,
n
n 1 
sin (nx ) = ∑   cos k ( x )sin n−k ( x )sin  (n − k )π 
k =0  k  2 
Cosine:
Generally,
n
n 1 
cos(nx ) = ∑   cos k ( x )sin n−k ( x )cos (n − k )π 
k =0  k  2 
Page 114 of 330

Tangent:
Generally.
n
n 1 
∑   cos ( x ) sin ( x ) sin  (n − k )π 
k n −k
sin (nx ) k  2 
tan (nx ) =
k =0
=
cos(nx ) n
 n 1 
∑  k  cos (x )sin (x ) cos 2 (n − k )π 
k n− k
k =0  
Cot:
9.8 TRIPLE ANGLE FORMULAE:

Sine:
Cosine:
Tangent:
Cot:
9.9 HALF ANGLE FORMULAE:

Sine:
Cosine:
Tangent:
Cot:
Page 115 of 330

9.10 POWER REDUCTION:
Sine:
If n is even:
If n is odd:
Cosine:
If n is even:
If n is odd:
Page 116 of 330

Sine & Cosine:
9.11 PRODUCT TO SUM:
9.12 SUM TO PRODUCT:
9.13 HYPERBOLIC EXPRESSIONS:
Hyperbolic sine:
Hyperbolic cosine:
Hyperbolic tangent:
Hyperbolic cotangent:
Page 117 of 330
Hyperbolic secant:
Hyperbolic cosecant:
9.14 HYPERBOLIC RELATIONS:
9.15 MACHIN-LIKE FORMULAE:
Form:
Formulae:
Page 118 of 330

Identities:
for ,
for ,
for ,
for .
9.16 SPHERICAL TRIANGLE IDENTITIES:
1  1 
sin  ( A − B ) tan (a − b )
2 = 2 
   
sin  ( A + B )
1 1
tan  c 
2  2 
1  1 
sin  (a − b ) tan  ( A − B )
2 = 2 
   
sin  (a + b )
1 1
cot  c 
 2  2 
1  1 
cos ( A − B ) tan (a + b )
 2 =  2 
   
cos ( A + B )
1 1
tan  c 
 2  2 
1  1 
cos (a − b ) tan ( A + B )
 2 =  2 
1  1 
cos (a + b ) cot  c 
2  2 
9.17 ABBREVIATIONS (9.1-9.16)

A=Angle ‘A’
Page 119 of 330
a=side ‘a’
B=Angle ‘B’
b=side ‘b’
B=Angle ‘B’
c=side ‘c’
Page 120 of 330

PART 10: EXPONENTIALS & LOGARITHIMS
10.1 FUNDAMENTAL THEORY:
e = 2.7182818284590452353602874713526624977572470937000
10.2 EXPONENTIAL IDENTITIES:

x a x b = x a +b
xa
= x a −b
xb
x a y a = ( xy )
a
(x )
a b
( )
= x ab = x b
a
a
x b = b xa
1
x −a =
xa
10.3 LOG IDENTITIES:
Page 121 of 330

10.4 LAWS FOR LOG TABLES:
10.5 COMPLEX NUMBERS:
10.6 LIMITS INVOLVING LOGARITHMIC TERMS
Page 122 of 330

PART 11: COMPLEX NUMBERS
11.1 GENERAL:
Fundamental: i 2 = −1
Standard Form: z = a + bi
Polar Form: z = rcisθ = r (cos θ + i sin θ )
arg( z ) = θ , where tan θ =

b
Argument:
a
Modulus: mod( z ) = r = z = a + bi = a 2 + b 2
Conjugate: z = a − bi
Exponential: z = r ⋅ e iθ
De Moivre’s Formula:
z = rcisθ
 θ + 2kπ  , k=0,1,…,(n-1)
1 1
z = r cis
n n

 n 
Euler’s Identity: e iπ + 1 = 0 (Special Case when n=2)
n −1 2 iπk
∑e
k =0
n
=0 (Generally)
11.2 OPERATIONS:
Addition: (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i

Subtraction: (a + bi) - (c + di) = (a - c) + (b - d)i.
Multiplication: (a + bi)(c + di) = ac + bci + adi + bdi 2 = (ac - bd) + (bc + ad)i.
(a + bi) (a + bi)(c - di) ac + bci - adi + bd  ac + bd   bc - ad 
Division: = = = 2 2 
+ 2 2 
i.
(c + di) (c + di)(c - di) (c + di)(c - di) c +d  c +d 
Sum of Squares:
11.3 IDENTITIES:
Exponential:
Logarithmic:
Trigonometric:
Page 123 of 330

Hyperbolic:
Page 124 of 330

PART 12: DIFFERENTIATION
For Differential Equations, see Functions
12.1 GENERAL RULES:
Plus Or Minus:
y = f ( x ) ± g ( x ) ± h( x ) ...
y ' = f ' ( x ) ± g ' ( x ) ± h' ( x ) ...
Product Rule:
y = uv
y ' = u ' v + uv'
Quotient Rule:
u
y=
v
u ' v − uv'
y' =
v2
Power Rule:
y = ( f (x) )
n
y ' = n( f ( x ) )
n −1
× f '(x )
Chain Rule:
dy dy du dv
= × ×
dx du dv dx
Blob Rule:
y=e
f( x )
y ' = f '( x ) ×e
f( x )
Base A Log:
y = log a f ( x )
f '(x )
y' =
f ( x ) × ln (a )
Natural Log:
y = a ln ( f ( x ) )
f '(x )
y' = a ×
f (x )
Exponential (X):
y = kx
y ' = ln k × k x
First Principles:
 f (x+h ) − f ( x ) 
f '(x ) = lim  
h → 0  h 
Page 125 of 330

Angle of intersection between two curves:
Two curves y = f1 ( x ) & y = f 2 ( x ) intersect at x0
 f ' 2 ( x0 ) − f '1 ( x0 ) 
α = tan −1  
 1 + f ' 2 ( x0 ) × f '1 ( x0 ) 
12.2 EXPONETIAL FUNCTIONS:
12.3 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS:
12.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS:
Page 126 of 330

−1
(arc cot( x) )' =
x +1
2
(arc sec( x) )' = 1

1
x2 1−
x2
−1
(arc csc( x))' =
1
x2 1−
x2
12.5 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS:
−1
(arc coth( x) )' =
x −02
−1
(arc sec h( x) )' =
x2 − x4
−1
(arc csc h( x))' =
x2 + x4
12.5 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION:
First Principles:
Page 127 of 330

ie:
Gradient:
Total Differential:
Chain Rule:
Page 128 of 330

Implicit Differentiation:
Therefore,
Higher Order Derivatives:
Page 129 of 330

PART 13: INTEGRATION
13.1 GENERAL RULES:
[ f( ) ] n +1
∫ f '( ) [ f( ) ] dx = n + 1
n
x x
x
+C
Power Rule:
[f ]
a ∫ f '( ) [ f ( ) ] dx = a ( )
n x
n +1
+C
n +1
x x
By Parts: ∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu

f ( x)
Constants: ∫ kdt = kf ( x)
0
13.2 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS:
Page 130 of 330

For
13.3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SINE):
Page 131 of 330

13.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (COSINE):
Page 132 of 330

13.5 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (TANGENT):
13.6 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SECANT):
Page 133 of 330

13.7 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (COTANGENT):
13.8 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SINE & COSINE):
Page 134 of 330

also:
also:
also:
Page 135 of 330

also:
also:
13.9 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SINE & TANGENT):
13.10 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (COSINE & TANGENT):
13.11 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SINE & COTANGENT):
13.12 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (COSINE & COTANGENT):
13.13 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCSINE):
Page 136 of 330

13.14 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCCOSINE):
13.15 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCTANGENT):
13.16 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCCOSECANT):
Page 137 of 330

13.17 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCSECANT):
13.18 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCCOTANGENT):
13.19 EXPONETIAL FUNCTIONS
for
Page 138 of 330

(erf is the Error function)
where
where
when b≠0, λ≠0 and
for , which is the logarithmic mean
Page 139 of 330

(!! is
the double factorial)
(I0 is the modified Bessel function of the first kind)
13.20 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
Page 140 of 330

13.21 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Page 141 of 330

Page 142 of 330
13.22 INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Page 143 of 330

13.23 ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTIONS
13.24 SUMMARY TABLE
Page 144 of 330

13.25 SQUARE ROOT PROOFS
Page 145 of 330

∫ a 2 + x 2 dx
x
Let x = a tan θ ∴ dx = a sec 2 θdθ → tan θ =
a
= ∫ a 2 + (a tan θ ) 2 × a sec 2 θdθ
= ∫ a 2 + a 2 tan 2 θ × a sec 2 θdθ
= ∫ a 2 + a 2 (sec 2 θ − 1) × a sec 2 θdθ
= ∫ a 2 + a 2 sec 2 θ − a 2 × a sec 2 θdθ
= ∫ a 2 sec 2 θ × a sec 2 θdθ

= ∫ a secθ × a sec 2 θdθ
= ∫ a 2 sec 3 θ dθ
= a 2 ∫ secθ × sec 2 θ dθ
u = secθ , dv = sec 2 θdθ
du = secθ tan θdθ , v = tan θ
∴ a 2 ∫ sec 3 θ dθ = secθ × tan θ − ∫ tan θ × secθ tan θdθ
a 2 ∫ sec 3 θ dθ = secθ tan θ − ∫ tan 2 θ secθdθ

a 2 ∫ sec 3 θ dθ = secθ tan θ − ∫ (sec 2 θ − 1) secθdθ
a 2 ∫ sec 3 θ dθ = secθ tan θ − ∫ sec 3 θ − secθdθ
a 2 ∫ sec 3 θ dθ = secθ tan θ − ∫ sec 3 θdθ + ∫ secθdθ

2a 2 ∫ sec 3 θ dθ = secθ tan θ + ∫ secθdθ
∫ sec
3 1
θ dθ =
2a 2
(
secθ tan θ + ∫ secθdθ )
∫ sec θ dθ = 2a 2 (secθ tan θ + ln secθ + tan θ ) + C
3 1
1  a2 + x2 s a 2 + x 2 s 
∴ ∫ a 2 + x 2 dx = 2  × + ln + +C
2a  a a a a
 
Page 146 of 330

∫ a 2 − x 2 dx
x
Let x = a sin θ ∴ dx = a cosθdθ → sin θ =
a
= ∫ a 2 − (a sin θ ) × a cosθdθ
2
= ∫ a 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ × a cosθdθ
( )
= ∫ a 2 − a 2 1 − cos 2 θ × a cosθdθ
= ∫ a 2 − a 2 + a 2 cos 2 θ × a cosθdθ
= ∫ a 2 cos 2 θ × a cosθdθ
= ∫ a cosθ × a cosθdθ
= ∫ a 2 cos 2 θdθ
= a 2 ∫ cos 2 θdθ
1 + cos(2θ )
= a2 ∫ dθ
2
a2
=
2 ∫1 + cos(2θ )dθ
a2  sin (2θ ) 
=
2 θ + 2  + C
a2  2 sin θ cosθ 
=  θ+  + C
2  2
a2
= [θ + sin θ cosθ ] + C
2
a2  x x a2 − x2 
= arcsin  + × +C
2  a a a 
Page 147 of 330

∫ x 2 − a 2 dx
x
Let x = a secθ ∴ dx = a secθ tan θdθ → secθ =
a
=∫ (a secθ )2 − a 2 × a secθ tan θdθ
= ∫ a 2 sec 2 θ − a 2 × a secθ tan θdθ
( )
= ∫ a 2 1 + tan 2 θ − a 2 × a secθ tan θdθ
= ∫ a 2 + a 2 tan 2 θ − a 2 × a secθ tan θdθ
= ∫ a 2 tan 2 θ × a secθ tan θdθ
= ∫ a tan θ × a secθ tan θdθ
= ∫ a 2 tan 2 θ secθdθ
= a 2 ∫ tan 2 θ secθdθ
( )
= a 2 ∫ sec 2 θ − 1 secθdθ
= a 2 ∫ sec 3 θ − secθdθ
(
= a 2 ∫ sec 3 θdθ − ∫ secθdθ )
 1 
= a 2   2 (secθ tan θ + ln secθ + tan θ ) − (ln secθ + tan θ ) + C

  2a  
= (secθ tan θ + ln secθ + tan θ ) − a 2 (ln secθ + tan θ ) + C
1
2
1 x x2 − a2 x x 2 − a 2  2  x x 2 − a 2 
=  × + ln + − a ln + +C
2a a a a   a a 
   
1 x × x2 − a2 1 x x2 − a2 x x2 − a2
= + ln + − ln + +C
2 a2 2 a a a a
1 x × x2 − a2  1 2 x x2 − a2
= +  − a  ln + +C
2 a2 2  a a
13.26 CARTESIAN APPLICATIONS

b
Area under the curve: A = ∫ f ( x ) dx
a
b
Volume: V =∫A
a
[ ]
b b
Vx = π ∫ [ y ] dx = π ∫ f ( x ) dx
2 2
Volume about x axis:
a a
Page 148 of 330

d
V y = π ∫ [x ] dy
2
Volume about y axis:
c
Surface Area about x axis: SA = 2π ∫ f ( x ) 1 + ( f '( x ) ) dx

b
2
b 2
 dy 
Length wrt x-ordinates: L=∫ 1 +   dx
a  dx 
2
d
 dx 
Length wrt y-ordinates: L=∫ 1 +   dy (Where the function is continually increasing)
c  dy 
t2 2 2
 dx   dy 
Length parametrically: L= ∫
t1
  +   dt
 dt   dt 
Line Integral of a Scalar Field:
n
L = ∫ f ( x , y , z ) ds = lim ∑ f ( x i , y y , z y ) ∆s i
C n→∞
i =1
where x = x (t ), y = y (t ), z = z (t ), a ≤ t ≤ b
2 2 2
 dx   dy   dz 
ds =   +   +   dt
 dt   dt   dt 
2 2 2
b  dx   dy   dz 
L = ∫ f ( x , y , z ) ds = ∫ f ( x , y , z )   +   +   dt
C a
 dt   dt   dt 
Line Integral of a Vector Field:

W = ∫ F ( x, y, z ) • T ( x, y, z )ds
C
where x = x(t ), y = y (t ), z = z (t ), a ≤ t ≤ b
C = r (t ) = x(t )i + y (t ) j + z (t )k
r ' (t )
T (t ) =
r ' (t )
2 2 2
 dx   dy   dz 
ds =   +   +   dt = r ' (t ) dt
 dt   dt   dt 
b r ' (t )  b
W = ∫ F ( x, y, z ) • T ( x, y, z )ds = ∫  F (r (t ) •  r ' (t ) dt = F (r (t ) •r ' (t )dt
 ∫a
C a
 r ' (t ) 
Area of a Surface:
m n
A = ∫∫ f ( x, y, z )dS = lim
S m , n →∞
∑∑ f ( P
i =1 j =1
*
ij )∆S ij
2
 ∂z   ∂z 
2
A = ∫∫ f ( x, y, z )dS = ∫∫ f ( x, y, g ( x, y ))   +   + 1dA
S D
 ∂x   ∂y 
Where D is the projection of the surface S on the (x,y) plane
13.27 HIGHER ORDER INTEGRATION
Page 149 of 330

Properties of Double Integrals:
Volume using Double Integrals:

V = ∫∫ f ( x, y )dA
R
: If f(x, y) is continuous on the rectangle (Fubini’s Theorem)

{ }
R = ( x, y ) | a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d , then
b d
V = ∫∫ f ( x, y )dA = ∫ ∫ f ( x, y )dxdy
R
a c
If f(x, y) is continuous on the region

R = {( x, y ) | a ≤ x ≤ b, g1 ( x) ≤ y ≤ g 2 ( x)}
b g2 ( x )
V = ∫∫ f ( x, y )dA = ∫ ∫ f ( x, y)dydx
R
a g1 ( x )
If f(x, y) is continuous on the region

R = {( x, y ) | g1 ( y ) ≤ x ≤ g 2 ( y ), c ≤ y ≤ d }
b h2 ( y )
V = ∫∫ f ( x, y ) A = ∫ ∫ f ( x, y)dxdx
R
a h1 ( y )
Page 150 of 330

If a function is continuous on a polar region
R = {(r ,θ ) | a ≤ r ≤ b,α ≤ θ ≤ β }
β b
V = ∫∫ f ( x, y ) A = ∫∫ f (r cosθ , r sin θ )rdrdθ
R
α a
Volume using Triple Integrals:

V = ∫∫∫ f ( x, y, z )dV
B
If f(x,y,z) is continuous on the rectangular box (Fubini’s Theorem)

{ }
B = ( x, y, z ) | a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d , r ≤ z ≤ s , then
s d b
V = ∫∫∫ f ( x, y, z )dV = ∫∫ ∫ f ( x, y, z )dxdydz
B
r c a
If f(x,y,z) is represented as a projection

B = {( x, y, z ) | ( x, y ) ∈ D, u1 ( x, y ) ≤ z ≤ u 2 ( x, y )} , then
V = ∫∫∫ f ( x, y, z )dV = ∫∫  ∫ f ( x, y, z )dz dA
u2 ( x , y )
B D  u1 ( x , y ) 
Page 151 of 330

If f(x,y,z) is continuous on the region
B = {( x, y, z ) | a ≤ x ≤ b, g1 ( x) ≤ y ≤ g 2 ( x), u1 ( x, y ) ≤ z ≤ u 2 ( x, y )}
b g 2 ( x ) u2 ( x , y )
V = ∫∫∫ f ( x, y, z )dV = ∫ ∫ ∫ f ( x, y, z )dzdydx
B a g1 ( x ) u1 ( x , y )
If a function is continuous within the cylindrical coordinate system

B = {(r ,θ , z ) | α ≤ θ ≤ β , h1 (θ ) ≤ r ≤ h2 (θ ), u1 ( x, y ) ≤ z ≤ u 2 ( x, y )}
β h2 (θ ) u2 ( r cos θ , r sin θ )
V = ∫∫∫ f ( x, y, z )dV = ∫ f (r cosθ , r sin θ , z )rdzdrdθ
B α ∫ h1 (θ ) ∫ u1 ( r cos θ , r sin θ )
If a function is continuous within the spherical coordinate system
Page 152 of 330

B = {( ρ ,φ ,θ ) | θ1 ≤ θ ≤ θ 2 , h1 (θ ) ≤ φ ≤ h2 (θ ), g1 (φ ,θ ) ≤ ρ ≤ g 2 (φ ,θ )}
f ( x, y, z ) = f ( ρ sin φ cosθ , ρ sin φ sin θ , ρ cos φ ) = f 0 ( ρ ,φ ,θ )
θ2 h2 (θ ) g 2 (φ ,θ ))
V = ∫∫∫ f ( x, y, z )dV = ∫ ∫ ∫ f 0 ( ρ ,φ ,θ ) ρ 2 sin φdρdφdθ
B θ1 h1 (θ ) g1 (φ ,θ )
Centre of Mass:
Of a laminate:
m = ∫∫ ρ ( x, y )dA
R
1
x × ρ ( x, y )dA
m ∫∫R
x=
1
y = ∫∫ y × ρ ( x, y )dA
m R
Of a general solid:
m = ∫∫∫ ρ ( x, y, z )dV
B
1
x × ρ ( x, y, z )dV
m ∫∫∫B
x=
1
y = ∫∫∫ y × ρ ( x, y, z )dV
m B
1
z = ∫∫∫ z × ρ ( x, y, z )dV
m B
13.28 WORKING IN DIFFERENT COORDINATE SYSTEMS:
Cartesian: dA = dxdy
Polar: dA = rdrdθ
Cylindrical: dV = rdzdrdθ
Page 153 of 330
Spherical: dV = ρ 2 sin φdρdφdθ
Cartesian to Polar:
r 2 = x2 + y2
y (2D)
tan θ =
x
Polar to Cartesian:
x = r cosθ
(2D)
y = r sin θ
Cartesian to Cylindrical:
r 2 = x2 + y2
y
tan θ = (3D)
x
z=z
Cylindrical to Cartesian:
x = r cosθ
y = r sin θ (3D)
z=z
Spherical to Cartesian:
x = ρ sin φ cosθ
y = ρ sin φ sin θ (3D)
z = ρ cos φ
Page 154 of 330

PART 14: FUNCTIONS
14.1 ODD & EVEN FUNCTIONS:
Definitions:
Even: f (− x ) = f (x ), ∀x
Odd: f (− x ) = − f ( x ), ∀x
Composite Functions:
Odd ± Odd = Odd
Odd ± Even = Neither
Even ± Even = Even
Odd x Odd = Even

Odd / Odd = Even
Even x Even = Even
Even / Even = Even
Even of Odd = Even

Even of Even = Even
Even of Neither = Neither
Odd of Odd = Odd
Odd of Even = Even
Odd of Neither = Neither
Basic Integration:
a
If f(x) is odd:
−a
∫ f ( x)dx = 0
a a
If f(x) is even:
−a
∫ f ( x)dx = 2∫ f ( x)dx 0
14.2 MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS:
Limit: lim
( x , y )→( 0 , 0 )
(f )=
( x, y ) lim
( x , mx ) →( 0 , 0 )
(f ( x , mx ) )= lim ( f ( x ,mx ) )
( x )→( 0 )
D( x0 , y0 ) = z xx z yy − (z xy )
2
Discriminant:
Critical Points: z = f ( x, y)
z x = 0
Solve for: 
z y = 0
 If the critical point (x0,y0) is a local maximum, then
D(x0,y0) >= 0
fxx(x0,y0) <= 0 and fyy(x0,y0) <= 0

 If D(x0,y0) > 0, and either
fxx(x0,y0) < 0 or fyy(x0,y0) < 0
then the critical point (x0,y0) is a local maximum.
Page 155 of 330
 If the critical point (x0,y0) is a local minimum, then
D(x0,y0) >= 0
fxx(x0,y0) >= 0 and fyy(x0,y0) >= 0

 If D(x0,y0) > 0, and either
fxx(x0,y0) > 0 or fyy(x0,y0) > 0
then the critical point (x0,y0) is a local minimum.
 If the critical point (x0,y0) is a saddle point, then
D(x0,y0) <= 0
 If
D(x0,y0) < 0,
then the critical point (x0,y0) is a saddle point.
14.3 FIRST ORDER, FIRST DEGREE, DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:
Separable:
dy f ( x)
=
dx g ( y )
g ( y )dy = f ( x)dx
∫ g ( y )dy = ∫ f ( x)dx
Linear:
dy
+ P ( x ) × y = Q ( x)
dx
I ( x) = e ∫
P ( x ) dx
y=
1
I ( x)
(∫ I ( x) × Q( x)dx )
Homogeneous:
f ( λx, λ y ) = f ( x, y )
dy  y
= f ( x, y ) = F  
dx  x
y dy dv
Let v ( x ) = ,∴ =v+ x
x dx dx
Page 156 of 330

dv
∴v + x = F (v)
dx
dv
x = F (v ) − v
dx
dv dx
=
F (v ) − v x
dv dx
∫ F (v ) − v = ∫ x
Exact:
dy
= f ( x, y ) → M ( x, y )dx + N ( x, y )dy = 0
dx
If: M y = Nx
When: FX = M & FY = N
Therefore,
F = ∫ M ( x , y ) dx =Φ ( x , y ) + g ( y )
∂
FY = (Φ + g ( y ) ) = Φ Y + g ' ( y ) = N
∂y
∴ g ( y ) = ...
So: F ( x , y ) = Φ ( x, y ) + g ( y ) = C
Bernoulli Form:
+ P(x ) y = Q(x ) y n
dy
dx
Let:
v = y1−n
= (1 − n ) y −n
dv dy
∴
dx dx
n
dy y dv
∴ =
dx 1 − n dx
y n dv
∴ + P (x ) y = Q ( x ) y n
1 − n dx
+ P (x ) y1−n = Q( x )
1 dv
⇒
1 − n dx
+ (1 − n )P( x )v = (1 − n )Q( x )
dv
⇒
dx
This is a linear 1st ODE
Page 157 of 330

dv
+ P2 ( x) × v = Q2 ( x)
dx
I ( x) = e ∫
P2 ( x ) dx
v=
1
I ( x)
(∫ I ( x) × Q ( x)dx)
2
y=
(1− n )
v = (1−n )
1
I ( x)
(∫ I ( x) × Q ( x)dx) = (
2 1− n )
1
∫ (1−n )P ( x )dx
 e ∫ (1−n )P ( x )dx × (1 − n )Q( x )dx 
∫



e
14.4 SECOND ORDE, FIRST DEGREE, DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:
d2y dy
a 2
+ b + cy = f ( x)
Where dx dx
ay ' '+by'+cy = f ( x)
Greg’s Lemma:
( )
(D − α ) p(x )eαx = p' (x )eαx
(D − α )(xe ) = e
αx αx
(D − α ) (x e ) = 2e
2 2 αx αx
(D − α ) (x e ) = n!e
n n αx αx
Homogeneous:
ay' '+by'+cy = 0
⇒ am 2 + bm + c = 0
− b ± b 2 − 4ac
m=
2a
There are three possible outcomes:
1) m1 ,m2 where m1 ≠ m2 ⇒ yh = Ae m1x + Be m2 x { S = e m1x , e m2 x }
2) m1 ,m2 where m1 = m2 ⇒ yh = ( A + Bx )e m1 x
S = {e m1 x
, xe m1 x
}
3) m1, 2 = α ± β j ⇒ yh = e ( A cos(βx ) + B sin (βx )) S = {e
αx αx
cos(βx ), eαx sin (βx )}
Undetermined Coefficients
ay ' '+by '+cy = f ( x) , where f (x) is in the form of
1) A polynomial
2) α sin (kx )
3) αe kt
NB: Multiplication is OK: eg: f ( x) = 3 x 3 e x
Step 1: Solve for the homogeneous case ay ' '+by '+ cy = 0

∴ yh = c1 y1 + c2 y 2
S = {y1 , y 2 }
Step 2: Determine the spanning set

Page 158 of 330
1) A polynomial ⇒ y p = An x n + An−1 x n−1 + A1 x + A0 { }
T = x n , x n−1 ,...
2) α sin (kx ) ⇒ y p = A sin(kx) + B cos(kx) T = {cos(kx ), sin (kx )}
3) αe kt
⇒ y p = Ae kt
{ }
T = e kt
NB: Multiplication is OK: eg:

f ( x) = 3 x 3 e x
( )(
y p = Ae x Bx 3 + Cx 2 + Dx + E )
yp = (e )(Bx
x 3
+ Cx 2 + Dx + E )
Step 3: Determine the form of yp with arbitary coefficients
Case 1: When S ∩ T = Φ
Then yp is a linear combination of the elements of T
Case 2: When S ∩ T ≠ Φ (ie: yp is part of yh)

Multiply each element in T by x to get a new set T’ and then recheck if S ∩ T ' = Φ . This is
now a case 1, otherwise repeat the process until S ∩ T ' = Φ
Step 4: Determine the coefficients of yp by substituting y p , y ' p , y ' ' p back into the orginal differential
equation and comparing the coefficients with f (x)
Then,
y = y h + y p1 + y p 2 + y p 3 + ...
If the intital values are given, go on to solve for the constants within the homogeneous part.
Variation of Parameters
d2y dy
+ b + cy = f ( x)
Where dx 2 dx and the method of undetermined coefficients is not suitable.
y ' '+by '+ cy = f ( x)
Step 1: Solve for the homogeneous case ay' '+by'+cy = 0

∴ yh = c1 y1 + c2 y2
Step 2: Assume that there is a solution of the differential equation of the form:
y = v1 ( x)u1 ( x) + v2 ( x)u 2 ( x) = v1u1 + v2u 2
Such that v1 ' ( x)u1 ( x) + v2 ' ( x)u 2 ( x ) = v1 ' u1 + v2 ' u 2 = 0
Therefore,
y = v1u1 + v2u 2
y ' = v1 ' u1 + v1u1 '+ v2 ' u 2 + v2u 2 ' = v1u1 '+v2u 2 '
y ' ' = v1u1 ' '+ v1 ' u1 '+ v2 ' u 2 '+v2u 2 ' '
Substituting into the differential equation:
f ( x) = (v1u1 ' '+ v1 ' u1 '+ v2 ' u 2 '+v2u 2 ' ') + b(v1u1 '+ v2u 2 ') + c(v1u1 + v2u 2 )
f ( x) = u1 ' ' v1 + bu1 ' v1 + cu1v1 + u 2 ' ' v2 + bu 2 ' v2 + cu 2 v2 + u1 ' v1 '+u 2 ' v2 '
f ( x) = (u1 ' '+bu1 '+cu1 )v1 + (u 2 ' '+bu 2 '+cu2 )v2 + u1 ' v1 '+u 2 ' v2 '
f ( x) = u1 ' v1 '+u 2 ' v2 '
Page 159 of 330
As u1 ' '+bu1 '+cu1 = 0 & u 2 ' '+bu2 '+cu2 = 0
We know that u1v1 '+u 2 v2 ' = 0 and u1 ' v1 '+u 2 ' v2 ' = f ( x )
Step 3:
Solving the equations above by Cramer’s Rule.
 u1 u 2   v1 '   0 
u ' u ' v ' =  f ( x )
 1 2  2   
 0 u2 
 f ( x ) u '
 2  − f ( x )u 2
v1 ' = =
 u1 u 2  W (u1 , u 2 )
u ' u '
 1 2 
 u1 0 
u ' f ( x )
 1 f ( x )u1
v2 ' = =
 u1 u 2  W (u1 , u 2 )
u ' u '
 1 2 
Step 4:
 0 u2 
 f (x ) u 2 '
 − f ( x )u 2
v1 ( x ) = ∫ v1 ' dx = ∫ dx = ∫ dx
 u1 u2  W (u1 , u 2 )
u ' u 2 '
 1
 u1 0 
u ' f ( x )
 1 f ( x )u1
v2 ( x ) = ∫ v2 ' dx = ∫ dx = ∫ dx
 u1 u 2  W (u1 , u 2 )
u ' u '
 1 2 
yh = c1u1 ( x) + c2u 2 ( x)
y p = v1 ( x)u1 ( x) + v2 ( x)u 2 ( x)
y = yh + y p
Euler Type
Of the form: ax 2 y ' '+bxy '+ cy = 0, x > 0
Characteristic Equation: a(r )(r − 1) + b(r ) + c = 0 or r 2 +
(b − 1) r + c y = 0
a a
There are three possible outcomes:
1) r1 , r2 where r1 ≠ r2 ⇒ yh = C1 x r1 + C 2 x r2 , x > 0
2) r1 , r2 where r1 = r2 ⇒ yh = C1 x r1 + C 2 x r1 ln ( x ), x > 0
3) r1, 2 = α ± βj ⇒ y h = x α ( A cos(β ln ( x )) + B sin (β ln ( x ))), x > 0
Reduction of Order
Of the form: f1 ( x) y ' '+ f 2 ( x) y '+ f 3 ( x) y = 0 where a solution is known y1 = g ( x)
Page 160 of 330

y = v( x) g ( x)
∴ y ' = v' ( x ) g ( x ) + v( x) g ' ( x )
Therefore, let
∴ y ' ' = v ' ' ( x) g ( x) + v' ( x) g ' ( x ) + v ' ( x ) g ' ( x) + v ( x ) g ' ' ( x )
∴ y ' ' = v ' ' ( x ) g ( x ) + 2v ' ( x ) g ' ( x ) + v ( x ) g ' ' ( x )
Substituting Yields:
f1 ( x)(v' ' ( x) g ( x) + 2v' ( x) g ' ( x) + v( x) g ' ' ( x) ) + f 2 ( x)(v' ( x) g ( x) + v( x) g ' ( x) ) + f 3 ( x)(v( x) g ( x) ) = 0

This should cancel down to only include v '&v ' '
f1 ( x)(v' ' ( x) g ( x) + 2v ' ( x) g ' ( x ) ) + f 2 ( x)(v' ( x) g ( x) ) = 0
Therefore, let u = v '&u ' = v' '
f1 (x)(u' (x)g(x) + 2u( x)g' ( x)) + f 2 (x)(u(x)g(x)) = 0
f1 (x)u' (x) g( x) + 2 f1 (x)u(x) g' (x) + f 2 (x)u(x)g(x) = 0
u' (x)( f1 (x)g(x)) + u(x)(2 f1 (x) g' (x) + f 2 (x) g(x)) = 0
u' (x) − (2 f1 (x)g' ( x) + f 2 ( x)g(x))
=
u(x) ( f1(x)g(x))
u' ( x) − (2 f1 (x)g' (x) + f 2 (x)g(x))
∫ u(x) du = ∫ ( f1(x)g(x))
dx
− (2 f1 (x)g' ( x) + f 2 ( x)g(x))
ln(u( x)) = ∫ dx
( f1(x)g(x))
−( 2 f1 ( x) g '( x)+ f 2 ( x) g ( x) )
∫ dx
( f1 ( x) g ( x) )
u( x) = e
−( 2 f1 ( x) g '( x)+ f2 ( x) g ( x) )
∫ dx
( f1 ( x) g ( x) )
v' (x) = e
−( 2 f1 ( x) g '( x)+ f2 ( x) g ( x) )
∫ dx
( f1 ( x) g ( x) )
v( x) = ∫ e dx
−( 2 f1 ( x) g '( x)+ f2 ( x) g ( x) )
∫ dx
( f1 ( x) g ( x) )
y = ∫e dx× g(x)
General solution is of the form: y = c1 y1 + c2 y 2
Note: Constants can be combined into a single constant to simplify working if required.
Power Series Solutions:

d2y
P(x ) 2 + Q(x ) + R(x ) y = 0
dy
Where dx dx about a point x0
P( x ) y ' '+Q( x ) y '+ R( x ) y = 0
Case 1: About an Ordinary Point

Where P ( x0 ) ≠ 0 and analytic at x0
∞ ∞ ∞
y = ∑ an ( x − x0 ) , y ' = ∑ nan ( x − x0 ) , y' ' = ∑ n(n − 1)an ( x − x0 )
n n−1 n −2
Assume
n =0 n =1 n =1
• Substitute into the differential equation.
• Adjust the indicies in terms ofxn
• Obtain a recurance relation of an in terms of a0 & a1
Page 161 of 330

• Express an in terms of a0 & a1
∞
y = ∑ an ( x − x0 ) = a0 y1 + a1 y2
n
n =0
Case 2: About a Regular Singular Point

 Q( x )   2 R(x ) 
P( x0 ) = 0 , lim  ( x − x0 )  exists and lim  ( x − x0 )  exists.
P ( x ) 
Where
x → x0
 P(x )  x → x0

For convienance, taking about x0 = 0
Q(x ) ∞
x = xp( x ) = ∑ pn x n
P (x ) n =0
R(x ) ∞
x2 = x 2 q ( x ) = ∑ qn x n
P(x ) n =0
This is convergent on x<R

(
x y ' '+ x( xp( x )) y '+ x 2 q( x ) y = 0
2
)
∞ ∞
   
x 2 y ' '+ x ∑ pn x n  y '+ ∑ qn x n  y = 0
 n =0   n=0 
( ) (
x y ' '+ x p0 + p1 x + p2 x + ... y '+ q0 + q1 x + q2 x 2 + ... y = 0
2 2
)
As near x0 = 0 , x → 0 , the equation behaves like
x 2 y ' '+ xp0 y '+ q0 y = 0
This is an Euler form.
Indicial Equation: r r ( − 1) + p0 r + q 0 = 0 , Thus r = r1 , r2 | r1 ≥ r2
( )
∞
Therefore, y = x r a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... = ∑ an x r + n for a0 ≠ 0, x > 0
n=0
From the indicial equation, there are three different forms of the general solution.
Form 1: {r1 − r2 }∉ {Ζ}

∞
y1 = x − x0 ∑ a (x − x )
r1 n
n 0
n=0
∞
y 2 = x − x0 ∑ b (x − x )
r2 n
n 0
n=0
y = c1 y1 + c2 y 2
Form 2: r1 = r2
∞
 
y1 = x r1 1 + ∑ a n r1 x n 
 n =1 
∞
 
y 2 = y1 ln( x ) + x r1 1 + ∑ bn r1 x n 
 n =1 
y = c1 y1 + c2 y 2
Where the coefficients of the series are found by substituting into the differential equation.
Form 3: {r1 − r2 }∈ {Ζ}
Page 162 of 330

∞
 
y1 = x r1 1 + ∑ an r1 x n 
 n =1 
∞
 
y 2 = ay1 ln ( x ) + x r2 1 + ∑ bn r2 x n 
 n =1 
y = c1 y1 + c2 y 2
Where the coefficients of the series are found by substituting into the differential equation.
Case 3: About an Irregular Singular Point

 Q( x )   2 R(x ) 
P( x0 ) = 0 , lim  ( x − x0 )  does not exist or lim  ( x − x0 )  does not exist.
P(x )  P( x ) 
Where
x → x0 →
 x x0

14.5 ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS USING MATRICES:
Derivation of Methods:
x •1 (t ) = a11 x1 (t ) + a12 x2 (t ) + ... + a1n xn (t )
x • 2 (t ) = a21 x1 (t ) + a22 x2 (t ) + ... + a2 n xn (t ) • •
⇒ x (t ) = A x(t ) ⇒ x = A x
...
•
x n (t ) = an1 x1 (t ) + an 2 x2 (t ) + ... + ann xn (t )
 x •1 (t ) 
 • 
[ ]
where A = aij , x = 
x 2 (t )
 ... 
∈ ℜn
 • 
 x n (t )
∴ x = c1 x1 + c2 x 2 + ... + cn x n
 c1 
c 
x = [x1 | x 2 | ... | x n ] 2 
 ... 
 
cn 
x(t ) = Φ(t )c
Fundamental Matrix:
 v11eλ1t v12e λ2t ... vn1e λnt 
 
v e λ1t v22e λ2t ... vn 2 e λnt 
General Solution: x(t ) = Φ (t )c =  21 c
 ... ... ... ... 
 λt 
vn1e 1 vn 2 e λ2t ... vnn e λnt 
Particular Solution: c = Φ −1 (t 0 ) x 0
Homogeneous Solution:
•
x = Ax
General Solution:
x = e At c = Pe Jt P −1 c
Page 163 of 330

 x1 (0) 
 x ( 0) 
Particular Solution: c= 2 
 ... 
 
 x n ( 0) 
Inhomogeneous Solution:
x (t ) = A x(t ) + u (t )
•
General Solution: x(t ) = Φ(t )c + Φ(t )∫ Φ −1 (t )u (t )dt

x(t ) = Φ(t )c + Φ(t )∫ Φ(− t )u (t )dt
 x1 (0) 
 x ( 0) 
Particular Solution: c= 2 
 ... 
 
 x n ( 0) 
nth Order linear, constant coefficient ODE:
Page 164 of 330

Page 165 of 330
14.6 APPLICATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
Terminology:
Gradient Vector of a Scalar Field:

 ∂f ∂f ∂f  ∂f ∂f ∂f
grad [ f ( x, y, z )] = ∇f ( x, y, z ) =  , ,  = i + j+ k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂x ∂x ∂x
Directional Derivatives:
For a function f ( x, y, z ) and unit vector u = u1 i + u 2 j + u3 k , u = 1 , the directional derivative of f
at the point P0 = ( x0 , y0 , z 0 ) in the domain of the function and in the direction u is:
f ( x0 + hu1 , y0 + hu 2 , z 0 + hu3 ) − f ( x0 , y0 , z 0 )
Du f ( x0 , y0 , z 0 ) = lim
h →0 h
Du f ( x0 , y0 , z 0 ) = ∇f ( x, y, z ) • u
Optimising the Directional Derivative:
• The function f ( x, y, z ) increase most rapidly at any point P in its domain in the direction of the
gradient vector ∇f (P) . The directional derivative in this direction is ∇f (P ) . Therefore, the gradient
∇f always points in the direction of the most rapid increase of the function, which is referred to as the
steepest ascent direction. Thus, if we want to maximize a function, it is important to move in the
gradient direction.
• The function f ( x, y , z ) decreases most rapidly at any point P in its domain in the negative direction of
the gradient vector ∇f (P ) . The directional derivative in this direction is − ∇f (P) . Therefore, the
antigradient − ∇f always points in the direction of the most rapid decrease of the function, which is
referred to as the steepest descent direction. Thus, if we want to minimize a function, it is important to
move in the negative gradient direction.
• The rate of change is zero in the direction perpendicular to ∇f (P)
14.7 ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

If functions are analytic at a point x0:
Analytic ± Analytic = Analytic
Analytic x Analytic = Analytic
Analytic / Analytic = Analytic
Page 166 of 330

PART 15: MATRICIES
15.1 BASIC PRINICPLES:
Size = i × j , i=row, j=column

[ ]
A = aij
15.2 BASIC OPERTAIONS:
Addition: [
A + B = aij + bij ]
Subtraction: A − B = [a ij −b ]
ij
Scalar Multiple: kA = [ka ] ij
Transpose: [A ] = A
T
ij ji
eg:
( A + B + C + ...)T = AT + B T + C T + ...
( ABCD...)T = ...D T C T B T AT
 b1 
b 
Scalar Product: a • b = [a1 a2 a3 ...] 2 
b3 
 
 ... 
Symmetry: AT = A
Cramer’s Rule:
Ax = B
det( Ai ) where Ai = column i replaced by B
xi =
det( A)
Least Squares Solution

In the form Ax = b , (
x = AT A AT b)−1
For a linear approximation: r0 + r1 x = b

For a quadratic approximation: r0 + r1 x + r2 x 2 = b
Etc.
When columns are not Linearly Independent: x = A+b = VS +U T b
15.3 SQUARE MATRIX:
Page 167 of 330

Diagonal:
Lower Triangle Matrix:
Upper Triangle Matrix:
15.4 DETERMINATE:
2x2: det (A) = ad − bc

3x3: det (A) = aei + bfg + cdh − afh − bdi − ceg
n n
nxn: det (A) = a11C11 + a12 C12 + a1n C1n = ∑ a1 j C ij = ∑ a1 j Mi1 j × (− 1)(1+ j )
j =1 j =1
Rules:
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Page 169 of 330
15.5 INVERSE
−1
a b  1  d − b
2x2:  c d  = ad − bc − c a 
   
−1
a b c   ei − fh ch − bi bf − ce 
3x3: d e f  = 1  fg − di ai − cg cd − af 
  aei − afh − bdi + bfg + cdh − ceg  
 g h i  dh − eg bg − ah ae − bd 
Minor: Mij = Determinate of Sub matrix which has deleted row i and column j
a b c 
A = d e f 
 g h i 
b c
M 21 = 
h f 
Page 170 of 330
Cij = Mij × (− 1)
(i + j )
Cofactor:
Adjoint Method for Inverse:

adj ( A) = C T
1
A−1 = adj ( A)
det( A)
Left Inverse:
CA = I
C = (AT A) AT
−1
(when rows(A)>columns(A))
Right Inverse:
AC = I
C = AT (AAT )
−1
(when rows(A)<columns(A))
Pseudo inverse:
For any matrix A, dim(A) = n x m.
A+ is the pseudo inverse. dim(A+) = m x n
A = USV T , A + = VS +U T
dim( A) = m × n; dim( A + ) = n × m
A × A+ × A = A
A+ × A × A+ = A+
(A × A )
+ T
= A × A+
( A × A)
+ T
= A+ × A
15.6 LINEAR TRANSFORMATION
Page 171 of 330

Axioms for a linear transformation:
If F (u + v ) = F (u ) + F (v) [Preserves Addition]
And F (λ u ) = λF (u ) [Preserves Scalar Multiplication]
Transition Matrix:
The matrix that represents the linear transformation
T (v) = c1T (v1 ) + c2T (v2 ) + ... + cnT (vn )
T ( x) = Ax
A = [T (e1 ) | T (e 2 ) | ... | T (e 3 )] (With m columns and n rows)
( T : V → W , dim(V ) = m, dim(W ) = n )
Zero Transformation:
T (v) = 0, ∀vεV
Identity Transformation:
T (v) = v, ∀vεV
15.7 COMMON TRANSITION MATRICIES
Rotation (Clockwise):
Rotation (Anticlockwise):
Scaling:
Shearing (parallel to x-axis):
Shearing (parallel to y-axis):
15.8 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS
Definitions: All solutions of Ax = λx

Eigenvalues: All solutions of λ of det(A-λI)=0
Eigenvectors: General solution of [A-λI][X]=0 (ie: the nullspace)
Characteristic Polynomial: The function p (λ ) = det( A − λI )
Page 172 of 330

Algebraic Multiplicity: The number of times a root is repeated for a given
eigenvalue.
∑ of all algebraic multiplicity = degree of the
characteristic polynomial.
Geometric Multiplicity: The number of linearly independent eigenvectors you get
from a given eigenvalue.
T :V → V
Transformation:
T ( x) = λx
The same process for an ordinary matrix is used.
Linearly Independence: The set of eigenvectors for distinct eigenvalues is
linearly independent.
Digitalization: For a nxn matrix with n distinct eigenvalues; if and only
if there are n Linearly Independent Eigenvectors:
D = P −1 AP
Where P = [P1 | P2 | ... | Pn ], Pn is an eigenvector.
λ1 0 0 ... 0 
0 λ 0 ... 0 
 2
D=0 0 λ3 ... 0 
 
 ... ... ... ... 0 
0 0 0 0 λn 

Cayley-Hamilton Theorem: Every matrix satisfies its own polynomial:

P(λ ) = an λn + an−1λn−1 ... + a1λ + a 0 = 0
P(λ ) = an A n + an −1 A n−1... + a1 A + a 0 = 0
Orthonormal Set: The orthonomal basis of a matrix A can be found
with P = [P1 | P2 | ... | Pn ] , the orthonormal set will be
 P P P 
B =  1 , 2 ,... n 
 P1 P2 Pn 
QR Factorisation:
A = [u1 | u 2 | ... | u n ] = QR
dim( A) = n × k , k ≤ n
All columns are Linearly Independent
Q = [v1 | v2 | ... | vn ] by the Gram-Schmidt Process
Page 173 of 330

 q1 T
u 2 v1 u3 v1
T T
u 4 v1 ... u k v1 
T
 T T T 
 0 q2 u 3 v2 u 4 v2 ... u k v2 
 0 0 q3
T
u 4 v3 ... u k v3 
T
R= T 
 0 0 0 q4 ... u k v4 
 ... ... ... ... ... ... 
 
 0 0 0 0 ... q k 
 q1 u 2 • v1 u 3 • v1 u 4 • v1 ... u k • v1 
 
 0 q2 u3 • v2 u 4 • v2 ... u k • v2 
 0 0 q3 u 4 • v3 ... u k • v3 
R= 
 0 0 0 q4 ... u k • v4 
 ... ... ... ... ... ... 
 
 0 0 0 0 ... qk 
15.9 JORDAN FORMS
Generalised Diagonlisation:
P −1 AP = J
A = PJP −1
Jordan Block:
λ 1 0 ... 0 0
0 λ 1 ... 0 0 

0 0 λ ... 0 0
JB =  
... ... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ... λ 1
 
 0 0 0 ... 0 λ 
 J1 0 ... 0 
 0 J ... 0 
Jordan Form: J = 2 
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 0 0 ... J n 
Algebraic Multiplicity: The number of times λ appears on main diagonal
Geometric Multiplicity: The number of times λ appears on main diagonal without
a 1 directly above it
Generalised Chain: = {u m , u m−1 ,..., u 2 , u1 } , where u1 is an eigenvector
u k = ( A − λI )u k +1
u k +1 = [ A − λI | u k ]
P = [P1 | P2 | ... | Pm | ...] , for every eigenvector of A
Page 174 of 330

Powers:
A k = PJ k P −1
k
 J1 0 ... 0   J 1k 0 ... 0 
0  
J2 ... 0  0 J2
k
... 0 
J =
k
=
 ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... 
   k
0 0 ... J n   0 0 ... J n 
 k  k  k −1  k  k −2 
λ  λ  λ ...
 1  2 
  k  k −1 
=0 λk  λ
k
JB ...
 1 
0 0 λk ...
 ... ...
 ... ...
15.12 SINGULAR VALUE DECOMPOSITION
Fundamentally: A = USV T , U and V are orthogonal
Size:
dim( A) = m × n
dim(U ) = m × m
dim( S ) = m × n
dim(V ) = n × n
Pseudo inverse: A+ = VS +U T
Procedure:
STEP 1: Find the symmetric matrix AT A . This has orthogonal diagonalisation.
STEP 2: Find a set of eigenvalues of AT A . These are all non-negative.

λ = a, b, c, d ...
STEP 3: Arrange eigenvalues in decreasing order

λ 1 > λ 2 > λ 3 > ...
STEP 4: Find σi
σ i = λi
∴σ 1 > σ 2 > σ 3 > ...
STEP 5: Find S
dim(S) = m x n
 S 0
S =  1  where S1 is a matrix with the diagonal equal to σ 1 , σ 2 , σ 3 ,... and all other
 0 0
elements 0.
STEP 6: Find a set of eigenvectors of AT A

Page 175 of 330
= p1 , p2 , p3 ,...
STEP 7: Normalise each eigenvector

^ pi
vi = p i =
pi
STEP 8: Form V
V = [v1 | v2 | v3 | ...]
STEP 9: Generate first columns of u corresponding to non-zero eigenvalues

1
xi = Av
σ i
i
STEP 10: Generate remaining columns of U such that it is an orthogonal square matrix.
 x1 
x 
 2x = 0
 ...  a+1
 
 xa 
(ie: xa +1 belongs to the nullspace of the matrix that is made from the found vectors of x
arranged in rows.)
STEP 11: Normalise each vector of U

xi
ui = , this only needs to be done for xa +1 onwards
xi
STEP 12: Form U

U = [u1 | u2 | u3 | ...]
15.11 COMPLEX MATRICIS:
Conjugate Transpose:
A∗ = AT
∗
A∗ = A
( A + B )∗ = A∗ + B ∗
(zA)∗ = z A∗
( AB )∗ = B ∗ A∗
Hermitian Matrix: (Similar to Symmetric Matricis in the real case)
A square matrix such that A*=A
Eigenvalues of A are purely real
Eigenvectors from distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal. This leads to a unitary
digitalisation of the Hermitian matrix.
These are normal
Skew-Hermitian:
A square matrix such that A*=-A
Eigenvalues of A are purely imaginary
Eigenvectors from distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal.
Page 176 of 330
If A is Skew-Hermitian, iA is normal as: (iA)∗ = i A∗ = (− i )(− A) = iA
These are normal
Unitary Matrix: (Similar to Orthogonal Matricis in the real case)

A square matrix such that A*A=I
Columns of A form an orthonormal set of vectors
Rows of A from an orthonormal set of vectors
Normal Matrix:
∗ ∗
Where AA = A A
These will have unitary diagonalisation
∗
All Hermition and Skew-Hermitian matricis are normal ( A A = AA = AA∗ )
Diagonalisation:
For a nxn matrix with n distinct eigenvalues; if and only if there are n Linearly
Independent Eigenvectors:
D = P −1 AP
Where P = [P1 | P2 | ... | Pn ], Pn is an eigenvector.
λ1 0 ... 0 
0
0 λ ... 0 
0
 2
D=0 0 λ3 ... 0 
 
 ... ... ... ... 0 
0 0 0 0 λn 

−1 ∗
If A is Hermitian, D = P AP = P AP as P are an orthonormal set of vectors.
Spectral Theorem:
For a nxn Normal matrix and eigenvectors form an orthonormal set
P = [P1 | P2 | ... | Pn ]
A = λ1P1 P1 + λ2 P2 P2 + ... + λn Pn Pn
* * *
Therefore, A can be represented as a sum of n matricis, all of rank 1.

Therefore, A can be approximated as a sum of the dominant eigenvalues
15.12 NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS:
Rayleigh Quotient:
if (λ;v) is an eigenvalue/eigenvector pair of A, then
Page 177 of 330

Page 178 of 330
Power method:
If A is a nxn matrix with Linearly Independent Eigenvectors, and distinct eigenvectors
arranged such that: λ1 ≥ λ2 ≥ ... ≥ λn and the set of eigenvectors are: {v1 , v2 ,..., vn }
Any vector “w” can be written as:
w0 = c1v1 + c2 v2 + ... + cn vn
w1 = Aw0 = c1 Av1 + c2 Av2 + ... + cn Avn = c1λ1v1 + c2 λ2v2 + ... + cn λn vn
  λ2 
s
 λn  
s
s s 
ws = Aws−1 = c1λ1 v1 + c2 λ2 v2 + ... + cn λn vn = λ1 c1v1 + c2   v2 + ... + cn   vn
s
   
  λ1   λ1  

λi   λ s 
As < 1 , lim  i   = 0
λ1 s →∞  λ 
 1  
∴ ws → c1λ1 v1
s
Appling this with the Rayleigh Quotient:
1
w  0
ws = A s−1 , λ = R( ws ), w0 can be any vector usually
  
 ws−1  ...
15.13 POWER SERIES:

t
 A 2 A3 Ak 
e =I + A+
At
 + + ... + + ...  = Pe Jt P −1
 2! 3! k! 
e λ1t 0 ... 0 
t  
 D 2 D3 Dk   0 eλ2t ... 0 
e =  I + D +
Dt
+ + ... + + ...  =
 2! 3! k!   ... ... ... ... 
 
 0 0 ... eλnt 
e J1t 0 ... 0 
t  
 J2 J3 Jk   0 e J 2t ... 0 
e =  I + J +
Jt
+ + ... + + ...  =
 2! 3! k!   ... ... ... ... 
 
 0 0 ... e J nt 
 λt λt t 2 λt 
 e te e ...
t
 2! 
 J
2
J
3
J
k
 λt
e J nt =  I + J n + n + n + ... + n + ...  =  0 e te λt ...
 2! 3! k!  0 0 e λt ...
 
 ... ... ... ...
Page 179 of 330

PART 16: VECTORS
16.1 BASIC OPERATIONS:
 a1 + b1 
Addition: a + b = a 2 + b2 
 a3 + b3 
 a1 − b1 
Subtraction: a − b = a 2 − b2 
 a3 − b3 
Equality: a = b ⇔ a1 = b1 , a 2 = b2 , a3 = b3
k a + lb = λ a + µb ⇒ k = λ, l = µ
 ka1 
Scalar Multiplication: k a =  ka 2 
 ka 3 
Parallel: a = kb ⇔ a b
Magnitude: a = (a1 )2 + (a 2 )2 + (a 3 )2
^
a
Unit Vector: a= a
Zero Vector: A vector with no magnitude and no specific direction
Dot Product: a • b = a ⋅ b ⋅ cos θ

a • b = a 1 b1 + a 2 b 2 + a 3 b 3
a•b
Angle Between two Vectors: cos θ =
a⋅b
a 1 b1 + a 2 b 2 + a 3 b 3
cos θ =
 a 2 + a 2 + a 3  ⋅  b1 + b 2 + b 3 
2 2 2 2 2
 1   
 a1 
 
 a   cos(α ) 
a 
a =  2  = cos( β ) 
^
Angle of a vector in 3D:
a
   cos(γ ) 
 3
a
a
 
Perpendicular Test: a•b = 0
Page 180 of 330

^
Scalar Projection: a onto b: P = a • b
 ^^
a onto b: P =  a • b  b = 2 (a • b )b
1
Vector Projection:
  b
Cross Product: a × b = a 2 b3 − a 3 b 2 , a 3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b 2 − a 2 b1
a × b = a ⋅ b ⋅ sin θ ⋅ n
a × b = a ⋅ b ⋅ sin θ
a × b = −b × a
a ⋅ (b × c ) = b ⋅ (c × a ) = c ⋅ (a × b )
i j k
 a a3    a a    a a  
a × b = det a1 a2 a3  = i det  2
 − j  det  1 3   + k  det  1 2  
 b2 b3    b1 b3    b1 b2  
b1 b2 b3 
16.2 Lines
r = a + λb , where a is a point on the line, and b is a
vector parallel to the line
x = a1 + λb1
y = a 2 + λb2
z = a3 + λb3
x − a1 y − a 2 z − a3
λ= = =
b1 b2 b3
16.3 Planes
Generally:
n • AR = 0
n•r = n•a
n•r = k
Where: n = a, b, c & r = x, y, z : ax + by + cz = k
Tangent Plane:
We define the tangent plane at a point P (x0, y0, z0 ) on a surface S given by the equation
f ( x, y , z ) = c as a plane which contains all tangent lines at P to curves in S through P.
Therefore,
→
0 = ∇f ( x0 , y0 , z 0 ) • PQ
= f x ( x0 , y0 , z 0 ), f y ( x0 , y0 , z 0 ), f z ( x0 , y0 , z 0 ) • x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z 0
Page 181 of 330

Normal Line:
The normal line to S at P is the line passing through P and perpendicular to the tangent plan. The equation of the
normal line is:
16.4 Closest Approach
Two Points: d = PQ
^
Point and Line: d = PQ × a
^
Point and Plane: d = PQ • n
d = PQ • n = PQ • (a × b )
^
Two Skew Lines:
[r b (t ) − r a (t )] • [v b − v a ] = 0
Solving for t:
[ a r b (t )] • [ a v b ] = 0
16.5 Geometry
AB × AC
Area of a Triangle: A=
2
Area of a Parallelogram: A = AB × AC
Area of a Parallelepiped: A = AD • ( AB × AC )
16.6 Space Curves
Where: r (t ) = x (t )i + y (t ) j + z (t )k
Page 182 of 330

Velocity: v (t ) = r ' (t ) = x ' (t )i + y ' (t ) j + z ' (t )k
Acceleration: a(t ) = v' (t ) = r ' ' (t ) = x' ' (t )i + y ' ' (t ) j + z ' ' (t )k
Definition of “s”:
The length of the curve from r to r+∆r
dr r ' (t )
T= =
Unit Tangent: ds r ' (t )
T =1
dr dr ds
Chain Rule: = ×
dt ds dt
dr dr ds
As = 1, = =speed
ds dt dt
Normal:
T •T =1
d
(T • T ) = 0
ds
dT dT
•T + T • =0
ds ds
dT
2T • =0
ds
dT
T• =0
ds
dT
As T is tangent to the curve, is normal
ds
Page 183 of 330

 dT 
 
 ds 
N=
dT
ds
dT dT
Curvature: = N = κN
ds ds
dT r ' (t ) × r ' ' (t ) v(t ) × a (t )
∴κ = = 3
= 3
ds r ' (t ) v(t )
Unit Binomial: B =T × N
dB
Tortion: τ=
ds
ABBREVIATIONS
λ = a scalar value
µ = a scalar value
θ = the angle between the vectors
a = a vector
b = a vector
k = a scalar value
l = a scalar value
n = the normal vector
r = the resultant vector
Page 184 of 330

PART 17: SERIES
17.1 MISCELLANEOUS
n
General Form: S n = a1 + a2 + a2 + a4 + ... + an = ∑ an
n =1
∞
Infinite Form: S ∞ = a1 + a2 + a2 + a4 + ... = ∑ an
n =1
i
Partial Sum of a Series: Si = a1 + a2 + a2 + a4 + ... + ai = ∑ an
n =1
1
2 9  3
1 1 1
0.999 = 9  + 9  + 9  + ... =   = 1
10
0.99…=1:
 10   10   10  1
1−
10
17.2 TEST FOR CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE
Test For Convergence: lim (S ) = L , if L exists, it is convergent

n→ ∞
n
Test For Divergence: lim (a ) ≠ 0

n →∞
n
Geometric Series
∞  Divergent , r ≥ 1
∑ ar n −1

n =1 Convergent, r < 1
P Series
∞
1  Divergent , p ≤ 1
∑x p
n =1 Convergent, p > 1
The Sandwich Theorem

If there is a positive series so that an ≤ bn ≤ cn
If lim (a ) = lim (c ) = L , then, lim (b ) = L
n →∞
n
n →∞
n
n →∞
n
Hence, if an & cn are convergent, bn must also be convergent
The Integral Test

If an = f ( x ) if f ( x ) is continuous, positive and decreasing
∞
If S ∞ or ∫f
1
( x) is true, then the other is true
1 1
an = = f ( n) = = f ( x )
n x
Eg: ∞ ∞
∴ ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ dx = [ln x ]1 = D.N .E.
1 ∞
1 1
x
Page 185 of 330

∴ an is divergent
The Direct Comparison Test

If we want to test an , and know the behaviour of bn , where an is a series with only non-negative terms
If bn is convergent and an ≤ bn , then an is also convergent
The Limit Comparison Test

∞
 an  ∞
If there is a convergent series
n =1
∑ cn , then if
lim 
  
n →∞  c n 
< ∞ , then ∑
n =1
an converges
∞
a  ∞
If there is a divergent series ∑ d n , then if lim  n  > 0 , then ∑ an diverges
n =1 n →∞  d n  n =1
D’almbert’s Ratio Comparison Test

FOR POSITIVE TERMS:
 an+1 
Converges: lim   <1
n →∞ an 
 an+1 
Diverges: lim   >1
n →∞ an 
 an+1 
Not enough information: lim   =1
n →∞ an 
The nth Root Test

∞
For ∑a
n =1
n where an ≥ 0 , then if lim
n→∞
n an ,
Converges: lim n an < 1

n →∞
Diverges: lim n an > 1

n→∞
Not enough information: lim n an = 1

n→∞
Abel’s Test:
∞ ∞
If ∑a
n =1
n is positive and decreasing, and ∑c
n =1
n is a convergent series.
∞
Then ∑a
n =1
n × cn converges
Negative Terms
∞ ∞
If ∑a
n =1
n converges, then ∑a
n =1
n is said to be absolutely convergent
Alternating Series Test

∞ ∞
This is the only test for an alternating series in the form ∑ an = ∑ (−1) n × bn
n =1 n =1
Page 186 of 330

Let bn be the sequence of positive numbers. If bn+1 < bn and lim b n = 0 , then the series is
n →∞
convergent.
Alternating Series Error

Rn = S − sn ≤ bn+1 , where Rn is the error of the partial sum to the nth term.
17.3 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION:
Definition: a, a + d , a + 2d , a + 3d ,...
Nth Term: = a + d (n − 1)
n
∑a=1a = 2 (2a + d (n − 1))

n
Sum Of The First N Terms:
17.4 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION:
Definition: a, ar , ar 2 , ar 3 ,...
Nth Term: = ar n−1
Sum Of The First N Terms: Sn = ∑ a =
n
(
a 1− rn )
a =1 1− r
Sum To Infinity: S ∞ = lim 

 a 1− rn( )  = a
(given r < 1 )

n →∞  1 − r  1− r
P, A, Q,...
A Q
Geometric Mean: = r, = r
P A
A Q
∴ = ⇒ A 2 = PQ ⇒ A = PQ
P A
17.5 SUMMATION SERIES

n
n(n + 1)
Linear: 1+2+3+4+… ∑a =
a =1 2
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Quadratic: 12+22+32+42+… ∑a =a1 2 = 6
 n(n + 1) 
n 2
Cubic: 13+23+33+43+… ∑a=a1 3 =  2 
17.6 APPROXIMATION SERIES
Taylor Series
∞ ∞
f ( n) ( x0 )
f ( x ) = ∑ a n ( x − x0 ) n = ∑ ( x − x0 ) n = a 0 + a1 ( x − x0 ) + a 2 ( x − x0 ) 2 + a3 ( x − x0 ) 3 + ...
n =0 n =0 n!
(n)
f
where, a n = ( x0 )
n!
Page 187 of 330

Maclaurun Series
Special case of the Taylor Series where x0 = 0
Linear Approximation:
1
1
f (n)( x 0 )
f ( x ) ≈ L( x ) = ∑ an ( x − x0 ) n = ∑ ( x − x0 ) n = a0 + a1 ( x − x0 )
n =0 n!
n =0
Quadratic Approximation:
2
2
f (n)( x 0 )
f ( x ) ≈ Q( x ) = ∑ an ( x − x0 ) n = ∑ ( x − x0 ) n = a0 + a1 ( x − x0 ) + a2 ( x − x0 ) 2
n =0 n!
n=0
Cubic Approximation:
3
3
f ( n ) ( x0 )
f ( x ) ≈ C( x ) = ∑ an ( x − x0 ) = ∑
n
( x − x0 ) n = a0 + a1 ( x − x0 ) + a2 ( x − x0 ) 2 + a3 ( x − x0 ) 3
n =0 n!
n =0
17.7 MONOTONE SERIES
an+1
Strictly Increasing: an+1 > an >1
an
Non-Decreasing: an+1 ≥ an
an+1
Strictly Decreasing: an+1 < an <1
an
Non-Increasing: an+1 ≤ an
Convergence: A monotone sequence is convergent if it is bounded, and hence the limit
exists when an → ∞
17.8 RIEMANN ZETA FUNCTION

∞
ζ (n ) = ∑
1
Form: n
k =1 k
Euler’s Table:
∞
π2
ζ (2) = ∑
1 1 1
n=2 2
= 1 + + + ... =
k =1 k 4 9 6
∞
π4
ζ (4) = ∑
1 1 1 1
n=4 4
= 1 + + + + ... =
k =1 k 16 81 256 90
∞
π6
ζ (6) = ∑ 6 = 1 + +
1 1 1 1
n=6 + + ... =
k =1 k 64 729 4096 945
π8
n=8 ζ (8) =
9450
Page 188 of 330
π 10
n=10 ζ (10) =
93555
691π 12
n=12 ζ (12) =
638512875
2π 14
n=14 ζ (14) =
18243225
3617π 16
n=16 ζ (16) =
325641566250
43867π 18
n=18 ζ (18) =
38979295480125
174611π 20
n=20 ζ (20) =
1531329465290625
155366π 22
n=22 ζ (22) =
13447856940643125
236364091π 24
n=24 ζ (24) =
201919571963756521875
1315862π 26
n=26 ζ (26) =
11094481976030578125
Alternating Series:
Proof for n=2:
x3 x5 x7
Taylor Series Expansion: sin( x) = x − + − + ...
3! 5! 7!
Page 189 of 330

sin( x) = x( x − π )( x + π )( x − 2π )( x + 2π )...
Polynomial Expansion: ( )( )(
sin( x) = x x 2 − π 2 x 2 − 4π 2 x 2 − 9π 2 ... )
 x 
2
x 
2
x2 
sin( x) = Ax1 − 2 1 − 2 2 1 − 2 2 ...
 π  2 π  3 π 
 sin( x) 
lim  =1= A
x →0
 x 
x3 x5 x7  x 2  x 2  x2 
x− + − + ... = x1 − 2 1 − 2 2 1 − 2 2 ..
3! 5! 7!  π  2 π  3 π 
1 1 1 1 1
− = − 2 − 2 2 − 2 2 − 2 2 ...
3! π 2 π 3π 4 π
Comparing the Coefficient of x3:
π 2
1 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 ...
6 2 3 4
17.9 SUMMATIONS OF POLYNOMIAL EXPRESSIONS
(Harmonic number)
where denotes a Bernoulli

number
17.10 SUMMATIONS INVOLVING EXPONENTIAL TERMS
Where x ≠1
Page 190 of 330

(m < n)
(geometric series starting at 1)
(special case when x = 2)
(special case when x = 1/2)
where is the Touchard polynomials.
17.11 SUMMATIONS INVOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC TERMS
Page 191 of 330

Page 192 of 330
[
17.12 INFINITE SUMMATIONS TO PI
17.13 LIMITS INVOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC TERMS
ABBREVIATIONS
a = the first term
d = A.P. difference
r = G.P. ratio
17.14 POWER SERIES EXPANSION
Exponential:
Page 193 of 330

Trigonometric:
Page 194 of 330

Page 195 of 330
Exponential and Logarithm Series:
x −1
, y=
x +1
Page 196 of 330

Fourier Series:
a0 ∞
fW ( x ) = + ∑ a k cos(kx) + bk sin(kx)
2 k =1
a
fW ( x) = 0 + a1 cos( x) + a2 cos(2 x) + ... + a n cos(nx) + b1 sin( x) + b2 sin(2 x) + ... + bn sin(nx)
2
2π
1
ak =
π ∫ f ( x) cos(kx)dx
0
k = 0,1,2,..., n
2π
1
bk =
π ∫ f ( x) sin(kx)dx
0
k = 1,2,..., n
17.15 Bernoulli Expansion:
 A polynomial in n(n + 1) k odd

Fundamentally: 1k + 2 k + 3k + ... + n k = 
(2n + 1) x A polynomial in n(n + 1) k even
Page 197 of 330

Expansions:
1
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n(n + 1)
2
1 1
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n 2 + n
2 2
1  2  2 
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =    B0 n 2 +   B1n 
2 0 1 
12 + 2 2 + 32 + ... + n 2 = (2n + 1) n(n + 1)

1
6
1 1 1
12 + 2 2 + 32 + ... + n 2 = n 3 + n 2 + n
3 2 6
1  3  3  3 
12 + 2 2 + 32 + ... + n 2 =    B0 n 3 +   B1n 2 +   B2 n 
3 0 1  2 
13 + 2 3 + 33 + ... + n 3 = (1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n )
2
13 + 2 3 + 33 + ... + n 3 = (n(n + 1) )
1 2
4
1 1 1
13 + 2 3 + 33 + ... + n 3 = n 4 + n 3 + n 2
4 2 4
1  4 4  4  4 
13 + 2 3 + 33 + ... + n 3 =    B0 n 4 +   B1n 3 +   B2 n 2 +   B3 n 
4  0 1  2  3 
14 + 2 4 + 34 + ... + n 4 = (2n + 1) n(n + 1)(3n(n + 1) − 1)

1
30
1 1 1 1
14 + 2 4 + 34 + ... + n 4 = n 5 + n 4 + n 3 − n
5 2 3 30
1  5  5 5 5 5 
14 + 2 4 + 34 + ... + n 4 =    B0 n 5 +   B1n 4 +   B2 n 3 +   B3 n 2 +   B4 n 
5  0 1  2  3  4 
1   k + 1  k + 1 k +1−1  k + 1  k + 1  k + 1 
1k + 2 k + 3k + ... + n k =  
  B0 n k +1 +   B1n +   B2 n k +1−2 + ... +   Bk −1n 2 +   Bk n 
k +1 0   1   2   k − 1  k  
List of Bernoulli Numbers:

n B(n)
0 1
1
1 −
2
1
2
6
3 0
Page 198 of 330

1
4 −
30
5 0
1
6
42
7 0
1
8 −
30
9 0
5
10
66
11 0
691
12 −
2730
13 0
7
14
6
15 0
3617
16 −
510
17 0
43867
18
798
19 0
174611
20 −
330
Page 199 of 330

PART 18: ELECTRICAL
18.1 FUNDAMENTAL THEORY
Charge: q = 6.24 ×1018 Coulombs

dq
Current: I=
dt
ρl
Resistance: R=
A
Ohm’s Law: V = IR
V2
Power: P = VI = I 2 R =
R
Conservation of Power: ∑ PCONSUMED = ∑ PDELIVERED
t
Electrical Energy: W = P × t = I 2 × R × t = ∫ Pdt
0
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law: The sum of the volt drops around a close loop is equal to zero.
∑V = 0
Kirchoff’s Current Law: The sum of the currents entering any junction is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving that junction.
∑I IN = ∑ I OUT
T
1
Average Current: I AVE = ∫ I (t )dt
T0
1
I AVE = × Area (under I(t))
T
T
1
(I (t ))2 dt
T ∫0
RMS Current:
∆ to Y Conversion:
Page 200 of 330

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R1 R3
RA =
R1
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R1 R3
RB =
R2
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R1 R3
RC =
R3
18.2 COMPONENTS
Resistance in Series: RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

1 1 1 1
Resistance in Parallel: = + + + ...
RT R1 R2 R3
Inductive Impedance: X L = jωL = j 2πfL
1 1
Capacitor Impedance: XC = − j =−j
ωC 2πfC
1 1 1 1
Capacitance in Series: = + + + ...
CT C1 C2 C3
Capacitance in Parallel: CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
Voltage, Current & Power Summary:
18.3 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Thevenin’s Theorem:
VTH = Open Circuit Voltage between a & b
Page 201 of 330

RTH = Short Circuit any voltage source and Open Circuit any current source and calculate RTH as the resistance
V
from a & b. With dependant sources, SC terminals a & b and calculate the current in the wire ( I SC ). RTH = TH
I SC
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem: PMAX =

(VTH )
2
, where R = RTH
L
4 RTH
18.4 FIRST ORDER RC CIRCUIT
18.5 FIRST ORDER RL CIRCUIT
18.6 SECOND ORDER RLC SERIES CIRCUIT
Calculation using KVL:

− VS + VR + VL + VC = 0
V R + V L + VC = V S
di
Ri + L + VC = V S
di
Circuit current:
dVC
i = iC = C
dt
di d 2VC
∴ =C
dt dt 2
dV d 2VC
∴ RC C + LC + VC = VS
dt dt 2
d 2VC dV
LC 2
+ RC C + VC = VS
dt dt
2
d VC R dVC 1 V
2
+ + VC = S
dt L dt LC LC
Important Variables
s 2 + 2αs + ω0 = 0
2
Standard Format:
1R
Damping Factor: α=  
2 L
Page 202 of 330
dVc
Natural Frequency: s=
dt
 1 
Undamped Natural Frequency: ω0 =  
 LC 
Damping Frequency: ωd = ω0 2 − α 2
∆ = α 2 − ω0
2
Mode Delta:
VC: VC (t ) = TRANSIENT +FINAL
Solving:
R 1
s2 + s+ =0
L LC
s = −α ± α 2 − ω0 = −α ± ∆
2
Mode 1:
If: ∆ > 0 , then :
s = −α ± ∆
V C ( t ) = TRANSIENT + FINAL
TRANSIENT = Ae s1t + Be s 2 t
FINAL = V C ( ∝ ) = V S
V C ( t ) = Ae s1t + Be s 2 t + V S
Finding A & B:
VC (0 + ) = VC (0 − ) = V0
∴ A + B + VS = V0 → A + B = V0 − VS
dVc
= As1e s1t + Bs2 e s2t
dt
dVC (0 + ) iC (0 + ) iL (0 + ) iL (0 − ) I 0
= = = = = As1 + Bs2
dt C C C C
V0 − VS = A + B 

∴ I0
= As1 + Bs2 
C 
Mode 2:
If: ∆ = 0 , then :
s = −α
VC (t ) = TRANSIENT + FINAL
TRANSIENT = ( A + Bt )e st = ( A + Bt )e −αt
FINAL = VC (∝) = VS
VC (t ) = ( A + Bt )e −αt + VS
Finding A & B:
Page 203 of 330

VC (0 + ) = VC (0 − ) = V0
∴ A + VS = V0 → A = V0 − VS
= ( A + Bt )se st + Be st
dVc
dt
dVC (0 + ) iC (0 + ) iL (0 + ) iL (0 − ) I 0
= = = = = As + B
dt C C C C
V0 − VS = A 

∴ I0
= As + B 
C 
Mode 3:
∆ < 0 , and letting ωd = ω0 − α 2 , then :
2
If:
s = −α ± jωd
TRANSIENT = ( A cos(ω d t ) + B sin(ω d t ) )e −αt
VC (t ) = ( A cos(ω d t ) + B sin(ω d t ) )e −αt + VS
Finding A & B:
VC (0 + ) = VC (0 − ) = V0
∴ A + VS = V0 → A = V0 − VS
= (− Aωd sin(ωd t ) + Bωd cos(ωd t ) )e −αt − α ( A cos(ωd t ) + B sin(ωd t ) )e −αt

dVc
dt
dVC (0 + ) iC (0 + ) iL (0 + ) iL (0 − ) I 0
= = = = = Bωd − αA
dt C C C C
V0 − VS = A 

∴ I0
= Bωd − αA
C 
Mode 4:
If: R = 0 , then :
α = 0, ωd = ω0
s = ± jωd = ± jω0
TRANSIENT = A cos(ωd t ) + B sin(ωd t )
VC (t ) = A cos(ωd t ) + B sin(ωd t ) + VS
Page 204 of 330

Finding A & B:
VC (0 + ) = VC (0 − ) = V0
∴ A + VS = V0 → A = V0 − VS
dVc
= − Aωd sin(ωd t ) + Bωd cos(ωd t )
dt
dVC (0 + ) iC (0 + ) iL (0 + ) iL (0 − ) I 0
= = = = = Bωd
dt C C C C
V0 − VS = A

∴ I0
= Bωd 
C 
Current through Inductor:
dV
iL = iC = C C
dt
Plotting Modes:
Mode 1: Over Damped
Mode 2: Critically Damped
Mode 3: Sinusoidal Damped
Page 205 of 330

Mode 4: Not Damped
(Oscillates indefinitely)
18.7 SECOND ORDER RLC PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Calculation using KCL:

i S = i R + i L + iC
V dV
iS = + iL + C
R dt
Node Voltage:
diL
VL = L =V
dt
dV d 2i
= L 2L
dt dt
L diL d 2i
∴ iS = + iL + LC 2L
R dt dt
2
d i L diL
LC 2L + + iL = iS
dt R dt
d 2 iL 1 diL 1 1
2
+ + iL = iS
dt RC dt LC LC
Important Variables
s 2 + 2αs + ω0 = 0
2
Standard Format:
1 1 
Damping Factor: α=  
2  RC 
 1 
Undamped Natural Frequency: ω0 =  
 LC 
Damping Frequency: ωd = ω0 2 − α 2
∆ = α 2 − ω0
2
Mode Delta:
Page 206 of 330

Solving:
1 1
s2 + s+ =0
RC LC
s = −α ± α 2 − ω 0 = −α ± ∆
2
18.8 LAPLANCE TRANSFORMATIONS
Identities:
Page 207 of 330

Properties:
Page 208 of 330

18.9 THREE PHASE – Y
Line Voltage: VLINE = VPHASE × 3

V
Phase Voltage: VPHASE = LINE
3
Line Current: I LINE = I PHASE
Phase Current: I PHASE = I LINE
S = 3 × VLINE × I LINE
Power:
S = 3 × VPHASE × I PHASE
18.10 THREE PHASE – DELTA
Line Voltage: VLINE = VPHASE

Phase Voltage: VPHASE = VLINE
Line Current: I LINE = I PHASE × 3
I
Phase Current: I PHASE = LINE
3
S = 3 × VLINE × I LINE
Power:
S = 3 × VPHASE × I PHASE
18.11 POWER
Instantaneous: P(t ) = V (t ) × I (t )
Page 209 of 330

T
= ∫ P (t )dt = VMAX I MAX cos(θV − θ I ) = VRMS I RMS cos(θV − θ I )
1 1
Average:
T 0 2
2
V
Maximum Power: PMAX = TH where Z L = ZTH
8RTH
= I RMS R
2
Total Power:
Complex Power:
S = VRMS I RMS
S = I RMS Z
2
S = P + jQ
where P = Average or Active Power (W) [positive = load, negative = generator]
where Q = Reactive Power (VAr) [positive = inductive, negative = capacitive]
18.12 Electromagnetics
Definitions:
Magnetic Flux Φ Strength of magnetic field Wb
Reluctance ℜ Relative difficulty for flux to establish A-t/Wb
Permeability µ Relative ease for flux to establish H/m
Magnetomotive Force ℑ Ability of coil to produce flux A-t
Flux density B Flux per unit area Wb/m2 or T
Magnetic Field Intensity H MMF per unit length A-t/m
Permeability of free space: µ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 Hm −1

ℑ NI
Magnetic Field Intensity: H= =
l l
1
Reluctance: ℜ=
µA
ℑ
Ohm’s Law: Φ= OR ℑ = NI
ℜ
Magnetic Force on a conductor: F = BIl
Φ − Φ1
EMF = − N 2
Electromagnetic Induction: t
EMF = Bvl
Magnetic Flux: Φ = BA
F V
Electric Field: E= =
q d
Magnetic force on a particle: F = qvB
Page 210 of 330

PART 19: GRAPH THEORY
19.1 FUNDAMENTAL EXPLANATIONS:
List of vertices:
V = {v1 , v2 , v3 ,...}
List of edges:
E = {e1 , e2 , e3 ,...}
Subgaphs:
Any subgraph H such that
V ( H ) ⊂ V (G ) & E ( H ) ⊂ E (G )
Tree:
Any subgraph H where V ( H ) = V (G ) , there are no cycles and all
verticis are connected.
Degree of vertex:
Number of edges leaving a vertex
∑ d (v) = 2 E (G )
v∈V ( G )
Distance: d (u , v ) =Shortest path between u & v

Diameter: diam(G ) = max {d (u , v)}
u & v∈V ( G )
Total Edges in a simple bipartite graph:

V ( X ) V (Y )
E (G ) =
2
∑ d ( x) = ∑ d ( y )
x∈ X y∈Y
Total Edges in K-regular graph:

k (k − 1)
E (G ) =
2
19.2 FACTORISATION:
1 Factorisation:
A spanning union of 1 Factors and only exists if there are an even
number of vertices.
1 Factors of a K n ,n bipartite graph:
F1 = [11' ,22' ,33' ,...]
F2 = [12' ,23' ,34' ,...]
F3 = [13' ,24' ,35'...]
Fn = ...
where all numbers are MOD(n)
1 Factors of a K 2 n graph:
F0 = {(1, ∞), (2,0), (3,2n − 2),..., (n, n + 1)}
Fi = {(i, ∞), (i + 1,2n − 2 + 1),..., (i + n − 1, i + n}
F2 n− 2 = ...
Where all numbers are MOD(2n-1)
19.3 VERTEX COLOURING:
Page 211 of 330

Chromatic Number:
χ (G ) ≥ 3 if there are triangles or an odd cycle
χ (G ) ≥ 2 if is an even cycle
χ (G ) ≥ n if is K n is a subgraph of G
Union/Intersection:
G = G1 ∪ G2 and G1 ∩ G2 = K m , then
If
P(G1 , λ ) P(G2 , λ )
P(G, λ ) =
P( K m , λ )
Edge Contraction:
P(G , λ ) = P(G − e, λ ) − P (G.e, λ )
Common Chromatic Polynomials:
P(Tn , λ ) = λ (λ − 1) n−1
P(C n , λ ) = (λ − 1) n + (−1) n (λ − 1)
P( K n , λ ) = λ (λ − 1)(λ − 2)...(λ − n + 1)
Where the highest power is the number of vertices

Where the lowest power is the number of components
Where the coefficient of the 2nd highest power is the
number of edges.
19.4 EDGE COLOURING:
Common Chromatic Polynomials:

χ ' (G ) ≥ ∆(G )
χ ' ( K n ,n ) = n
χ ' (C2 n ) = 2
χ ' (C2 n+1 ) = 3
χ ' ( K 2 n ) = 2n − 1
χ ' ( K 2 n +1 ) = 2n + 1
Page 212 of 330

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ALL IN ONE

MATHEMATICS CHEAT SHEET

CONTAINING FORMULAE FOR ELEMENTARY, HIGH SCHOOL

PART 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS 26

PART 2: MATHEMTAICAL SYMBOLS 33

2.1 BASIC MATH SYMBOLS 33

PART 3: AREA, VOLUME AND SURFACE AREA 40

PART 4: ALGEBRA & ARITHMETIC 43

4.1 POLYNOMIAL FORMULA: 43

PART 5: COUNTING TECHNIQUES & PROBABILITY 74

6.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES: 88

PART 8: APPLIED FIELDS: 102

8.1 MOVEMENT: 102

PART 9: TRIGONOMETRY 112

9.1 CONVERSIONS: 112

PART 10: EXPONENTIALS & LOGARITHIMS 121

10.1 FUNDAMENTAL THEORY: 121

PART 11: COMPLEX NUMBERS 123

11.1 GENERAL: 123

PART 12: DIFFERENTIATION 125

12.1 GENERAL RULES: 125

PART 13: INTEGRATION 130

13.1 GENERAL RULES: 130

PART 14: FUNCTIONS 155

14.1 ODD & EVEN FUNCTIONS: 155

PART 15: MATRICIES 167

15.1 BASIC PRINICPLES: 167

PART 16: VECTORS 180

16.1 BASIC OPERATIONS: 180

PART 17: SERIES 185

17.1 MISCELLANEOUS 185

PART 18: ELECTRICAL 200

18.1 FUNDAMENTAL THEORY 200

PART 19: GRAPH THEORY 211

19.1 FUNDAMENTAL EXPLANATIONS: 211

PART 98: LIST OF DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS 213

5.18 FINITE DISCRETE DISTRIBUTIONS 213

PART 99: CONVERSIONS 308

99.1 LENGTH: 308

Prefix Symbol 1000m 10n Decimal Scale

1.2 SI BASE UNITS:

Quantity Unit Symbol

Expression in terms of other SI

absorbed dose, specific J/kg

dose equivalent, ambient

1.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC CONSTANTS:

1.6 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR CONSTANTS:

1.7 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CONSTANTS:

1.8 ADOPTED VALUES:

Value (SI Relative Standard

1.9 NATURAL UNITS:

Name Dimension Expression Value (SI units)

Planck length Length (L) 1.616 252(81) × 10−35 m

Planck mass Mass (M) 2.176 44(11) × 10−8 kg

Planck time Time (T) 5.391 24(27) × 10−44 s

Planck charge Electric charge (Q) 1.875 545 870(47) × 10−18 C

Planck temperature Temperature (Θ) 1.416 785(71) × 1032 K

1.10 MATHEMATICAL CONSTANTS:

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

– horizontal line division / fraction

mod modulo remainder calculation 7 mod 2 = 1

2.2 GEOMETRY SYMBOLS

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example