CDC Module May 2018

COMMUNICATION & COMPUTER SKILLS
rmmakaha@gmail.com
COMMUNICATION &
COMPUTER SKILLS
rmmakaha@gmail.com 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
COMPUTER
 An electronic machine that works under the control of stored programs to accept process
& output data/information for use by the operator.
 A device that accepts data, processes the data in accordance with a stored program,
generates results, and usually consists of input, output, storage, and arithmetic, logic, and
control units.
 A functional unit that can perform substantial computation, including numerous
arithmetic operations or logic operations, without human intervention during a run.
 It is an electronic device/machine that accepts data (raw facts & figures) as input and
processes (works on it) to produce information (data converted to meaningful form) as
output.
*NB* _The computer is made up of hardware, software and peripheral devices_
*HARDWARE*
 Refers to the tangible, physical and mechanical components of a computer.

 The computer equipment that you need to "run" the software,
 Refers to the physical elements that make up a computer or electronic system and
everything else involved that is physically tangible.
 This includes the monitor or screen, mouse, keyboard, hard drive, memory and the CPU.
Hardware works hand-in-hand with firmware and software to make a computer function.
*SOFTWARE*
 Refers to the intangible computer components, which are the programs or instructions of
the computer.
 Is a set of instructions or programs instructing a computer to do specific tasks.
 _Software is a generic term used to describe computer programs_
 Scripts, applications, programs and a set of instructions are the terms often used to
describe software.
 Everything that a computer does, it acts under instructions written out as computer
programs.
 The hardware needs these instructions to function
*PROGRAM* (computer program)
 A set of instructions, written in a specific programming language, which a computer

follows in processing data, performing an operation, or solving a logical problem. _See
also software_
 A computer program is a set of statements or instructions to be used directly or indirectly
in a computer in order to bring about a certain result.
*NB* _Software alone is useless, so is the hardware. The two are inseparable_
*FIRMWARE*
 Firmware is a software program permanently etched into a hardware device such as a

keyboards, hard drive, BIOS, or video cards.
 It is programmed to give permanent instructions to communicate with other devices and
perform functions like basic input/output tasks.
 Firmware is typically stored in the flash ROM (read only memory) of a hardware device.
 It can be erased and rewritten.
_Firmware was originally designed for high level software and could be changed without
having to exchange the hardware for a newer device. Firmware also retains the basic
instructions for hardware devices that make them operative. Without firmware, a
hardware device would be non-functional_
 Originally, firmware had read-only memory (ROM) and programmable read-only

memory (PROM). It was designed to be permanent. Eventually PROM chips could be
updated and were called erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM).
*PERIPHERAL DEVICES*
 These are devices that are external (not part of the computer) but can be connected to a
computer.
 They are not essential for the functioning of the computer but can be connected to the
computer for specific reasons.
 Examples are: _scanners, modems, printers, speakers, digital cameras, etc._
*FUNCTIONS OF A COMPUTER*
 *Input (Data)*
o The computer accepts data from outside for processing. Input is the raw
information entered into a computer from the input devices.
o Transferring of information into the system. This may be through a user
input device - i.e. keyboard, mouse, scanner etc.. Or though previously
loaded software/program, cd etc.
 *Processing*
o The computer performs operations on the data that it holds internally.
o Processing is the operation of data as per given instruction.
o It is totally internal process of the computer system.
o This is where the computer actually does the 'work' - manipulating and
controlling data over the entire system.
 *Output*
o The computer produces information for external use.
o Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is
also called as Result.
o Output is the exact opposite of input.
o Output is the function that allows a computer to display information, from
the system, for the user.
o This can be accomplished through the monitor (or other graphical
display), printer, speakers etc.
 *Storage*
o The computer stores data before, during and after processing.
o We can save results of processing in the storage devices for the future use.
o Most computers are able to store data both temporarily (in order to
process), but also long-term (i.e., permanently).
o Storage takes place on hard-drives or external storage devices.
 *Communication*
o The computer can send or receive data to or from other computers when it is
connected on a network
HARDWARE VS SOFTWARE
HARDWARE SOFTWARE
 Physical components of a computer system. Devices that are  Intangible components of a computer system, which are programs or
Definition
required to store and execute (or run) the software. instructions that enables a user to interact with the computer.
Types  Input, storage, processing, control, and output devices.  System software, Programming software, and Application software.
 CD-ROM, monitor, printer, video card, scanners, label makers,  QuickBooks, Adobe Acrobat, WhatsApp , Internet Explorer ,
Examples
routers, and modems. Microsoft Word , Microsoft Excel
 Hardware serves as the delivery system for software solutions. The

 To perform the specific task you need to complete. Software is
hardware of a computer is infrequently changed, in comparison with
Function generally not needed to for the hardware to perform its basic level
software and data, which are “soft” in the sense that they are readily
tasks such as turning on and responding to input.
created, modified, or erased on the computer
Inter
 Hardware starts functioning once software is loaded.  To deliver its set of instructions, Software is installed on hardware.
dependency
 Hardware failure is random. Hardware does have increasing failure  Software failure is systematic. Software does not have an increasing
Failure
at the last stage. failure rate.
 Software does not wear out over time. However, bugs are
Durability  Hardware wears out over time.
discovered in software as time passes.
Nature  Hardware is physical in nature.  Software is logical in nature.
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM( block diagram)
DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF EACH COMPONENT.
*INPUT UNIT*
 It accepts (or reads) the list of instructions and data from the outside world.
 It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable format.
 It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further
processing.
*OUTPUT UNIT*
 It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and hence
cannot be easily understood by us.
 It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
 It supplied the converted results to the outside world.
*REGISTERS*.
 The registers are the memory of the processor.

 All the data transfer is done through the registers in the processor to accelerate the
process.
*STORAGE UNIT*
 All the data to be processed and the instruction required for processing (received from
input devices).
 Intermediate results of processing.
 Final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
*CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)*
The CPU processes instructions it receives in the process of decoding data. In processing this
data, the CPU performs four basic steps:
1. Fetch Each instruction is stored in memory and has its own address. The processor takes
this address number from the program counter, which is responsible for tracking which
instructions the CPU should execute next.
2. Decode All programs to be executed are translated to into Assembly instructions.
Assembly code must be decoded into binary instructions, which are understandable to
your CPU. This step is called decoding.
3. Execute While executing instructions the CPU can do one of three things: Do
calculations with its ALU, move data from one memory location to another, or jump to a
different address.
4. Store The CPU must give feedback after executing an instruction and the output data is
written to the memory.
*ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT* (ALU)
An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a major component of the central processing unit of a
computer system. It does all processes related to arithmetic and logic operations that need
to be done on instruction words. In some microprocessor architectures, the ALU is
divided into the arithmetic unit (AU) and the logic unit (LU).
_ALUs routinely perform the following operations_
 *Logical Operations*: These include AND, OR, NOT, XOR, NOR, NAND, etc.
 *Bit-Shifting Operations*: This pertains to shifting the positions of the bits by a
certain number of places to the right or left, which is considered a multiplication
operation.
 *Arithmetic Operations*: This refers to bit addition and subtraction. Although
multiplication and division are sometimes used, these operations are more
expensive to make. Addition can be used to substitute for multiplication and
subtraction for division.
*CONTROL UNIT*
A control unit (CU) handles all processor control signals. It directs all input and output flow,
fetches code for instructions from microprograms and directs other units and models by providing
control and timing signals. A CU component is considered the processor brain because it issues
orders to just about everything and ensures correct instruction execution.
_CU functions are as follows_:
 Controls sequential instruction execution

 Interprets instructions
 Guides data flow through different computer areas
 Regulates and controls processor timing
 Sends and receives control signals from other computer devices
 Handles multiple tasks, such as fetching, decoding, execution handling and
storing results
_CUs are designed in two ways_:
 *Hardwired control*: Design is based on a fixed architecture. The CU is made

up of flip-flops, logic gates, digital circuits and encoder and decoder circuits that
are wired in a specific and fixed way. When instruction set changes are required,
wiring and circuit changes must be made. This is preferred in a reduced
instruction set computing (RISC) architecture, which only has a small number of
instructions.
 *Microprogram control*: Microprograms are stored in a special control
memory and are based on flowcharts. They are replaceable and ideal because of
their simplicity.
MAIN MEMORY VS SECONDARY MEMORY (RAM VS ROM)
MAIN MEMORY AUXILIARY OR BACKUP STORAGE

 Stores programs and data while computer is  Store data or programs for later
running for current use use
 Main memory is fast and limited in capacity  Slow and capacity vary
 Cannot retain information when the  Non volatile
computer is switched off - Volatile
 Memory directly connected to the CPU - not  Portable- can be transported from
portable one machine to another.
 Primary storage  Secondary storage
 PROVIDES FAST ACCESS  ACCESS IS SLOW
 Temporary  Permanent
 Computer cannot do or work without  Can do or work without
PRIMARY MEMORY SECONDARY MEMORY
 The memory devices used for primary  The secondary memory devices are
memory are semiconductor memories magnetic and optical memories.
 The primary memory is categorized as  The secondary memory is always non

volatile and non-volatile memories, RAM is volatile
the volatile memory and ROM is the non-
volatile memory
 The primary memory is composed of  The secondary memory is enough capable to
programs and data that are presently being store huge amount of information
used by the micro processor
 The primary memories are more effective  The secondary memories are somewhat
and fast to interact with the micro processor slow in interacting with the microprocessor,
when compared with the primary memory.
 Primary memory is known as main memory  Secondary memory is known as additional

memory or back memory
 These memories are also called as internal  These memories are also called as external
memory memory
 Primary memory is temporary  The secondary memory is permanent
 Commonly used primary memory (main  Generally secondary memories range

memory) available in the range of 512 MB between 80 GB to 4 TB Hard Disc Drives.
to 8 GB RAMs.
 The primary memory devices are connected  The secondary memory devices are
to the computer through “slots” connected to the computer through Cables
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
 *According to data handling, computers are analog, digital or hybrid*
 ANALOG COMPUTERS work on the principle of measuring, in which the

measurements obtained are translated into data. Modern analog computers usually
employ electrical parameters, such as voltages, resistances or currents, to represent the
quantities being manipulated. Such computers do not deal directly with the numbers.
They measure continuous physical magnitudes.
 DIGITAL COMPUTERS are those that operate with information, numerical or
otherwise, represented in a digital form. Such computers process data into a digital
value (in 0s and 1s). They give the results with more accuracy and at a faster rate.
 HYBRID COMPUTERS incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer

and counting feature of a digital computer. For computational purposes, these
computers use analog components and for storage, digital memories are used.
 *According to, computers are classified as*
 *Analog Computer*
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses continuous physical
phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the
problem being solved
 *Digital Computer*
A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system
 *Hybrid Computer* (Analog + Digital)

A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both
digital and analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective
method of performing complex simulations.
*CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF SIZE*
Major classes or categories of computers
1. Supercomputer
2. Mainframe Computer
3. Minicomputer
4. Microcomputer
*SUPERCOMPUTER*
 The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data processing are the
Supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific computers used by large
organizations. These computers are used for research and exploration purposes, like
NASA uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling them and for
space exploration purpose.
 The supercomputers are very expensive and very large in size. It can be
accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms; some super computers can span an
entire building.
*Uses Of Supercomputers*
 Space Exploration
 Earthquake studies
 Weather Forecasting
 Nuclear weapons testing
*MAINFRAME COMPUTER*
 Although Mainframes are not as powerful as supercomputers, but certainly they are
quite expensive nonetheless, and many large firms & government organizations uses
Mainframes to run their business operations.
 The Mainframe computers can be accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms
because of its size.
 Super-computers are the fastest computers with large data storage capacity,
 Mainframes can also process & store large amount of data.
 Banks educational institutions & insurance companies use mainframe computers to
store data about their customers, students & insurance policy holders.
*MINICOMPUTER*
 Minicomputers are used by small businesses & firms.

 Minicomputers are also called as “Midrange Computers”.
 These are small machines and can be accommodated on a disk with not as processing
and data storage capabilities as super-computers & Mainframes.
 These computers are not designed for a single user.
 Individual departments of a large company or organizations use Mini-computers for
specific purposes. For example, a production department can use Mini-computers for
monitoring certain production process.
*MICROCOMPUTER*
 Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets & smartphones
are all types of microcomputers.
 The micro-computers are widely used & the fastest growing computers.
 These computers are the cheapest among the other three types of computers.
 The Micro-computers are specially designed for general usage like entertainment,
education and work purposes.
 Well known manufacturers of Micro-computer are Dell, Apple, Samsung, Sony &
Toshiba.
 Desktop computers, Gaming consoles, Sound & Navigation system of a car,
Netbooks, Notebooks, PDA’s, Tablet PC’s, Smartphones, Calculators are all type of
Microcomputers.
*The main differences among the above computer types are in*:
 Processing speed,
 Memory capacity
 Number and capabilities or peripheral devices that can be attached to the
computer
 Usage.
*COMPUTER APPLICATIONS*
a) Business- for administration, payroll and accounting.
b) Government- keeping database records.
c) Education- Record keeping, accounting and training in the classroom.
d) Health- Record keeping, life-support systems.
e) Sport- fitness monitoring.
f) Art and Design- desktop Publishing, technical graphics, Computer Aided Design.
g) Homes- PCs for home accounts, games, e-mail, online shopping, home education etc.
h) Banks- Record keeping and updating, on-line Automated Teller Machines (ATMs).
i) Supermarkets- Electronic point Of Sale Machines (EPOS) – tills.
*FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN YOU WANT TO PURCHASE OR BUYA

COMPUTER*
1. *COST*; how much can I afford to pay for a computer? Prices of personal
computers range from a few hundred to thousands of dollars. Faster and more
feature-rich PCs are usually more expensive.
2. *AREA OF USE*; where will my new PC be used? If you will be using it only in
your home or office, a desktop computer will be suitable. However, if you will need
to take it with you, you should consider purchasing a laptop (notebook) computer.
3. *APPLICATIONS PACKAGES*; Which application packages will I run on my

computer? Make a list of applications for which you plan to use your PC. For
example, will you use your PC to prepare letters and reports? Analyze numeric and
financial data? Prepare visual presentations? Access the Internet? Listen to music?
Create and work with graphics?
4. *DURATION*; How long will I keep this computer?Try to estimate the length of
time (years) you will use your computerbefore BUYING the next one. If you expect
use your PC for several years or if you think you may later want to add new
applications, CONSIDER one that is expandable, so you can add new components,
such as a modem, printer, or add-on boards. Make sure the PC has expansion slots so
you can connect these devices to your PC.
5. *MANUFACTURER AND SELLER REPUTATION*. Check out the

manufacturers and seller’s reputations.Talk with friends, co-workers, classmates,
teachers, and others about their PCs. Ask about the performance of their PCs and get
recommendations from persons you trust. Eventually you may need to have your PC
serviced. Ideally, the vendor has a service department that can repair your PC. If not,
you may need to locate a third-party to provide this service. Reputable computer
manufactures include:
1. Hewlett-Packard 2. Apple 3. Sun Microsystems 4. Dell 5. Panasonic 6.Sony
7.Toshiba 8. Shuttle 9. IBM 10. Samsung Electronics 11. Hitachi 12. Fujitsu
Siemens
6. *WARRANTIES & GUARANTEES*
7. *PC ARCHITECTURE*. PC architecture refers to the design and construction of

the PC and its system unit, and not all architectures are the same. For example, the
architecture of an Apple Macintosh differs from that of an IBM or compatible PC.
Therefore, software written for an Apple Macintosh PC may not run on an IBM or
IBM-compatible PC. Although some users prefer a Macintosh PC, more software is
available for IBM and IBM-compatible PCs.
8. *MICROPROCESSOR SPEED*. Selecting the right microprocessor is extremely

important. Processing speed, measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz), is
probably the first consideration. The higher the number of MHz or GHz, the faster
the processor will manipulate data. If speed is important, consider choosing a
microprocessor with a speed of 2 GHz or more. PCs containing microprocessors with
speeds up to 10 GHz and higher are available.
9. *MAIN MEMORY* (RAM). Main memory (RAM) is needed for the temporary
storage of programs and data while the data is being processed. Some application
software requires a considerable amount of RAM to function properly, and newer
software versions usually require more RAM than older versions. Typical PCs now
come with 2 gigabytes (GB), 5GB, or more of RAM. Make certain the PC has
sufficient RAM to run the software you will be using.
10. *SECONDARY STORAGE* (ROM). What type(s) and amounts of secondary
storage are you likely to need? Typical computers come with a floppy disk drive, cd
drive, USB port/ drive and a hard disk drive already installed. A hard disk drive
contains one or more rigid storage platters and provides for the permanent storage of
considerably more data. However, the disk itself cannot be removed from the drive.
The STORAGE CAPACITY of a hard disk is an important consideration because it

is used to store all system and application software. Typical hard disk capacities are
100, 200, 500GB or 2TB and more. Be certain the PC you are considering has
sufficient secondary capacity for your needs
11. *PORTS*. The number of ports (slots) available inside the system unit determines
the number of add-on boards that can be installed inside the system unit. For
example, you cannot connect a printer to your computer unless your computer is
equipped with an appropriate port (slot).
12. *INPUT DEVICES*. Typical input devices are a keyboard and a mouse, although
other kinds of input devices are available.
13. *OUTPUT DEVICES*. Output devices produce output in either soft copy or hard
copy form. Most PCs come with a monitor (for soft copy output), but you may have
to purchase a hard copy device, such as a printer, separately.
14. *MONITORS*.
 Resolution refers to the clarity of the text and images being displayed. Before
making a purchase, carefully evaluate the monitor’s resolution.
 Monitor size is another important consideration.
DATA
 Relationship between Data and Information
 Data is raw information
 a collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn; "statistical data"
INFORMATION
 Data that has been processed to add or create meaning and hopefully knowledge
for the person who receives it. Information is the output of information systems.
 Organized data which is understood to have significance and meaning
DATA PROCESSING
Used specifically, data processing may refer to a discrete step in the information processing cycle
in which data is acquired, entered, validated, processed, stored, and output, either in response to
queries or in the form of routine reports; the processing is the step that organizes the information
in order to form the desired output. Used in a more general sense, data processing may also refer
to the act of recording or otherwise handling one or more sets of data, and is often performed with
the use of computers. The word data is commonly used to mean “information” and often suggests
large amounts of information in a standardized format. Data may consist of letters, numbers,
equations, dates, images, and other material, but does not usually include entire words.
THE DATA PROCESSING CYCLE
The data processing cycle is the order in which data is processed. There are four stages:-
Input
This is the first event in the cycle. This stage involves collection of data from the outside or also
from within the system. One can break this stage into three more stages, namely acquisition, data
entry and validation. After the data has been acquired from the source, it is entered into the
current system, upon which the data is validated, so that correct results are given at the end of the
cycle. The input devices are many. The commonly used input devices are computer keyboard, bar
code readers, scanners, output from another system, etc.
Processing
In this stage the computer processes the minutest details entered. This processing makes the data
entered usable. If the computer was not to process the data, it would not be of any use and it
would also be a big mess of data. For example, if the spreadsheet was not to process the data, then
the data in the spreadsheet would only be a mess of numbers. The spreadsheet is a program which
gives the data out back to the user in the usable form. The system used for processing, along with
the data entered will decide the kind of output, which the user will get.
Output
If you have to look at the diagram of data/ information processing cycle, the step after processing
is the output stage. The processed information is now transmitted to the user. This stage can also
be further divided. After processing the data, there can be further interactive queries asked or
routine reports can be given. There are different forms in which the output can be given to the
user. There can be print report, which may be given to the user. The output can also be given in
the form of audio, video as well. In some cases, the results may only be displayed on the
computer monitor.
Storage
After the data has been processed, along with the output to the user, the data is also stored.
Different computer storage devices can be used for the same. Some of the commonly used data
storage methods are disk storage, tertiary storage, etc. Storing the data also serves another
purpose. You will not have to repeat the entire cycle again. Often the storage is done in both
digital as well as hard copy format. At the same time, backup of the digital format is also
maintained, which can be retrieved in case of system crash.
The most important advantage of this cycle is that the information is processed quickly. At the
same time retrieving the data is an easy task as well. The processed information can further be
passed unto the next stage directly in case the need be. The necessary data is stored, which helps
in avoiding duplication of data as well as time.
ATTRIBUTES OF GOOD INFORMATION
Quality Commentary
Required
Relevant The information obtained and used should be needed for decision-making. it doesn't
matter how interesting it is. Businesses are often criticised for producing too much
information simply because their information systems can "do it". A good way of ensuring
relevance is to closely define the objectives of any information reports. Another way to
improve relevance is to produce information that focuses on "exceptions" - e.g. problems,
high or low values, where limits have been exceeded.
Up-to-date Information needs to be timely if it is to be actioned. For example, the manager of a large
retail business needs daily information on how stores are performing, which products are
selling well (or not) so that immediate action can be taken. To improve the speed with
which information is produced, businesses usually need to look at upgrading or replacing
their information systems.
Accurate As far as possible, information should be free from errors (e.g. the figures add up; data is
allocated to the correct categories). The users of information should be informed whenever
assumptions or estimates have been used. Accruate information is usually a function of
accurate data collection. If information needs to be extremely accurate, then more time
needs to be allocated for it to be checked. However, businesses need to guard against
trying to produce "perfect" information - it is often more important for the information to
be up-to-date than perfect.
Meet the needs Users of information have different needs. The managing director doesn't have time to
of the User trawl through thick printouts of each week's production or sales listings - he or she wants a
summary of the key facts. The quality control supervisor will want detailed information
about quality testing results rather than a brief one-line summary of how things are going.
It is a good idea to encourage users to help develop the style and format of information
reporting that they require.
Easy to use Information should be clearly presented (e.g. use summaries, charts) and not too long. It
and also needs to be communicated using an appropriate medium (e.g. email, printed report,
understand presentation. Businesses should also consider developing "templates" which are used
consistently throughout the organisation - so that users get used to seeing information in a
similar style.
Worth the cost Often forgotten. Information costs money. Data is costly to collect, analyse and report.
Information takes time to read and assimilate. All users should question whether the
information they recieve/have requested is worthwhile
Reliable Information should come from authoritative sources. It is good practice to quote the source
used - whether it be internal or external sources. If estimates or assumptions have been
applied, these should be clearly stated and explained.
1) Valid
2) Fit for use
3) Accessible
4) Cost effective
5) Understandable
6) Time
COMPUTER EQUIPMENT
INPUT DEVICES:
 Graphics Tablets
 Cameras
 Video Capture Hardware
 Trackballs
 Barcode reader
 Digital camera
 Gamepad
 Joystick
 Keyboard
 Microphone
 MIDI keyboard
 Mouse (pointing device)
 Scanner
 Webcam
 Touchpads
 Pen Input
 Microphone
 Electronic Whiteboard
 OMR
 OCR
 u) Punch card reader
 v)MICR (Magnetic Ink character reader)
 w) Magnetic Tape Drive
OUTPUT DEVICES:
 Monitor (LED, LCD, CRT etc)
 Printers (all types)
 Plotters
 Projector
 LCD Projection Panels
 Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
 Speaker(s)
 Head Phone
 Visual Display Unit
 Film Recorder
 Microfiche
BOTH INPUT–OUTPUT DEVICES:

 Modems
 Network cards
 Touch Screen
 Headsets (Headset consists of Speakers and Microphone. Speaker act Output
Device and Microphone act as Input device)
 Facsimile (FAX) (It has scanner to scan the document and also have printer to
Print the document)
 Audio Cards / Sound Card
INPUT DEVICES
These are some devices that feed data into the computer for processing. Some examples
include:-
1. KEYBOARD
2. MOUSE
3. TRACKBALL
4. LIGHT PEN
5. TOUCH SCREEN
6. MODEM
7. SCANNER
8. MICROPHONE
9. BAR CODE READER
10. DIGITAL CAMERA
11. VIDEO DIGITISER
12. MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION (MICR)
13. MAGNETC STRIPS OR STRIPES READER
14. KEY TO DISK
15. GRAPHICS TABLET
16. OCR
17. OMR
18. VOICE RECOGNITION SYSTEM
Storage devices can be used as input devices
Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:
KEYBOARD
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting
data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter,
although there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or
108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows:
Sr.No Keys Description

These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which
1 Typing Keys
generally give same layout as that of typewriters.
It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it
2 Numeric Keypad consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration
used by most adding machines and calculators.
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are
3 Function Keys arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has
unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four
directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert,
4 Control keys
Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift,
5 Special Purpose Keys
Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
MOUSE
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse
and sends corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between
the buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot
be used to enter text into the computer.
Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.
JOYSTICK
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower
spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer

Aided Designing(CAD) and playing computer games.
LIGHT PEN
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an
optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the
monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen
location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.
TRACK BALL
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead
of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer
can be moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than
a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.
 A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball held by a socket containing sensors

to detect a rotation of the ball about two axes—like an upside-down mouse with an
exposed protruding ball. The user rolls the ball with the thumb, fingers, or the palm of the
hand to move a pointer.
 Compared with a mouse, a trackball has no limits on effective travel; at times, a mouse
can reach an edge of its working area while the operator still wishes to move the screen
pointer farther. With a trackball, the operator just continues rolling, whereas a mouse
would have to be lifted and re-positioned. Some trackballs have notably low friction, as
well as being made of dense material such as glass, so they can be spun to make them
coast. The trackball's buttons may be situated to that of a mouse or to a unique style that
suits the user.
 Large trackballs are common on CAD workstations for easy precision. Before the advent
of the touchpad, small trackballs were common on portable computers, where there may
be no desk space on which to run a mouse. Some small thumb balls clip onto the side of
the keyboard and have integral buttons with the same function as mouse buttons.
SCANNER
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the
computer for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are
then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be
edited before they are printed.
DIGITIZER
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer
can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be
stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever
the camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet
because it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as
digitizer is used for doing fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.
MICROPHONE
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The
microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.
MAGNETIC INK CARD READER (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the
cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are
machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
(MICR). The main advantage of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
OPTICAL CHARACTER READER(OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by
character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system
memory.
BAR CODE READERS
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and
dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labeling goods, numbering the books etc.
It may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code
Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed
to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.
A barcode reader, also called a price scanner or point-of-sale ( POS ) scanner, is a hand-held or
stationary input device used to capture and read information contained in a bar code . A barcode
reader consists of a scanner , a decoder (either built-in or external), and a cable used to connect
the reader with a computer. Because a barcode reader merely captures and translates the barcode
into numbers and/or letters, the data must be sent to a computer so that a software application can
make sense of the data. Barcode scanners can be connected to a computer through a serial port ,
keyboard port , or an interface device called a wedge . A barcode reader works by directing a
beam of light across the bar code and measuring the amount of light that is reflected back. (The
dark bars on a barcode reflect less light than the white spaces between them.) The scanner
converts the light energy into electrical energy, which is then converted into data by the decoder
and forwarded to a computer.
OPTICAL MARK READER (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen
or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is
specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.
Short for Optical Mark Reading or Optical Mark Recognition, OMR is the process of
gathering information from human beings by recognizing marks on a document. OMR is
accomplished by using a hardware device (scanner) that detects a reflection or limited
light transmittance on or through piece of paper.
OMR allows for the processing of hundreds or thousands of physical documents per hour.
For example, students may recall taking tests or surveys where they filled in bubbles on
paper (shown right) with pencil. Once the form had been completed, a teacher or teacher's
assistant would feed the cards into a system that grades or gathers information from them.
STYLUS
 In computing, a stylus is a pen-shaped instrument used with graphics tablets or
devices that utilize touchscreen input. It is used to write or draw on a screen,
similar to how you would on a sheet of paper. Unlike a pen, styluses have a
plastic or felt tip depending on its purpose and functionality. The picture example
shows the Palm Z22 Stylus.
Which devices use a stylus?
 Originally, the stylus was not commonly found or used with devices other than
graphics tablets and PDAs. However, with the rising popularity of touch screens
on mobile devices, many individuals like to use a stylus as a replacement for their
finger. The reasoning varies, but it's usually for more accurate navigation or to
keep oils from their fingers off of their device's screen.
PUNCH CARD
 Early method of data storage used with early computers. Punch cards also known
as Hollerith cards and IBM cards are paper cards containing several punched
holes that were punched by hand or machine to represent data. These cards
allowed companies to store and access information by entering the card into the
computer. The picture is an example of a punch card.
 Punch cards are known to be used as early as 1725 for controlling textile looms.
The cards were later used to store and search for information in 1832 by Semen
Korsakov. Later in 1890, Herman Hollerith developed a method for machines to
record and store information on punch cards to be used for the US census. He
later formed the company we know as IBM.
 Punch cards were the primary method of storing and retrieving data in the early
1900s, and began being replaced by other methods in the 1960s and today are
rarely used.
TOUCHSCREEN
 A touchscreen is a monitor or other flat surface with a sensitive panel directly on
the screen that registers the touch of a finger as an input. Instead of being touch-
sensitive, some touchscreens use beams across the screen to create a grid that
senses the presence of a finger.
 A touchscreen allows the user to interact with a device without a mouse or
keyboard and is used with smartphones, tablets, computer screens, and
information kiosks.
How do you use the touchscreen?
 Note: Not all touchscreens act the same, and any of the below actions may react
differently on your device.
 Tap - A gentle touch or tap of the screen with a finger once to open an app or
select an object.
 Double-tap - Depending on where you are a double-tap can have different
functions. For example, in a browser double-tapping the screen zooms into where
you double-tapped. Double-tapping text in a text editor selects a word or section
of words.
 Touch and hold - Gently touching and holding your finger over an object selects
or highlights the object. For example, you could touch and hold an icon and then
drag it somewhere else on the screen or highlight text.
 Drag - After you have touched and held anything on the screen while keeping the
your finger on the screen drag that object or highlight in any direction and then
lift your finger off of the screen to drop it in place or stop highlighting.
 Swipe - Swiping your finger across the screen scrolls the screen in that direction.
For example, pressing the finger at the bottom of the screen and quickly moving it
up (swiping) scrolls the screen down.
 Pinch - Placing two fingers on the screen and then pinching them together zooms
out and pinching your fingers together and then moving them away from each
other zooms into where you started.
WEBCAM
 A webcam is a hardware camera connected to a computer that allows anyone

connected to the Internet to view either still pictures or motion video of a user or
other object. The picture of the Logitech Webcam C270 is a good example of
what a webcam may look. Today, most webcams are either embedded into the
display with laptop computers or connected to the USB or FireWire port on the
computer.
 Note: Unlike a digital camera and digital camcorder, a webcam does not have any
built-in storage. Instead, it is always connected to a computer and uses the
computer hard drive as its storage.
DIGITAL CAMERA
 A digital camera is a camera that stores the pictures and video it takes in
electronic format instead of to film. The picture is of a Casio QV-R62, a 6.0 Mega
Pixel digital camera and example of a typical digital camera.
 Note: A camera that is always connected to your computer with no storage could
also be referred to as a digital camera. However, it is more appropriate to refer to
this camera as a webcam.
Digital camera advantages
 Below are key advantages that make digital cameras a popular choice when
compared to film cameras.
 LCD screen
 The LCD screen can show photos and videos after they have been taken, which
allows you to delete the photo if you do not like the results or show other people.
 Storage
 A digital camera can store hundreds of pictures instead of only up to 36 pictures.
 Picture development
 Digital camera pictures can be developed, but you can pick and choose what
pictures to develop instead of having to develop a full role of film with pictures
you don't want.
 Size
 Because a digital camera does not need a place for film a digital camera (not an
SLR) is much smaller and can easily be carried in your pocket or purse.
BIOMETRICS
 When referring to computers and security, biometrics is the identification of a
person by the measurement of their biological features. For example, a user
identifying themselves to a computer or building by their finger print or voice is
considered a biometrics identification. When compared to a password, this type of
system is much more difficult to fake since it is unique to the person. Below is a
listing of all known biometric devices.
 Other common methods of a biometrics scan are a person's face, hand, iris, and
retina.
Types of biometric devices
 Face scanner - Biometric face scanners identify a person by taking measurements
of a person face. For example, the distance between the persons chin, eyes, nose,
and mouth. These types of scanners can be very secure assuming they are smart
enough to distinguish between a picture of a person and a real person.
 Hand scanner - Like your finger print, the palm of your hand is also unique to
you. A biometric hand scanner will identify the person by the palm of their hand.
 Finger scanner - Like the picture shown on this page a biometric finger scanner
identifies the person by their finger print. These can be a secure method of
identifying a person, however, cheap and less sophisticated finger print scanners
can be duped a number of ways. For example, in the show Myth Busters they
were able to fake a finger print using a Gummy Bear candy treat.
 Retina or iris scanner - A biometric retina or iris scanner identifies a person by
scanning the iris or retina of their eyes. These scanners are more secure biometric
authentication schemes when compared to the other devices because there is no
known way to duplicate the retina or iris.
 Voice scanner - Finally, a voice analysis scanner will mathematically break down
a person's voice to identify them. These scanners can help improve security but
with some less sophisticated scanners can be bypassed using a tape recording.
PADDLE
o More commonly known as a game paddle or gamepad, a paddle is an
input device commonly used with games that may contain various buttons
used to steer and utilize different options in a game. All console game
systems utilize a paddle or gamepad for control. The picture shows an
example of a game paddle used with the Atari 2600.
o The term paddle may also be used to describe various handheld devices
that are capable of controlling a function on a computer or electronic
device.
TOUCHPAD
 Alternatively referred to as a glide pad, glide point, pressure sensitive tablet, or
trackpad, a touchpad is an inputdevice on laptops and some keyboards to move
a cursor with your finger. It can be used in place of an external mouse.
 A touchpad is operated by using your finger and dragging it across the flat surface
of the touchpad. As you move your finger on the surface, the mouse cursor moves
in that same direction. Like most computer mice, the touchpad also has two
buttons below the touch surface that allows you to left-click or right-click.
MICR
 Short for Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition, MICR is a font capable of
recognition using magnetically charged ink. Computers equipped with the right
hardware and software can print or read the character printed in such ink.
 MICR font is commonly used to print checks, deposit slips, mortgage coupons,
etc. There are several MICR fonts, the MICR E-13B font is used in the Canada,
Panama, Puerto Rico, UK, and the United States. The MICR CRC-7 was created
according to the ISO standards and is a font used in France, Mexico, Spain, and
most other Spanish speaking countries.
MAGNETIC CARD READER

 A magnetic card reader is a device that can retrieve stored information from a
magnetic card either by holding the card next to the device or swiping the card
through a slot in the device. The picture is an example of a magnetic card reader
and a good example of the type of card reader you would see at most retail stores.
LIGHT GUN
 A light gun is a pointing input device that detects light using a photodiode in the
gun barrel. When the player of the game pulls the trigger on the gun, the screen is
blanked out for a fraction of a second, which allows the photodiode to determine
where the gun is pointed. Light guns were most widely used with early console
gaming systems such as the NES Zapper light gun, as shown in the picture. Using
this gun the player could play games where they were required to point the gun at
the screen and shoot targets, such as ducks in the popular Duck Hunt game.
GRAPHICS TABLET
 Alternatively referred to as a drawing tablet and pen tablet, a graphics tablet is
a hardware input device that enables an artist to draw or sketch digitally using a
pen or stylus. They are helpful because they provide a more natural and precise
feel than a standard computer mouse. The picture to the right shows an example
of a Pen Graphics Tablet from Wacom.
 Similar to an artist drawing with a pencil and paper, a user draws on the graphics
tablet with a stylus. The computer will convert the drawing strokes into digital
form, displaying them on the computer screen.
 The graphics tablet can also be used to capture users' signatures. This use is
similar to the signature pads found at many retail stores, where you would write
your signature after using a credit card to make a purchase.
 Chorded keyboard ,GKOS keyboard ,Keyer ,Telegraph key

TEXT INPUT DEVICES (~20 WPMMorse code)
 Vibroplex (30–80 WPM Morse) ,Keyboard, Typing ,Computer
keyboard
 Handwriting recognition ,Optical character recognition ,Speech
recognition
 Light pen,Light gun,Cyberglove ,Touch screen ,Head pointer
POINTING DEVICES ,Eye gaze/eye tracking
 Computer mouse ,Trackball ,Touchpad ,Pointing stick ,Graphics
tablet (or digitizing tablet) ,Stylus
 paddle, Power Pad, Joystick ,Gamepad (or joypad)
GAMING DEVICES
IMAGE, VIDEO INPUT  Digital camcorder ,Webcam, Digital video recorder,Image
DEVICES scanner
 3D scanner ,Digital camera
 Microphone (see also speech recognition) ,Digital audio
AUDIO INPUT DEVICES recorder ,Digital Dictaphone
OUTPUT DEVICES
 3D Printer
 Braille embosser
 Braille reader
 Flat panel
 GPS
 Headphones
 Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
 Monitor
 Plotter
 Printer (Dot matrix printer, Inkjet printer, and Laser printer)
 Projector
 Sound card
 Speakers
 Speech-generating device (SGD)
 TV
 Video card
 Buzzers
 Motors
 Switched outputs
 Lights
 Mechanical devices, eg a robot arm
Keep in mind that drives such as a CD-ROM, DVD, Floppy diskette drive, and USB
Flash drive may be capable of receiving information from the computer, but they are not
output devices. These are considered storage devices.
1. 3D PRINTER
 Created by Charles Hull in 1984, the 3D printer is a printing device that creates a
physical object from a digital model using materials such as metal alloys,
polymers, or plastics.
 An object's design typically begins in a computer aided design (CAD) software
system, where its blueprint is created. The blueprint is then sent from the CAD
system to the printer in a file format known as a Stereo lithography (STL), which
is typically used in CAD systems to design 3D objects. The printer then reads the
blueprint in cross-sections and begin the process of recreating the object just as it
appears in the computer aided design. In the picture below is an example of a 3D
printer called the FlashForge.
Application of 3D printers
3D printers are used in many disciplines--aerospace engineering, dentistry, archaeology,
biotechnology, and information systems are a few examples of industries that utilize
them. As an example, a 3D printer might be used in the field of archaeology to physically
reconstruct ancient artifacts that have been damaged over time, thus eliminating the
2. SPEAKER
Allows a user to hear sounds and music from the computer provided the system has
installed a sound card.
3. MODEM
An Input/ Output electronic device with circuits which changes data to be transmitted
from its machine form (digital form) into a form suitable for transmission over the
telephone line (analogue form). At the receiving end it converts data vice-versa. It is
only necessary when one needs to communicate information over a long distance and
when connected to the internet.
4. HEADPHONES
Headphones give sound output from the computer. They are similar to speakers,
except they are worn on the ears so only one person can hear the output at a time
5. SOUND CARD
 Alternatively referred to as an audio output device, sound board, or audio card.

A sound card is an expansion card or IC for producing sound on a computer that
can be heard through speakers or headphones. Although the computer does not
need a sound device to function, they are included on every machine in one form
or another, either in an expansion slot (sound card) or on the motherboard
(onboard).
Sound card connections
The picture is an example of a sound card audio ports or audio jacks on the back of
your computer, associated colors, and the connector symbols.
 Digital Out (White or Yellow; words: "Digital" or "Digital Out") - Used with
surround sound or loudspeakers.
 Sound in or line in (Blue; Arrow pointing into waves) - Connection for external
audio sources, e.g. tape recorder, record player, or CD player.
 Microphone or Mic (Pink; Microphone) - The connection for a microphone or
headphones.
 Sound out or line out (Green; Arrow pointing out of waves) - The primary sound
connection for your speakers or headphones. This sound card also has a second
(black) and third (orange) sound out connector.
 Firewire (Not pictured) - Used with some high-quality sound cards for digital
video cameras and other devices.
 MIDI or joystick (15 pin yellow connector) - Used with earlier sound cards to
connect MIDI keyboard or joystick.
Tip: Usually the cables connecting to the devices are also color-coded and will match or
be close to the colors the cables connect into. For example, the end of the speakers cable
may have a green line or be completely green.
Uses of a computer sound card
 Games
 Audio CDs and listening to music
 Watch movies
 Audio conferencing
 Creating and playing Midi
 Educational software
 Business presentations
 Record dictations
 Voice recognition
6. PLOTTERS
A plotter is a computer hardware device much like a printer that is used for
printing vector graphics. Instead of toner, plotters use a pen, pencil, marker, or
another writing tool to draw multiple, continuous lines onto paper rather than
a series of dots like a traditional printer. Though once widely used for
computer-aided design, these devices have more or less been phased out by
wide-format printers. Plotters are used to produce a hard copy of schematics
and other similar applications.
A plotter can be used to produce high quality, accurate, A3 size or bigger drawings.
They are usually used for Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided
Manufacture (CAM) applications such as printing out plans for houses or car parts.
Plotters:
How it works:  A drum plotter prints by moving a pen sideways
over the surface of a sheet of paper.
 One high precision motor moves the pen from side
to side.
 Another high precision motor moves the paper
backwards and forwards.
 An electromagnet lifts and drops different coloured
ink pens onto the paper to draw lines.
 A flat-bed plotter uses two high precision motors, one to move the
 pen in the X direction and one to move it in the Y direction.
 The paper does not move.
Suitable uses:  Plotters are restricted to line drawing and can only create a solid
region of colour by drawing a number of close, regular lines.
 Plotters are often used in science and engineering applications for
drawing building plans, printed circuit boards and machine parts.
Advantages:  They are accurate and can produce far larger printouts than
standard printers.
Disadvantages:  Slow and relatively expensive compared to printers.
 They cannot print raster (photographic) images.
 They can only fill solid blocks of colour using closely hatched lines.
7. SPEAKER
A speaker gives you sound output from your computer. Some speakers are built
into the computer and some are separate
8. BRAILLE READER
 A braille reader, also called a braille display, is an electronic device that allows
a blind person to read the text displayed on a computer monitor. The computer
sends the text to the output device, where it is converted to Braille and
"displayed" by raising rounded pins through a flat surface on the machine.
 Braille readers come in various forms, including large units (about the size of a
computer keyboard) and smaller units, designed to work with laptops and tablet
computers. There are also Braille reader apps for smartphones and tablets that
work in conjunction with a Bluetooth-connected Braille output device.
9. VIDEO CARD
Alternatively known as a display adapter, graphics card, video adapter, video board,
or video controller, a video card is an IC or internal board that creates a picture on a
display.
Video card ports
The picture above is an example of a video card with three connections, or video ports,
on the back.
 VGA connector
 S-Video connector
 DVI connector
In the past, VGA or SVGA was the most popular connection used with computer
monitors. Today, most flat panel displays use the DVI connector or HDMI connector (not
pictured above).
Video card expansion slots
 In the picture above, the video card is inserted into the AGP expansion slot on the
computer motherboard. Over the development of computers, there have been
several types of expansion slots used for video cards. Today, the most common
expansion slot for video cards is PCIe, which replaced AGP, which replaced PCI,
which replaced ISA.
10. GPS
 Short for Global Positioning System, GPS is a network of satellites that
helps users determine a location on Earth.
11. PROJECTOR
 A projector is an output device that can take images generated by a computer and
reproduce them on a large, flat (usually lightly colored) surface. For example,
projectors are used in meetings to help ensure that all participants can view the
information being presented. The picture is that of a ViewSonic projector.
12. VDU (Visual Display Unit)
 The VDU is output device. It displays images and text in colour or black and white as it.
It displays results of processing. It is also called a monitor.
 The VDU serves as a graphical interface between the user and the computer. it
allows the user to see what he or she is doing in a comprehensive manner.
Flat-panel display
 Sometimes abbreviated as FPD, a flat-panel display is a thin screen display

found on all portable computers and is the new standard for desktop computers.
Unlike (CRT) monitors, flat-panel displays use liquid-crystal display (LCD) or
light-emitting diode (LED) technology to make them much lighter and thinner
compared to a traditional monitor. The picture shows an example of an ASUS
flat-panel display.
13. PRINTERS
It produces output on paper i.e. hard copy or on other print-key media. The 2 types of
printers are impact and non-impact.
Impact printers
The printing device being a series of pins have a direct impact on the paper. The pins
form characters on the paper by pressing a printing element and an inked ribbon
against paper. An example of such a printer is the Dot Matrix. The printers are
reasonably fast, inexpensive and can produce both text and graphics. They also
accommodate various paper sizes but are however noisy.
Non-impact printers
These are quieter printers and examples include LaserJet and inkjet printers. The
Laser printers are a more popular choice for business use. They use a printing
technique similar to that used in a photocopying machine. A laser beam is used to
form an image onto the paper using toner. The print quality is high. Lasers are fast,
and quiet. They print graphics but are more expensive.
The ink-jet printers are mainly colour printers which mix ink depending on the
image colour and spray it onto the paper. The toner has the 4 basic colours. They are
slow, expensive and have a high print quality.
What is the difference between impact and non-impact printers?
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IMPACT AND NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
IMPACT PRINTERS NON-IMPACT

PRINTERS
 It produces print on paper by striking  It produces print on paper with a non-
1
mechanism. striking mechanism
 It uses pins, hammers or wheel to
 It uses laser, spray of special ink, or heat
2 strike against an inked ribbon to print
and pressure to print on paper.
on a paper..
 Normally impact printers use  Non-Impact printers normally use
3
continuous paper sheet. individual paper sheets.
 Impact printers are normally less  Non-Impact printers are more
4
expensive. expensive.
 Print quality of impact printers is
 Print quality of Non-Impact printers is
5 lower than those of non-impact
higher than those of impact printers.
printers..
 Impact printers use special inked
 Non-Impact printers use toner or
6 ribbons to produce print on paper
cartridge for printing on paper.
when print head strikes.
 Impact printers are low speed
 Non-Impact printers are very fast, they
7 printers. They consume a lot of time
can print many pages per minute.
to print a document.
 Non-Impact printers do not make a
 Impact printers are very noisy noise because they do not use striking
8
because they strike print head. mechanism in which print head strikes
on ribbon and paper etc.
 Examples of Impact printers are Dot  Examples of Non-Impact printers are
9
matrix and daisy wheel printers. laser printers and inkjet printers.
 Impact printers use old printing  Non-impact printers use latest printing
10
technologies. technologies.
Give two advantages of non-impact printers over impact printers.

 Have high print quality
 They are fast and do not make noise
 They are reliable because they have less moving parts
 See above [non-impact section]
Give three examples of impact printers &three examples of non-impact printers.

Impact printers Non impact printers
Dot matrix Laser
Daisy wheel printers Inkjet
Line printers LED
Chain printers Thermal
Magnetic
Electrostatic
Xerographic
NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
1 - LASER PRINTERS:
How it works:  These print individual pages and work in a
similar way to photocopiers.
 A drum is charged to match the image and
powdered ink (toner) sticks to the surface. The
toner is then transferred to the paper and fixed
by heat and pressure.
 A school or business printer would have a
typical speed of 10 to 20 pages per minute
(ppm).
Suitable uses:  Common wherever fast, high quality printing is required.
Disadvantages:  Non-colour laser printers are more expensive than ink-jet printers (but
the difference is narrowing).
 Colour laser printers are considerably more expensive. (but their speed
and high quality output means they are becoming more popular).
Advantages:  They are quiet and fast and produce high quality printouts.
 Running cost are low because although toner cartridges are expensive
to replace, they last a long time.
A type of printer that utilizes a laser beam to produce an image on a drum. The light of the laser
alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is then rolled through a
reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the toner is
transferred to the paper through a combination of heat and pressure
2 - INK-JET PRINTERS:
How it works:  The print head contains tiny nozzles
through which different coloured inks can
be sprayed onto the paper to form the
characters or the graphic images.
 The ink is forced out by heat or by tiny
piezoelectric crystals which change shape
when an electric current is applied across
them.
Suitable uses:  A popular choice for home use where small amounts of printing are
done and photographic quality colour printing is needed.
Disadvantages:  The ink cartridges can be expensive so running costs can be high.
 The printing speed is slow compared to a laser printer.
Advantages:  These printers are relatively inexpensive and produce high quality
black and white or photographic quality borderless colour printing.
A type of printer that works by spraying ionized ink at a sheet of paper. Magnetized plates in the
ink's path direct the ink onto the paper in the desired shapes. Ink-jet printersare capable of
producing high quality print approaching that produced by laser printers
3. Thermal transfer printers- A type of printer that applies heat to a ribbon and the
image or barcode is then transferred to labels or tags. This technology produces a higher quality,
longer lasting image on the tag or label.
Advantages
-1 to 2 years media shelf life
-Media is not heat sensitive
-Medium to high image quality
-Wide range of available types
-Recommended for industrial use
Disadvantages
-Special ribbons required
-Average operational cost
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper
-Single-pass ribbons only
4. Direct thermal printers - A type of printer that applies heat directly to specially
treated paper, labels or tags to form the image or barcode.
Advantages
-No ribbon required
-Low operational cost
Disadvantages
-Short media shelf life
-Very heat sensitive media
-Limited image quality
-Limited number of available types
-Not recommended for use in industrial, outdoor, or harsh environments
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper
IMPACT PRINTERS
1 - DOT MATRIX PRINTERS:

How it works:
The print head
travels from side to
side across the paper
and is made up of
numerous pins which
are pushed out to
form the shape of each character
The pins hit an ink ribbon against the paper
so the characters are printed out.
The paper is usually continuous with holes
down each side and perforations so the pages
can be easily separated by tearing.
Because the pins make an impact against the
paper the characters can be printed through
several layers of self-carbonating paper to
produce duplicate copies.
Suitable uses:  Limited to situations where duplicate copies are needed and the quality is
not too important.
 Typical uses might be in warehouses where duplicate copies of orders
need to produced quickly and cheaply.
Disadvantages  The printing quality is low - these printers produce low to medium
: quality black and white printing and can only print low resolution
graphics.
 Because of the impact of the pins against the paper, these printers can be
quite noisy.
Advantages:  The purchase cost is low and the running costs are very low.
 They can print fairly quickly, particularly if you remember that multiple
copies are being printed in one print run.
 They are robust and can operate in harsh environments.
 If several sheets of self-carbonating paper are placed into the printer then
the impact will produce duplicate copies.
A type of printer that produces characters and illustrations by striking pins against an ink ribbon
to print closely spaced dots in the appropriate shape.
Advantages
-Can print to multi-page forms-
-Moderately priced
-Multi-pass ribbons (saves money)
Disadvantages
-Noisy operation
-Low-quality output
-Slow print speed
-Multi-pass ribbons (decrease in quality with each pass)
2. DAISY WHEEL PRINTERS

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally
used for word-processing in offices which require a few letters to be sent here and there
with very nice quality.
Advantages
 More reliable than DMP
 Better quality
 The fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP
 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP
3. LINE PRINTERS
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of further two types

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
4. DRUM PRINTER
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is
divided into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width
of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The
different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters
set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print
300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
5. CHAIN PRINTER
In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.
 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
 Noisy
Features or factors to consider when you want to buy a printer

1. Print quality, for example the print from dot matrix printers varies with the number
of pins and even the best are inferior to laser printers.
2. Character formation, whether made from dots as in matrix printer, or full characters
as with daisywheel or laser printer
3. Multi-part, i.e. whether several copies can be printed at once, as with an impact
printer.
4. Fonts or type style; early computer users were satisfied with any quality whatsoever,
but the advances into areas such as word processing and desk top publishing have
stimulated a demand for varying typefaces or fonts within the same document
5. Letter quality, whether the quality is equivalent or superior to that of a good
typewriter and so acceptable for the word processing of mail. Some printers have a
choice of two print modes, draft quality and letter quality.
6. Speed, in terms of characters per second.
7. Graphics capabilities.
8. Flexibility, for example is it suitable for one task only, such as good letter quality but
not graphics, as with daisywheel printers, or good graphics but slow speed and
indifferent letter quality, as with some dot matrix printers.
9. Sheet feeding, in terms of single sheets, friction feed or sprocket feed.
10. Capital cost or what it costs to buy.
11. Running cost or what it costs in ribbons, print toner, special stationery &
maintenance.
12. Compatibility with standard packages; many programs support a range of printers by
generating the correct control characters for fonts, features like italics and underline,
and for graphics.
13. Robustness; some very cheap printers are ideal at home but would not last very long
in an office.
14. Reputation of the manufacturer as a supplier of printers.
INPUT/ OUTPUT DEVICES (IO Devices)

Alternatively referred to as an IO device, an input/output device is any hardware used
by a human operator or other systems to communicate with a computer. As the name
suggests, input/output devices are capable of sending data (input) to a computer and
receiving data from a computer (output).
Examples of input/output devices
1. CD-R/RW, DVD, and Blu-ray drive

2. Digital camera
3. Floppy diskette drive
4. Hard drives
5. Modem
6. Network adapter
7. SD Card
8. Touch screen
9. USB thumb drives
10. Headsets (Headset consists of Speakers and Microphone. Speaker act Output Device and Microphone act as Input
device)
11. Facsimile (FAX) (It has scanner to scan the document and also have printer to Print the document)
STORAGE DEVICES
Alternatively referred to as digital storage, storage, storage media, or storage medium,
a storage device is any hardware capable of holding information either temporarily or
permanently.
There are two types of storage devices used with computers: a primary storage device,
such as RAM, and a secondary storage device, like a hard drive. Secondary storage can
be removable, internal, or external storage.
Without a storage device, your computer would not be able to save any settings or
information and would be considered a dumb terminal.
Examples of computer storage
MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES

Today, magnetic storage is one of the most common types of storage used with
computers and is the technology that many computer hard drives use.
 Floppy diskette
 Hard drive
 SuperDisk
 Tape cassette
 Zip diskette
OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES

Another common storage is optical storage, which uses lasers and lights as its method of
reading and writing data.
 Blu-Ray disc
 CD-ROM disc
 CD-R and CD-RW disc
 DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-RW, and DVD+RW disc
FLASH MEMORY DEVICES
Flash memory has started to replace magnetic media as it becomes cheaper as it is the
more efficient and reliable solution.
 Jump drive or flash drive

 Memory card
 Memory stick
 SSD
ONLINE AND CLOUD

Storing data online and in cloud storage is becoming popular as people need to access
their data from more than one device.
 Cloud storage
 Network media
PAPER STORAGE
Early computers had no method of using any of the above technologies for storing
information and had to rely on paper. Today, these forms of storage are rarely used or
found.
 OMR
 Punch card
When saving anything on a computer, it may ask you for a storage location, which is the
area in which you would like to save the information. By default, most information is
saved to your computer hard drive. If you want to move the information to another
computer, save it to a removable storage device such as a flash drive.
STORAGE DEVICES Continued……
These are devices that store information permanently. They are also known as Auxiliary storage
devices or Secondary storage devices. They include:-
a) THE HARD DISK

A fixed device for storing information within the computer system unit. The disk is not
moveable and is also referred to as the C:\ drive. The amount of disk space a computer
has determines the power of a computer. It provides fast access known as Random access
and has high-speed storage.
b) FLOPPY DISKETTE
An external form of storage used for back up. Information can be deleted and rewritten
and re-saved. The storage device is common for microcomputers. The disks are either
High density or double density disks because data is stored more densely/ compactly than
on regular density disks. Common size of disk is 31/2inches.
ADVANTAGES OF FLOPPY DISKETTES

1. They are cheaper than Hard disks and CD-ROMS
2. They are portable hence used to transfer data or information from one computer to
another
3. They offer direct access and they are faster than magnetic tapes
DISADVANTAGES OF FLOPPY DISKETTES

1. They are prone to viruses
2. They are difficult to handle
3. They can easily be corrupted
4. They have a relatively short life span
5. They hold relatively small amounts of data
6. They are not always 100% reliable
CARE AND HANDLING OF A FLOPPY DISKETTE

1. Don’t put the diskette near any magnetic field.
2. Don’t put the diskette near any electronic motor.
3. Don’t expose the diskette to direct sunshine or heat.
4. Store the diskette in a cool dry dust-free environment.
5. Don’t spill liquid onto the diskette.
6. Don’t use any diskette which has had liquids spilled on it.
7. Don’t bend or fold a diskette.
8. Don’t staple labels onto the diskette.
9. Use a soft pencil or felt-tip pen when writing on diskette labels, as the pressure of a
ballpoint may leave indentations on the magnetic surface.
10. Don’t touch the magnetic surface (the black plastic like plate) of the disk, as your
fingerprints may hinder the drive in reading from and writing to the disk .
c) CATRIDGE TAPE
Data is recorded in the form of magnetized spots on an iron oxide coating of a plastic
tape. Gaps are used to separate individual data records. The tape is similar to audiotapes.
Access of information from the tape is in sequential form and thus slow.
d) CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)

Beams of laser light are used to write on optical disks by magnetic means. After writing,
the disk can only be read from and not written to. Access to information is direct and very
fast.
e) WORM (Write Once, Read Many)

WORM Disks allow microcomputers with the proper drive known as a CD Rewriters (or
a burner) to record own data on a blank CD. Once the recording is done, the disk can only
be read from and cannot be rewritten.
Erasable optical disks are also available and are known as EPROM. The major advantage
of optical disks is their storage capacity. The information on one optical requires multiple
floppies.
f) DVD (Digital Versatile Disks)

A form of optical disks similar to CD ROMS but has much more storage
capacities of up to 3.9GB. They support audio and video as well as
data on the same disk.
g) ZIP DISKS
These are high capacity removable diskettes. They have gained favor for back-up
purposes. Some zip disks use magnetic technology and others use laser. They have a
capacity of about 100MB.
Storage devices differ in terms of capacity, cost and access methods. For any device to be
used there is a need for the device drive on the computer e.g. A floppy disk drive.
Flash memory / solid state memory

Flash memory is a non-volatile, solid state storage device.(i.e. keeps its data without power and
has no moving parts).
Flash memory is increasingly being used in a wide range of devices. Some examples include:
 Small, lightweight USB memory sticks, available for many Gigabytes.
 Memory cards for digital cameras.
 Main internal storage for tablet computers (SSD)
 Digital audio players.
 Mobile phones.
 Video game hardware.
 Flash memory offers very fast access to data and programs. However, retrieving data from an
external flash memory device such as a USB stick would be slower than an internal hard disk
because the speed of access is restricted by the USB link or connection.
 With the development of tablet computers, flash memory is used as the main form of internal
storage because there is no room for a traditional hard disk. These disks are called SSD (solid
state storage). In this case, access to the data stored in flash memory would be much faster
than from a hard disk because there are no moving parts involved.
 Currently, the down side to using flash memory as the main storage method is that it has a
limited number of read/write cycles which limits its useful life span.
 Flash memory, when packaged in a "memory card", is very resilient to damage, unlike many
other storage devices. It can withstand extremes of temperature, being immersed in water or
being accidentally dropped.
PROPERTIES OF FLASH MEMORY DEVICES

PROPERTY NOTES
Type of storage Solid state
Data access Direct access
More expensive per byte of storage than hard disk, magnetic tape, CDs
Cost of storage
and DVDs
Capacity 2 gigabytes upwards.
As an external storage device, it is slower than an internal hard disk. It is
faster than magnetic tape, CDs and DVDs.
Speed
If it is used as internal storage, it then becomes faster than an internal hard
disk.
Portability Very portable as it is designed to be fitted into small electronic devices.
Very durable. Resistant to pressure, temperature extremes and accidental
damage.
Durability It has a limited number of read/write cycles which limits its useful life
The part of a USB stick which is inserted into the USB port can be
snapped off or damaged rendering the device unusable.
Reliability Usually very reliable.
DISK CARE
1) Do not expose them to sun or a hot environment.

2) Keep them away from moisture or water.
3) Keep them away from magnetic fields i.e. Phones, tops of some monitors, magnetized
items etc..
4) Do not touch the actual tape.
5) Keep them away from dust.
6) Do not place heavy objects on them.
7) Write on a floppy disk label only with a felt-tip pen, or write before sticking the label
8) Avoid using rubber bands, paper clips and erasers on floppy disks
HARDWARE CARE
1) Make sure there is enough space for the machines to breathe. (Fresh air is necessary
to make the fan keep the electronics cool).
2) Do not block air vents with books.
3) Keep the computer dry.
4) House the machine in a dust free environment e.g. 1ST floor carpeted-room (Carpets
suck dust) and, use a vacuum cleaner to clean the carpet. (Dust is the biggest killer of
hard drives).
5) Do not expose the machine to extreme temperatures.
6) Properly shut down the machine before turn-off.
7) Pull the plug out of socket when there is thunder and lightning.
8) Do not move the system when the computer is on. The hard drive can be damaged.
9) Use of UPS- Uninterruptible Power Supply in case of power failures,
10) Use of Surge Protectors against too high voltages.
TYPES OF MEMORY
COMPUTER - MEMORY
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
CACHE MEMORY
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk
to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
PRIMARY MEMORY (MAIN MEMORY)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working.
It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction
required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and
ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories
 It is known as main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.
SECONDARY MEMORY
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. For example : disk,
CD-ROM, DVD etc.
Characteristic of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories
 It is known as backup memory.
 It is non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

RAM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and
program result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon
as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers.
RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix
of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM
need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is used as cache
memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of the Static RAM

 It has long life
 There is no need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done
by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM
 It has short data lifetime
 Need to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Lesser in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
READ ONLY MEMORY
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write
on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer
but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
Following are the various types of ROM
MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip there are
small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is
not erasable.
EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the
charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use
the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about
ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one
byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is
flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
 Non-volatile in nature
 These cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 These are static and do not require refreshing
 Its contents are always known and can be verified
COMPUTER - MEMORY UNITS

Memory unit is:
 the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.
 that in which storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.
Following are the main memory storage units:
Sr.No. Unit Description
A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a
1 Bit (Binary Digit)
component in an electric circuit.
2 Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit which can
3 Byte
represent a data item or a character.
A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as
a unit which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each
4 Word computer. The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length
and it may be as small as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer
stores the information in the form of computer words.
Few higher storage units are following………..
Sr.No. Unit Description

1 Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
2 Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB
3 GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB
4 TeraByte (TB 1 TB = 1024 GB
5 PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB
Differentiate between Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM)
RAM ROM
 Stands for Random-Access  Stands for Read-Only Memory
Memory
 Normally ROM is read only memory and it
 RAM is a read and write cannot be overwritten. However, EPROMs can
memory be reprogrammed
 RAM is faster  ROM is relatively slower than RAM
 RAM is a volatile memory. It  ROM is permanent memory. Data in ROM

means that the data in RAM will will stay as it is even if we remove the power-
RAM ROM
be lost if power supply is cut-off supply
 There are mainly two types of  There are several types of ROM; Erasable
RAM; static RAM and Dynamic ROM, Programmable ROM, EPROM etc.
RAM
 RAM stores all the applications  ROM usually stores instructions that are
and data when the computer is required for starting (booting) the computer
up and running
 Price of RAM is comparatively  ROM chips are comparatively cheaper
high
 RAM chips are bigger in size  ROM chips are smaller in size
 Content of ROM are usually first transferred to

 Processor can directly access the RAM and then accessed by processor. This is
content of RAM done in order to be able to access ROM
content at a faster speed.
 RAM is often installed with  Storage capacity of ROM installed in a

large storage. computer is much lesser than RAM
DISK CARE

3) Keep them away from magnetic fields i.e. Phones, tops of some monitors, magnetized
items etc..
HARDWARE CARE
1) Make sure there is enough space for the machines to breathe. (Fresh air is necessary
to make the fan keep the electronics cool).
4) House the machine in a dust free environment e.g. 1ST floor carpeted-room (Carpets
suck dust) and, use a vacuum cleaner to clean the carpet. (Dust is the biggest killer of
hard drives).
NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR AN IDEAL COMPUTER ROOM ENVIRONMENT.
1. Cleanliness [books, manuals not encouraged] because they bring dust & caught fire
easily.
2. Air conditioners, which control the room and dehumidates it.
3. It should be dust free; dust is the biggest “killer” of hard drives.
4. No carpets, they caught fire more easily.
5. You are not allowed to eat, smoke or drink in the computer room.
6. No magnetic material should be in the computer room.
7. The computer room should be located in such a way that computers are not exposed
to direct sunlight or hot environments, use curtains if otherwise.
8. The computer room should be fitted with burglar bars, alarm systems, or guarded
24hours to ensure security.
9. The computer room should have surge protectors or suppressors to guard against
electrical faults and high voltages.
10. The computer room should have UPS [uninterrupted power supply] in case of power
failures, which may be fatal.
11. Computer room should be well ventilated, to allow for air circulation,
12. Foreign media, such as floppy diskettes, flash disks should not be allowed in order
to minimize virus spread.
13. Always switch off machines if not in use.
14. Avoid overloading circuits.
15. All cabling and wiring should not be exposed; it should be covered and should not
criss cross the room.
16. Leave enough space between computers and the walls.
17. Do not use chalk the computer room , dry wipe markers are encouraged.
COMPUTER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
MOTHERBOARD
 The motherboard is a sheet of plastic that holds all the circuitry to connect the various components of a
computer system
 A motherboard is one of the most essential parts of a computer system.
 It holds together many of the crucial components of a computer, including the central processing unit
(CPU), memory and connectors for input and output devices.
 The base of a motherboard consists of a very firm sheet of non-conductive material, typically some
sort of rigid plastic.
 Thin layers of copper or aluminum foil, referred to as traces, are printed onto this sheet. These traces
are very narrow and form the circuits between the various components.
 In addition to circuits, a motherboard contains a number of sockets and slots to connect the other
components.
FUNCTIONS
1. Components' Hub
 A primary function of the motherboard is to serve as the base upon which a computer’s
components are built. The motherboard is, in essence, a hub that houses a number of essential
components such as the Central Processing Unit (CPU), system memory (RAM) and graphics
card. The typical computer is designed with these components built onto the motherboard.
2. Computer Circuitry
 The motherboard is the computer’s main circuit board, bearing all the basic circuitry and
components that are required for the computer to function. It has electrical pathways called buses,
which enable data to be relayed to the different computer components as well as between them.
3. Data Traffic
 The motherboard serves as a communications hub for all of the components that are attached to it
directly or indirectly. It is responsible for managing the traffic of information within the computer
system, which it does by means of the motherboard chipset. The function of the motherboard
chipset is to direct the flow of data that the computer components require or acquire.
4. BIOS
 The motherboard has a built-in Read Only Memory (ROM), which is separate from the PC’s
RAM and which contains the computer’s Basic Input/Output System (BIOS). A key function of
the BIOS is to manage the boot-up process when you power your computer on, and load your
operating system.
5. Peripherals
 The motherboard allows for the use of external components and devices, which greatly increases
the versatility of a computer system. These include printers, keyboard devices, audio jacks,
external hard drives and game controllers. These peripherals can be connected to the computer by
plugging them directly into the motherboard by means of external ports, sockets and connectors,
which are built into it.
Schematic Diagram
 Another useful way to look at the motherboard is as a schematic diagram. This is more of a logical
organization of how the various parts are connected rather than where they are physically located
on the sheet of plastic. The connections between these components are referred to as buses. So
there is a CPU bus, a memory bus, etc.
POWER SUPPLY UNIT

 A power supply is an internal hardware component that supplies components in a
computer with power.
 The power supply converts a 110-115 or 220-230 volt alternating current (AC) into a
steady low-voltage direct current (DC) usable by the computer and rated by the number
of watts it generates.
 Everything contained within the computer chassis is powered by the computer.

 For example, your motherboard, ram, CPU, hard drive, and disc drive are all drawing
power from the power supply.
 Any other external devices and peripherals such as the computer monitor and printer have
their own power source.
 Note: If the computer is a laptop or an all-in-one computer the display may also be
powered by the computer power supply.
 The function of power unit is to convert the electrical power (AC) comes from wall
socket to a suitable type and voltage (DC) so that each component of a computer works
properly.
 Lack of proper supply of power will damage a computer system.
 The power supply receives 120 or 230V and converts into 3.3V, 5.5V and 12V. Why
different converted power? That is because all components of a computer system don’t
need the same power.
 For example, motherboard and cards use 3.3V. The most power demand parts such as
Fan and drives need 12V to operate
HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD)

Hard disk (internal) is a permanent file and data storage device housed in a computer case. Why
it is called ‘hard’, that is because the disks inside a hard drive can’t be bent comparing to optical
disks.
Functions include
 File storage
 Applications storage
 Operating system residency(OS reside on the hard disk)
 Load the operating system when computer is switched on
Desktop hard disk

Laptop hard disk
Your files safely saved on this storage unit unless you intentionally erase the files. All installed
applications/programs and your data reside on the hard drive. It is your main storage unit in a
computer system.
HDD, fixed disk, also refers computer hard drives.
How hard drives function?
• The read/write process on hard disk is built on the principles of electromagnetism.

• When we open hard disk, we get multiple disks called platters, a read/write head and
head arm. The spinning disk platters are made with either aluminum or glass and coated
with magnetic material. It is on this platters that data is recorded or read from.
• Depending on your hard disk type it may have three or more platters. These disks are
arranged cylindrically, means one is on the top of the other.
• Currently, there are hard disks with ten or more platters. On each disk platter (above and
below) there is a read/write head which moves radially. The heads are attached on a
single rack. All the heads move together on their own disk platter.
• Data is recorded by magnetizing a spot on the disk. There is a gap between the disk and
the head, the head is capable of producing a small magnetic field when current passed
through it. The field direction is reversed when the direction of current is reversed, thus
the two binary digits (0 and 1) are easily represented by changes in direction of current.
• As soon as the spinning disks go through under these heads, the magnetic field produced
by the heads comes in contact with the magnetic coating on the disk platters. This
magnetizes a small spot on the coating, leaving a tiny permanent magnet.
• Data is read when the tiny magnetic fields are being moved rapidly past the reading head
(now the action of write changes to read when voltage is reversed on the head). The
moment each created field comes in contact with the head, it produces an electric current
in the head.
• The direction of the current depends on the direction of the field, which was determined
by whether a 1 or a 0 was originally recorded. Thus the original information is read back.
How data is represented on computer hard drives?
• Data is written on the disk platter in concentric rings called tracks. Tracks are divided
into sectors. The matching tracks on both side of a platter then grouped into a cylinder.
• Each sector holds 512bytes of data.
• This division is meant to use the space on the hard drives efficiently. Having more
sectors per track is one indication of a fast hard drive.
• Physically, we can’t tell where the divisions end and start. Simply, we can’t see the
divisions, it is an electronic one.
• However, you can easily know how many tracks and sectors are on your computer hard
drives by reading your computer System Information.
• To get system information, Click ‘Start’ — ‘All programs’ – ‘Accessories’ – ‘System
tools’ – ‘System information’.
• When you buy hard disks you will find sector, track, cylinder, revolution per minute
(RPM) and other information on the tag (found on top of a disk).
Speed of computer hard drives
• Normally, the speed of hard disks means the rotation of the platters per minute. It is
measured in RPM (revolution per minute).
• Presently, hard disks are able to rotate up to 15,000rpm, the most common RPMs are
5400, 6400, 7200 and 10000. A hard drive with high RPM is a fast drive that will load
files quickly.
Types of Hard drives
• Hard disk types are determined by their connection type to the motherboard, IDE or
SATA.
• IDE (integrated device electronics) is uses cables to connect to the motherboard. Now
this type of hard disk connection is phasing out.
• SATA (serial advanced technology attachment) is the current and the advanced type to
connect hard disk and other optical drives to the motherboard.
• The other type is SCSI (small computer system interface), which is used in high-end
computers such as servers and workstations.
Computer Hard drives size
• Today the size of hard disks is skyrocketing. The most common hard drives sizes are
160GB, 250GB, 320GB, and 500GB.
How fast your hard drive is can be measured in
• Rotation speed
• Fast mounting head mechanism and
• Having more sectors per track
Advantages of Hard Disk
 Fast access to data

 Store huge data
Magnetic Storage drives capacity is can be measured in bit (short form of binary digits), byte,
KB, MB, GB, and TB. A bit stores only a 0 or a 1. Byte is a set of eight bits; it is the basic unit of
memory since it holds a single character or bit. Usually, it is the most common used storage size
measurement.
Storage measurement
Term Bytes
1024 bytes 1 kilobyte (KB)

1024 000 bytes 1 megabyte (MB)
1024 000 000 bytes 1 gigabyte (GB)
1024 000 000 000 bytes 1 terabyte (TB)
FLOPPY DISK DRIVE (FDD)

• The floppy drive is a piece of computer hardware that reads data from, and writes data to,
a small disk.
• The most common type of floppy drive is the 3.5" drive, followed by the 5.25" drive,
among other sizes.
• For the most part, the floppy drive is completely obsolete.
The Floppy Drive is Also Known As
• floppy disk drive, disk drive, diskette drive, 3.5" drive, 5.25" drive
Important Floppy Drive Facts
• While still a component of some existing computers, floppy drives are essentially
obsolete, replaced by inexpensive flash drives and other portable media drives.
• A floppy drive is no longer standard equipment in new computer systems.
• Traditional floppy drives that install inside of a computer case are becoming less and less
available. Typically, the best option when adding a floppy drive will be to purchase an
external one, probably USB-based like the one pictured here.
Floppy Drive Description
• A traditional 3.5" floppy drive is about the size and weight of a few decks of cards. Some
external USB versions are only slightly larger than floppy disks themselves.
• The front of the floppy drive has a slot to insert the disk into and a small button to eject it.
• The sides of the traditional floppy drive have pre-drilled, threaded holes for easy
mounting in the 3.5-inch drive bay in the computer case. Mounting is also possible in a
larger 5.25-inch drive bay with a 5.25-to-3.5 bracket.
• The floppy drive is mounted so the end with the connections faces inside the computer
and the slot for the disk faces outside.
• The back end of the traditional floppy drive contains a port for a standard cable that
connects to the motherboard. Also here is a connection for power from the power supply.
• An external floppy drive will only have whatever connection is necessary to hook it up to
the computer, usually a cable with a USB Type A connector.
CD/DVD- ROM DRIVE

• Also known as the optical disk drive
• Currently, DVD drive is a must part in a computer system. Applications, software,
movies and other information are delivered through optical disks – CD and DVD.
Function
1. Data Reading
 DVD-ROM drives can open documents on data DVD & CDs, such as music files,
pictures, word documents and other files. However, DVD-ROM drives cannot write
information to a DVD & CD (burn) because they are read-only drives; writing
information to a DVD & CD is done with a DVD & CD-R drive.
2. Music Playback
 DVD & CDs can be created in two forms, an audio DVD & CD and a data DVD & CD.
Data DVD & CDs can only be opened by computers and other DVD & CD players.
However, audio DVD & CDs can be played by any DVD & CD player, such as in most
new car stereos or a portable DVD & CD player.
3. Software Installation
 DVD & CDs are widely used as installation discs. Whenever there is software included
with a product that you buy in a store, or just the software itself, it is highly likely that it
is stored on a DVD & CD. Before software could be downloaded off the Internet, it was
exclusively distributed in DVD & CDs and floppy diskettes.
What are CD/DVD drives?
CD/DVD drives are used to read data and applications from CDs (compact disk) and DVDs
(digital versatile disk). It is a device which uses laser technology to read and write data on/from
optical disks.
Typical CD drive
• Data is written on optical disk by burning pits on the disk with laser. Later on, data can be
read by reflecting low-power laser onto the surface of the disk. The photo detector then
translates the bouncing lights back into sound or data.
• As the name implies, CD-ROM (compact disk read only memory) drives are only for
reading data from disk, they can’t write back.
• Currently, this type of drive is phasing out since it is replaced by the more advanced and
additional capabilities of DVD drives. All desktop computers come with at least CD-
ROM drives, though this is changing now.
• Presently, DVD rewritable becomes a standard on most new desktop and laptop
computers. So, make sure this when you buy a new PC. Using this drive you can
read/write both CD and DVD disks. DVD drives can read all types of CDs but CD drives
are not capable of reading DVDs.
Use of CDs and DVDs
• Varieties of information can be recorded using optical disks. Whether you are a computer
user to backup data or application developer to record software or in entertainment
industry (movies), CD/DVDs are simple mediums to distribute any kind of information
easily.
These optical disks are preferable because of the following reasons:
 Inexpensive
 Stores a large amount of data
 Easy for handling
 Longevity
Difference between CDs and DVDs
• Both types are made with the same material and size, but differ in their storage capacity
and durability.
• CDs can store up to 700MB size of data. The standard DVDs store 4.7GB, more than 6
normal CDs of data. In addition, DVD disks are more durable than the compact disks.
• Today, the application development and entertainment industry are using DVD to sell
their production.
Types of CDs and DVDs formats
• So far, two kinds of CDs are available other than CD-ROM: CD-R and CD-RW CD-R
(CD-recordable) - can be written on it only once.
• CD-RW (CD-rewritable) - can be written repeatedly (means erase and re-write), usually
used for back up.
• Two kinds of DVDs are available other than DVD-ROM: DVD-R and DVD-RW DVD-
R and DVD+R - can be written on it only once.
• DVD-RW, DVD+RW - can be written repeatedly (means erase and re-write), usually
used for back up.
Based on size, there are four types of DVD
• Single-sided one layer data DVD (4.7GB data)

• Double-sided two layers of data DVD (9.5GB) records on both sides of a disk.
• Single-Sided two layers of data DVD (8.5GB) records on one side but have two
recordable layers by superimposing one on the top of the other.
• Double-sided four layers of data DVD (17GB) records on both sides. Each side contains
two recordable layers of data.
Types of CD and DVD drives
• CD-ROM drives only reads from CDs.

• DVD-ROM drives are meant to read both CD and DVD. It also burns files to CDs but
not DVDs.
• DVD-RW writers accomplish all tasks of reading from and writing back to both type of
disks.
HD-DVD and BLU-RAY
• These are the two types of high-definition disk formats. HD-DVD is developed by
Toshiba and the other disk format, Blu-ray is developed by the electronics giant, Sony.
• Recently, there was a competition between the two formats. Because of size and
durability Blu-ray outranks HD-DVD and chosen by entertainment industries.
• For example, Single-layer HD DVD disc stores 14.7GB data whereas Blu-ray single layer
disc stores up to 25GB data.
PROCESSOR
• The processor is the main “brain” of a computer system.
• It performs all of the instructions and calculations that are needed and manages the flow
of information through a computer.
• It is also called the CPU (central processing unit), although this term can also be used to
describe a computer case along with all of the hardware found inside it.
• Another name for the processor is a computer “chip” although this term can refer to other
lesser processors (such as the BIOS).
• Processors are continually evolving and becoming faster and more powerful. The speed
of a processor is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).
• An older computer might have a processor with a speed of 1000 MHz (equivalent to 1
GHz) or lower, but processors with speeds of over 2 GHz are now common.
• One processor company, Intel, made a popular series of processors called Pentium.
What is CPU?
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is an electronic component that interprets and carries
out the instructions of any application that run on a computer. It is a place where all the
computing is done.
 It is often called the “brain”, “engine” of a computer system. CPU is contained on a
single integrated circuit called a microprocessor. All the other parts of the computer are
there to serve the CPU.
Functions of CPU
The CPU consists of three elements:
1. ALU (Arithmetic/Logic unit)

2. Control Unit
3. Register
The Arithmetic/Logic Unit performs the mathematical calculations (addition, multiplication,

subtraction and division) and logical comparisons.
The control unit is responsible for decoding program instructions by accessing sequentially,
coordinates the flow of data in/out of ALU, registers, storages and various output devices.
Register is in charge of holding small units of program instructions after, during and before the
execution of CPU.
• Here, we need to talk a little about system bus. The computer components transfer data to
each other through buses. Bus is a common pathway for all system elements on the
motherboard. Each elements use bus to transfer data to and from it.
• It is characterized by the amount of data it transfers. For example, an 8-bits data bus transfers
8-bits of data at a time, 16-bits data bus transfers 16-bits of data. The more widened bus, the
faster the transfer of data and processing.
• The system buses have different speed of transferring data. The CPU connects with memory
or cache across high-speed data bus. This is because it processes a large amount of data in a
second. It is called processor bus or FSB (Front Side Bus). It is the fastest bus in a computer
system.
• The other bus type is Input/Output bus (I/O bus). It includes more than two bus types. This
type of bus is used for to connect graphic port and other peripheral components.
How computer processor works?
• A computer executes a program or instruction in two stages: instruction and execution.

• During instruction the computer gets or reads in a program instruction from input devices
or running program. The read instruction then decoded and passed to the responsible part
of the processor.
• During execution time the fed instruction is executed by ALU whether it is calculation or
logical comparison. The result of the execution will be stored in register or memory. Both
actions together called one machine cycle. Modern processors perform multiple
executions in one machine cycle.
How do you measure your computer processing speed?
• The efficiency of computer processor is measured in using the machine cycle and clock
speed.
• Machine cycle = instruction + execution.
• Clock speed = a series of pulse produced by the CPU at predetermined time.
• Machine cycle is affected by the CPU clock speed. The shorter the gap between the
pulses, the faster the processing speed would be. The machine cycle is measured in
nanoseconds (one-billionth of one second) and pico seconds (one-trillionth of one
second).
• Clock speed is measured in megahertz, MHz (millions of cycles per second) or
gigahertz, GHz (billions of cycles per second).The clock speed determines the speed at
which the processor executes instructions.
• A computer with 3.4GHz microprocessor means it operates at a speed of 3.4 billion
cycles per second. This tells us a 3.4GHz processor is faster than 3.0GHz processor.
• However, the speed of the processor doesn't necessarily mean speed of a computer. It
also depends on motherboard speed.
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL STORAGE

External Storage Devices
• This takes the form of a stand-alone device that is separate from the computer. External
drives are connected to the computer with a cable plugged into a suitable interface such
as an USB port. Data then passes back and forth across the interface.
• Once an external drive is attached to the system, it appears as an extra drive letter in the
folder tree, for example, E drive or K drive. The user can transfer files in the usual way
by using the drag and drop method.
• The main advantage of external drives is that they are portable and so data is easily
moved from one location to another. External drives also allow safe backup of internally
stored data.
• The main disadvantage compared to an internal drive is data transfer is slower and they
also take up space around the computer. Constant plugging in and out can also physically
wear out the port over time.
External storage takes many forms, for example:
 portable hard disks
 magnetic tape
 memory stick / flash drive
 solid state memory cards
 DVD or CDs
Each type of external storage has to have the correct interface on the computer in order to
connect.
Internal Storage Devices
• Some storage devices are classed as 'internal' which means they are inside the computer
case.
• Most computers have some form of internal storage. The most common type of internal
storage is the hard disk.
• At the most basic level, internal storage is needed to hold the operating system so that the
computer is able to access the input and output devices.
• It will also be used to store the applications software that you use and more than likely,
the original copies of your data files.
• Internal storage allows the data and applications to be loaded very rapidly into memory,
ready for use. The data can be accessed much faster than data which is stored on an
external storage device. This is because internal storage devices are connected directly to
the motherboard and its data bus whereas external devices are connected through a
hardware interface such as USB, which means they are considerably slower to access.
• Internal storage also means that if the computer is moved around, it will still retain its
most commonly used data.
• The main disadvantage of internal storage is that when the hard disk fails (and it will), all
the data and applications may be lost.
• This can be avoided to some extent by using more than one hard disk within the machine.
Each hard disk has a copy of all the data, so if one fails the other can carry on. This is
called a RAID array. An alternative is to use external drives for backup.
--------------------------------------------------------------------
 An internal drive is, naturally, always powered by the device it's within: your PC,
your phone, your tablet.
 Some external devices contain their own power supplies and plug in
independently of the controlling device: most RAID, JBOD, eSATA, and NAS
devices do this, either because the data connection doesn't provide power, or
because the device needs more power than the interface can provide.
 Others can be powered by the controlling device. USB hard drives go both ways
(computer-powered or self-powered), but memory cards and USB memory sticks
are nearly always powered by the controlling device (or a powered hub).
 The interface can vary a bit, too. The original parallel SATA was pretty much an
in-the-box only interconnect. Back in those days, if you took apart an external
USB drive box, you'd probably find a PSATA drive inside, along with a tiny
controller board that converted USB protocols to SATA protocols. These days, if
you open up an external USB hard drive or SSD, you'll probably find a SATA
device inside. And of course, most SSDs and HDDs are still SATA these days,
inside the computer.
COMPUTER SECURITY
DISK CARE

3) Keep them away from magnetic fields i.e. Phones, tops of some monitors, magnetized items etc..
CARE AND HANDLING OF A FLOPPY DISKETTE
1. Don’t put the diskette near any magnetic field.

2. Don’t put the diskette near any electronic motor.
3. Don’t expose the diskette to direct sunshine or heat.
4. Store the diskette in a cool dry dust-free environment.
5. Don’t spill liquid onto the diskette.
6. Don’t use any diskette which has had liquids spilled on it.
7. Don’t bend or fold a diskette.
8. Don’t staple labels onto the diskette.
9. Use a soft pencil or felt-tip pen when writing on diskette labels, as the pressure of a ballpoint may
leave indentations on the magnetic surface.
10. Don’t touch the magnetic surface (the black plastic like plate) of the disk, as your fingerprints
may hinder the drive in reading from and writing to the disk
HARDWARE CARE
1) Make sure there is enough space for the machines to breathe. (Fresh air is necessary to make the
fan keep the electronics cool).
4) House the machine in a dust free environment e.g. 1ST floor carpeted-room (Carpets suck dust)
and, use a vacuum cleaner to clean the carpet. (Dust is the biggest killer of hard drives).
NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR AN IDEAL COMPUTER ROOM ENVIRONMENT.
1. Cleanliness [books, manuals not encouraged] because they bring dust & caught fire easily.
2. Air conditioners, which control the room and dehumidates it.
3. It should be dust free; dust is the biggest “killer” of hard drives.
4. No carpets, they caught fire more easily.
5. You are not allowed to eat, smoke or drink in the computer room.
6. No magnetic material should be in the computer room.
7. The computer room should be located in such a way that computers are not exposed to direct
sunlight or hot environments, use curtains if otherwise.
8. The computer room should be fitted with burglar bars, alarm systems, or guarded 24hours to
ensure security.
9. The computer room should have surge protectors or suppressors to guard against electrical faults
and high voltages.
10. The computer room should have UPS [uninterrupted power supply] in case of power failures,
which may be fatal.
11. Computer room should be well ventilated, to allow for air circulation,
12. Foreign media, such as floppy diskettes, flash disks should not be allowed in order to minimize
virus spread.
13. Always switch off machines if not in use.
14. Avoid overloading circuits.
15. All cabling and wiring should not be exposed; it should be covered and should not criss cross the
room.
16. Leave enough space between computers and the walls.
17. Do not use chalk the computer room , dry wipe markers are encouraged.
DATA SECURITY /PROTECTION

 Data Security/Protection
 Refers to keeping data safe from various hazards or dangers like natural hazards,
deliberate corruption or destruction of software & hardware by malicious or terrorist acts,
illegal access to data by hackers [people who break into the system] & accidental
destruction of data by hardware or software failure [operator error].
MEASURES TO ENSURE DATA SECURITY
1. DATA ENCRYPTION/DECRYPTION
Data is coded before transmission over a WAN & decrypted only if you have the key
& code to decrypt the data on the receiving end. The process of transforming a
message in ordinary language i.e. plain text to produce what is called cipher text
which is then send along a communication line/link. The receiving computer uses
another transformation to decode the message.
Decryption
 The process of converting encrypted content back into its original form, often the
process of converting cipher text to plaintext. Decryption is the opposite of
encryption.
Encryption
 Any procedure used in cryptography to convert plaintext into cipher text in order
to prevent anyone except the intended recipient from reading that data. There are
many types of data encryption, and they are the basis of network security.
Common types include Data Encryption Standard and public-key encryption.
Cipher text
 Data that has been transformed by encryption so that its semantic information
content (ie, its meaning) is no longer intelligible or directly available.
2. FIREWALL-
 A firewall is a software program designed to prevent unauthorized access to a PC or
network through a connection to the Internet. It works by monitoring all data sent to
and from the PC and comparing the data with a set of user-defined security criteria.
Any data that does not meet that criteria is blocked. Firewalls also process encrypted
data. They verify the validity of the user. User would require access to the firewall
before they can transmit data. Latest firewalls also have the ability to detect virus
software in packets of data that is sent through the network. Firewalls disallow data
transmission if it detects strains of virus on the data being transmitted.
3. USERNAMES & PASSWORDS-

 Passwords restrict only authorized personnel/users to have access to the data or
computer rooms [cards]. Passwords bring in an aspect of accountability, if a file is
deleted, the person with the password will be reported as the culprit through logging.
Passwords can be forgotten. Widely used by companies to protect their equipment &
data
4. AUTHORIZED ENTRY TO COMPUTER INSTALLATIONS-
 Most installations have card readers, voice recognition systems or keypads on the
doors that prohibit entry to unauthorized personnel.
5. Backing-up files on external disks periodically.

6. Keeping backup copies of files in a different location and making about 3 generations of
backup.
7. Saving work frequently
8. Avoiding viruses.
9. Restricting access to the computer room. Access could be only through codes, voice
recognition etc.
10. Installing fire alarms.
11. Lining computer rooms with fire resistant material.
12. Placing the computer room in upper floors of a building to avoid burglaries.
13. Having a security guard 24 hours a day.
Summary - Keeping data secure
 Data encryption/decryption. Using data encryption techniques to code data so that it makes no
apparent sense
 Firewall - prevent unauthorized access to a PC or network through a connection to the Internet
 Usernames & passwords. Using a system of passwords so that access to data is restricted.
 Authorized entry to computer installations
 Backing-up files on external disks periodically. Making regular back-ups of files. (Back up copies
should be stored safely in fireproof safes or in another building.)
 Keeping backup copies of files in a different location and making about 3 generations of backup.
 Saving work frequently
 Avoiding viruses. Protecting yourself against viruses by running anti-virus software.
 Restricting access to the computer room. Allowing only authorized staff into certain computer areas,
e.g. by controlling entry to these areas by means of ID cards or magnetic swipe cards. Access could be
only through codes, voice recognition etc.
 Lining computer rooms with fire resistant material.
 Installing fire alarms.
 Placing the computer room in upper floors of a building to avoid burglaries.
 Having a security guard 24 hours a day.
 Safe storage of important files stored on removable disks - e.g. locked away in a fireproof and
waterproof safe.
 Always logging off or turning terminals off and if possible locking them.
 Avoiding accidentally deletion of files by write-protecting disks.
MAJOR THREATS TO INFORMATION SYSTEMS/COMPUTERS
Key threats to data security
 Data can be lost or damaged during a system crash - especially one affecting the hard
disk.
 Data can become corrupt as a result of faulty disks or disk drives, or power failures.
 Data can be lost by accidentally deleting or overwriting files.
 Data can be lost or become corrupted by computer viruses.
 Data can be hacked into by unauthorized users and deleted or altered.
 Data can be destroyed by terrorist activities, war, bombs and fire.
 Data can be deleted or altered by unpleasant employees wishing to make money or seek
revenge on their employers.
Explain 5 major threats to information systems; for each threat describe its impact and
preventative measure you would adopt to prevent it..
THREAT IMPACT CONTROL

Hardware failure  You are grounded  Have spares in the warehouse.
 You cannot access the system  Do regular servicing
 Data is incorrectly/  Have a disaster plan
incompletely processed  Run hardware diagnostics frequently
Electrical faults  Loss of data  Have standby generators

 Disk crushes  Install UPS [uninterrupted power
 Damage to hardware supply]
 Install Surge suppressors/ protectors
Software failures  Operations are grounded  Buy software from reputable vendors.
 Do regular back ups
 Software diagnostics
Natural disasters/ physical threats  Absolute destruction  Relocate backups to other areas free
from disasters
Viruses  Deletion & corruption of files  Install a reliable anti-virus software
 Reformatting of documents  Never download unknown e-mail
 System may fail to work attachments
 Scan unknown diskettes
Hackers, Computer crime  Security is breached  Change passwords regularly
 Security is bypassed  Employ a security guard
 Destruction of files  Install a firewall
 Data is stolen  Prevent unauthorized access to
computer facilities.
War and Terrorist activity
Human error
Computer abuse
 The willful or negligent unauthorized activity that affects the availability, confidentiality,
or integrity of computer resources. Computer abuse includes fraud, embezzlement, theft,
malicious damage, unauthorized use, denial of service, and misappropriation
Hacking
 Unauthorized use, or attempts to circumvent or bypass the security mechanisms of an
information system or network. Hacking means illegally accessing other people's
computer systems for destroying, disrupting or carrying out illegal activities on the
network or computer systems.
COMPUTER CRIME/FRAUD
 Computer crimes are criminal activities, which involve the use of information technology
to gain an illegal or an unauthorized access to a computer system with intent of
damaging, deleting or altering computer data. Computer crimes also include the activities
such as electronic frauds, misuse of devices, identity theft and data as well as system
interference. Computer crimes may not necessarily involve damage to physical property.
They rather include the manipulation of confidential data and critical information.
Computer crimes involve activities of software theft, wherein the privacy of the users is
hampered. These criminal activities involve the breach of human and information
privacy, as also the theft and illegal alteration of system critical information. The
different types of computer crimes have necessitated the introduction and use of newer
and more effective security measures.
 Computer Fraud/Crime
 Criminal actions accomplished through the use of computer systems, especially
with the intent to defraud, destroy, damage, or make unauthorized use of
computer resources.
 E.g. improper transfer of funds from one account to another
TYPES OF COMPUTER CRIME/FRAUD
Hacking: The activity of breaking into a computer system to gain an unauthorized access is
known as hacking. The act of defeating the security capabilities of a computer system in order to
obtain an illegal access to the information stored on the computer system is called hacking. The
unauthorized revelation of passwords with intent to gain an unauthorized access to the private
communication of an organization of a user is one of the widely known computer crimes. Another
highly dangerous computer crime is the hacking of IP addresses in order to transact with a false
identity, thus remaining anonymous while carrying out the criminal activities.
Phishing: Phishing is the act of attempting to acquire sensitive information like usernames,
passwords and credit card details by disguising as a trustworthy source. Phishing is carried out
through emails or by luring the users to enter personal information through fake websites.
Criminals often use websites that have a look and feel of some popular website, which makes the
users feel safe to enter their details there.
Computer Viruses: Computer viruses are computer programs that can replicate themselves and
harm the computer systems on a network without the knowledge of the system users. Viruses
spread to other computers through network file system, through the network, Internet or by the
means of removable devices like USB drives and CDs. Computer viruses are after all, forms of
malicious codes written with an aim to harm a computer system and destroy information. Writing
computer viruses is a criminal activity as virus infections can crash computer systems, thereby
destroying great amounts of critical data.
Cyberstalking: The use of communication technology, mainly the Internet, to torture other
individuals is known as cyberstalking. False accusations, transmission of threats and damage to
data and equipment fall under the class of cyberstalking activities. Cyberstalkers often target the
users by means of chat rooms, online forums and social networking websites to gather user
information and harass the users on the basis of the information gathered. Obscene emails,
abusive phone calls and other such serious effects of cyberstalking have made it a type of
computer crime.
Identity Theft: This is one of the most serious frauds as it involves stealing money and obtaining
other benefits through the use of a false identity. It is the act of pretending to be someone else by
using someone else's identity as one's own. Financial identity theft involves the use of a false
identity to obtain goods and services and a commercial identity theft is the using of someone
else’s business name or credit card details for commercial purposes. Identity cloning is the use of
another user's information to pose as a false user. Illegal migration, terrorism and blackmail are
often made possible by means of identity theft.
The different types of computer crimes involve an illegal exploitation of the computer and
communication technology for criminal activities. While the advancing technology has served as
a boon to mankind, the destructively directed human intellects are all set to turn technology into a
curse. However, crimes are sure to end, as it is truth that always triumphs!
1. Intellectual crime – cracking into a computer system with the sole aim of transferring or
stealing funds, e.g. Salami slicing which is the activity of obtaining or stealing money
repeatedly in extremely small quantities over a period of time
2. Destruction of property
3. Software piracy
4. Deliberate circumvention of computer security systems or unauthorized access to or
modification of computer programs and data; i.e. hacking which attempts to bypass the
security mechanism of a computer system or network
5. Theft of computer hardware and software or taking away software without the owner’s
consent
6. Making and distributing pornography
MEASURES TO COUNTER OR COMBAT COMPUTER CRIME [COMPUTER

SECURITY]
 Careful vetting of employees
 Separation of duties
 Use of passwords
 Security manager software-to monitor attempts to access the system whether
successful or not.
 Educating staff
 Prevention of unauthorized access to the computer operations room
 Data Encryption/Decryption
1. Establish strong passwords

Implementing strong passwords is the easiest thing you can do to strengthen your
security.
Cloutier shares his tip for crafting a hard-to-crack password: use a combination of capital
and lower-case letters, numbers and symbols and make it 8 to 12 characters long.
You should definitely avoid using: any personal data (such as your birthdate), common
words spelled backwards and sequences of characters or numbers, or those that are close
together on the keyboard.
Use their convenient password checker to see how strong yours is.
As for how often you should change your password, Cloutier says that the industry
standard is "every 90 days," but don't hesitate to do it more frequently if your data is
highly-sensitive.
Another key: make sure every individual has their own username and password for any
login system, from desktops to your CMS. "Never just use one shared password," says
Cloutier.
And finally, "Never write it down!" he adds.
2. Put up a strong firewall

In order to have a properly protected network, "firewalls are a must," Cloutier says.
A firewall protects your network by controlling internet traffic coming into and flowing
out of your business. They're pretty standard across the board -- Cloutier recommends
any of the major brands.
3. Install antivirus protection

Antivirus and anti-malware software are essentials in your arsenal of online security
weapons, as well.
"They're the last line of defense" should an unwanted attack get through to your network,
Cloutier explains.
4. Update your programs regularly
Making sure your computer is "properly patched and updated" is a necessary step
towards being fully protected; there's little point in installing all this great software if
you're not going to maintain it right.
"Your security applications are only as good as their most recent update," Watchinski
explains. "While applications are not 100 percent fool-proof, it is important to regularly
update these tools to help keep your users safe."
Frequently updating your programs keeps you up-to-date on any recent issues or holes
that programmers have fixed.
5. Secure your laptops
Because of their portable nature, laptops are at a higher risk of being lost or stolen than
average company desktops. It's important to take some extra steps to make certain your
sensitive data is protected.
Encryption software changes the way information looks on the harddrive so that, without
the correct password, it can't be read.
6. Secure your mobile phones
Cloutier points out that smartphones hold so much data these days that you should
consider them almost as valuable as company computers -- and they're much more easily
lost or stolen. As such, securing them is another must.
The must-haves for mobile phones:
 Encryption software
 Password-protection (Cloutier also suggests enabling a specific "lock-out" period,
wherein after a short amount of time not being used, the phone locks itself)
 Remote wiping enabled
7. Backup regularly
Scheduling regular backups to an external hard drive, or in the cloud, is a painless way to
ensure that all your data is stored safely.
The general rule of thumb for backups: servers should have a complete backup weekly,
and incremental backups every night; personal computers should also be backed up
completely every week, but you can do incremental backups every few days if you like
("however long you could live without your data," Cloutier explains).
Getting your data compromised is a painful experience -- having it all backed up so you
don't completely lose it will make it much less so.
8. Be careful with e-mail, IM and surfing the Web
It's not uncommon for a unsuspecting employee to click on a link or download an
attachment that they believe is harmless -- only to discover they've been infected with a
nasty virus, or worse.
9. Educate your employees
Teaching your employees about safe online habits and proactive defense is crucial.
"Educating them about what they are doing and why it is dangerous is a more effective
strategy than expecting your IT security staff to constantly react to end users’ bad
decisions," Watchinski says.
It's not easy: "One of the most difficult things to do is protect end users against
themselves," he adds. But ultimately, prevention is the best approach to handling your
data security.
Make sure your employees understand how important your company's data is, and all the
measures they can take to protect it.
10. Data encryption
Encryption scrambles data, and is used to protect information that is being held on a
computer, stored on external media such as DVDs or transmitted over a network.
11. Intrusion detection
These products monitor system and network activity to spot potential security breaches.
If a detection system suspects an attack, it can generate an alarm, such as an email alert,
based upon the type of activity it has identified.
COMPUTER VIRUS
What is it?
 An executable computer program written intentionally to alter the way a
computer operates without permission, to do harm to the computer.
Types of Computer Viruses

 Macro Viruses – are programmed as macros and embedded into a file or document and
when the document is opened the virus is activated. A macro is a list of commands or
actions that are found under key names of headings. Macro viruses typically infect global
settings files such as Word templates so that subsequently edited documents are
contaminated with the infective macros
 Boot Sector Viruses – A virus which attaches itself to the first part of the hard disk that
is read by the computer upon bootup. These are normally spread by floppy disks. They
only affect the computer’s boot sector such that the next time you try to start the
computer it fails to boot
 Time Bomb – is designed to cause damage to a computer at a specified date and time,
e.g. Friday 13th, March 6th
 Logic Bomb – checks for particular conditions or states of the system which when
satisfied triggers the perpetration of an unauthorized and usually destructive act. It lies
dormant for most of the time and is triggered by an event
 Memory resident virus – resides in a computer’s volatile memory (RAM).
 Polymorphic viruses – a virus that not only replicates itself by creating multiple files of
itself, but it also its digital signature every time it replicates. This makes it difficult for
less sophisticated antivirus software to detect
 Program viruses e.g. cascade, pacman 1508, override.

 Boot viruses e.g. pasta, pentagon, Michelangelo
 Internet Viruses e.g. Trojan horse, Stealth
DEFINITION2.
A virus is acomputer program designed to enter yourcomputer and tamper with your files without
your knowledge. Once the program containing the virus is open, the activated virus can not only
infect other programs and documents on youcomputerr, it can duplicate and transmit itself to
other computers that are connected to yours, just like a physical virus can move from one human
host to another.
Viruses began in the late 1980s as personal computers and electronic bulletin boards became
more common. Back then, operating systems, word processing programs and other programs
were stored on floppy disks. Hidden Viruses were programmed onto these disks; as the disks
were transferred from person to person, the virus spread.
WHO CREATES VIRUSES?
Where do Viruses come from? Every virus is created by an author with a different motive—but
all virus builders feel their actions are justified. For some, a killer virus is the ultimate technical
challenge, like climbing a mountain. For others, creating Viruses is a form of self-expression.
Some disgruntled employees, consumers or citizens turn to virus building as revenge for
perceived injustices. And though it’s a frightening thought, some Viruses are built and aimed by
legitimate (but disreputable) businesses to weaken competitors. Other virus authors want to make
their mark in Internet history; these writers get a thrill out of seeing their virus cause damage
enough to attract news headlines both online and on the evening news.
What Viruses Do? /Signs & symptoms of an infected computer.

 Reduced memory or disk space
 Files are overwritten or damaged
 Hard drive may be erased
 Data is modified /corrupted.
 Change files & date stamp
 Drive lights blink without reason
 Longer times are experienced when loading programs
 Slower system operation.
 Deletion of data files

 The computer completely fails to work
 Erasure or deletion of executable files
 Formatting of the hard disks
 Filling up of disk space
 Programs suddenly take longer to load.
 The size of a program changes.
 The disk runs out of free space when it seems to have plenty.
 The CHKDSK command does not show the correct amount of bytes available.
 Bit errors frequently occur while running Windows.
 The disk drive is active when it should not be.
 The hard drive is inaccessible when booting from a floppy drive.
 Unrecognized files appear.
 File names change.
 The keyboard makes a clicking noise.
 The screen becomes distorted.
 Text on screen does unusual things.
 CMOS settings, AUTOEXEC.BAT, or CONFIG.SYS files change unexpectedly
(Symantec).
A large part of detection is anti-virus software. Like a doctor, anti-virus software
often uses the above listed symptoms to identify and eradicate an infection.
What are the symptoms of an infected computer?

 Your computer behaves strangely, i.e. in a way that you haven’t seen before.
 You see unexpected messages or images.
 You hear unexpected sounds, played at random.
 Programs start unexpectedly.
 Your personal firewall tells you that an application has tried to connect to the Internet
(and it’s not a program that you ran).
 Your friends tell you that they have received e-mail messages from your address and you
haven’t sent them anything.
 Your computer ‘freezes’ frequently, or programs start running slowly.
 You get lots of system error messages.
 The operating system will not load when you start your computer.
 You notice that files or folders have been deleted or changed.
 You notice hard disk access (shown by one of the small flashing lights) when you’re not
aware of any programs running.
 Your web browser behaves erratically, e.g. you can’t close a browser window.
How computers are infected with Viruses?
 Use of infected floppy diskettes on uninfected computers. Floppy disks or other

media that users can exchange.
 Downloading unknown files, when your computer is connected to the Internet.
 Opening an E-mail attachment. Email attachments.
 Accepting unknown program installations from the internet
 Use of network files/direct connection/through networks.
 Software piracy [buying software from unauthorized agents]. Pirated software.
 Booting a PC from an infected medium.
 Executing an infected program.
 Opening an infected file.
 Shareware.
 Viruses may be sent by opening email attachments,
 clicking on spam,
 visiting corrupt websites and links online,
 Opening spreadsheets or even the original method—infected disks.
 But the Internet is now the superhighway for virus transmission.
Sharing of storage media
 Through e-mail attachments
 Networks – if your computer is connected to a home network or if your work computer is
part of network, you may find yourself with an infection through no fault of your own.
There isn’t much you can do to stop these kinds of infections, short of having your
network administrator ensure that everyone’s antivirus software is up to date so that the
invading bug can be removed as quickly as possible.
 Internet downloads including software piracy
 Rogue Websites. It is depressing to know that you may become infected with spyware or
a virus by doing nothing more than simply visiting a website, but it is true. Many adult
websites, gambling websites and other less than trustworthy websites will attempt to
automatically access your computer when you visit them. They often install adware bugs
that will cause a flurry of pop ups to appear on your screen. This adware will often allow
for other programs with even more nefarious purposes to be installed and before you
know it, your computer will be swamped. To stop these rogue websites, adjust the
settings on your antivirus software and firewall so that no outside connections can be
made and no programs can be installed without your express permission.
CHARACTERISTICS and ATTRIBUTES OF COMPUTER VIRUSES
The demonstrated characteristics of computer viruses include several remarkable items, including
size, versatility, propagation, effectiveness, functionality, and persistence.
1) Size.The sizes of the program code required for computer viruses has been demonstrated to
be surprisingly small. This has facilitated the ability of these programs to attach themselves to
other applications and escape notice for long periods of time.
2) Versatility.computer viruses have appeared with the ability to generically attack a wide
variety of applications. Many do not even require information about the program they are
infecting.
3) Propagation. Once a computer virus has infected a program, while this program is running,
the virus is able to spread to other programs and files accessible to the computer system. The
ability to propagate is essential to a virus program.
4) Effectiveness. Many of thecomputer viruses that have received widespread publicity have
had far-reaching and catastrophic effects on their victims. These have included total loss of
data, programs, and even the operating systems.
5) Functionality. A wide variety of functions has been demonstrated in virus programs. Some
virus programs merely spread themselves to applications without otherwise attacking data
files, program functions, or operating systems activities. Other virus programs are
programmed to damage or delete files and systems. The effectiveness of these programs is
enhanced through the use of several phases of operation, in which the virus propagates
through a system or lies dormant until triggered by a specified event. This allows the virus
program increased time to spread before the victim system's user becomes aware of its
presence.
6) Persistence. Even after the virus program has been detected, recovery of data, programs, and
even system operation has been difficult and time consuming. In many cases, especially in
networked operations, eradication of viruses has been complicated by the ability of the virus
program to repeatedly spread and reoccur through the networked system from a single
infected copy.
Attributes of computer viruses

o Auto replicating [self replicating].
o Attaches itself to a program or file
o It infects as it travels
o Reproduces itself
o Distribute itself
o Copies itself
o Duplicate copies of itself
o It spreads
o It is software
o It can destroy
o It hides
DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF COMPUTER VIRUSES

o Cause damage to data
o Extract data from machines for spying or theft
o Slow machine performance
o Corrupt data
o Damage software, hardware and files
o Damage the computer by damaging programs
o Reformatting of the hard disk
o Deletion of files
Top 15 ANTIVIRUS TOOLS/PACKAGES/SOFTWARE
15. ESET NOD32 Antivirus 8  BitDefender

14. Webroot Internet Security Plus  Avast
13. Panda Global Protection
 AVG
12. G-Data Internet Security
11. McAfee LiveSafe  MacAfee
10. AVG Free Antivirus  Avira
9. Avast Free Antivirus  ESET NOD32
8. Panda Free Antivirus  F-Secure
7. Qihoo 360 Total Security
 Kaspersky
6. Trend Micro Internet Security
5. BitDefender Antivirus Free Edition  Norton
4. Avira Free Antivirus  Panda
3. Kaspersky Total Security  Trend Micro
2. Bitdefender Internet Security  Webroot Secure Anywhere
1. Symantec Norton Security
 Smadav
MEASURES/FACILITIES PROVIDED BY AN ANTIVIRUS PACKAGE.
1. Scanning – searching for viruses

2. Cleaning of the system (removal of viruses)
3. Rearrangement of corrupted data.
4. Repairing of corrupted data files.
5. Quarantine – separation of infected files from uninfected files.
6. Prevention includes creating user awareness, implementing hygiene rules, using disk
authorization software, or providing isolated 'quarantine' PCs.
7. Detection involves the use of anti-virus software to detect, report and (sometimes)
disinfect viruses..
8. Containment involves identifying and isolating the infected items.
9. Recovery involves disinfecting or removing infected items, and recovering or
replacing corrupted data.
PRECAUTIONS/SAFETY GUIDES AGAINST VIRUSES

 Install a reliable antiviral package
 Avoid Software piracy thus buy software from authorized dealers.
 Never download unknown files from the internet
 Boot the system from virus free disks
 Using write protect tabs on floppy disks
 Scan every floppy diskette for viruses before use. Unknown floppy diskettes
should not be used
 Avoid using foreign storage media
 Use genuine software
 Avoid opening e-mails from suspicious or unknown sources
 Write protect disks
 Install antivirus software, e.g. Avira, Eset Nod32, AVG, Norton, Dr. Solomon’s
Toolkit
 Install a reliable anti virus program – From the first moment you turn your computer on, you
should have a trusted anti virus program by your side. Even if you have a machine that isn’t
hooked up to the Internet, a reliable anti virus program is a low cost and common sense addition
to any machine. There are even free anti virus programs you can download that work almost as
well as industry giants like Norton and McAfee.
 Install anti-spyware and anti-malware programs – As good as the best anti virus programs
are, they sometimes need a little bit of help. Thankfully, many of the top anti-spyware programs
are completely free. Spybot Search and Destroy and CCleaner are just two free programs that can
help prevent computer viruses from doing any damage on your machine. As helpful as these
programs are, however, you must update them and run them on a regular basis for them to do any
good.
 Avoid suspicious websites – A good virus protection program will alert you when you visit a
website that attempts to install or run a program on your computer. Many less than reputable
adult websites do this, so if you get a warning, don’t go back, you may end up with a bug you
can’t get rid of.
 Never Open Email Attachments Without Scanning Them First – The most common way
viruses are spread throughout the Internet is still via email. Some attachments, like pictures, now
display in emails and don’t require an attachment to be manually opened, but other documents
do. Make sure you use an email client that scans all email attachments before you are allowed to
open them. This will help prevent computer viruses from getting a foothold on your machine.
 Set up Automatic Scans – Many of the top anti virus programs, as well as the best anti-spyware
programs, now have settings that will let them automatically run during down times or in the
middle of the night. Of course, your computer must be on for this to happen, but having daily
scans run when nothing else is going on is a great way to prevent even the latest computer viruses
from sticking around too long.
 Watch Your Downloads – Part of the fun of the Internet is downloading music, movies and
other items. However, since these downloads are so massive, it can be easy to sneak a virus along
for the ride. Only download these files from trusted sites that you can count on, or, at the very
least, scan them before you open them.
 Updates, Updates, Updates – There is a reason why Windows has a feature called Critical
Updates. There is an entire branch of Microsoft dedicated to staying one step ahead of the
hackers out there so when they manage to fix a possible security loophole, you need to download
the patch right away. Help Microsoft help you prevent computer viruses from causing too much
trouble.
 Know What To Look For – Even if you are just a casual computer user, you should have an
idea of how your machine operates, what normal pop up windows look like and what popular
viruses are out there, that way, when your computer begins exhibiting tell tale signs, you’ll know.
You can help prevent computer viruses by staying updated and educated.
 Stay Away From Cracked Software – It is so secret that you can download illegal, cracked
versions of some programs online. As tempting as it may be, these files are almost always
infested with advanced and difficult to detect bugs. Play it safe and get your software from the
source.
 Install a Firewall – A firewall is a program that screens incoming Internet and network traffic.
Along with your virus program, it can help prevent unauthorized access to your computer.
 Be prepared to Lock Down – If you hear of a virus that is spreading like wildfire through the
Internet, make an extra effort to be careful. Don’t open any suspicious emails or accept any
downloads for a week or two until your virus protection program has been updated and you are,
once again, safe.
SOFTWARE
Software
 Are basically programs, which are in a computer system?
 Computer programs and procedures concerned with the operation of a computer system.
Software
 Written coded commands that tell a computer what tasks to perform. For example, Word,
PhotoShop, Picture Easy, and Photo Deluxe are software programs.
 Coded instructions (programs) that make a computer do useful work.
The intangible computer components, which are the programs or instructions of the computer.
Everything that a computer does, it acts under instructions written out as computer programs. The
hardware needs these instructions to function.
Computer software
 Refers to the various programs or instructions that are stored in the computer
(stored program concept) and used to either manage or control the operation of a
computer system or to direct the computer in solving specific problems. Software
is divided into two major types.
SOFTWARE HIERARCHY
System Software Application Software

 System software controls how the  Applications software does not control
computer system works and it the system; instead it allows the user to
enables the user to access the system perform everyday tasks such as creating
hardware and application software. a document or webpage.
 Close to system  Close to user
 Difficult to design  Easy to design
 Less interactive  More interactive
 Fast in speed  Slow in speed
 Generally written in low-level  Generally written in high-level language
language
 Smaller in size  Bigger in size and requires large storage
space
 Difficult to manipulate  Easy to manipulate and use
 Difficult to understand  Easy to understand
1. SYSTEM SOFTWARE
The system software is collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend
the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software are generally prepared
by computer manufactures. These software products comprise of programs written in
low-level languages which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System
software serves as the interface between hardware and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter,

Assemblers etc.
System software is computer software designed to operate the computer hardware and to
provide a platform for running application software.
The most basic types of system software are:
 The computer BIOS and device firmware, which provide basic functionality to
operate and control the hardware connected to or built into the computer.
 The operating system (prominent examples being Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X
and Linux), which allows the parts of a computer to work together by performing
tasks like transferring data between memory and disks or rendering output onto a
display device. It also provides a platform to run high-level system software and
application software.
 Utility software, which helps to analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the
computer.
In some publications, the term system software is also used to designate software
development tools (like a compiler, linker or debugger).
Types of system software programs
System software helps use the operating system and computer system. It includes
diagnostic tools, compilers, servers, windowing systems, utilities, language translator,
data communication programs, database systems and more. The purpose of system
software is to insulate the applications programmer as much as possible from the
complexity and specific details of the particular computer being used, especially memory
and other hardware features, and such accessory devices as communications, printers,
readers, displays, keyboards, etc.
Specific kinds of system software include:

 Loaders
 Linkers
 Utility software
 Desktop environment / Graphical user interface
 Shells
 BIOS
 Hypervisors
 Boot loaders
 Database Management Systems(SQL, NoSQL)
If system software is stored on non-volatile memory such as integrated circuits, it is
usually termed firmware.
3 functional categories of system software
System management programs

 Programs that manage the hardware, software, and data resources
of the computer system during its execution of the various
information processing jobs of users.
 The most important system management programs are operating
systems and operating environments, followed by
telecommunications monitors & Database Management Systems.
System support programs

 Programs that support the operations and management of a
computer system by providing a variety of support services.
 Major support programs are system utilities, performance
monitors, & security monitors.
System development programs

 Programs that help users develop information system
programs and procedures and prepare user programs for
computer processing.
Major development programs are language translators, programming tools and CASE
[computer-aided software engineering] packages
Features of system software are as follows:
 Close to system
 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language
2. APPLICATION SOFTWARE
o Applications software comprises programs designed for an end user, such as word
processors, database systems, and spreadsheet programs.
o Programs that specify the information processing activities required for the
completion of specific tasks of computer users. E.g. Electronic Spreadsheet and
word processing programs or inventory or payroll programs.
 Software that is designed and written for a specific personal, organizational, or
processing task, such as graphics software.
 These programs accomplish the specialized tasks of the user, while operating
system software allows the computer to work. A computer-aided dispatch system
is application software, as is each word processing program.
Features of application software are as follows:
 Close to user
 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space
FREEWARE
 Public domain software that is freely available in magazines and on the
internet at no charge to users though manuals may be offered at a cost.
Freeware may or may not have copyrights and may or may not have
distribution restrictions.
SHAREWARE
 Refers to software that is widely distributed in much the same way as
freeware BUT is always copyrighted and includes a software license that
requires its users to pay for the privilege of using the software beyond a
certain trial period. If you decide to use it, you are expected to pay for the
license. There is usually a disabling system in the program after a certain
period of time i.e. a month.
OPERATING SYSTEM
It is a program with following features:
 An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software

and the computer hardware.
 It is an integrated set of specialized programs that are used to manage overall
resources and operations of the computer.
 It is specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other
programs that reside in the computer, including application programs and other
system software.
Examples include
 AmigaOS  Unix  Windows ME
 Android  Vector Linux  Windows NT
 HP-UX  Windows 2000  Windows Vista
 iOS  Windows 2003  Windows XP
 IRIX  Windows 3.X  Xenix
 Linux  Windows 7
 MAC OS 8  Windows 8  Windows 10
 MAC OS 9  Windows 95
 MAC OS 10  Windows 98
 MAC OS X  Windows 10
 MS-DOS  Windows CE
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS / OPERATING SYSTEM TYPES
As computers have progressed and developed, so have the operating systems. Below is a
basic list of the types of operating systems and a few examples of operating systems that
fall into each of the types. Many computer operating systems will fall into more than one
of the below types.
1. GUI
Short for Graphical User Interface, a GUI operating system contains graphics and icons
and is commonly navigated by using a computer mouse. Examples of GUI operating
systems are:
 System 7.x
Windows 98
Windows CE
2. MULTI-USER
A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same computer at the
same time and different times. Examples of operating systems that would fall into this
category are:
 Linux
Unix
Windows 2000
A multi-user operating system extends the basic concept of multi-tasking with

facilities that identify processes and resources, such as disk space, belonging to
multiple users, and the system permits multiple users to interact with the system at the
same time.
3. MULTIPROCESSING
An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than one computer
processor. Examples of operating systems that would fall into this category are:
 Linux
Unix
Windows XP
4. MULTITASKING
An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software processes to run at the
same time. Examples of operating systems that would fall into this category are:
 Linux
Unix
Windows 8
It is characterized in preemptive and co-operative types. In preemptive multitasking,

the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs.
Unix-like operating systems, e.g., Solaris, Linux, as well as AmigaOS support
preemptive multitasking. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each
process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of
Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking. 32-bit versions of both Windows
NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking.
5. MULTITHREADING
Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program to run concurrently.
Examples of operating systems that would fall into this category are:
 Linux
Unix
Windows XP
6. Single-task
A single-tasking system can only run one program at a time, while a multi-tasking
operating system allows more than one program to be running in concurrency. This is
achieved by time-sharing, dividing the available processor time between multiple
processes that are each interrupted repeatedly in time slices by a task-scheduling
subsystem of the operating system.
7. Single-user
Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow
multiple programs to run in tandem.
8. Time-sharing
Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and
may also include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass
storage, printing, and other resources to multiple users.
9. Distributed
A distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes

them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that
could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing.
Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers
in a group work in cooperation, they form a distributed system.
10. Templated
In an OS, distributed and cloud computing context, templating refers to creating a

single virtual machine image as a guest operating system, then saving it as a tool for
multiple running virtual machines. The technique is used both in virtualization and
cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses.
11. Embedded
Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems.

They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They
are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and
extremely efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of
embedded operating systems.
12. Real-time
A real-time operating system is an operating system that guarantees to process events

or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or
multi-tasking, but when multitasking, it uses specialized scheduling algorithms so that
a deterministic nature of behavior is achieved. An event-driven system switches
between tasks based on their priorities or external events while time-sharing operating
systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts
13. Library
A library operating system is one in which the services that a typical operating system
provides, such as networking, are provided in the form of libraries. These libraries are
composed with the application and configuration code to construct unikernels –
which are specialized, single address space, machine images that can be deployed to
cloud or embedded environments.
MODES OF OPERATION/ OPERATING SYSTEM TECHNIQUES
CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
1. Multi-user: Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some
operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.
2. Multiprocessing : Supports running a program on more than one CPU.
3. Multitasking : Allows more than one program to run concurrently.
4. Multithreading : Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently.
5. Real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems, such as
DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.
Computers can operate in many different ways requiring different and complex
operating systems.
Real time processing

 When the computer has to react within a guaranteed time to an input, a real
time operating system is used. For example, the engine management system
within a car uses a real time operating system in order to react to all the things
going on within the engine. A real time operating system does not necessarily
have to be fast. It simply has to be quick enough to respond to inputs in a
predictable way. Embedded computers often contain an RTOS as many are
used to control something.
 Computers operating in real time are often dedicated to the control of systems
such as industrial processes, planes and space flights. Another example of real
time processing is computer games. For example, when an action is selected
in a game, the data is fed back to the computer and the systems updated.
Multi-programming
 Multi-programming is a method of operating such that several programs
appear to be running at once.
 The jobs are usually given priorities. The operating system switches jobs in
and out of processor time according to priority. For example, while one job is
being allocated printer time, another will be being processed in memory. The
processor is so fast that it seems that many jobs are being processed at the
same time.
Multi-tasking
 This isn't just about running more than one application at the same time.
Multi-tasking allows multiple tasks to run concurrently, taking turns using
the resources of the computer.
 This can mean running a couple of applications, sending a document to the
printer and downloading a web page.
 However, operating systems are not truly multi-tasking - in order to do this,
you would need parallel processors, which are now appearing on personal
computers.
Multiprocessing
 An operating system technique which can manage multiple instruction processors,
assigning each to operate upon a different instruction stream (program or job)
concurrently.
 Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units (CPUs) within
a single computer system. The term also refers to the ability of a system to
support more than one processor and/or the ability to allocate tasks between
them.There are many variations on this basic theme, and the definition of
multiprocessing can vary with context, mostly as a function of how CPUs are
defined (multiple cores on one die, multiple chips in one package, multiple
packages in one system unit, etc.).
 Multiprocessing sometimes refers to the execution of multiple concurrent
software processes in a system as opposed to a single process at any one instant.
However, the terms multitasking or multiprogramming are more appropriate to
describe this concept, which is implemented mostly in software, whereas
multiprocessing is more appropriate to describe the use of multiple hardware
CPUs. A system can be both multiprocessing and multiprogramming, only one of
the two, or neither of the two.
Multi-access or multi-user
 A multi-access (or multi-user) system is one where a number of users are able to
use the same system together.
 Modern personal computers can allow multi user access i.e. more than one person
can make use of the computer resources at the same time via a LAN.
 The central processor deals with users in turn; clearly the more users, the slower
the response time. Generally, however, the processor is so fast that the response
time at the most is a fraction of a second and the user feels they are being dealt
with immediately.
o Multi-user is a term that defines an operating system or application
software that allows concurrent access by multiple users of a computer.
Time-sharing systems are multi-user systems. Most batch processing
systems for mainframe computers may also be considered "multi-user", to
avoid leaving the CPU idle while it waits for I/O operations to complete.
However, the term "multitasking" is more common in this context.
o An example is a UNIX server where multiple remote users have access
(such as via Secure Shell) to the UNIX shell prompt at the same time.
Another example uses multiple X Window sessions spread across multiple
terminals powered by a single machine - this is an example of the use of
thin client.
o Management systems are implicitly designed to be used by multiple users,
typically one system administrator or more and an end-user community.
Single-user
 Is most commonly used when talking about an operating system being usable only
by one person at a time, or in reference to a single-user software license
agreement.E.g. MSDOS.
Batch processing
 A batch processing system is where programs or data are collected together in a
batch and processed in one go. Typically the processing of payrolls, electricity
bills, invoices and daily transactions are dealt with this way.
 This method of operation lends itself to jobs with similar inputs, processing and
outputs where no human intervention is needed. Jobs are stored in a queue until
the computer is ready to deal with them. Often batch processed jobs are done
overnight.
OBJECTIVES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
 To make a computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner

 To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users
 To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system
 To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users and making it easier
for the users to access and use other resources
 To manage the resources of a computer system
 To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests,
according for resource using and mediating conflicting requests from different
programs and users
 To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPERATING SYSTEM
 Memory Management -- keeps tracks of primary memory i.e. what part of it is in

use by whom, what part is not in use etc. and allocates the memory when a
process or program requests it.
 Processor Management -- allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and
deallocates processor when it is no longer required.
 Device Management -- keeps track of all devices. This is also called I/O
controller that decides which process gets the device, when, and for how much
time.
 File Management -- allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who
gets the resources.
 Security -- prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of
passwords and similar other techniques.
 Job accounting -- keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or
users.
 Control over system performance -- records delays between request for a
service and from the system.
 Interaction with the operators -- The interaction may take place via the console
of the computer in the form of instructions. Operating System acknowledges the
same, does the corresponding action and informs the operation by a display
screen.
 Error-detecting aids -- Production of dumps, traces, error messages and other
debugging and error-detecting methods.
 Coordination between other software and users -- Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the
various users of the computer systems.
MAJOR OPERATING SYSTEMS
MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)

 It has been widely used especially before 1995 when the new Windows 95 took over.
 It is a single user operating system – only one user can be using the system at a given
time.
 It is a single tasking operating system – It allows for the processing of only one task at a
time
 Use of short prompt commands – the user interfaces with the computer system through
the use of commands that are fed into the computer usually after the prompt sign (>) e.g.
C:\>cls (Command to clear the screen)
 Instructions are put in only through the keyboard
 Once a file is deleted it can never be recalled
 The operating system is not user-friendly
Windows
 Windows based operating system is more advanced than the MS-DOS based operating
system.
 It features graphical user interfaces (GUIs) – User can feed commands into the computer
through the selection of relevant icons, bars, buttons, boxes or other forms of images
(mostly resembling the intended device or operation).
 True multitasking – the operating system allows for numerous tasks to be done at the
same time.
 Networking – the operating system is multi-usable – many users can use it at the same
time. It is capable of holding a number of computer systems networked together.
 Multimedia Presentations- the operating system allows for the presentation of
information in a variety of media including text, graphic displays, voice and other audio,
photographs and video.
 Virtual Memory – It allows for the use of storage devices as extension of the main
memory thus giving the appearance of a larger main memory than actually exists.
 Deleted files go to the recycle bin
 Makes use of easier input methods, e.g. mouse, joystick
 Windows operating system has MS-DOS option
 Examples of Windows Operating Systems packages, Windows NT (new technology) and
Windows 95.
 In computer terms, a window is one section of a computer’s multiple section display
screen that can have a different display.
OS/2
 It is called the Operating System /2
 It is an operating system developed by IBM and was introduced in 1994 with the
OS/2 Warp version as the latest one.
 It provides graphical user interfaces (GUIs), multitasking, virtual memory and
telecommunications.
UNIX
 Originally developed by AT&T but now being offered by many other vendors.
 It is a multitasking, multi-user and net-work managing operating system
 Because of its portability, it can be used on mainframes, midrange computers and
microcomputers.
 It is a popular choice for network servers.
The Macintosh System/Mac OS

 It is an operating system for Apple from Macintosh microcomputers
 It is a popular GUI as well as multitasking and virtual memory operating system.
Types /EXAMPLES of operating systems

There are several types of operating system, defined according to whether they can
simultaneously manage information measuring 16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits or more.
OPERATING PROGRAMM MULTI SINGLE MULTI

SINGLE USER
SYSTEM ING USER TASK TASK
1. MS DOS 16 bits X X
not pre-
2. Windows3.1 16/32 bits X
emptive
3.Windows95/98/Me 32 bits X cooperative
4.WindowsNT/2000 32 bits X pre-emptive
5.WindowsXP 32/64 bits X pre-emptive
6.Unix / Linux 32/64 bits X pre-emptive
7.MAC/OS X 32 bits X pre-emptive
8.VMS 32 bits X pre-emptive
9.Windows Vista
10.Windows 7,8, 10
FACTORS ONE SHOULD CONSIDER WHEN

 Making comparisons of the microcomputer operating systems
available in the organization
 Making microcomputer operating system acquisition decision.
 Is the OS a single or multitasking operating system? Many microcomputer OS are

single tasking, meaning they allow only one person to run one program at a time.
Multitasking and multi-user OS permit more than one program to run and more than
one person to use the system at one time. Multitasking OS may allow a user to
receive a fax message at the same time one is searching a database.
 Is it a task switching operating system? A task switching OS lets one load more
than one program at a time and allows switching between the programs. The task that
one is working with is the foreground task and the suspended tasks are background
tasks.
 What utilities are available with the OS? Some of the most commonly used
utilities on microcomputer OS are delete, copy contents of one diskette to another,
format a diskette, delete files stored in a diskette, and compress data.
 Is the OS hardware dependent? An OS may be limited to running on specific
hardware or may have versions that allow it to run on different types of computer
systems.
 What user interface is offered by the operating system? Graphical User Interface
and Command Driven User Interface are examples of user interfaces. See Interface
section.
Types of operating systems

 Multiprocessing
 Multitasking
 Multi-user
 Multi programming
 Single user
Modes of operation/ Operating system techniques

Computers can operate in many different ways requiring different and complex operating
systems.
Real time processing
 When the computer has to react within a guaranteed time to an input, a real time
operating system is used. For example, the engine management system within a car
uses a real time operating system in order to react to all the things going on within the
engine. A real time operating system does not necessarily have to be fast. It simply
has to be quick enough to respond to inputs in a predictable way. Embedded
computers often contain an RTOS as many are used to control something.
 Computers operating in real time are often dedicated to the control of systems such
as industrial processes, planes and space flights. Another example of real time
processing is computer games. For example, when an action is selected in a game, the
data is fed back to the computer and the systems updated.
Multi-programming
 Multi-programming is a method of operating such that several programs appear to be
running at once.
 The jobs are usually given priorities. The operating system switches jobs in and out
of processor time according to priority. For example, while one job is being allocated
printer time, another will be being processed in memory. The processor is so fast
that it seems that many jobs are being processed at the same time.
Multi-tasking
 This isn't just about running more than one application at the same time. Multi-
tasking allows multiple tasks to run concurrently, taking turns using the resources of
the computer.
 This can mean running a couple of applications, sending a document to the printer
and downloading a web page.
 However, operating systems are not truly multi-tasking - in order to do this, you
would need parallel processors, which are now appearing on personal computers.
Multiprocessing
 An operating system technique which can manage multiple instruction processors,
assigning each to operate upon a different instruction stream (program or job)
concurrently.
 Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units (CPUs) within a
single computer system. The term also refers to the ability of a system to support more
than one processor and/or the ability to allocate tasks between them.[1] There are many
variations on this basic theme, and the definition of multiprocessing can vary with
context, mostly as a function of how CPUs are defined (multiple cores on one die,
multiple chips in one package, multiple packages in one system unit, etc.).
 Multiprocessing sometimes refers to the execution of multiple concurrent software
processes in a system as opposed to a single process at any one instant. However, the
terms multitasking or multiprogramming are more appropriate to describe this concept,
which is implemented mostly in software, whereas multiprocessing is more appropriate to
describe the use of multiple hardware CPUs. A system can be both multiprocessing and
multiprogramming, only one of the two, or neither of the two.
Multi-access or multi-user
 A multi-access (or multi-user) system is one where a number of users are able to use the
same system together.
 Modern personal computers can allow multi user access i.e. more than one person can
make use of the computer resources at the same time via a LAN.
 The central processor deals with users in turn; clearly the more users, the slower the
response time. Generally, however, the processor is so fast that the response time at the
most is a fraction of a second and the user feels they are being dealt with immediately.
o Multi-user is a term that defines an operating system or application software that
allows concurrent access by multiple users of a computer. Time-sharing systems
are multi-user systems. Most batch processing systems for mainframe computers
may also be considered "multi-user", to avoid leaving the CPU idle while it waits
for I/O operations to complete. However, the term "multitasking" is more
common in this context.
o An example is a UNIX server where multiple remote users have access (such as
via Secure Shell) to the UNIX shell prompt at the same time. Another example
uses multiple X Window sessions spread across multiple terminals powered by a
single machine - this is an example of the use of thin client.
o Management systems are implicitly designed to be used by multiple users,
typically one system administrator or more and an end-user community.
Single-user
 Is most commonly used when talking about an operating system being usable only by one
person at a time, or in reference to a single-user software license agreement. Multi-user
operating systems such as UNIX sometimes have a single user process available for
emergency maintenance.
Batch processing
 A batch processing system is where programs or data are collected together in a batch
and processed in one go. Typically the processing of payrolls, electricity bills, invoices
and daily transactions are dealt with this way.
 This method of operation lends itself to jobs with similar inputs, processing and outputs
where no human intervention is needed. Jobs are stored in a queue until the computer is
ready to deal with them. Often batch processed jobs are done overnight.
ROLES (functions) OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM
The operating system has various roles:

1. Management of the processor: the operating system is responsible for managing
allocation of the processor between the different programmes using a scheduling
algorithm. The type of scheduler is totally dependent on the operating system,
according to the desired objective.
The OS is responsible for managing the allocation of processor time to the different
programs that will be using the computer. The processor can only execute one
instruction at a time and in a multi-user system, conflicts are bound to arise when
several user programs request usage of the processor at the same time. The OS
therefore allocates processor time to all users either in a round robin fashion or using
a system of priorities.
2. Management of the random access memory: the operating system is responsible

for managing the memory space allocated to each application and, where relevant, to
each user. If there is insufficient physical memory, the operating system can create a
memory zone on the hard drive, known as "virtual memory". The virtual memory
lets you run applications requiring more memory than there is available RAM on the
system. However, this memory is a great deal slower.
The OS is responsible for managing the memory space allocated to each application.
If there is insufficient physical memory the OS can create a memory zone on the hard
drive known as virtual memory which lets you run applications requiring more
memory than is available on the system.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with
memory management.
Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available.
Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed
3. Management of input/output: the operating system allows unification and control
of access of programmes to material resources via drivers (also known as peripheral
administrators or input/output administrators).
4. Management of execution of applications: the operating system is responsible for
smooth execution of applications by allocating the resources required for them to
operate. This means an application that is not responding correctly can be "killed".
5. Management of authorisations: the operating system is responsible for security
relating to execution of programmes by guaranteeing that the resources are used only
by programmes and users with the relevent authorisations.
6. File management: the operating system manages reading and writing in the file
system and the user and application file access authorisations.
The OS manages reading from and writing to files and also controls the creation,
manipulation and access to files.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with
file management:
 File creation and deletion
 Directory creation and deletion
 Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media
7. Information management: the operating system provides a certain number of

indicators that can be used to diagnose the correct operation of the machine.
8. ERROR DETECTION
The OS is responsible for detecting and any hardware or software malfunctioning and
reporting them to the user
9. USER/SYSTEM INTERFACE
The OS acts as an interface between the computer and the user, hiding all the
complexities of the computer from the user and making the computer more user
friendly
10. PREPARATION OF A SYSTEM LOG
The OS compiles a report on the events that take place in a computer from the time a
user logs on to a computer, what he/she does up to the time he/she logs off
Additional Functions of the operating system:

 Controls and coordinates the computer system
 Scheduling and loading of jobs to provide continuous processing. So that no parts of the
computer system are idle for any significant period of time.
 It is a platform for application programs
 Provides user interface
 Acts as an interface between hardware and application programs
 Provides error correctional routines
 Control over selection and operation of input-output devices & file handling.
 Records details of processing for control analysis
 File management, control the creation, deletion, saving and access of files
 Memory management, allocates memory to various jobs or tasks
 Multiprogramming, multiprocessing, multitasking, timesharing, housekeeping &
handling errors.
 Resource management manages processor time, memory space, disk space and
peripheral devices.
 Reports errors when they occur.
 Task management. Manage the accomplishment of the computing tasks of end users. It
may involve multitasking capability where several computing tasks can occur at the
same time.
 Minimizes the amount of human intervention required during processing.
COMPUTER INTERFACE
 Refers to the type of interaction between two elements.

 Is part of the operating system that allows you to communicate with it or the computer so
that you can load programs, access files, and accomplish other tasks?
 When a person interacts with a computer he uses a User Interface, which can be a screen,
keyboard, mouse, scanners or other input devices.
Definitions of interface on the Web:
 The interaction between the computer and the user or the control of the flow of data
between a computer and its peripherals.
 Basically the interface can be
 Command driven- include operating systems and database languages that
provide users with flashes of text and in which users would generally type in
their command to perform an action.
 Menu driven
 GUI- point and click
 WIMP interface
1. Command line interfaces (MS-DOS BASED OPERATING SYSTEM)
 A command line interface allows the user to interact with the computer by typing
in commands. The computer displays a prompt, the user keys in the command
and presses enter or return.
 A COMMAND-LINE INTERFACE (CLI) is a mechanism for interacting with
a computer operating system or software by typing commands to perform specific
tasks. This text-only interface contrasts with the use of a mouse pointer with a
graphical user interface (GUI) to click on options, or menus on a text user
interface (TUI) to select options.
Features of a command line interface include:
In the early days of personal computers, all PCs used command-line interfaces.
 Commands - usually abbreviated - must be typed correctly and in the right order
or the command will not work.
 Experienced users who know the commands can work very quickly without
having to find their way around menus.
 An advantage of command driven programs is that they do not need the memory
and processing power of the latest computer and will often run on lower spec
machines.
 Command driven programs do not need to run in Windows.
 A command line interface can run many programs, for example a batch file could
launch half a dozen programs to do its task.
 An inexperienced user can sometimes find a command driven program difficult
to use because of the number of commands that have to be learnt.
An example of a common command-driven interface is MS-DOS, the original operating

system for all Microsoft-compatible PCs. The MS-DOS command to display all files on
drive a would be: dir c:\.
2. Graphical user interfaces (WINDOWS BASED OPERATING SYSTEM)
 Graphical user interface is sometimes shortened to GUI.

 The user chooses an option usually by pointing a mouse at an icon representing
that option. A GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI) is a type of user
interface item that allows people to interact with programs in more ways than
typing such as computers; hand-held devices such as MP3 Players, Portable
Media Players or Gaming devices; household appliances and office equipment
with images rather than text commands. A GUI offers graphical icons, and visual
indicators, as opposed to text-based interfaces, typed command labels or text
navigation to fully represent the information and actions available to a user.
Features of GUIs include:

 They are much easier to use for beginners.
 They enable you to easily exchange information between software using cut and
paste or 'drag and drop'.
 They use alot of memory and processing power. It can be slower to use than a
CLI if you are an expert user.
 They can be irritating to experienced users when simple tasks require a number of
operations.
When discussing user interfaces, it is important to note that Windows XP, OS/X and
Linux are all graphical user interfaces.
A good user interface should:
 Be attractive and pleasing to the eye

 Allow the user to try out different options easily
 Be easy to use
 Use suitable colours for key areas
 Use words that are easy to understand aimed at the type of user
 Have online help
It also should consider the needs of the users. For example, young children are likely to
prefer pictures to words and people with disabilities may benefit from particular input or
output devices
3. WIMP interface
 Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointer - a method by which a user can interact with
a computer without having to learn lots of special words - it provides a much
more intuitive 'view' of the computer and its facilities than non-WIMP operating
systems provide
 "Windows, /images/, Menus and Pointer", or "Windows, /images/, Mouse and

Pull-down menus" This is a graphical interface which makes access to computers
much more straightforward and intuitive than the main alternative, the command-
line interface. The WIMP interface has been used on Apple Macintosh computers
since they were invented, and are coming into use on PCs through Microsoft
Windows and on Unix and other workstations through the X Window system.
4. Menu driven interfaces
The user is offered a simple menu from which to choose an option. One menu often
leads to a further menu. Part of the screen may have an instruction followed by a
numbered list of options to choose from:
A full screen menu takes up most of the screen.

A menu bar is the set of options at the top of the screen. When an option is chosen a pull
down menu may be offered.
Features of menu driven interfaces include:
 They are easy to use as the user does not have to remember sets of commands.
 They are user friendly - you can often guess your way around the options.
 They can be irritating if there are too many levels of menus to move around - with
a command line interface you can go to the option required immediately.
USER INTERFACE
 A user interface is part of the systems software.

 People need a way of interacting with machines such as computers, notebooks, mobile
phones, cash machines (ATMs) etc.
 A user interface is the software that enables a user to provide instructions to, interact with
and control a computer or device e.g. a mobile phone.
 The user interface is often part of the operating system.
A user interface is a point of interaction between a computer and humans; it includes any
number of modalities of interaction (such as graphics, sound, position, movement...)
where data is transferred between the user and the computer system.
MS DOS VS WINDOWS
TOPIC COMMAND LINE (CLI) or DOS GUI or Windows OS

Due to a higher degree of memorization and
Because a GUI is much more visually
familiarity needed for operation and navigation, new
Ease intuitive, new users almost always pick up this
users find operating a command line interface more
interface faster than a CLI.
difficult than a GUI.
Users have more control over both the file and
Although a GUI offers ample access to the file
operating systems in a command line interface. For
Control and operating system, advanced tasks may
example, users can copy a specific file from one
still need to utilize the command line.
location to another with a one-line command.
Although many command line environments are
GUI users have windows that enable a user to
capable of multitasking, they do not offer the same
Multitasking view, control, manipulate, and toggle through
ease and ability to view multiple things at once on
multiple programs and folders at same time.
one screen.
Command line users only need to utilize their Using both a mouse and keyboard to navigate
keyboards to navigate the interface. Additionally, and control your operating or file system is
Speed
they often only need to execute a few lines to going to be much slower than someone who is
perform a task. working in a command line.
A GUI requires more system resources
A computer that is only using the command line because of the elements that require loading,
Resources takes a lot less of the computer's system resources such as icons and fonts. Video, mouse, and
than a GUI. other drivers need to be loaded, taking up
additional system resources.
Although A GUI enables a user to create
A command line interface enables a user to script a
shortcuts, tasks, or other similar actions, it
Scripting sequence of commands to perform a task or execute
doesn't even come close in comparison to
a program.
what is available through a command line.
When accessing another computer or device over a Although remote graphical access is possible.
Remote
network, a user can only manipulate the device or its Not all computers and network equipment has
access files with a command line interface. this ability.
After you've learned how to navigate and use a Each GUI has a different design and structure
command line, it's not going to change as much as a when it comes to performing different tasks.
Diversity new GUI. Although new commands may be Even different iterations of the same GUI,
introduced, the original commands always remain such as Windows, can have hundreds of
the same. different changes between each version.
The command line allows the user to keep their
Although shortcut keys can help reduce the
hands on the keyboard, almost never touching the
amount of times you have move from the
Strain mouse. Moving back and forth between a keyboard
keyboard to the mouse, you will still be
and mouse can cause additional strain and may help
moving much more between devices in a GUI.
contribute to Carpal Tunnel Syndrome.
Note: Although it appears that using the command line wins this comparison, it is beneficial for user know how both methods work as
they excel in different areas.
APPLICATION PACKAGES/SOFTWARE
 Are programs that are or were developed to solve specific user problems?
 Word processors and spreadsheets fall into this category.
 Software application packages can be custom built or they can be bought off the shelf.
# APPLICATION DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES
SOFTWARE
1 Word processing  A word processor is used to produce documents such as letters, memos and reports.  Ms word,
software The latest versions of word processing software contain many features and can also Word
be used for "desktop publishing" to create newsletters, brochures, business cards, perfect,
signs and more. The latest word processing software will allow you to easily type Word star,
into columns, add pictures and charts to your page, create custom borders, and  Ms works
experiment with a variety of type faces (fonts) in a wide range of sizes. You can even word
combine different fonts on the same page. processor
 Word processing software offers many exciting formatting and editing features to ,WordPro
make your work easier. You can easily check the spelling of a word or the entire
document. The built in thesaurus will help you find an alternate word to use. Blocks
of text can be easily moved, copied or erased.
 Use this kind of tool to create worksheets, type letters, type papers, etc, e.g. MS
Word, WordPerfect,....
2 Spreadsheet  A spreadsheet is used to manage, analyze and present numeric information. Some  Ms Excel,
software common uses of spreadsheet software are financial reports, personal finances and Lotus 1-2-3
business finances. Spreadsheet programs can also create a chart from the numeric
data.
 The working screen is laid out in rows and columns, much like a ledger. The
information is typed into a "cell." A cell is the intersection of a row and a column.
The cell can contain a number, a word or phrase (generally used to identify what the
number represents, such as a column or row heading), or a math function or formula.
 Spreadsheets allow you to use simple math expressions such as add, subtract,
multiply or divide, or advanced math such as the type of calculations performed by
architects, engineers, economists and scientists. Spreadsheets also have a special
group of built-in formulas, called functions, that let you perform calculations without
having to type long, complex formulas. Functions are grouped into categories, such
as financial, statistical, engineering, logical, math and trigonometry, database and list
management, date and time, and information.
 One of the reasons many people use a computer for their spreadsheet projects is
because it is easy to change your information once it has been entered. If you change
a number, the spreadsheet will automatically recalculate the results. You can also
take advantage of this feature to perform a "what-if" analysis. For example, you input
the data for a small business venture you are considering and the spreadsheet
calculates your net profit for the first year of business. If you are not pleased with the
result, you can change a few numbers to see how the change would affect the
outcome.
 Use this kind of tool to compute number-intensive problems such as budgeting,
forecasting, etc. A spreadsheet will plot nice graphs very easily, e.g. MS Excel,
Quattro Pro, Lotus 1-2-3,
3 Database  Allows user to prepare reports based on data found in different records. DBMS is an  Ms Access,
management important managerial decision support tool for managers at all levels of the DbaseIV,
software organization. A database is an organised store of information, for example an address Oracle
book, list of employees, list of students, customers or items of assets. Database
package is used to store records. Data can be sorted or filtered for separate viewing.
Also Calculations and comparisons between data items can be done. Popular
database packages are: Microsoft Excel, lotus Approach, Paradox, dBase IV, Data
Ease.
 Use this software to store data such as address, membership and other text
information. A database can be used to easily sort and organize records
4 Payroll  Pay plus ,

Pay well
5 Accounting e.g. Pastel, TurboCash, QuickBooks  Pastel, Tetra
2000
6 Presentation  Lets users or managers prepare slides containing charts, text and images. Presentation  Ms
graphics software graphics software usually provides libraries of clip art images that can be cut and PowerPoint,
pasted into a slide to make the slide more attractive and informative. These are Lotus
applications designed solely for designing graphs and text charts/posters and often freelance
used to produce slides for use on overhead projectors, or presentations on computer- graphs
projectors. They can also produce various types of charts. Examples of graphics
packages are: Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance, Harvard Graphics and Corel
Draw, HyperStudio, Flash, Director.
 Use this software to create multimedia stacks of cards/screens that can effectively
present a lesson or a sales pitch. The user often clicks on buttons to advance to the
next screen in a sequence
7 Desktop Publishing  Use this software to make signs, banners, greeting cards, illustrative worksheets,  Ms
newsletters, etc publisher,
 Desktop Publishing (DTP) applications give users powerful and versatile page design Aldus
capabilities. The user can incorporate text and graphics on very exact page layouts.
These applications produce magazines, catalogues, invitation cards, business cards
and other sophisticated documents. It links up well with other applications as the user
can import text and graphics from the other applications. Examples of DTP packages
are: Microsoft Publisher, PageMaker, Ventura and Frame maker.
8 Multimedia i) Internet Browsers  Internet

This software allows one to surf the Web. Often they can read email and create Web pages explorer
too, e.g. Netscape Navigator (or Netscape Communicator), MS Internet Explorer, AOL Netscape
Browser....
ii) Email programs

These programs send and receive email, e.g. Netscape Messenger (part of Netscape
Communicator), MS Outlook Express, MS Outlook, Eudora, AOL browser (has email
built in)....
iii) Graphics Programs (pixel-based)

This software allows one to touch up photographs and create graphics from scratch, e.g
Adobe Photoshop, Paint Shop Pro, MS Paint (comes free on Windows PC's), Painter, ....
9 Communication  This software allows two computers with modems to communicate through audio,  Ms Outlook,
video, and/or chat-based means, e.g. MS NetMeeting, AOL Instant Messenger, IRC, Ms
ICQ, CU-SeeMe, ... Exchange
10 Design e.g. AutoCad, Corel Draw  AutoCAD,
CAM
State five advantages of using a word processor (e.g. MS Word) rather than a manual
typewriter in an office [10].
 Ability to correct mistakes
 Ability to view documents on screen before printing
 Ability to incorporate diagrams
 Ability to move parts of text to other sections of the document.
 Ability to save or store documents for future reference or use.
 Ability to alter or change document layout.
 Ability to print a lot of copies [ no retyping]
 Ability to insert tables
 Ability to format document [font, paragraphs, bullets etc] Spelling and grammar checker
 Import files
 Mail merge
 WYSIWYG capability
 Creation of templates
 Automatic creation of index and table of contents
o ther - Good reasoning [ 2 marks each for 5 & 1 mark each for more than 5]
a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘word processing package’. [3 marks]
 Is a program or set of programs used to enter, edit, format, store and print
documents. A document may be anything from a single memo to a complete
book.
 An application package that involves the use of computers to manipulate text
data in order to produce office communications in the form of documents.
 Any of many popular application programs designed for composing,
revising, printing, and filing written documents.
 Word Processing is the efficient and effective production of written
communications at the lowest possible cost through the combined use of
systems management procedures, automated technology, and accomplished
personnel. The equipment used in word processing applications includes but
is not limited to the following: dictation and transcription equipment,
automatic repetitive typewriters, visual display text editing typewriters,
keyboard terminals, etc.
b) Give any 2 examples of a word processing package’. [2marks]

 MS WORD
 WORD STAR
 WORD Perfect
 MS WORKS WORD
c) Briefly describe any 5 important features of a word processor. [5 marks]

1) Spelling and grammar checker
2) Import files
3) Mail merge
4) WYSIWYG capability
5) Creation of templates
6) Automatic creation of index and table of contents
d) List any 10 facilities that spreadsheets offer. [10 marks]

1. Format cells, rows and columns, specifying for example, the alignment of text,
number of decimal points, height and width of a cell.
2. Copy cell contents to other locations
3. Determine the effect of several different hypothetical changes of data
4. Insert, move or delete rows and columns
5. Use functions such as SUM, AVERAGE, MAX, MIN in formulae
6. Create a simple database and sort or query the data to produce a report
7. Write macros to automate common procedures
8. Create templates i.e. spreadsheets with formats and formulae already entered, into
which new figures may be inserted.
9. Create multi-dimensional spreadsheets using several sheets, and copy data from one
sheet to another
10. Create many different types of charts and graphs
Criteria for Selecting Applications Software:
 Accuracy - it must be free from errors

 Flexibility – it must be able to adapt to changing environment.
 Compatibility - it must be compatible with available hardware and software
 Recency - it must be current
 Cost - it must have reasonable cost
 Originality - It must be original
 Support - consider continued support from the supplier.
 Ease of use - it must be user friendly.
 Performance - it must have efficiency in both response time and run time.
 Memory requirements
Factors to consider when buying application software
1. Cost. This includes the original cost of the package, technical support, and upgrades.
2. Portability, can it be installed on one type of hardware or a variety
3. Relevance of the software to the task at hand.
4. Compatibility with existing hardware & software. Will the package run on existing
hardware? Can files be easily transferred from existing systems without re-keying? Can
files created in the package be exported to other systems in use in the company?
5. It should be on a media compatible with your computer i.e. if you purchase software
on CD media your computer should have compact disk drive.
6. Sophistication, simple programs are usually easy to learn, cost less and are appropriate
for those who use the software infrequently.
7. Should include enough documentation such as installation instructions, system
requirements e.g. Pentium 4, reference manual, registration information, supplier details
and user manual.
8. Standard software, which is well supported locally i.e. used by most people in that area
9. Is the application upgradeable and does it support future upgrades.
10. Easiness of installation
11. Technical support. Is support available? Is it very costly? Often, technical support
contract can add 50% or more to the price of a package, but without it no support at all
will be given by the manufacturer.
12. Easy of learning. Are tutorials supplied? Are books on the software available in
bookshops? Are training courses available?
13. Easy of use and user- friendliness. Is it easy to use, for example using pull down
menus, icons, helpful error messages when you do something wrong?
14. Is the application from a reputable supplier e.g. Microsoft.
15. Do you have enough resourceson your PC to install it e.g. it may require 256MB
RAM, 80GB HDD. Memory requirements; software packages vary in the amount of
memory they require. Will the system require expenditure on more powerful hardware?
16. Does the version of the product that I am considering run on my personalcomputer
system? Is it compatible with my platform (PC, Macintosh, Sun, and so on)? with the
processor used in my computer (486, Pentium, Motorola 6040, PowerPC, and so on)?
and with the operating system that I am running (DOS, Windows, NeXT Step, UNIX)?
17. Is the product compatible with other programs, such as extensions and device drivers,
that I have on my personalcomputer system?
18. Does the product do all that I want it to do? Is it simple enough to use immediately but
powerful enough to provide the capabilities that I will want as my familiarity with the
program increases?
19. Is the product an up-to-date, current version or release?
20. Does the product have a clear, step-by-step tutorial? Is the product easy to learn?
21. Is the product accompanied by clear, easy-to-follow instructions, or documentation?
22. Does the manufacturer provide technical assistance? Is a toll-free technical assistance
number included in the software documentation? Does the manufacturer have a bulletin
board or Internet address for technical assistance questions? Does the manufacturer
charge for technical assistance? for product revisions or upgrades?
23. Can I find instruction, or training, in the use of the product?
24. Is the product from a respected, well known manufacturer?
25. Does the program have any known problems, or bugs, and will these affect my use of the
program?
26. Does the product come with a warranty, and what are the conditions of that warranty?
27. Does the product cost more or less than comparable products on the market?
SOURCES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE
1. Freeware
 Freeware is the type of freely available software whose developer decides to distribute it for free.
In contrast to the open source software, the source code in this case is not available for
modifications and further development. Also, it should be noted that the distribution of the
software may also be restricted by its developer, often allowing users to download it from his site
only. Many free to download applications are available on the Internet. It is always wise to read
the license before downloading the software. Many people tend to unknowingly share such
applications with other people, without realizing that this may actually be illegal.
2. Open source software

 Is computer software with its source code made available with a license in which the copyright
holder provides the rights to study, change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any
purpose.
3. Shareware
 Shareware is very different from these other forms of free software and to some extent also a
misnomer. The authors of shareware maintain their full intellectual right over shareware. The only
difference between shareware and other commercially available software is that in this case the
software is available for freely for trial for a limited number of days, or a limited number of times.
After the expiry of the ‘free’ period, the users of shareware are required to pay for it. Source code
and collaboration communities which exist around open source projects do not exist in this case.
4. Off-the –shelf/generic or Commercial Software

 This is software that can be purchased, from a software company that develops programs and sells
them too many computer users and organizations. Applications such as financial accounting,
business graphics and pay roll may be bought.
o These are bought from a vendor
5. In-house/Custom made/Tailor Made/Bespoke software
 Customized software is software designed around a company or other organization's processes to
make those processes more efficient.
 It is distinct from market software [commercial or generic], which approaches problems in a
general way so that the product can be sold to more than one customer.
 Has been written by the vendor specifically for a user’s needs. Also known as in-house packages,
tailor-made packages.
6. Outsourcing
This involves contracting out software development to a software house - better known as
outsourcing, especially where off-the-shelf packages are not available.
Advantages
o Software houses employ professionals and this may benefit the organisation
o Transfer of skills to the existing professionals in an organisation
o Organisation can get support from the contractor.
Disadvantages
o There could be breach of confidentiality.
o Contractor may go bankrupt and cease trading leaving the user with no support.
o Contractor might not have sufficient experience or understanding of the problem; thus the
solution might not be satisfactory.
o It takes time for the contractor to understand the user's business and operations, which
makes the approach expensive.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS
1. Commercial / generic Packages/Off the shelf software

 Commercial software is computer software sold for profit; such software represented,
until recently, the vast majority of all software used.
 These are bought from a vendor.
 Also known as off the shelf packages e.g. MS Office, Pastel.
 Also known as work enhancement applications
 Generic or Off the shelf software has the advantage of cost effectiveness due to larger
market & the ability to incorporate available technology in the shortest possible time.
These increase the productivity & efficiency in the work place i.e.
o Word Processing packages
o Spreadsheet packages
o Database /Information retrieval Packages
o Graphics packages
o Data communications Software
 Off-the –shelf/generic or Commercial Software
This is software that can be purchased, from a software company that develops programs and sells
them to many computer users and organizations. Applications such as financial accounting,
business graphics and pay roll may be bought.
Advantages
o Cheaper - the software company is able to spread the software development cost over a large
number of customers, hence reducing the cost any one customer must pay.
o Less risky - the software is in existence, hence you can analyse the features and performance
of the package.
o The program is a well-tried and tested product with few errors.
o Less time - Off-the -shelf software is often installed quickly and easily.
o The package is well documented
o The packages require little maintenance
o There is continued support from the supplier through upgrades.
o It is cheaper than custom-written software. The development costs of the package may be
millions of pounds, but the customer may be able to buy it for a few hundred pounds, since
sales are made to thousands of other customers.
o It is immediately available and already thoroughly tested so is unlikely to have major bugs in
it
o Documentation is usually available in the form of reference manuals, user guides and tutorials
o Training courses may be available form third party trainers.
o Technical support is usually available from the manufacturers via a Web site or telephone line
[at a price].
o Other users of the package can be consulted as to its suitability before purchase.
o Upgrades are usually available every year or two
Disadvantages
o The package may not do exactly what you want it to do;
o It may not run on the firm’s existing hardware
o It may not interface with other software already in use in the organization.
o The organization might need to pay for the features that are not required and never
used.
o The package may be for general needs and therefore not ideal for the user.
o The user has no direct control over the package,
2. Homemade / Customized packages/ Tailor-made Software

 Customized software is software designed around a company or other organization's
processes to make those processes more efficient.
 It is distinct from market software [commercial or generic], which approaches problems in a
general way so that the product can be sold to more than one customer.
 Has been written by the vendor specifically for a user’s needs. Also known as in-house
packages, tailor-made packages.
 E.g. most payroll packages, billing software, product design applications
 Is that application that has been written for a specific user’s needs by a software vendor?
 It is non-standard software.
 In-house/Custom made/Tailor Made/Bespoke software
This approach requires a development team from within the organisation. The team is usually
comprised of programmers and analysts. The team members should be of high calibre, highly
trained and reliable.
Advantages
o Internal professionals understand operations better and therefore can produce an accurate
solution.
o The Software usually meets user requirements.
o Management are in total control of the development process
o More flexibility - there is more flexibility in making modifications.
o Problem specificity - in-house developed software can give an organisation software
programmes that are easily tailored to a unique problem or task.
Disadvantages
 Time and costs of developing the program may be greater than other options
 In-house staff may lack the expertise needed for the project
 Reliability of the resultant software is highly questionable.
 In some cases the developers may attempt to gain fraudulently from the system

Disadvantages
1. Being customized, the non-standard software may not be used by any other organization.
2. It has huge support costs after implementation.
3. Dependency syndrome with the supplier. There is heavy reliance on the developers of the
software for its continued existence & maintenance
4. Future support may be difficult if the supplying company goes under, shuts down, or liquidate or
if its development staff leaves.
5. May not be upgradeable and may not run if moved to a new hardware platform.
6. You are tied to a supplier of which you may not be willing to have a maintenance contract with.
7. Written or Custom-built software performs a defined function and is expensive to build.
8. Custom built is expensive to maintain
9. Custom built software has reduced lifespan due to high speed of technological advancement in the
field of computers.
UTILITY SOFTWARE
Utility software (also known as service program, service routine, tool, or utility routine) is computer
software designed to help manage and tune the computer hardware, operating system or application
software by performing a single task or a small range of tasks. Some utility software has been integrated
into most major operating systems.
Examples
 Disk storage utilities
o Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are broken across several
locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
o Disk checkers can scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are corrupted
in some way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more efficiently
operating hard drive.
o Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete when
their hard disk is full.
o Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for
each folder (including subfolders) & files in folder or drive. showing the distribution of
the used space.
o Disk partitioners can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with
its own filesystem which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an
individual drive.
o Backup utilities can make a copy of all information stored on a disk, and restore either
the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of
accidental deletion).
o Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a disk,
increasing the capacity of the disk.
o File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management
tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, uncataloging, moving, copying, merging,
generating and modifying data sets.
o Archive utilities output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set
of files. Archive utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression or
encryption capabilities. Some archive utilities may even have a separate un-archive utility
for the reverse operation.
 System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware attached
to the computer.
 Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.
 Text and Hex Editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an
actual program.
 Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a stream
or file.
 Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
 Launcher applications provide a convenient access point for application software.
 Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows registry by removing old registry keys that are
no longer in use.
 Network managers check the computer's network, log events and check data transfer.
 Command line interface (CLI) and Graphical user interface (GUI) Allows the user to contact
and make changes to the operating system.
INTEGRATED SOFTWARE
 Integrated software is software for personal computers that combines the most commonly used
functions of many productivity software programs into one application.
 The integrated software genre has been largely overshadowed by fully functional office suites,
most notably Microsoft Office, but at one time was considered the "killer application" type
responsible for the rise and dominance of the IBM PC in the desktop business computing world.
 In the early days of the PC before GUIs became common, user interfaces were text-only and were
operated mostly by function key and modifier key sequences. Every program used a different set
of keystrokes, making it difficult for a user to master more than one or two programs. Programs
were loaded from floppy disk, making it very slow and inconvenient to switch between programs
and difficult or impossible to exchange data between them (to transfer the results from a
spreadsheet to a word processor document for example). In response to these limitations, vendors
created multifunction "integrated" packages, eliminating the need to switch between programs and
presenting the user with a more consistent interface.
 The potential for greater ease-of-use made integrated software attractive to home markets as well
as business, and packages such as the original AppleWorks for the Apple II and Jane for the
Commodore 128 were developed in the 1980s to run on most popular home computers of the day.
 Context MBA was an early example of the genre, and featured spreadsheet, database, chart-
making, word processing and terminal emulation functions. However, because it was written in
Pascal for portability, it ran slowly on the relatively underpowered systems of the day. Lotus 1-2-
3, which followed it, had fewer functions but was written in assembler, providing it with a speed
advantage that allowed it to become the predominant business application for personal
computers.[2]
 The integrated software market of today is exemplified by entry-level programs such as Microsoft
Works which are often bundled with personal computers as "starter" productivity suites.
SOFTWARE SUITES/BUNDLED SOFTWARE
 A software suite or application suite is a collection of computer programs, usually application

software and programming software of related functionality, often sharing a more-or-less common
user interface and some ability to smoothly exchange data with each other.
 Sometimes software makers introduce "suites" that are little more than repackaged versions of
older programs offered at a lower price.
 The solution might be "software suites" or "bundled software." A "suite" is a collection of the full-
featured versions of each software application - word processing, spreadsheet, database
management, graphics, communications and sometimes organizers.
 These applications are from the same software manufacturer and are packaged together in a large
box and sold at prices that are much lower than if they were purchased individually - usually less
than half of the original collective price! The software applications contained in a suite or bundle
are the same applications a professional user might purchase individually. No corners have been
cut, and additional features may have been added such as a "common interface" that allows any of
the programs to be accessed from the same "main menu," a consistent screen layout used by each
of the programs, and the ability to easily exchange data from one program to another.
INTEGRATED SOFTWARE/BUNDLED SOFTWARE / SOFTWARE SUITE
 SOFTWARE that contains several applications rolled into one. Integrated software usually
includes word processing, spreadsheet, database, graphics and communication capabilities.
Two popular Integrated software packages are Microsoft Works and ClarisWorks:
 In integrated software, you will be able to work on a spreadsheet to perform calculations, store
addresses and phone numbers in a database and be able to link information from the spreadsheet &
the database when you work with the word processor in the integrated package.
 Object Linking Embedding [OLE] is a standard that, Allows applications to be linked together.
 OLE-DB allows applications to import virtually any form of data into the database.
integrated software
 A group of applications designed to work together and share data easily.
Software that combines the features of several different applications in a single program (e.g. word
processing, database, spreadsheet, graphics, and communications)..
Advantages of integrated applications

 Easy to use
 Generally costs much less
 Require or needs less RAM
 Ability to pass data from one module to another.
 Takes up much less hard disk space
 Better organization of information. Data is stored in the database, calculations in an electronic
spreadsheet & images in a graphical application package
The advantages of bundled software suites are

 Low cost compared to buying each application separately
 Option to install all of the programs at the same time or only the programs you want to use
 Consistent interface from one application to another
 The ability to share information between applications
 Future upgrades can update each application all at the same time
 Ideal for personal use, professional use, large or small business
 Each application is the full-featured version
The disadvantages are
 High initial cost
 All applications are from the same manufacturer - you might prefer a word processor from one
company, a spreadsheet from a different manufacturer, etc.
 May be purchasing more software than you actually need
 Installation of the entire suite of applications takes up a large amount of storage space on your
internal hard disk
 Several large manuals to study if you plan to master each application, or the package might not
include printed manuals in order to keep the cost low
Disadvantages
 Limited portability. The same applications must exist on every computer that you wish to open the
document.
 Offer fewer features and less versatility than stand alone versions or software.
 Functional limitation. Its rigid you cannot change it to suit your specific needs.
EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATED SOFTWARE

 Microsoft Office 97
 Microsoft Works
 Claris Works
 Lotus SmartSuite 97
 Microsoft Office 2003,2007,2010 & 2013
OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE
 Open source is a type of software which is freely available and its source code is available for
further development, modification. Generally all open source software have a community of
developers who provide support, documentation and even binary versions of the software to
people who may be interested in it. These additional services, though, may not be free monetarily.
 There are several ongoing open source software projects. The open source nature of these projects
means that there will be several people working on modifying and improving the software from
around the world. Some such examples include the Web browser Mozilla Firefox, content
management software like Drupal, Joomla etc.
SOFTWARE COPYRIGHT
The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
Copyright is a legal concept, giving the creator of an original work exclusive rights to control its
distribution for a certain time period.
Copying computer software is therefore a breach of copyright and a criminal offence. The Act covers
stealing software, using illegally copied software and manuals, and running purchased software on more
machines than the license allows.
The legal penalties for breaking the copyright law include unlimited fines and up to two years in prison.
All the software that you use should be fully licensed. When you purchase software you usually are
licensed to use it on just one computer. It is illegal to make copies of the software to use on other
computers, even if they are your own.
Software licences can be:
 Single user - licensed for installation on one computer

 Multi-user - the license allows you to install the software on a named number of computers
 Site-licence - the licence lets you install the software onto an unlimited number of computers, as
long as they are on one distinct site such as a school
Software protection
Software companies try to prevent illegal copying of their disks using the following methods:
 Copy protection - the disk (or CD-Rom) may be formatted in a special way so it cannot easily be
copied.
 Restricting the number of installations - each installation is recorded on an installation disk and
only a certain number are allowed.
 A registration key - a unique series of letters and numbers that is asked for when running the
program. The software will not run if the registration key is not typed in correctly and online
multiplayer games will not to run if another user is online who has used the same key.
 A phone or Internet activation code - this requires the user to call a number or go online to
register the product. They then receive a unique computer-specific serial number.
 Encryption - data can be scrambled up and cannot be read without the correct software.
 A Dongle - a piece of hardware that must be plugged into the computer to run the software. Each
one contains a unique electronic serial number and as they are expensive to produce they are
mostly used to protect high-end software packages.
 Details of the user are built into the software - when the software is run it displays the original
users name. This does not prevent the copying but it makes is obvious that the copy is illegal.
 A Keyfile - a small file with a unique code that is placed in the same directory as the program. If
the code is not valid then the software will not run.
SOFTWARE PIRACY
 Unauthorized copying of software.
 Unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted patented material.
 unauthorized copying of software
 The production of illegal copies of software.
 By far, the biggest legal problem affecting the computer industry today is software piracy, which
is the illegal copying or use of programs. Piracy is a huge problem mainly because it is so easy to
do. In most cases, it is no more difficult to steal a program than it is to tape a music CD that you
have borrowed from a friend. Software pirates give up the right to receive upgrades and technical
support, but they gain the use of the program without paying for it.
Implications of Software piracy
 Loss of business to software companies.
 Lack of technical support, no connection with supplier upgrades.
 Software incompatibility, may require a key, which you might not have, as a result you
can’t install it.
 Virus Spread
 Lawsuits for copyright, which may be very costly in terms of reputation and money.
 Piracy harms all software publishers, Regardless of their size. Software publishers spend
years developing software for the public to use. A portion of every dollar spent in
purchasing original software is channeled back into research and development so that better,
more advanced software products can be produced. When you purchase pirated software,
your money goes directly into the pockets of software pirates instead.
 Software piracy also harms the local and national economies. Fewer legitimate software
sales result in lost tax revenue and decreased employment. Software piracy greatly hinders
the development of local software communities. If software publishers cannot sell their
products in the legitimate market, they have no incentive to continue developing programs.
Many software publishers simply won’t enter markets where the piracy rates are too high,
because they will not be able to recover their development costs.
 Software piracy harms everyone in the software community including you, the end
user. How?
1) Piracy results in higher prices for duly licensed users,
2) Piracy reduces levels of support, and
3) Delays in the funding and development of new products, causing the overall selection and
quality of software to suffer.
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOFTWARE PIRACY

There are five basic forms of software piracy, and all are damaging both to the software publisher and to
you, the end user. The five basic types of piracy are:
 Soft lifting. This form of piracy occurs when extra copies of a program are made within an
organization for employees to use. It also includes "Disk swapping" among friends and associates.
 Hard-Disk Loading. Some computer dealers load unauthorized copies of software onto the hard disks
of the computers they offer for sale, as an incentive for an end user to purchase a computer from that
particular dealer.
 Counterfeiting. This is the illegal duplication and sale of copyrighted software, often in a form
designed to make the product appear legitimate. Software counterfeiting can be very sophisticated,
including significant efforts to replicate packaging, logos, and anti-counterfeiting techniques such as
holograms. It can also be unsophisticated, consisting of inferior or hand-written labels, with disks
folded into a plastic bag and sold on street corners. A recent trend in counterfeiting is the emergence of
compilation CD-ROMs, where numerous unauthorized software publishers’ programs appear on one
CD-ROM. In any form, software counterfeiting is very damaging to both the software developer and
legitimate end users.
 Online. This form of piracy occurs when copyrighted software is downloaded to users connected
through a modem to an electronic bulletin board or the Internet without the express permission of the
copyright owner. This should not be confused with sharing public domain software or providing
“shareware.” Shareware is software that may or may not be copyrighted but is generally offered for
little or no charge by the author for nearly unrestricted use, including copying or sharing with others.
Microsoft distributes promotional products, free software, updates, or enhancements over bulletin
boards or online services, which may or may not be licensed for use solely with licensed Microsoft
products. You should check the EULA accompanying the product to determine how it can be used.
 License Misuse. This form of piracy occurs when copyrighted software is distributed outside the
restricted legitimate channels it was designed for or the product is used in ways not allowed in the
license agreement. Examples of license misuse include:
(1) Academic product misuse
This form of license misuse occurs when a product that is manufactured, licensed, and
specifically marked for distribution to educational institutions and students at reduced prices
is diverted into normal commercial channels of distribution. Typically this product will
contain a sticker indicating that it is academic product and for use only by educational
institutions.
(2) Not for Resale (NFR) product misuse.
Again, this form of license misuse occurs when a product that has been clearly marked "Not
for Resale," and is typically distributed as a promotional or sample product and is not licensed
for normal commercial distribution and use, is diverted into normal commercial channels of
distribution.
(3) Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) stand-alone product. This form of license
misuse occurs when OEM version software has been unbundled from its designated computer
system and distributed as a separate, “stand-alone” product. Microsoft’s agreement with computer
manufacturers prohibits them from distributing Microsoft products in this fashion, i.e. without
accompanying computer hardware.
Microsoft products on the retail shelf should never include a line on the front cover of the User’s
Guide that states, “For Distribution Only With New Computer Hardware.”
(3) “Microsoft Easy Fulfillment” (MEF) product misuse. This form of license misuse occurs
when a “Microsoft Easy Fulfillment” (MEF) product is diverted into normal commercial
channels of distribution. The MEF product may be distributed only to end users who have a
Select or Open (MOLP) license and who order the product in accordance with their license
terms. The MEF product has a sticker on the jewel case identifying the product as “Microsoft
Easy Fulfillment.”
(4) Volume licensing misuse. Volume Licensing enables organizations to acquire the rights to
copy and use specific Microsoft software products with agreements tailored to the number of
products needed at the particular organization. These volume programs offer a broad range of
products and licensing options and reduce administrative overhead and software management
costs.
Microsoft offers two types of volume license:

a. Select provides savings for medium and large organizations with significant volume
requirements through forecasting software needs over a two-year period.
b. Open provides savings for small and medium organizations for licenses of as few as 20 units
of a particular software product, with a simple ordering process.
Misuse under volume licensing occurs when organization copies software purchased through the
volume program on more computers than specified in their license agreement. Other violations
occur when an organization allows concurrent use of software products (which currently is offered
only as an option under the Select and Open programs) without the purchase of the option that
allows for this concurrent use.
User licenses show users rights to use pieces of software.
NETWORKING
 A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers

and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow
sharing of resources and information Where at least one process in one device is able to
send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two
devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer interconnected
through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer
network.
 Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics, such as the
medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, and
organizational scope.
 Communications protocols define the rules and data formats for exchanging information
in a computer network, and provide the basis for network programming. Well-known
communications protocols include Ethernet, a hardware and link layer standard that is
ubiquitous in local area networks, and the Internet protocol suite, which defines a set of
protocols for internetworking, i.e. for data communication between multiple networks, as
well as host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats.
 Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of electrical engineering,
telecommunications, computer science, information technology or computer engineering,
since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines.
Properties
Computer networks:
1. Facilitate communications
Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant
messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.
2. Permit sharing of files, data, and other types of information
In a network environment, authorized users may access data and information stored on
other computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and
information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks.
3. Share network and computing resources
In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use resources
provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network
printer. Distributed computing uses computing resources across a network to accomplish
tasks.
4. May be insecure
A computer network may be used by computer hackers to deploy computer viruses or
computer worms on devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices from
normally accessing the network (denial of service).
5. May interfere with other technologies
Power line communication strongly disturbs certain forms of radio communication, e.g.,
amateur radio. It may also interfere with last mile access technologies such as ADSL and
VDSL.
6. May be difficult to set up
A complex computer network may be difficult to set up. It may also be very costly to set
up an effective computer network in a large organization or company.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A network topology is the arrangement of elements (such as data links or nodes) in a network. It
is the physical arrangement of terminals in a local area network. The choice of topology is
dependent upon
 type and number of equipment being used
 planned applications and rate of data transfers
 required response times
 cost
Definitions of hub on the Web:
 A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to
connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one
port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets. A
passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from one device (or
segment) to another. ...
 Node – a terminal point in a communications network.
 Workstation – A computer terminal or micro- or minicomputer system designed to
support the work of one person.
MESH TOPOLOGY
Mesh topology work on the concept of routes. In Mesh topology, message sent to the destination
can take any possible shortest, easiest route to reach its destination. In the previous topologies star
and bus, messages are usually broadcasted to every computer, especially in bus topology.
Similarly in the Ring topology message can travel in only one direction i.e clockwise or
anticlockwise. Internet employs the Mesh topology and the message finds its route for its
destination. Router works in find the routes for the messages and in reaching them to their
destinations. The topology in which every devices connects to every other device is called a full
Mesh topology unlike in the partial mesh in which every device is indirectly connected to the
other devices.
STAR TOPOLOGY
 Is a network in which nodes are connected to a central component as its hub?

 The central component can be a switching device like a switch or PABX [private
automatic branch exchange], a computer [minicomputer to which workstations
or PCs are connected] or just a wiring center that is a common termination point
for the nodes, called a hub.
 A HUB is a component that serves as a common termination point for multiple
nodes and that can relay [store & forward] signals along the appropriate paths.
Definitions of star network on the Web:
 A network in which all terminals are connected through a single point, such as a star
coupler.
 A network topology in the form of a star. At the center of the star is a wiring hub or
concentrator, and the nodes or workstations are arranged around the central point
representing the points of the star.
Advantages of star topology

 It is easy to add or remove nodes
 Because each node has its own link to the central node, the star is more reliable than other
topologies.
 Full utilization of resources i.e. printer, sharing of processor
 Direct connection of terminals to the main processor, means that if one terminal breaks
down it won’t affect other terminals.
Disadvantages of star topology
 All traffic between two nodes passes through the central node. If the central component
breaks down, the whole network is down.
 The number of ports of the central component limits the number of connected nodes.
 A star topology requires a lot of cabling since all data path connections must be to the
central node.
 There is no direct communication between or among workstations
 Sharing of processor delays in the processing of jobs.
BUS/LINEAR TOPOLOGY

Describes a network in which each node is connected to a common line.
 This is also sometimes called a horizontal, multidrop or multi point network.
 Though it is preferable to use the last terms for connections with a
mainframe/mini computer as in the following diagram.
 In a bus messages travel in both directions and do not go through the individual
nodes but every node can hear each message as it goes past.
 When the signal/message reaches an end of the bus, a terminator absorbs it, to
keep it from traveling back again along the bus line, to avoid interference with
other messages already in the line.
 The data/signals/messages are transmitted in packets along the bus.
 Each packet is send with a receiver identification code that is an address of
destination and all computers on the network are permanently on the alert for any
messages coming to them.
Definitions of bus network on the Web:
 A single-cable LAN, in which all computers on the network are connected in series to a
single cable. On a bus network, each computer hears all of the transmissions going down
the line, and selects only those that are addressed to its location. This is the simplest and
most common LAN technology.
Advantages of Bus Network/topology

 When a node breaks down, the network does not break down.
 A bus uses relatively less cables compared to other topologies
 Direct communication due to direct connection.
 Fast processing since there is no Host computer
 Once a cable has been laid down any new equipment can easily be
connected to the network by a simple tapping into the cable.
Disadvantages of Bus Network/topology
 In a bus topology it is not always easy to add a node. [E.g. installation of extra tap in
thick Ethernet].
 Diagnosis/trouble shooting can be difficult.
 Expensive to run [several processors] – Detectors.
 Communication between components of the network traveling in opposite direction along
the bus can collide causing loss of transmitted information.
 Because of this collision a detection system has to be present to control the re-
transmission of lost information thereby making it a more expensive option
RING NETWORK
 A ring network has nodes connected in a circular way.

 Each node has two neighboring nodes
 Data flow is unidirectional.
 A message is forwarded in one direction until it reaches the destination with
intermediate nodes acting as relay [store & forward] units.
 The destination node copies the message and passes the message again to the
ring.
 This message then continues to circulate around the ring back to the source.
Definitions of ring network on the Web:

 A network topology in the form of a closed loop or circle. Each node in the network is
connected to the next, and messages move in one direction around the system. When a
message arrives at a node, the node examines the address information in the message. If
the address matches the node's address, the message is accepted; otherwise the node
regenerates the signal and places the message back on the network for the next node in
the system. ...
Advantages of ring network
 The message return provides the source with a form of
acknowledgement. The node removes its own message from the ring.
 Little cabling needed compared to Star.
 Each node acts as relay unit.
 Packet collisions do not occur because information is traveling in one
direction.
 Relatively cheap to install.
 Efficient and accurate means of communication.
 There is no dependency on the host computer or file server as each node
controls transmission to and from itself.
Disadvantages of ring network
 Adding or removing nodes disrupts the network.
 If one of the nodes breaks down, the whole network will be down.
 If the network cable breaks the whole network is affected
TREE TOPOLOGY
Tree topologies are comprised of the multiple star topologies on a bus. Tree topologies integrate
multiple star topologies together onto a bus. Only the hub devices can connect directly with the
tree bus and each Hub functions as a root of a tree of the network devices. This bus/star/hybrid
combination supports future expandability of the computer networks, much better than a bus or
star.
Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
LANs and WANs

There are two types of network: LAN and WAN.
LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK)

A LAN is a high-speed data network that covers a relatively small geographic area. It typically
connects workstations, personal computers, printers, servers, and other devices. LANs offer
computer users many advantages, including shared access to devices and applications, file
exchange between connected users, and communication between users via electronic mail and
other applications. The development of standard networking protocols and media has resulted in
worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational organizations.
 Typically connects computer in a single building or campus.
 Developed in 1970s.
 Medium : optical fibres, coaxial cables, twisted pair, wireless.
 Low latency (except in high traffic periods).
 High speed networks (0.2 to 100 Mb/sec).
 Speeds adequate for most distributed systems
 Problems : Multimedia based applications
 Typically buses or rings.
 Ethernet, Token Ring
A LAN is a Local Area Network covering a small area such as one building e.g. in a school or a
college.
WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORK)

A network consisting of computers of LAN's connected across a distance WAN can cover small
to large distances, using different topologies such as telephone lines, fiber optic cabling, satellite
transmissions and microwave transmissions. Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger
geographic areas. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect this
type of network. Using a WAN, schools in Harare can communicate with places like Pretoria in a
matter of minutes, without paying enormous phone bills. A WAN is complicated. It uses
multiplexers to connect local and metropolitan networks to global communications networks like
the Internet. To users, however, a WAN will not appear to be much different than a LAN or a
MAN.
 Developed in 1960s.
 Generally covers large distances (states, countries, continents).
 Medium: communication circuits connected by routers.
 Routers forwards packets from one to another following a route from the sender to the
receiver. Store-and-Forward
 Hosts are typically connected (or close to) the routers.
 Typical latencies : 100ms - 500ms.
 Problems with delays if using satellites.
 Typical speed: 20 - 2000 Kbits/s.
 Not (yet) suitable for distributed computing.
 New standards are changing the landscape.
A WAN is a Wide Area Network covering a large geographical area.
Advantages and disadvantages of networks

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP WORKING & SHARING RESOURCES OVER A
NETWORK.
ADVANTAGES OF INSTALLING A NETWORK
1. Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files. Without
a network, copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the disks from one
computer to another shares files. This method of transferring files (referred to as sneaker-
net) is very time-consuming.
2. Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at

considerable savings when compared to buying individually licensed copies. Besides
monetary savings, sharing a program on a network allows for easier upgrading of the
program. The changes have to be done only once, on the file server, instead of on all the
individual workstations. Low cost. Single device shared by several machines reduce the
need to buy many peripheral devices. Resource sharing also serves money. An
installation can have several low-cost work stations accessing a single file-server. That
puts a lot of processing power on the user’s desk without the expense of large mainframe
systems.
3. Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so that
you do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can be
established for specific directories to restrict access to authorized users. Security is good
- users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-alone machines.
4. Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of installing a network

at a school is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one computer (the file
server). This eliminates that need to spend time and energy installing updates and
tracking files on independent computers throughout the building. Site licenses are likely
to be cheaper than buying several stand-alone licenses.
5. Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds stand-
alone computers. Some organizations cannot afford enough laser printers, fax machines,
modems, scanners, and CD-ROM players for each computer. However, if these or
similar peripherals are added to a network, they can be shared by many users. Resource
sharing is the primary benefit of networking. It allows users on different machines to
share modems, printers, tape drives and disk space, for example, users can send network
messages requesting to use a central printer, allowing everyone to share that resource.
Users realize the benefit of sharing information. Data files can be shared between
machines on the network, allowing users to see invoices, results of surveys, company
newsletters, and other information.
6. Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to install
an e-mail system. E-mail aids in personal and professional communication for all school
personnel, and it facilitates the dissemination of general information to the entire school
staff. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable students to communicate with teachers and
peers at their own school. If the LAN is connected to the Internet, students can
communicate with others throughout the world.
7. Flexible Access. Networks allow data & information access from any computer in the
campus.
8. Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice) allows

many users to work on a document or project concurrently. For example, educators
located at various schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas
about new curriculum standards to the same document and spreadsheets.
9. It turns isolated computers into integrated systems, providing an environment where

resources are shared and capacity problems reduced.
10. It allows growth. If more computing resources become a need, a new computer can be
installed, added to the network, and immediately accessed by other machines and users.
11. High reliability. If applications share data, the data can be replicated across several
machines. If one machine goes down, another can take its place and provide the data to
the applications.
12. A file server is easy to back up as all the data is stored in one place
DISADVANTAGES
Disadvantages of Installing a Network

1. Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the
initial costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software are
expensive, and the installation may require the services of a technician. Purchasing the
network cabling and file servers can be expensive.
2. Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable

time and expertise. Many organizations have installed a network, only to find that they
did not budget for the necessary administrative support.
Increased administration. There will be need for a systems administrator to tune the
network, monitor the network, administer database files, and ensure network integrity
(ensure the network runs smoothly)
3. File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any
other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may come to a
halt. When this happens, the entire school may lose access to necessary programs and
files.
4. Cables May Break. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the
inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can stop
the entire network.
5. Security concerns. Some user can gain unauthorized access to private data. There is a
danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security procedures are needed
to prevent such abuse. Of all the disadvantages, the greatest drawback is security
concerns; therefore, network security is a priority in the development of network
applications.
6. Network failure. As applications increase their use of a network, network failures

become catastrophic.
7. Virus attack. A networked system is vulnerable to destructive network messages. For
example, a message that sparks damaging activity (like erasing files) may enter the
system via the network.Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer
network.
8. Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network manager

usually needs to be employed.
9. If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible. E-mail
might still work if it is on a separate server. The computers can still be used as stand
alones.
INTERNET
 The Internet is the network of networks being a worldwide collection of computers that
communicate with one another over cables, satellites and optical fibers. It is literally the
whole hardware mass. The Internet is the network used to transport information.
Internet, by definition is a network of networks that interact with each other through
exchange of data packets. The Internet hosts an enormous information base and carries
numerous information resources and services..
 When we refer to the Internet we are usually talking about the World Wide Web
(WWW) which is the most used feature of the Internet.
 The WWW stores millions of web pages on web servers. These pages can contain text,
pictures, movies, animation and sound. Web pages are written in a language or code
called HTML (Hypertext Markup Language). A set of web pages is called a website.
 Each web page has its own unique address or URL. The URL will have the format "http"
and a domain (such as ."co.uk"). What goes in between is arbitrary, but often has the term
"www "such as in "http://www.name.co.uk". but it doesn’t have to (e.g.
http://news.bbc.co.uk).
 Most sites have a page that links the user to the other main areas of the site. This is called
the homepage.
 Web pages are connected by hypertext links. When a link is clicked you will be taken to
another page which could be on another server in any part of the world.
 When you move around web pages you are said to be surfing the net. For this you need a
program to read the pages (called a browser), such as Firefox or Internet Explorer.
 To search for a particular item or topic on the net you use a search engine. There are
many different kinds of search engine, each using slightly different ways of searching and
indexing web content. Google, BING and YAHOO are all examples of search engines.
 The World Wide Web Is software that runs on the internet which includes all
documentation that is shared and accessed on the internet.
 A Web page is a document designed to be accessed and read over the WWW. It must
have an address in a recognized format.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
ISPs (Internet Service Providers)

 An ISP is a company that provides access to the Internet to individuals or companies.
ISPs provide local dial-up access from your personal computer to their computer network
and their network connects you to the Internet.
 An institution (usually a private company) that provides access to the Internet in some
form, usually for money.
 A business that delivers access to the Internet.
 Are the companies who provide you with access to the internet. Commonly used ISPs in
Zimbabwe are:
1. PowerTel 4. Ecoweb 7. BSAT
2. ZOL 5. Telecel 8. Brodacom
3. Africom 6. Comone 9. Mweb
Most offer the same basic package of Internet access, email addresses, web space for your own
pages and local rate call charges.
Browser or web browser

 A web browser is a software application that enables a user to display and interact with
HTML documents hosted by web servers or held in a file system. Popular browsers
available for personal computers include Microsoft Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox,
Opera, and Safari. A browser is the most commonly used kind of user agent. The largest
networked collection of linked documents is known as the World Wide Web.
 Is a program that allows you to view the pages on the Web? The most widely used are
1. Internet Explorer
2. Mozilla Firefox
3. Google chrome
4. Opera
5. Safari
All browsers will have a number of similar features to help you use the Web:
 Forward and back buttons to move between pages
 A history folder which stores details of recently visited web pages
 A stop button if a page is taking too long to load
 Favorites and bookmark options to store often visited pages
 Options to cut, copy, save and print the information viewed
Search engines
 Internet search engines help users find web pages on a given subject. The search engines
maintain databases of web sites and use programs (often referred to as "spiders" or "robots")
to collect information, which is then indexed by the search engine. Similar services are
provided by "directories," which maintain ordered lists of websites, eg Yahoo!
 Examples of search engines are: Google, MSN, Bing, Yahoo, AltaVista
Internet address
 The numbering system used in TCP/IP internetwork communications to specify a particular
network or a particular host on that network with which to communicate. Internet addresses
are commonly denoted in dotted decimal form.
Examples of internet addresses
1. www.facebook.com
2. www.google.com
3. www.yahoo.com
4. www.gmail.com
5. www.herald.co.zw
 An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique number, a kind of telephone number,
used by machines (usually computers) to refer to each other when sending information
through the Internet. This allows machines passing the information onwards on behalf of the
sender to know where to send it next, and for the machine receiving the information to know
that it is the intended destination.
What are the advantages & disadvantages of the Internet? Discuss

These are far too broad and extending to all realms in life. For instance:-
1) Access to a wide range of information from any location worldwide where there is
internet access. i.e. airlines, resorts, books, authors.
2) Research on any topic i.e. a professor, current affairs.
3) Online Shopping i.e. for cars, specific dress.
4) Online ordering and carrying out other business transactions e.g.. Ordering a cheque
book, advertising a product.
5) Online conferencing – communicating across international boundaries.
6) Ability to access e-mail from any location worldwide.
7) Reading newspapers online.
Disadvantages
Theft of Personal Information

If you use the Internet for online banking, social networking or other services, you may risk a
theft to your personal information such as name, address, credit card number etc. Unscrupulous
people can access this information through unsecured connections or by planting software and
then use your personal details for their benefit. Needless to say, this may land you in serious
trouble.
Spamming
Spamming refers to sending unwanted e-mails in bulk, which provide no purpose and needlessly
obstruct the entire system. Such illegal activities can be very frustrating for you as it makes your
Internet slower and less reliable.
Virus Threat
Internet users are often plagued by virus attacks on their systems. Virus programs are
inconspicuous and may get activated if you click a seemingly harmless link. Computers
connected to the Internet are very prone to targeted virus attacks and may end up crashing.
Pornography
Pornography is perhaps the biggest disadvantage of the Internet. Internet allows you to access and
download millions of pornographic photos, videos and other X-rated stuff. Such unrestricted
access to porn can be detrimental for children and teenagers. It can even play a havoc in marital
and social lives of adults.
Social Disconnect
Thanks to the Internet, people now only meet on social networks. More and more people are
getting engulfed in virtual world and drifting apart from their friends and family. Even children
prefer to play online games rather than going out and mingling with other kids. This may hamper
a healthy social development in children
The Web uses three standards namely:

1 URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) – which are web page addresses
2 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) – the language used to design web pages
3 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)
To send e-mail access the Internet, both the sender and receiver need:
WHAT IS NEEDED FOR INTERNET AND E-MAIL SERVICES

1) A computer connected to a network,
2) The windows operating system installed
3) The communication and or browser software such as Ms-Exchange or Ms-Outlook,
Internet explorer, Netscape navigator
4) A modem
5) Telephone line
6) Subscription to an ISP (Internet Service Provider).
What do you need to get connected?
To connect to the internet you need:

1) A computer
2) A telephone line
3) A modem - the type of modem you need to use is dependant on the type of
connection you have. Some of the choices are:
An analogue modem and an ordinary phone line. This type of modem links your
computer to the phone and converts computer signals to analogue phone line
signals - and back again. Typical analogue modem speeds are 56Kbps (bps
stands for bits per second) which means they can receive about 6000 characters
per second. This is the slowest and oldest type of connection and becoming less
common with the introduction of broadband.
An ISDN line and terminal adaptor. This digital connection is slightly faster than
an analogue connection.
An ADSL or cable telephone line and broadband modem. Broadband modems

are much faster than the other two options and their use is increasing.
4) An account with an ISP (Internet Service Provider)
5) Browser software
ISPs are the companies who provide you with access to the internet. Commonly used ISPs
include Freeserve, AOL, Virgin, Tesco, BT and many more. Most offer the same basic package
of Internet access, email addresses, web space for your own pages and local rate call charges.
A browser is a program that allows you to view the pages on the Web. The most widely used
are Internet Explorer and Firefox.
All browsers will have a number of similar features to help you use the Web:
 Forward and back buttons to move between pages
 A history folder which stores details of recently visited web pages
 A stop button if a page is taking too long to load
 Favorites and bookmark options to store often visited pages
 Options to cut, copy, save and print the information viewed
ELECTRONIC MAIL
Electronic mail or email is a means of sending messages, text, and computer files between
computers via the telephone network. Because the telephone network covers the whole world,
email enables you to communicate world wide.
Email and web mail
Email
To set up email you need:
 A computer
 An internet connection via an analogue modem (ordinary phone line) or terminal adaptor
(ISDN) or broadband modem (ADSL and cable)
 An account with an ISP (Internet Service Provider)
 Email software
Your Internet Service Provider will give you an email account, a password and a mailbox such as
yourname@hostname.co.uk. You can also set up an email account with a mailbox and
passwords with non-ISPs such as Google and Hotmail.
With a dial-up connection, you have to pay the cost of your internet phone calls (local rate), and
in most cases a subscription to your provider (though some are free). A broadband connection is
'always on', with only a flat-rate subscription. Very few people pay by the minute nowadays and
the majority of people pay a monthly fee for broadband access.
Anti-virus scanning is becoming standard on email accounts and many email providers now offer
an anti spam (electronic junk mail) service.
Web mail
Web mail, as its name suggests, is web-based email. To use web mail, you do not need any email
software - just a computer connected to the internet via any one of the connection types listed
above, and a browser.
Users simply sign up to the web mail service of a web portal such as MSN or Yahoo. They are
given a unique user name and a personal mailbox on the portal's email server, and they can then
send and receive messages via a special web page.
A basic web mail account is usually free, although this will have a very limited amount of
storage.
The advantage of web mail is that users can receive and send mail from any computer in the
world with internet access. If you have a dial-up connection you can download your emails and
then read them offline to avoid staying on-line for long periods.
Some ISPs will enable their regular email customers to access their mailbox via web mail as well
as through the email software on their PC.
Features of email
 Automatic reply to messages
 Auto forward and redirection of messages
 Facility to send copies of a message to many people
 Automatic filing and retrieval of messages
 Addresses can be stored in an address book and retrieved instantly
 Notification if message cannot be delivered
 Automatically date and time stamped
 Signatures can be attached
 Files, graphics or sound can be sent as attachments, often in compressed formats
 Web mail and mobile email can be used to receive and send messages while on the move.
Using email
 Broadband email
- Your connection is always on - so simply write and address your message and hit 'send'
to send your mail and 'receive' to download any incoming messages from your email
provider's server.
 Web mail
- Connect to the internet (if using a dial-up account) and open your browser.
- navigate to your web mail provider's portal and enter your user-name and password.
- all incoming mail will now be visible, and you can also compose and send mail, and
download attachments to your computer.
- When you're done, log out and close your connection.
 Dial-up email
- Prepare your message offline as typing your message online will increase phone
charges.
- Connect to the internet and log on to your email account.
- Send your message and download any incoming mail sitting on your service provider's
computer.
- Log off and close your connection.
Email is evolving...
 Many mobile phones already allow messages to be sent to the recipient's email inbox
while the sender is on the move. The latest generation of mobile phones enables users to
send and receive wireless email in exactly the same way as a static computer.
 Email can be sent and received via digital TV, specially adapted phones, public kiosk
terminals and the latest generation of games console.
 A spreading network of wireless 'hotspots' in public places allows people to send and
receive email via laptop computers.
 A new range of in-car phones will enable motorists to check their email on the road
Benefits and concerns of using email
Email benefits
 Fast delivery of your message
 Available 365 days, 24 hours per day - and, with web mail, wherever you are in the world
as long as you have access to the internet.
 Cheap: when using broadband, individual mail transfers are effectively free. When going
online from a dial-up account, calls are charged at local rates and (for conventional
email) need only last a few seconds.
 Facility to send the same message to more than one person
Email concerns
 It can only be sent to people who themselves have access to the internet.
 Viruses are easily spread via email attachments - anti virus measures must be in place to
avoid this and are now offered by many e-mail providers.
 Phishing - sending an e-mail to a user falsely claiming to be a legitimate company to
scam the user into providing information such as personal information and bank account
numbers on a bogus website. The details will then be used for identity theft.
 No guarantee the mail will be read until the user logs on and checks their mail.
 Spam! Or Junk mail
HEALTH AND SAFETY
HEALTH PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH COMPUTER USE AND POSSIBLE

SOLUTIONS
1. Eye Strain:
 Position your terminal at right angles to the window if possible; avoid facing directly into
bright light (coming at you from behind your computer screen).
 Install an anti-glare screen.
 Adjust the brightness controls on the screen until they are comfortable to your eyes.
2. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome:
 Adjust your chair or table height to have your elbow angle at 90-100 degrees.
 Position your keyboard so that you don't have to bend your hands uncomfortably upward
to reach the keys; place a raised wrist rest on the table in front of the keyboard if
necessary.
 Clinch your fists, hold for one second, then stretch your fingers out wide and hold for 5
seconds.
 Organize your workday, if possible, to intersperse other tasks with your computer work
so that you're not sitting at the computer for several hours without a break. Variety is key.
 Hold the mouse loosely and click lightly.
3. Neck and Back Strain:
 Check your posture - sit up straight. Thanks Mom.
 The monitor screen surface should be approximately 18-24 inches away from your torso.
 Preferably chairs should be on wheels, have backrest tilt adjustment, and have arms.
 Be sure you have enough desktop space for work papers and other equipment.
4. Conjunctivitis (itchy, bloodshot eyes) and Dermatitis:
 Be sure the screen doesn't flicker or wave - this could indicate that service or adjustment
is needed.
 Look away from the screen periodically.
 Don't forget to blink - your eyes need the moisture.
5. The vision disorder
Due to excessive computer use has been identified as Computer Vision Syndrome. Symptoms are
dry eyes, headaches, blurred vision, eyestrain, and shoulder back pain.
 To alleviate the problem it is suggested that computer users take
regular breaks, blink their eyes frequently, occasionally close their eyes
for a few minutes and every fifteen minutes or so look away from the
computer to stare at an object in the distance.
6. For the back pain and other muscular related problems,
It is suggested that people get up every hour, stretch and move around for about five minutes.
They should also do an activity which moves each foot and leg.
 A computer user should be seated at least two feet away from the
screen with the screen below eye level. Their chair should be
comfortable and they should sit up straight in the chair with feet firmly
on the floor. They should not cross their legs.
7. Posture-related injuries
Back and neck pain, headaches, and shoulder and arm pain are common computer-related
injuries. Such muscle and joint problems can be caused or made worse by poor workstation
design, bad posture and sitting for extended periods of time.
Although sitting requires less muscular effort, it still causes fatigue and requires parts of the body
to be held steady for long periods of time. This reduces circulation to the muscles, bones, tendons
and ligaments and can result in stiffness and pain. If a workstation is not set up properly, these
steady positions can put even greater stress on muscles and joints.
Prevention tips – muscle and joint injuries

Suggestions to reduce the risk of muscle and joint problems include:
 Use an adjustable desk designed for use with computers; position the monitor so that it is
either at eye level or slightly lower.
 Position your keyboard at a height that allows your elbows to rest comfortably at your
side. Forearms should be roughly parallel with the floor and level with your keyboard.
 Adjust your chair so that your feet rest flat on the floor.
 Use a footstool (if your feet do not rest on the floor when the chair is adjusted for good
arm position).
 Switch to an ergonomic chair, which helps your spine to naturally hold its curve while
sitting.
 Use an ergonomic keyboard to offer your hands and wrists a more natural holding
position.
 Take frequent short breaks and go for a walk or perform stretching exercises at your desk.
Stand often.
8. Overuse injuries of the upper limbs
Muscles and tendons can become painful with repetitive movements and awkward postures. This
is known as ‘overuse injury’ and these typically occur in the elbow, wrist or hand of computer
users. Symptoms of overuse injuries in the upper limbs include pain, swelling, stiffness of the
joints, weakness and numbness.
Prevention tips – overuse injuries

Suggestions to reduce the risk of overuse injuries include:
 Keep your mouse at the same height as your correctly positioned keyboard.
 Position the mouse as close as possible to the side of the keyboard.
 Use your whole arm, not just your wrist, when using the mouse.
 Type lightly and gently.
 Mix your tasks to avoid long, uninterrupted stretches of typing.
 Remove the hands from the keyboard when not actively typing, to allow the arms to
relax.
9. Eyestrain
Focusing your eyes at the same distance point for extended periods of time causes fatigue. The
human eye structurally prefers to look at objects further than six metres away, so any work
performed close-up puts extra demands on the eye muscles.
The illuminated computer screen can also contribute to eye fatigue. While there is no evidence
that eye fatigue is associated with damage to the eyesight, computer users may experience
symptoms such as blurred vision, temporary inability to focus on faraway objects and headaches.
Prevention tips – eyestrain

Suggestions to reduce the risk of eyestrain include:
 Make sure your primary light source (such as a window) is not shining into your face or
directly onto the monitor.
 Tilt the monitor slightly to eliminate reflections or glare.
 Make sure your computer screen is not too close to your face.
 Position the screen so that it is either at eye level or slightly lower.
 Reduce the contrast and brightness of your screen by adjusting the controls on the
monitor.
 Frequently look away from the screen and focus on faraway objects.
 Have regular eye examinations to check that blurring, headaches and other associated
problems are not caused by any underlying disorders.
Pain in the buttocks
Pain in the buttocks radiating down the thigh can be caused by a chair seat that is too long and
causing pressure behind the knees or from inadequate lumbar support.
Pain in the shoulders
 Pain in the shoulders can be caused by having arms on the chair that cannot be adjusted
this causes the user to sit with the arms sticking out.
 Sitting at the desk with one elbow supported on the desk and the other held lower or
twisting the torso to look at the monitor will also cause pain.
Pain in the knees
 Pain in the knees can be caused by the fact that when the chair has been adjusted to the
correct height to allow the fingers to be horizontal to the keys, the feet are left
unsupported, the solution is to purchase a footrest the small step type called (twin plus in
the Lyreco catalogue are best because they do not take up much space under the desk,
they can be adjusted according to the height of the person using them.)
If transcription is carried out it is better to have a large surface area on the footrest and
the ability to keep this level to support the footswitch.
 Pain in the knees can also be caused by a seat that is too long resulting in pressure behind
the knees.
Eye strain
 Eyestrain can be caused by glare from the monitor or from overhead lights. Ideally the
desk should be placed between lights and not directly under them. If this is not possible
you may be able to switch the overhead light off and use an angle poise lamp.
 Glare from windows without blinds or with incorrectly fitted blinds.
 Where there are casement window at the top and blinds cannot be used there is often
glare from the sun on the screen. Some vertical blinds are not efficient and additional
blackout roller blinds would improve efficiency and keep the room cool. If blinds cannot
be fitted it may be possible to fit a tinted transparent film to the window.
THREE TYPES OF DATA TRANSMISSION:
1. SIMPLEX
Data in a Simplex transmission is always one way. Simplex transmission are not often used because
it is not possible to send back error or control signals to the transmit end.
It's like a one-way street. An example of simplex is television, or Radio.
2. HALF DUPLEX
A half-duplex transmission can send and receive in one direction, but not at the same time. It's like a
one-lane bridge where two-way traffic must give way in order to cross. Only one end transmits at a
time, the other end receives. In addition, it is possible to perform error detection and request the
sender to retransmit information that arrived corrupted. In some aspects, you can think of Internet
surfing as being half-duplex, as a user issues a request for a web document, then that document is
downloaded and displayed before the user issues another request.
Another example of half-duplex is talkback radio, and CB Radio (Citizens Band). You might have
seen movies where a truck driver (drivers of very big trucks) communicates to each other, and when
they want the other person to speak they say "over". This is because only one person can talk at a
time
3. FULL DUPLEX
Data can travel in both directions simultaneously. There is no need to switch from transmit to
receive mode like in half duplex. It like a two lane bridge on a two-lane highway. Have you ever
watched these television talk shows where the host has a number of people on the show, and they all
try to talk at once. Well, that's full duplex!
Of course, in the world of data communications, full duplex allows both way communications
simultaneously. An example can be a consumer, which uses a cable connection not only, receives
TV channels, but also the same cable to support their phone and Internet surfing. All these activities
can occur simultaneously.
PRACTICAL QUESTION
a. Name any 2 word processing packages.
b. What is page break in word processing and why is it used/
c. How do you save a file on a floppy disk using the word processor you have studied?
d. How do you underline a block of previously typed text using the word processor you
have studied?
e. Explain the difference between
i. SAVE & SAVE AS
ii. COPY & CUT
iii. DELETE & BACK SPACE
iv. PORTRAIT & LANDSCAPE
v. TOGGLE CASE & UPPERCASE
f. Briefly outline the procedures for performing the following functions in a windows
environment.
i. Creating a folder ix. Arrange icons on the desktop
ii. Opening a folder x. Change screen saver
iii. Searching folders or files xi. Click
iv. Renaming a file or folder xii. Right click
v. Creating a shortcut for a file or xiii. Double click
folder xiv. Drag
vi. Copy file from one folder to xv. Loading windows
another xvi. Shutting down a computer
vii. Move a file from one folder to xvii. Emptying recycle bin
another xviii.
viii. Deleting a file or folder
g. Briefly outline the procedures for performing the following functions using a
spreadsheet of your choice
i. Expanding a cell
ii. Adding a list of figures in the range A10 to D10
iii. Insert a full border around a document
iv. Adding and Renaming Worksheets
v. Resizing Rows and Columns
Briefly outline the procedures for performing the following functions using a word
processor of your choice
1. Opening a Microsoft word program for typing
2. Saving a document
3. Retrieving a document
4. Setting landscape or portrait orientation
5. Print preview
6. Formatting text into italics
7. Setting left and right margins
8. Inserting a header or a footer
9. Open a document which has been saved before
10. Insert a picture
11. Insert a table
12. Printing a word document
13. Exit MS Word
14. Save a document
15. Copy a document or a word
16. Double line spacing
17. Insert a header
18. Insert page number
19. Save a document onto a floppy disk
20. Mail merge
21. JUSTIFYING TEXT
22. Inserting bullets
23. Indenting text
24. Moving a block of text
25. Copying a block of text
26. Creating a table
27. Adding rows to a table
28. Adding columns to a table
29. Deleting rows of a table
30. Deleting columns of a table
31. Shading a table
32. Merging cells of a table
33. Splitting cells
34. Changing text direction
35. Inserting drop caps
36. Having 2 columns on a word document
37. Bordering and shading a paragraph
COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION DEFINITIONS:
1. The process by which information, ideas, attitudes and emotions are exchanged between one
person and another by the use of a common system of symbols, signs and behaviour.
(Hammond S 1998:19)
2. The giving, receiving or exchange of information, opinions or ideas by writing, speech or
visual means or a combination of these three- so that the material communicated is
understood by everyone.
3. The transaction (an exchange) whereby participants together create meaning through the
exchange of symbols. (Michael Fielding 1993:4)
4. Communication is a skill acquired by an individual to exchange messages, facts, ideas,
opinions and even express emotions.
5.
The definition stresses 4 major points which are:
 Communication as a transaction: A transaction involves 2 or more people who

exchange or discuss or construct meaning together, they have to take one another into
account and have to work together according to a set of rules.
 People working together: People are central to communication. They should pay
attention to each other and learn to develop mutual expectations.
 The creation of meaning: People need to ensure that the others understand what they are
saying. We create meaning because of the words that we say or share i.e. sharing of
meaning.
 The exchange of symbols: people exchange verbal (words) non Verbal Gestures Facial
expression and graphic (table) diagrams and symbols.
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION:
Communication starts with the transmission of information related to business and ends with the
feedback from the receiver. The sender transmits messages with a view to exchange
understanding with the receiver. This understanding depends on positive response from the
receiver. In business, two-ways communication is always desirable as it ensures feedback from
the receiver. However, the success of business communication depends on some aspects or
elements. The elements are discussed in short below:
1. Two or more parties: Business communication must involve at least two parties. One
party acts as the sender of message and another is the receiver of that message.
2. Meaningful message: The second important elements of communication are message or
information that the sender wants to communicate. Messages may take the form of
feelings, wishes, attitudes, ideas, facts, information or any other perceivable matter. The
messages that a sender wants to send, should be meaningful to the receiver.
3. Business related information: Information that the sender transmits should be related to
business. Similarly the feedback from the receiver should also be business based.
4. Media or channel: Channel of medium is a pre-requisite of communication. It is the
means of transmitting messages from sender to receiver. Communication media can be
verbal and nonverbal. The verbal media may be of oral and written. Verbal media of
communication include telephonic conversation, fax, newspaper, books, journals etc. On
COMMUNICATION
the other hand, gestures, and body language, facial expression etc. Are the media of non-
verbal communication. The sender must select appropriate media for successful
communication.
5. Feedback: The final element of communication is feedback. It is the response or reaction
of the receiver regarding the sender’s message. Feedback describes how the message is
being interpreted by the receiver. It is regarded as the instrument for evaluating the
success of communication process.
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION:
Communication is really a different field that has some various objectives. To gain individual
objectives, communication performs quite a few functions. Some of its major functions are as
follows:
1. Informing: The principal function of communication is informing messages to others. It
really is done verbally or non-verbally. Verbal messages might be either oral or written.
Over a other hand, non-verbal messages can be sent via human body language, gestures,
posture etc.
2. Persuading: One more essential functionality of communication is persuading a single
party by another. In business, management persuades the employees to make certain that
employees persuade management so that management accepts their ideas, opinions and
suggestions. The business also communicates with external stakeholders to persuade
them.
3. Integrating various divisions and departments: Attainment of organizational goals
requires integration and coordination of activities performed by various individuals,
groups and departments. Management can put together and coordinate those people
divisions and departments by building a communication network for the whole
organization.
4. Creating relationships through external parties: Communication creates relationships
not just with internal parties but also with the external parties like customers, suppliers,
investors, general community and government. Communication through these external
parties could be the for survival of an organization.
5. Improving labor-management association: There’s no option to excellent labor-
management relationship for achieving organizational goals. Therefore, a significant
purpose of communication is to increase labor management relationship. Communication
helps each party to express themselves and produce an atmosphere of cooperation.
6. Helping in choice making: Management is absolutely nothing but producing decisions
for creating decision, management requirements information. The function of
communication is to supply relevant info on the management in time so that they are able
to make appropriate decisions.
7. Reducing misunderstanding: In the absence of communication, misunderstanding,
distance, conflict, controversies etc. May perhaps a rise inside the organization.
Communication helps to overcome and avoid these misunderstanding, disagreement and
controversies.
8. Solving troubles: Difficulties are favorite to every business. A business faces good deal
of difficulties in its day-to-day operations. Achievement of business depends on timely
items of individual problems. Item of these problems is impossible without the need of
appropriate communication with the concerned parties.
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FIVE MAJOR FORMS OF COMMUNICATION:
 Intrapersonal Communication
 Interpersonal/Dyadic Communication
 Extra personal
 Small Group Communication
 Public Communication
 Mass Communication
INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
 Intrapersonal communication is a communication which happens with yourself. Here
both Source (sender) and receiver is only one. so, the feedback works without any
interruption. Example: A person can communicate himself through pain, thinking,
feelings and emotion etc.
 Intrapersonal communication is self-talk or a conversation you hold with yourself
under certain circumstances – for example, when you need to make an important decision
or learn something about yourself. You may wonder whether intrapersonal
communication is just another way of describing the thinking process. In a way, that
would be correct.
 Intrapersonal communication is a form of thinking that goes on inside us which relies on
language to express itself. It is similar to the Shakespearean “soliloquy” where the
character in question engages in self-talk to reflect on events that have. Intrapersonal
communication often increases self-awareness and mindfulness, and hones critical
thinking skills.
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION (Dyadic Communication)

 In Interpersonal/Dyadic communication, two persons are involved in this communication
process. Here the Source becomes a receiver and receiver become Source because of
dynamic communication process were the feedback’s are shared between Source and the
receiver.
 Interpersonal communication is communication between several people. This form of
communication may range from the impersonal to the very personal. Impersonal
communication is when you talk with a person you do not really care about – there is
often a coldness or an indifference in your attitude when you engage in this kind of
communication.
 Then, there is social communication where you engage in niceties with people you meet
in a social context. The most personal type of communication occurs when you talk with
people who are close to you, for example, your best friend, family members and
colleagues. Such relationships are interdependent, meaning that the actions of one party
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very often directly affects the other party. Interpersonal communication can take place
face to face as well as through electronic channels like video-conferencing, chat rooms,
e-mail and Twitter.
SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION

 More than two members involved in communication process will become a group
communication. If least number of persons is involved in the group communication is
called as small group communication. In this communication process, everyone becomes
a Source as well as receiver through sharing information and gives feedback to another.
 Small group communication takes place in a group, usually comprising five to 10
people. This form of communication serves relationship needs (like companionship,
family bonding and affection or support) as well as task-based needs, for example,
deciding on disciplinary action or resolving conflict in the workplace.
 In academic institutions, students often form small groups which meet regularly for study
discussions or to work collaboratively on projects. At the workplace, small groups may
meet to discuss issues related to work, or for problem-solving or team-building purposes.
Learning to communicate effectively in teams contributes to success and advancement in
many careers. Small group communication allows you to interact with others, be it at
home, in school, at the workplace or in public. You learn to exchange ideas, solve
problems and share experiences.
PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
 In public communication, Source or messages from a single person will reach or received
by huge number of audience. But in this communication there is no mutual feedbacks
between source and receiver like small group communication and it’s only focused on
Speaker.
 Public communication, also known as public speaking, involves communication
between a speaker and an audience. This audience may range from just a few people to
thousands or even millions of people. The aim of the speaker is usually to inform or to
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persuade the audience to act, buy, or think in a certain way. A teacher may address an
assembly of students on codes of behaviour or school rules. A politician may make
speeches on how he will be dealing with certain issues in order to win their votes. An
executive may give a business presentation to get more sales. It is important to
understand some of the basic principles of effective public speaking so that you are able
to influence, persuade as well as entertain your audience when you communicate with
them.
MASS COMMUNICATION
 In mass communication, basically have a large number of audience and they are all can’t
grouped together in one place so we need certain tool or technology for communication
process. But in mass communication, there is no direct access with receiver. So, for that
they need media like newspaper, radio, television and internet. Here the audience
feedback is very less or delayed.
 Mass communication is communication that is sent out from a source to many receivers
all over the world. It takes place through media like films, radio, videos and television.
Modern avenues of mass communication like the Internet and blogs can be very powerful
indeed as information is disseminated instantly.
EXTRA PERSONAL COMMUNICATION

 It is the communication between man and environment i.e. man’s interaction with
environment like interaction with plants and animals.
 Communication between human beings and non-human entities is extra personal
communication. For example, when your pet dog comes to you wagging its tail as soon
as you return home from work, it is an example of extra personal communication.
 Communication between human beings and non human entities is called as extra personal
communication. For e.g. your parrot responding your greeting. In this type of
communication understanding is required between sender and receiver. Receiver
responds in sign language
Extra Personal Communication is that way of communication in which a human interacts with
other species.
- Like an old lonely woman talking to her cats.
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- Shouting at an inanimate object (Like a toaster) for not working.
- People who are quite mentally stable but talk to themselves when alone.
- Praying to God.
COMMUNICATION THEORIES
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COMMUNICATION MODELS
There are many models of communication developed by noted theorists of different disciplines.
Among the theorists, Aristotle, Lasswell, Shannon, Weaver, McLuhan, MacLean, Rileys,
Westley, Gerbner, Rothstein, Schramn, Berlo, Osgood, Johnson, Cherry are the renowned ones.
Some important and well-known models are discussed below:
1. ARISTOTLE’S MODEL:
Aristotle, your well known Ancient greek thinker, unveiled an operation involving by oral
communication within his / her creating 3 hundred years prior to the birth involving Christ. The
task is regarded worthy inside analyze involving modern day communication. He articulates of
any communication practice consisting of a new loudspeaker, a message and also a listener. The
Aristotelian model of communication can be as follows:
Aristotle pointed out that the person at the end of communication process plays the key role to
whether or not communication takes place.
2. LASSWELL’S MODEL:
Harold Lasswell, a politics scientist, designed a communication exchanges type mixing the main
elements of communication exchanges. His model has become widely discussed given that 1940s.
He or she expressed the actual type because, “Who affirms exactly what, in which funnel, to be
able to which, in doing what effect. ” Which means, Lasswell’s style of verbal exchanges consists
of several parts- Sender (who), Message (what) in addition to receiver (whom). Lasswell included
solely the actual component-channel. The majority of modern-day theorists talk about these
several areas of the actual communication procedure by employing diverse terminology. The
particular Lasswell’s type can be found beneath:
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3. CLAUDE SHANNON AND ALSO WARREN WEAVER MODEL:
United States applied mathematician Claude Shannon and also Industrial engineer Warren
Weaver produced a new mathematical theory regarding conversation within 1949 although
working at bell Mobile phone Laboratories in the United States. Afterwards his / her style has
grown to be well-known because “information theory”. Shannon and also Weaver’s style is
commonly recognized because the course from which communication studies has exploded.
Shannon along with Weaver product contains the subsequent 5 things:
 An data source, which usually yields an email
 Some sort of transmitter, which encodes the particular communication in to indicators
 Some sort of sales channel, to be able to which usually indicators usually are taken for
sign
 Some sort of receiver, which ‘decodes’ (reconstructs) the particular communication from
the indication
 Some sort of desired destination, in which the communication occurs.
In the model, they indicated a sixth element, noise as a dysfunctional factor. The model is shown
below:
Advantages of Shannon and Weaver’s model: The strengths of Shannon and Weaver’s model are:
 Simplicity
 Generality and
 Quantifiability
Such advantages made this model attractive to several academic disciplines.
4. SCHRAMM’S MODEL:
Wibur Scharmm, the well-known communication theorist, designed an easy devices
communication model in his book “The course of action in addition to Effects involving Mass
Communication. ” Within the product, Schramm found because Aristotle would, of which
communication usually requires about three elements-the resource, this communication plus the
desired destination. Ultimately, the original source encodes a communication in addition to direct
that to its desired destination via some programmers, in which the message is usually obtained in
addition to decoded. Schramm’s product is really as comes after:
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5. THE RILEYS MODEL:

John W. Riley and Matilda White Riley, a husband and wife team of sociologists pointed out the
importance of the sociological view in communication. They developed a model to illustrate
sociological implications in communication. The model is shown below:
The mode indicates the communicator (C) emerges as part of a larger pattern , who sends
messages in accordance with the expectations and actions of other persons and groups within the
same social structure. it is also true in the case of the receiver (R) in the communications process.
in addition, both the communicator and receiver are part of an overall social system. The model
clearly illustrates that communication is a two-way process.
6. BERLO’S S-M-C-R MODEL:

David K. Berlo, a communication theorist and consultant developed a model named S-M-C-R
model of communication in 1960 in his book “The process of communication”. Berlo pointed out
the importance of the psychological view in his communication model. The four parts of Berlo’s
S-M-C-R model are S = Source, M = Message, C = Channel and R = Receiver. The model is as
follows:
The elements of Berlo’s model are discussed below:

Source: The first element of Berlo’s communication model is the source. All communication
must come form some sources. The source might be one person, a group of people of a company.
Several things determine how a source will operate in the communication process such as:i.
Communication skills like abilities to think, write, draw and speak.
 ii. Attitudes toward audience, the subject matter etc.
 Knowledge of the subject, the audience and the situation.
 Social background, education, friends, salary, culture etc.
Message: Message is the information, views of thoughts to be sent by the source. The source
must choose the code or language for sending the message.
Channel: The channel is the method such as telegraph, newspaper, radio, letter, poster or other
media through which the message will be transmitted.
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Receiver: Receiver is the final element in the communication process. The receiver is the
audience of the message.
7. CONTEMPORARY MODEL:
The modern day style of communication features developed primarily from the early on work
associated with Shannon along with Weaver along with Schramm. These experts have been
related to expounding on the process of communication in a way that may be useful in most
situations.
Off their work the ultra-modern as well as modern day style of communication developed. The
normal regions of modern day style of communication incorporate communicator, encoding,
information, moderate, recipient, decoding, and suggestions along with sounds.
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
In this section, you will learn about three models of communication:

a. Linear model
b. Interactive model
c. Transactional model
LINEAR MODEL
The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker
speaks and the listener listens.
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Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) model includes noise or interference that distorts understanding
between the speaker and the listener. Figure shows a linear model of communication:
A linear model of communication

Source: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson-
Wadsworth
1. Sender : The originator of message or the information source selects desire message
2. Encoder : The transmitter which converts the message into signals

Note: The sender’s messages converted into signals like waves or Binary data which is
compactable to transmit the messages through cables or satellites. For example: In telephone
the voice is converted into wave signals and it transmits through cables
3. Decoder: The reception place of the signal which converts signals into message. A reverse
process of encode
Note: The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is comfortable
and understandable for receiver. Otherwise receiver can’t receive the exact message and it
will affect the effective communication between sender and receiver
4. Receiver : The destination of the message from sender
Note: Based on the decoded message the receiver gives their feed back to sender. If the
message distracted by noise it will affect the communication flow between sender and
receiver
5. Noise: The messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through channel. During this
process the messages may distracted or affected by physical noise like horn sounds, thunder
and crowd noise or encoded signals may distract in the channel during the transmission
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process which affect the communication flow or the receiver may not receive the correct
message
Note: The model clearly deals with external noises only which affect the messages or signals
from external sources. For example: If there is any problems occur in network which directly
affect the mobile phone communication or distract the messages
INTERACTIVE MODEL
The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way process where
speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners listen and never speak or send
messages.
Schramm (1955) in Wood (2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or
listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also
listens to the feedback given by the receiver or listener. Both the speaker and the listener take
turns to speak and listen to each other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in
both ways.
This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have common
fields of experience, or fields which overlap
An interactive model of communication

Wadsworth
TRANSACTIONAL MODEL
The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators can
both send and receive messages simultaneously. This model also fails to show that
communication is a dynamic process which changes over time.
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The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each
person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously
sending and receiving messages.
There are three implications in the transactional model:
i. “Transactional” means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing
process. You are changing, the people with whom you are communicating are changing,
and your environment is also continually changing as well.
ii. In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements.
There is this interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no
message without a source.
iii. Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their
background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem.
Figure below shows a transactional model of communication that takes into account “noise” or
interference in communication as well as the time factor. The outer lines of the model indicate
that communication happens within systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common
campus, hometown, and culture) or personal systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It also
takes into account changes that happen in the communicators’ fields of personal and common
experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as receiver
simultaneously.
A transactional model of communication

Wadsworth.
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND COMMUNICATION
MODEL
Communication model and process are closely related to each other. Communication process is
made up of some sequential parts of exchanging information. This process includes sender,
encodings, message, channel, receiver, decoding and feedback. On the other hand,
communication model is the symbolic presentation of communication process. Thus, it seems that
communication process and model are similar to each other. Yet, there exists some differences
between them. The differences are below:
 Nature: Communication process is theoretical in nature and Communication model is the
pictorial presentation of communication process.
 Understandability: Since communication process is a theoretical matter, it requires
descriptive analysis of components and Since model is a symbolic representation, on can
understand the model by simply looking at it.
 Complicacy: The process is descriptive in nature and therefore, it is a complex matter
and The model is relatively less complex as it is presented in the form of picture of
diagram.
 Time involvement: Theoretical analysis of communication process and Developing
communication model requires less time than the process.
 Requirement of expert: There is hardly any need of expert to design a communication
process and Experts are essential to develop a well thought out model.
Limitations of communication model

Though communication model is useful in a variety of ways, it is not free form limitations. The
limitations of using communication model are as follows:
 Rigidity: Communication model is rigid in nature. Communication cannot always be
presented in a rigid model.
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 Non-inclusion of some aspects: In a communication model, only the important aspects
of communication process are included and less important aspects are ignored. But in
some cases these unimportant aspects become important.
 Lack of detailed explanation: Communication model represents the communication
process through symbols. Elaborate explanation is not always available in the
communication model.
 Non-availability of experts: Another limitation in developing a communication model
is that expert hands are not always available. As a result, development of time befitting
model is difficult.
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION MODEL? |
A model can be defined as a visual presentation that identifies, classifies and describes various
parts of a process. In the communication process, sender, message, media and receiver are
associated. Communication process starts with the transmission of message by communicator and
end with receiver’s feedback. When this communication process is represented through a line or
picture, it is called communication model. In other words, pictorial presentation of
communication process is known as communication model.
The simple model of communication consists of a sender, message and receiver. However, this
simple model ignores many other parts of communication process. So by incorporating all parts
of communication process, a comprehensive communication model is presented below:
In communication model, various parts of communication process are depicted in a sequential

and rational way.
In fine, it can be summed up that communication model is a diagrammatical presentation of
communication process. It is the logical settings of the elements of communication process.
Functions of communication model
Communication model refers to the visual representation of communication process.

Communication model performs certain function in developing communication skills and
efficiency. Some important functions of communications model are mentioned below:
1. Teaching the elements of communication process: Communication model represents
various elements involved in sending and receiving message. So from communication
model, one can learn various aspects of communication process. For this reason, it is said
that communication model teaches communication process.
2. Conducting research: The second important function of communication model is to help
in conducting research in the field of communication. Communication model presents
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various aspects of communication logically that help the researchers are in understanding
the pattern of communication. So with the help of communication models, the researchers
can undertake communication research programmers and perform those efficiently.
3. Predicting the success or failure of communication process: Another function of
communication model is to predict or forecast the success or failure of a particular
communication process. Through this model, one can ascertain the causes of success or
failure of communication.
Importance or objectives of communication model:
Communication model has evolved to understand the communication process. It helps to
understand the important aspects of communication. Some points highlighting the importance or
objectives of communication model are given below:
1. Easy understanding of communication process: Communication model helps to
understand the communication process easily and logically.
2. Showing information flow: Communication model shows how information flows form
one person to another in the organization.
3. Introducing the parts of communication process: Communication model is also
helpful to orient the various parts of communication process to its readers.
4. Easy presentation of communication process: Communication process is a complex
issue. Through a model, this complex issue can be presented easily.
5. Understanding the communication complexities: Complex issues of commutation
process cannot be show in the communication model. Comparing these complexities with
the model, one can measure the degree of complexities in a given communication issue.
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication process consists of some interrelated steps or parts through which messages are
sent form sender to receiver. The process of communication begins when the sender wants to
transmit a fact, idea, opinion or other information to the receiver and ends with receiver’s
feedback to the sender. The main components of communication process are sender, message,
channel, receiver and feedback
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Steps or elements of communication process
The communication process refers to the steps through which communication takes place
between the sender and the receiver. This process starts with conceptualizing an idea or message
by the sender and ends with the feedback from the receiver. In details, communication process
consists of the following eight steps:
1. Developing idea by the sender: In the first step, the communicator develops or
conceptualizes an idea to be sent. It is also known as the planning stage since in this stage
the communicator plans the subject matter of communication.
2. Encoding: Encoding means converting or translation the idea into a perceivable form that
can be communicated to others.
3. Developing the message: After encoding the sender gets a message that can be
transmitted to the receiver. The message can be oral, written, symbolic or nonverbal. For
example, when people talk, speech is the message; when people write a letter, the words
and sentences are the message; when people cries, the crying is the message.
4. Selecting the medium: Medium is the channel or means of transmitting the message to
the receiver. Once the sender has encoded his into a message, the next step is to select a
suitable medium for transmitting it to the receiver. The medium of communication can be
speaking, writing, signaling, gesturing etc.
5. Transmission of message: In this step, the sender actually transmits the message through
chosen medium. In the communication cycle, the tasks of the sender end with the
transmission of the message.
6. Receiving the message by receiver: This stage simply involves the reception of sender’s
message by the receiver. The message can be received in the form of hearing, seeing,
feeling and so on.
7. Decoding: Decoding is the receiver’s interpretation of the sender’s message. Here the
receiver converts the message into thoughts and tries to analyze and understand it.
Effective communication can occur only when both the sender and the receiver assign the
same or similar meanings to the message.
8. Feedback: The final step of communication process is feedback. Feedback means
receiver’s response to sender’s message. It increases the effectiveness of communication.
It ensures that the receiver has correctly understood the message. Feedback is the essence
of two-way communication
WHAT IS TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION? |
 Two-way communication occurs when the receiver sends response or feedback to

sender’s message. In two-way communication process, the sender first transmits the
message to the receiver. After receiving a message, the receiver decodes it and then sends
back his or her reaction to the sender.
 In two-way communication, information flows in two-ways: information form sender to
receiver and response from receiver to sender. So it is regarded as the complete
communication process.
 Two-way communication may occur horizontally or vertically in the organization.
When information is exchanged between superior and subordinate, it is known as vertical
two-way communication. On the other hand, when communication takes place between
persons holding the same rank or position, it is called horizontal two-way
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communication. Two-way communication is represented in the following diagrams:
By nature, face-to-face and telephonic conversations are the examples of two-way

communication. In the case of written communication, two-way flow of information will occur
when receiver sends feedback.
In fine, it can be said that the communication process having provision for feedback in termed as
two-way communication.
Importance of two-way communication
Two-way communication is the complete communication process. In this communication,

information flows form sender to receiver and response of the receiver goes back to the sender. In
achieving the organizational goals and facing the personal problems, we need to rely on two-way
communication. The following points highlight the importance of two-way communication:
1. Ensuring smooth how of information: In two-way communication, the receiver can
directly express his response with regard to the message he received. As a result, smooth
flow of information occurs in both directions.
2. Providing acknowledgement: In two-way communication, sender sends information to
the receiver and receiver gives his response or answer to the sender. In this way, two-way
commutation acknowledges the reception of message by the receiver.
3. Implementation of directions: In the organization, superiors convey various orders,
instructions, policies, procedures etc. to the subordinates. If subordinates fail to
understand any instruction, order or policy, two-way communication allows them to ask
for further clarification. Thus, two-way communication helps implementation of
superior’s directions.
4. Encouraging suggestion form employee: In order to enrich organizational plans and
policies, management should encourage suggestions from subordinates. Such
encouragement is possible when there exists two-way communication channels.
5. Increasing job satisfactions: Two-way communication provides employees with a
means to convey their complaints, attitudes, feelings, interests and opinion to their
superiors. Afterwards, superiors can take necessary steps for well-being of the
employees. As a result, job satisfaction of the employees increases.
6. Creating democratic environment: In two-way communication, both communicator
and receiver can freely express their feelings, ideas and views. This mutual exchange of
information creates a democratic environment in the organization.
7. Overcoming ambiguity: Two-way communication is also very useful to overcome any
confusion or ambiguity regarding the message as it allows the receiver to convey his
response.
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8. Creating congenial relationship: Congenial relationship between workers and
management is essential to achieve organizational goals. In order to create such
relationship, management must listen to the opinions and views of employees. Two-way
communication makes it possible.
9. Creating informal relationship: Another positive aspect of two-way communication is
that it enhances informal relationship between sender and receiver. Since two-way
communication allows both the participants to exchange whatever they think, they can
develop a sense of mutual understanding. The result is a better relationship between
them.
10. Increasing effectiveness of communication: Effective communication depends on
proper understanding of message by both sender and receiver. Through two-way
communication, both parties can evaluate each other’s opinion and thus can increase
effectiveness of their communication.
11. Increasing efficiency: Two-way communication also positively contributes to the
efficiency of the receiver. In this communication, the receiver can seek clarification and
analysis of sender’s message that ultimately increases his knowledge, understanding and
efficiency.
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that two-way communication plays vital role in
improving organizational performance. This is the only complete communication process. For
this reason, so much importance is placed on two-way communication
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION FEEDBACK? |
Feedback refers to the response or reaction of receiver to the sender’s message. Feedback is the
essence of communication and is the final step of communication process. Without feedback
from the receiver, communication process remains incomplete. This feedback may be an oral or
written message, or an action or simply a silence.
Transmitting or sending message is half of the communication process. When messages reach to
the receiver, he decodes the message and sends his response to the sender to complete the
communication process. Feedback enables the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of his
message. If the receiver does not understand what the sender wants to convey, then the sender
refines or repeats the message.
Some quotations on feedback are given below:
 In the opinion of Bartol and Martin, “Feedback is the receiver’s basic response to the
interpreted message.”
 Boone, Kurtz and Block defined, “Feedback consists of messages-verbal and non-verbal-
that convey a reaction to the communication’s message.”
 According to Bovee, Thill and Wood, “Feedback is a response from the receiver that
informs the sender how the message is being interpreted form the receiver that informs
the sender how the message is being interpreted and how the communication is being
received in general.”
 Weihrich and Koontz said, “A feedback is an information input in a system transmitting
message of system operation to indicate whether the system is operating as planned,
information concerning any type of planned operations relayed to the responsible person
for evaluations.”
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Feedback in communication is shown in the fallowing diagram
The earlier discussion brings to conclusion that feedback is the return message or reaction of
receiver with regard to the sender’s message.
CAUSES OF POOR FEEDBACK:
Feedback is an essential component of communication process. Without feedback, none can

ensure the effectiveness of communication. However in some cases, proper feedback is hindered
by some causes, factors. These causes, factors are as follows:
1. Reliance only on formal communication channel: Employees in the organization
primarily communicate through normal channels following the organizational hierarchy.
Communication through formal channel is essential to maintain order and discipline.
However, excessive reliance on formal channels discourages feedback.
2. Sanctioned communication: When communication is formalized through rules,
regulations and bindings, it is called sanctioned communication. Such rules and
regulations restrict feedback. Because, employees cannot communicate violating these
roles. So sanctioned communication created by rigid rules and restrictions acts as a major
cause of poor feedback.
3. Negative organizational climate: It internal operational environment, inter-personal
relationship and social climate of organization are unfavorable to free and fair flow of
communication, then the whole communication process will be affected. In such a
situation, normal flow of feedback will also he blocked.
NECESSITY OF FEEDBACK |
Feedback is the essence of two-way communication. In two-way communication, the sender must
wait for receiver’s response before deciding what to say nest and how to say it. Feedback is the
check on how much successful one has been in transferring his message as originally intended. If
there is no feedback. Communication will be incomplete and ineffective. Based on feedback, a
sender may either alter the presentation of the message or cancel it entirely. Thus, there is no
alternative to feedback,. Some points highlighting the importance of feedback are mentioned
below:
Why feedback is necessary for completion of communication process?
1. Completion of communication: Two-way communication requires feedback from the

receiver. Through the feedback, sender can understand the attitude of the receiver. Burton
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and Thakur said, “The receiver’s feedback to the sender completes the communication
process loop.”
2. Measuring the effectiveness of communication: Feedback ensures the sender regarding
the effectiveness of his communication. By means of feedback, sender can be sure that
the receiver received the message and understood it in the proper way. Sender needs
feedback in order to determine the success or failure of communication.
3. Understanding the receiver’s view: Feedback helps to understand the receiver’s view
and opinion about the sender’s message. With this understanding, sender can determine
the next course of action.
4. Measuring the appropriateness of media: Message can be transmitted using various
media. Improper media cannot convey the message to the receiver properly. So proper
understanding of the message by the receiver and his feedback proves that the sender has
selected the right media.
5. Making correct decision: Feedback communicates the receiver’s opinion to the sender.
Considering this opinion, the communicator can take proper decision. Information of the
receiver can also improve the quality of decision.
6. Collection of information: One-way communication only sends information. If
communicator wants to gather information, he must seek feedback.
7. Coordination of activities: Responsibility of performing organizational activities is
assigned to various departments. In this case, organizational success depends on proper
coordination of inter-departmental activities. Feedback helps top management to ensure
proper coordination.
8. Improving labor-management relationships: Healthy labor-management relationship is
essential for organizational success. If management wants to build a congenial
atmosphere, they should encourage two-way communication. That means, management
should seek feedback from employees as well as they should provide feedback to the
employees. Through this practice, managers can create democratic atmosphere in the
organization.
The above discussion reveals that feedback is an essential element of communication process.
Through feedback, the sender and receiver can know each other and accordingly they can decide
their next course of action.
COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN
 A lack of communication; a failure to exchange information

 A communication breakdown occurs when communication is incomprehensible to one
party or entirely absent between two people.
CAUSES OF COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN.
What is a communication barrier? |
Sender transmits a message with the expectation that the receiver will receive, understand and act
on it. However, messages do not always reach to its intended receiver in way the sender think.
Some causes or factors impede the flow of message, it’s interpretation and understanding. Such
factors or causes are known as communication barriers. Some definitions on communication
barrier are quoted below:
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 According to Dr. Suruj Kumar Debnath, defined, “Barriers to communication mean
obstacles to the process of communication.
 In the opinion of Louise E. Boone and Others, “Communication barriers are the problems
that arise at every stage of the communication process and have the potential to create
misunderstanding and confusion.
 According to C. B. Mamoria, “Communication, when it is impeded and does not reach
the receiver is often somewhat ineffective and the impediments are known as barriers.”
What is a communication barrier?
By considering the above discussion and definitions, it can be concluded that communication
barriers are the factors that inhibit the effective flow of information that communication barriers
are the factors that inhibit the effective flow of information in the process of communication.
Communication barriers impede the flow of information or create problems in understanding and
acceptance of information.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
Barriers to communication arise from a variety of sources such as complex organizational

structure, sue of ambiguous words, perceptual differences of sender and receiver, status
difference etc. Theo Haimann has classified the main barriers to communication into four major
groups. These are:
 Barriers caused by organizational structure.
 Barriers caused by status or positions.
 Barriers caused by language.
 Barriers resulting from the general inclination to resist change.
McFarland has classified the communication barriers into the following four groups:
 Unsound objectives
 Organizational blocks
 Semantic blocks
 Human relations problems
Ricky W. Griffin has classified the communication barriers into two broad groups such as (a)
Individual barriers and (b) Organizational barriers.
For convenience of discussion we can classify the barriers to communication in the following
four categories:
 Organizational barriers
 Individual barriers
 Semantic barrier
 Other barriers
These four categories of communication barriers are shown in the following diagram:
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1. ORGANIZATIONAL BARRIERS: The barriers that generate form within the organization
are known as organizational barriers may be of the following types:
o Negative organizational climate: The main aspect of organizational climate that
acts as communication barrier is the negative attitude of top management. Negative
attitude of top management discourages communication initiative of the employees.
o Absence of communication policy: Well-designed communication policy
encourages communication in the organization. In the absence of such policies,
employees fail hesitate to communicate.
o Excessive authority layers: Excessive authority layers acts as a severe impediment
to successful communication. In the case of excessive authority impediment to
successful communication. In the case of excessive authority layers, information
reaches to its final destination passing through several hierarchical levels. As a result,
information may be distorted or lost. Excessive authority layers also causes delay in
communication.
o Filtering: Filtering implies willful distortion of information. This problem usually
arise in upward communication. In upward communication, employees tend to pass
only those messages that create positive impression about them.
2. INDIVIDUAL BARRIERS: Barriers created by the sender and receiver are known as
individual barriers. Such barriers include the following:
o Differences in personality: Personality is the set of attributes that define a person.
Every person holds a distinct personality. This individual nature of personality acts as
barrier to communication.
o Perceptual differences: Perception is the unique way in which people respond or
interpret an object. Difference in perception is a very common problem in effective
communication. It for example, a subscriber of BTTB’s land phone in Bangladesh
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may positively react to the government’s move to privatize BTTB expecting a better
service. But an employee of BTTB might view this as step to cut jobs and retrench
existing employees.
o Fear: Fear of reprisal or attack, fear of criticism for knowing very little etc. may
create problem in communication.
o Stereotyping: Stereotyping is generalizing about a class of people or events that is
widely held by a given culture. In case of stereotyping, people develop
communication statements and mindsets about others. This orientation exposes itself
in such statements and mindsets. For example, “All used car salesmen are dishonest,”
or “All foreign recruiting agents are liars.” Such all inclusive perceptions not only are
seldom correct but they also block mental activity that is necessary for successful
communication.
o Halo Effect: The halo effect is the tendency to use a general impression based on one
or a few characteristics to judge other characteristics of that same individual. For
example, a manger might identify one trait of an employee, such as an excellent
attendance record, and perceive that the employee’s productivity and quality of work
must also be outstanding.
o Inattention: Sometimes communication does not reach due to the inattention of the
receiver. Such inattention may result from busyness, lack of interest about subject,
suffering from disease or family problem etc.
o
3. LANGUAGE OR SEMANTIC BARRIER: A common barrier to effective communication
is semantic distortion, which can be deliberate or accidental. Semantic problem arises when
words and symbols have different meanings for different people that lead to a
misunderstanding. For examples, an advertisement states, “we sell for less.” It is ambiguous
and raises the question: less than what? In another case, during meeting, a male colleague
said to one of his female colleague, “Why don’t you dye it?” meaning her hair. The female
colleague thought he said, “Why don’t you diet?” she did not speak to him for a month.
Semantic barrier presents difficult challenge when people from different cultures
communicate with each other.
4. OTHER BARRIERS: The following factors also act as the barrier to effective
communication:
o Information Overload: Information overload may also be a problem of effective
communication. Information overload is the situation when a person is given too
much information at a time.
o Faulty expression: Faulty expression of message fails to convey exact meaning to
the receiver. It happens due to lack of clarity, use of vague terms, badly expressed
information, improper organization of ideas etc.
o Status or power difference: Communication problem may arise when people of
different power or status try to communicate with each other. For example, the
manger of a company may neglect suggestion from his subordinates simply because
of difference in their status. This under treatment of people makes the communication
ineffective.
o Negative attitudes to change: Some people always resist any kind of change in the
organization. They think that ‘old is good, and are fearful about the changes.
Therefore, they create problems in communication through inattention, false
interpretation, rumor, resistance and non-cooperation.
o Noise: Environment factors may also disrupt effective communication. One such
factor is noise. For example, in oral communication, noise hiders smooth flow of
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information or message. In factories, loud noise of machines makes oral
communication very difficult.
GUIDELINE TO OVERCOME COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
Overcome the communication barriers are essential to ensure effective communication. Although
it is not possible to eliminate all the barriers, they can be minimized to a great extent. The
following guidelines are offered in this regard:
1. Clear organizational policy: Organization should have adequate, clear and explicit
communication policies. Such policies will reduce confusion and promote the flow of
communication.
2. Provision for feedback: In order to make communicate effective, mangers should
actively seek feedback from subordinates. Feedback reduces the chance of
misunderstanding and disparity between the messages sends and received.
3. Reorganization: In order to create a favorable communication climate, complex
organization structure should be reorganized. Reorganization may involve reducing
authority layers and establishing clear authority and responsibility relationship.
4. Management development: For improving communication skills, management
development is necessary. This development is possible through delegation of authority,
decentralization, arranging seminars and workshops, providing training on computers and
other electronic means of communication.
5. Orientation: Orientation refers to introducing the newly appointed employees with the
company mission, goals, policies, rules and regulations, procedures etc. this can greatly
enhance the effectiveness of communication in the organization.
6. Promoting informal relationship: Informal relationship can play a vital role in
promoting communication. Hence, management should use informal communication
channel along with the formal channels.
7. Selecting proper media: Effectiveness of communication largely depends on
appropriateness of media. Therefore, media should be selecting considering some factors
such as importance of message, communication environment, knowledge of the receiver
etc.
8. Communication training: To make the employees efficient communicator,
organizations can arrange various training programs for them.
9. Reducing information overload: Communication system becomes defective if more
information flows at a time than is necessity. To resolve this problem, only necessary
information should be conveyed. Moreover, separate messages should be communicated
after certain intervals.
10. Communication audit: According to Howard H. Greenbaum, one way to improve
communication in organization is to conduct a communication audit. Communication
audit means examining and evaluating communication networks, communication
functions and communication principle. If communication audit is undertaken after
certain intervals, communication will obviously improve.
OVERCOMING THE COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
The following measures can be taken to overcome the communication problems that exist in the
business enterprises of any country:
 Developing flat organization structure: In modern time, organizations prefer flat
structure to tall one. Flat structure has fewer heretical levels that reduce communication
gap between superiors and subordinates. Therefore, business enterprises in any country
should design flat structure in place of the traditional tall structure.
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 Specifying objective of communication: In order to overcome the problem of
ambiguity, communicator should specify the objective of communication. This will help
him to arrange the message concisely and clearly.
 Clear-cut message: Top executives should send clear orders, instructions, policies,
procedures and directions so that misunderstanding and confusion do not arise. This will
enhance the effectiveness of communication.
Using simple language: Language creates numerous communication problems in

organization. Employees in the organization are neither equally educated nor trained.
Therefore, the communication should use simple and common words. At the same time,
they should avoid technical jargons so that everyone can understand it.
 Selecting proper media: Appropriate media should be used for effective
communication. Management should decide when to use oral medium and when to use
written medium. While selecting media, management must consider the nature of the
message, its importance and complexity.
 Encouraging feedback: Managers should encourage feedback from subordinates to
attain the objective of communication. This will help the manager to know the reaction of
subordinates and to take proper action.
 Providing communication training: Organizations can provide training to enhance
communication skills of their employees. In this regard, organizations can arrange
seminars, symposiums or institutional training programs.
 Creating congenial labor management relationship: Harmonious relationship between
labors and management is essential for successful communication. Relationship between
them affects the level of importance one party gives on the message of other. Therefore,
management and labor should cooperate with each other to create a favorable
communication climate.
 Using modern communication technologies: In order to facilitate speedy and regular
communication, organizations need to use modern communication devices.
 Encouraging informal communication: To make formal communication effective,
organizations can arrange informal channels. This will obviously promote good
relationship among the participants in the organization.
 Unbiased attitude of management: Management should be free from political, regional
and religious biasness. Their neutral attitude will bring a fair environment of
communication in the organization.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
People communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon the message and its
context in which it is being sent. Choice of communication channel and your style of
communicating also affects communication. So, there are variety of types of communication.
Types of communication based on the communication channels used are:

1. Verbal Communication
2. Nonverbal Communication
VERBAL COMMUNICATION:
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When messages or information is exchanged or communicated through words is called verbal
communication. Verbal communication may be two types: written and oral communication.
Verbal communication takes place through face-to-face conversations, group discussions,
counseling, interview, radio, television, calls, memos, letters, reports, notes, email etc. some
definitions of verbal communications are as follows:
 According to Bovee and others: Verbal communication is the expression of information
through language which is composed of words and grammar.”
 According to Penrose and others, “Verbal communication consists of sharing thoughts
thought the meaning of words.”
So, verbal communication is the process of exchanged of information or message between two or
more persons through written or oral words.
Verbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or messages through
written or oral words. Forms of verbal communication are as follows:
1. Oral communication: Oral communication is the process of communication in which
messages or information is exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver
through the word of mouth. It can be divided into two ways: a. Speaking b. Listening.
2. Written communication: Written communication is the process of communication in
which messages or information is exchanged or communicated within sender and
receiver through written form. It can be divided into two ways: a. Writing b. Reading.
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION:
Nonverbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or messages through

without using any spoken or written word. Some of the forms of non-verbal communications are
as follows:
1. Facial expression 2 . Gestures 3. Body language 4. Proximity 5. Touch 6. Appearance 7.
Silence 8. Paralinguistic 9. Eye Gaze or eye contact etc.
 Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. We can say
that communication other than oral and written, such as gesture, body language,
posture, tone of voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal communication.
Nonverbal communication is all about the body language of speaker.
 Nonverbal communication helps receiver in interpreting the message received. Often,
nonverbal signals reflects the situation more accurately than verbal messages. Sometimes
nonverbal response contradicts verbal communication and hence affect the
effectiveness of message.
 Nonverbal communication have the following three elements:
Appearance
Speaker: clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics
Surrounding: room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings
Body Language
facial expressions, gestures, postures
Sounds
Voice Tone, Volume, Speech rate
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
 Written communication: Written communication is the process of communication in
which messages or information is exchanged or communicated within sender and
receiver through written form. It can be divided into two ways: a. Writing b. Reading
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Advantages of written communication or importance of written communication and

Disadvantages of written communication. There are some advantages of written communication.
They are discussed below:
Advantages of written communication:

 Easy to preserve: The documents of written communication are easy to preserve. Oral
and non-verbal communication cannot be preserved. If it is needed, important
information can be collected from the preserved documents.
 Easy presentation of complex matter: Written communication is the best way to
represent any complex matter easily and attractively.
 Permanent record: The documents of written communication act as a permanent record.
When it is needed, important information can be easily collected from the preserved
documents.
 Prevention of wastage of time and money: Written communication prevents the waste
of money and time. Without meeting with each other the communicator and
communicate can exchange their views.
 Accurate presentation: Through the documents of the written communication top
executive can present the information more accurately and clearly. As it is a legal
document everybody takes much care does draft it.
 Use as a reference: If it is needed, written communication can be used as future
reference.
 Delegation of authority: Written communication can help the authority to delegate the
power and authority to the subordinate. It is quite impossible to delegate power without a
written document.
 Longevity: Written document can be preserved for a long time easily. That is why; all
the important issues of an organization should be back and white.
 Effective communication: Written communication helps to make communication
effective. It is more dependable and effective than those of other forms of
communication.
 Maintaining image: Written communication helps to maintain the images of both the
person and the organization. It also protects the images of the company or organization.
 Proper information: It is a proper and complete communication system. There is no
opportunity to include any unnecessary information in a written document.
 Less distortion possibility: In this communication system information is recorded
permanently. So, there is less possibility of distortion and alteration of the information.
 No opportunity to misinterpret: there is any opportunity to misinterpret the information
or messages of written communication.
 Controlling tool: Written communication can help to control the organizational activity.
The written document may be used as a tool for controlling.
 Easy to verify: The information and messages that are preserved can be verified easily.
If there arises any misunderstanding any party can easily verify the information.
 Others: Clear understanding, Legal document, Acceptability, Reduction of risk, Creating
confidence, Easy circulation, Wide access or coverage etc.
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Disadvantages of written communication
The limitations and disadvantages of written communication are given below:

 Expensive: Written communication is comparatively expensive. For this communication
paper, pen, ink, typewriter, computer and a large number of employees are needed.
 Time consuming: Written communication takes time to communicate with others. It is a
time consuming media. It costs the valuable time of both the writer and the reader.
 Red-Taoism: Red-Taoism is one of the most disadvantages of written communication. It
means to take time for approval of a project.
 Useless for illiterate person: It messages receiver is illiterate, written communication is
quite impossible. This is major disadvantage written communication.
 Difficult to maintain secrecy: It is an unexpected medium to keep business secrecy.
Secrecy is not always possible to maintain through written communication. Because here
needs to discuss everything in black and white.
 Lack of flexibility: Since writing documents cannot be changed easily at any time. Lack
of flexibility is one of the most important limitations of written communication.
 Delay in response: It takes much time to get a response from the message receiver;
prompt response is not possible in case of written communication that is possible in oral
communication.
 Delay in decision making: Written communication takes much time to communicate
with all the parties concerned. So the decision maker cannot take decisions quickly.
 Cost in record keeping: It is very difficult and expensive to keep all the records in
written communication.
 Complex words: Sometimes the writer uses complex words in writing a message. It
becomes difficult to meaning out to the reader. So the objectives of the communication
may lose.
 Lack of direct relation: If there is no direct relation between the writer and the reader,
writer communication cannot help to establish a direct relation between them.
 Other: Prompt feedback is impossible, Slowness, Bureaucratic attitude, Understanding
problem between boos and subordinates, lack in quick clarification and correction,
formality problem, lack of personal intimacy, etc.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
A. Media of written communication to management:

1. Special management bulletin: The bulletin which is issued for emergency matters
related to management is called special management bulletin. This kind of bulletin must
be published promptly.
2. Management news copy: The less important management issues are published in this
news copy. Generally this new copy is published weekly.
3. Formal management report: Formal management report is one of the most important
media of written communication to management. It emphasizes the upward
communication.
4. Officer’s notebook or handbook: Sometimes high officials are given handbooks by the
company in which rules, procedures, principles, work facilities are stated. It acts as a
guide of the officer.
5. Publications: Some organizations publish special journals or publications for the high
level officer. It provides officers information about lost-reduces, safety system, decreases
of accident, improvement of quality etc.
B. Media of written communication for employees:
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1. Bulletin for employees: Bulletin is published to inform the employees of emergency and
important matters within a very short time. Generally it is hanging on a notice board.
2. Newspaper: Newspaper is a wide used medium to communicate with employees.
Company’s planning, policy, procedure objectives, problems is published in it to inform
employees. Generally it is published weekly.
3. Publication of monthly paper: Some large companies publish it to inform everything to
the employees. The company’s role and plan are also stated here.
4. Letters: Letter is one of the most important media of written communication for
employees. Sometimes the higher authority sends letter to the employee without asking
any response.
5. Employee’s notebook: Sometimes the management supplies notebook to the employees
in which speech of executives, history of the organization, planning, policy, order for the
work are stated.
6. Reading rack: Necessary books for the employees can be arranged on the shelf so that
they can read and get knowledge.
7. Notice: Notice is an important medium to communicate with employees. By which the
employees are invited to attend a special meeting.
8. Internal circular: It is one of the most important media of written communication. It is
used for internal communication. When all the employees are informed at a time, internal
circular is used.
9. Daily Newspaper: Daily newspaper is used to warn the employees due to a long absence
from the organization. Sometimes it is used as a precious notice before termination.
10. Complain Book: A complains book can be kept in a definite place so that the employees
can write their complaints with it.
11. Memo: Memo is a popular medium of internal written communication. The memo is a
short form of letter usually used to communicate with the employees of the same
organization.
12. Report: Report is an organized statement of facts and findings that contains information
obtained by proper inquiry and examination and evaluation of any past event relating to a
particular subject or problem that helps to decision making.
13. Other media: Salary envelope, annual financial reports or statements, Note sheets,
Question box, Essay competition etc.
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WRITTEN COMMUNICATION VS ORAL COMMUNICATION
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ORAL COMMUNICATION
 Oral communication is the process of communication in which message or information is
exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver through the word of mouth.
 Oral communication: Oral communication is the process of communication in which
messages or information is exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver
through the word of mouth. It can be divided into two ways: a. Speaking b. Listening.
Medias or ways or techniques or channels of oral communication
The channels or methods or oral communication may be classified broadly in two categories non
mechanical channels and mechanical channels which are described below:
A. Non mechanical channels
 Conversation: conversation means the informal discussion among the people. When one
person discusses his views, opinion to another person and exchanges their views in the
presence of both then it is called face to face conversation. It also includes the face-to-
face discussion on a particular issue. In this method both the information receiver and
sender can exchange their views freely and fairly.
 Interview: It suggests a meeting between two or more persons for the purpose of getting
a view of each other or for knowing each other. When we normally think of an interview,
we think a situation in which an employer tries to size up an applicant for a job. The
employer’s aim is to know whether the applicant can be fit for service to this organization
and the applicant’s aim is to find whether the job being offered by the organization can be
suitable to him. Its first, the speaker asks questions to the listener and then the listener
answers the question. There are three major techniques of interview. They are as follows:
o Direct questioning
o Non-directive interview and
o Guided interview
 Does speech: Speech means what the speaker says in front of the audience. It is fully
audience-oriented system. Generally the political leaders, the managers, the business man
or the workers’ leaders use this system sometimes. It can build tension or it can relax
tension. This system is practiced in public gathering at company meetings, inauguration
and seminars etc. In needs to considerable skills otherwise it is not effective.
 Group discussion: Group discussion is a popular method of oral communication.
Management arranges group discussion to take a decision on a special matter. Group
discussion is very helpful to human relation, idea getting an idea development and
training.
 Formal training courses: Effective communication can be performed through formal
training courses. It is a wide used technique of oral communication. Both the trainer and
the trainee can exchange their views directly.
 Meeting: Meeting means the formal group discussion about a specific predetermined
topic or subject. Meeting members to get together and discuss about a problem or issue or
a special matter. There are several types of meeting such as –
o Security meeting
o Minutes meeting
o Social meeting
o General meeting itself
 Counseling: Counseling is an effective medium of oral communication. Generally it
held yearly or bi-yearly. It is adopted by the higher authority for their followers.
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 Committee: Committee is an organization. The committee meeting is a popular
technique of oral communication. Special decision is taken through face to face
discussion of a committee meeting.
 Special prize-giving ceremony: Sometimes the businessmen can meet with others
arranging a special prize giving ceremony for the workers. In this ceremony the
businessmen can exchange their views and ideas orally.
 Conference: Conference is a kind of meeting at which participants exchange views and
talk together. A conference may be held to exchange views on some problem being faced
by the organization or some other issue related to it and it may even suggest a solution
but the suggestions from a conference are not binding. They are more in the nature of the
recommendation.
 Lectures: Lecture is used to create an understanding of a topic or to influence behavior,
attitudes of the trainee through spoken words. The lecture is telling someone about
something. The method is an effective way to introduce new information or concepts to a
group of learners who gathered at on place. A lecture is given to enhance the knowledge
of the listener or to give him the theoretical aspect of a topic.
 Informal communication: Informal communication is another technique to exchange
information orally. It can be occurred in the playground, tea table etc. In those situations
both the boss and subordinate can exchange their views informally.
 Others: Invitation to a lunch, Brainstorming, Advisory board, Inspection of factory and
office.
B. Mechanical channels
Telephone: Telephone set is an instrument that converts voice and other sound signals into a form
that can be transmitted to remote locations and that receives and reconverts waves into the waves
into sound signals. The telephone plays a vital role in communication when the two persons stay
in different places they communicate with each other by telephone. Their exchange information
and their views and immediate feedback are possible under this system. Now-a-days we can see
that every organization is using the telephone to exchange the information and views orally.
 Mobile or cell phone: A mobile phone (also known as a cellular phone, cell phone and a
hand phone) is a portable telephone that connects to the telephone network over the radio
wave transmission. It connects to a wireless communications network through radio wave
or satellite transmissions.
 Radio: Radio is the indirect media of oral communication. It is a one-way
communication system. The receiver can only hear the message from the sender. The
receiver cannot reply.
 Television: Television is also the indirect media of oral communication. It is a one-way
communication system. Here, receiver cans here the messages and side by side see the
sender. The receiver cannot reply.
 Video conference: Video conference is a kind of teleconferencing communication where
people staying in different corner or locations and participate in a face-to-face group
meeting or group discussion through the help of electronic video camera technology.
 Teleconferencing: Teleconferencing is a kind of communication where people staying in
different corner or locations and participate in group meetings or group discussion
through electronic telephone technology.
Advantages and disadvantages of oral communication
Advantages of oral communication
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Oral communication involves many advantages. In a recent survey about communication it is
clear that more than 55% of the executives choose this communication. The advantages of oral
communication are as follows:
1. Time saving: When action is required to be taken immediately it is best to transmit a
message orally. If the executives work load is high then they stop writhing and by oral
instructions they complete their message transmission and released their work load and
also it saves time.
2. Cost savings: Cost is involved in any communication. When the communication is
needed within the organization and if it and is completed in orally, it has not needed any
paper, pen or stamp or computer. So it saves the money of the organization.
3. More powerful: Speech is a more powerful means of persuasion and control. Therefore,
executives often prefer to transmit messages orally.
4. Effectiveness: With the help of variations in the tone, pitch and intensity of voice, the
speaker can convey shades of meaning. This factor also contributes to the effectiveness of
oral communication.
5. Immediate feedback: The speaker can get immediate feedback on whether it is creating
a favorable impression on the receiver or whether the receiver will protest or whether the
receiver has receiver has clearly understood his meaning or is feeling perplexed or
baffled and he can mold and adjust his message accordingly.
6. More suitable: The employees felt more suitable when the message transmits in orally.
They get an opportunity for feedback and clarification.
7. A relationship develops: Oral communication is mostly carried out helps to promote
friendly relations between the parties communicating with each other.
8. Flexibility: By the demand of the situations, oral instructions can be changed easily and
for these cases maintain the formalities are not necessary. So it is very much flexible and
effective.
9. Easiness: It is so easy method of communication. It needs little preparation to send a
message. No need of pens, pencils and other writing equipment’s which are needed in
written communication.
10. Correction of errors: If any error is expressed at the time of oral communication. It was
possible to rectify at that time or within a very short time.
11. Informal communication: In oral communication, no need to maintain such formalities
which are needed in written communication. So it is easy and helpful to any organization.
12. Motivation: In oral communication system, top executives and sub ordinates staff can sit
face-to-face and exchange their views directly, so sub-ordinates are motivated day by
day.
13. Special applications: Oral communication is more helpful in communicating messages
to groups of people at assembly meetings etc.
14. Maintaining secrecy: Interested parties of oral communication can maintain the secrecy
of messages easily.
Disadvantages of oral communication
Oral communication contains many advantages. In spite of this, there are oral some
disadvantages which are given below:
1. No record: In oral communication, messages are difficult to record. So it is impossible to
preserve the message for future.
2. Expensive: It is also expensive media of communication. Sometimes the audience can be
managed by paying T. A and D. A. On the other hand Technological devices that are
used in this system are costly.
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3. Distortion of the word: If distortion of the word occurs in oral communication, then
main goals of the organization may be filed.
4. Inaccuracy: There is very possibility of inaccurate messages to reach the destination. So,
the reverse result of expected plan may be occurred.
5. Limited use: The scope of usage of oral communication is limited. It is not suitable for
lengthy messages. It should be sued for short message.
6. Probability of omitting main subject: Sometimes, main subject may be omitted to
express a word for communicating. So, expected result may not be achieved.
7. Confused speech: Sometimes the receiver fails to understand the meaning of a message
due to habitual productions of the speaker.
8. No legal validity: there is any legal validity of the oral message. As, the oral messages
are not taped and kept records, so it can be denied easily if the situation goes against the
speaker.
9. Late decision: It takes time to reach a decision. At the beginning stage, sometime is
killed in the discussion of any personal matters. Besides some time is also wasted for
irrelevant discussion. In this way decision making is delayed.
10. Less important: In oral communication, meaningless speech can mislead the main
effects of the communication. But when the information comes out in written, we take it
seriously.
11. Lack of secrecy: In oral communication, the important and secret information may be
disclosed.
12. Defective: Oral communication is defective for company’s policy, procedure, programs,
law and other important information.
13. Creates misunderstanding: The speaker often gives message without having properly
organized it earlier. So, it is possible that he may not be able to make himself properly to
communicate with the receiver. As a result, misunderstanding May develops.
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Meaning of non-verbal communication: When messages or information is exchanged or
communicated without using any spoken or written word is known as nonverbal communication.
Non-verbal communication (NVC) is usually understood as the process of communication
through sending and receiving wordless messages.
Non-verbal communication is a powerful arsenal in the face-to-face communication encounters,
expressed consciously in the presence of others and perceived either consciously or
unconsciously. Much of non-verbal communication is unintentional people are not even aware
that they are sending messages. Non-verbal communication takes place though gestures, facial
expressions, eye contact, physical proximity, touching etc. some important definitions of non-
verbal communication are as follows:
 According to L. C. Bove and others, “Non-verbal communication is communication that
takes place through non-verbal cues: through such form of non-verbal communication as
gesture, eye contact, facial expression, clothing and space; and through the non-verbal
vocal communication known as Para-language.”
 According to Lesikar and Pettit, “Nonverbal communication means all communication
that occurs without words (body movements, space, time, touch, voice patterns, color,
layout, design of surroundings.)”
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 According to Himstreet and Baty, “Non-verbal communication includes any
communication occurring without the use of words.”
So, non-verbal communication is the exchanged of information or message between two or
more persons through gestures, facial expressions eye contact, proximity, touching etc. and
without using any spoken or written word.
Nonverbal cues
 Proxemics – interpersonal space & distance, how far away from people/objects we position
ourselves (which are public, social, personal, and intimate distance)
 Hepatics – touch behavior
o There are several types of touch, including functional-professional, social-polite, friendship-
warmth, love-intimacy
 Vocalic – paralanguage or paravocalics - not what you say but HOW you say it’
o pitch,
o volume,
o rate,
o vocal quality, and
o verbal fillers
 Kinesics – body movements (gestures)
o gestures,
o head movements
o posture,
o eye contact,
o facial expressions
 Chronemics – time
 Oculesics [ocalics] – use of eyes
Medias or ways or methods or kinds of non-verbal communication:
Non-verbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or messages through

without using any spoken or written word. Several symbols can be used in non-verbal
communication. We will discuss here only the following types of communication that occur
without words.
A. Body language: Some parts of our body can express many indications without any sound.
Message can be transmitted with the help of our body movements which is called body language.
Body language is a form of non-verbal communication, which consists of posture, gestures, facial
expressions, eye movements etc.
1. Facial expression: A facial expression is one or more motions or positions of the
muscles in the skin of face. These movements convey the emotional state of the
individual to observers. Facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger and fear are
similar throughout the world. Proverb says, “Face is the index of mind.”Example: By
waving our hands we express ‘good-bye’; by shaking our head from side to side we
express “we do not know”.
2. Gestures: Gestures refers to visible bodily actions communicate particular messages
which include movement of the hands, face, eyes, head or other parts of the body.
Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numeric
amounts. Culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words, such as the
hand wave used in western cultures for “hello” and “goodbye”.
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3. Posture: Posture indicates the position in which we hold the body when standing or
sitting. It can help to communicate non-verbally. Consider the following actions and note
cultural differences:
o Bowing not done criticized or affected in US; shows rank in Japan.
o Slouching rude in most Northern European areas.
o Hands in pocket-disrespectful in Turkey.
o Sitting with legs crossed-offensive in Ghana, Turkey.
o Showing soles of feet-offensive in Thailand, Saudi Arabia.
4. Eye Gaze or Eye contact: Eye contact indicates looking, staring and blinking etc. which
is important in nonverbal behaviors. Looking at another person can indicate a range of
emotions, including hostility, attention, interest and attraction, defines power and status
and has a central role in managing impressions of others.
5. Appearance and dress: External appearances also play a vital role to communicate
others. Our clothes an dresses provide a good visual signal to our interest, age,
personality, taste and sex. Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles and other factors
affecting appearance are also considered a means of nonverbal can evoke different
moods. Consider differing cultural standards on what is attractive in dress and on what
constitutes modesty. For example, seeing the dress of army officers, we can easily
determine the job status.
6. Touch: Touch is culturally determined. But each culture has clear concept of what parts
of the body one may not touch. Basic message of touch is to affect or control-protect,
support and disapprove (i.e. hug, kiss, hit, kick)
 USA-Handshake is common (even for strangers), hugs and kisses for those of opposite
gender or of family (usually) on an increasingly more intimate basis.
 Islamic and Hindu- Typically don’t touch with the left hand. Left hand is for toilet
functions.
 Islamic cultures generally don’t approve of any touching to opposite genders (even
handshakes). But consider such touching (including hand holding, hugs) between same
sexes to be appropriate.
7. Silence: Silence is another form of non-verbal communication which expresses the positive or
negative meanings of particular messages. In a classroom, silence indicates that students are
listening carefully and attentively.
B. Space or proximity: People often refer to their need for “personal space”, which are also
important types of nonverbal communication. The physical distance between you and others
signals your level of intimacy and comfort. If someone you don’t know stand too close or touches
too often, you will probably begin to feel uncomfortable.
C. Time: Another type of non-verbal communication involves time. Thant is how we give
meaning to time communicates to other. For example, begin late in work everybody a worker can
be considered as a man of carelessness but if a manager does it; we say it is a symbol of power.
We know, time can play a vital role to reduce tension, conflict among groups. It is said that- “Kill
the time to delay the justice”.
D. Paralinguistic (Tone and volume of voice): Paralinguistic refers to vocal communication that
is separate from actual language. Paralanguage also include such vocal characteristics as rate
(speed of speaking), pitch (highness of lowness of tone), inflection, volume (loudness) and
quality (pleasing or unpleasant sound).
 Vocal characterizers (laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch and yawn). These send
different message in different cultures (Japan- giggling indicates embarrassment; India-
belch indicates satisfaction)
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 Vocal qualifiers (volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo and tone). Loudness indicates strength in
Arabic cultures and softness indicates weakness; indicates confidence and authority to the
Germans; indicates impoliteness to the Thai; indicates loss of control to the Japanese.
(Generally, one learns not to “shout” in Asia for nearly any reason). Gender based as well
women tend to speak higher and more softly than men.
 Vocal segregates (UN-huh, shh, uh, ooh, mmmh, hummm, eh mah, lah). Segretates
indicate formality, acceptance, assent, uncertainty.
E. Visual communication: When communication takes place by means of any visual aid, it is
known as visual communication. Such as signals, map, chart, poster, slide, sign etc. for example,
to indicate ‘danger’, we use red sign, to indicate ‘no smoking’, we use an image showing a
lighted cigarette with across mark on it etc.
Characteristics of non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication is any information that is communicated without using words. The
important characteristics of non-verbal communication are as follows:
 No use of words: Non-verbal communication is a communication without words or
language like oral or written communication. It uses gestures, facial expressions, eye
contact, physical proximity, touching etc. for communicating with others.
 Culturally determined: Non-verbal communication is learnt in childhood, passed on to
you by your parents and others with whom you associate. Through this process of
growing up in a particular society, you adopt the taints and mannerisms of your cultural
group.
 Different meaning: Non-verbal symbols can many meanings. Cross-culture aspects give
various meanings to same expression in respect of non-verbal communication.
 Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. Since in
this communication there is no use of words or language which expresses clear meaning
to the receiver.
 May conflict with verbal message: Non-verbal communication is so deeply rooted, so
unconscious, that you can express a verbal message and then directly contradict it with a
nonverbal message.
 Largely unconscious: Non-verbal communication is unconscious in the sense that it is
usually not planned nor rehearsed. It comes almost instantaneously.
 Shows feelings and attitudes: Facial expressions, gestures, body movements, the way
you use your eyes – all communicate your feelings and emotions to others.
 Informality: Nonverbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or structure
like other communication. Most of the cases people unconsciously and habitually
engaged in non-verbal communication by moving the various parts of the body.
Advantages and disadvantages of non-verbal communication
There is a proverb “Actions speak louder than words.” In essence, this underscores the
importance of non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is especially significant in
intercultural situations. Researches in communication suggest that many more feelings and
intentions are sent and received non-verbally than verbally. Meharabian and wiener following
suggested that only 7 % of message is sent through words, with remaining 93% sent non-verbal
expressions (depending on author, verbal part goes up to 35%). It has multiple advantages or
functions:
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1. Complementary: Non-verbal cues complement a verbal message by adding to its
meaning. You can pat someone you offended at the back as you say sorry to him or her.
2. Easy presentation: Information can be easily presented in non-verbal communication
through using visual, audio-visual and silent means of non-verbal communication.
3. Substituting: Non-verbal message may substitute for the verbal message especially if it
is blocked by noise, interruption, long distance etc. for example: gestures-finger to lips to
indicate need for quite, facial expressions- a nod instead of a yes.
4. Accenting: Often used to accent a verbal message. Verbal tone indicates the actual
meaning of the specific words.
5. Repeat: Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g. point in a direction while stating
directions.)
6. Help to illiterate people: This type of communication use gestures, facial expressions,
eye contact, proximity, touching etc. and without using any spoken or written word. So, it
is very much helpful for illiterate people.
7. Help to handicapped people: Non-verbal cues of communication greatly help in
handicapped people especially to deaf people. Deaf people are exchange message through
the movements of hands, fingers, eye ball etc.
8. Attractive presentation: Non-verbal communication is based on visual, picture, graph,
sign etc. that can be seen very much attractive.
9. Reducing wastage of time: The message of non-verbal communication reached the
receiver very fast. For this reason it reduces the wastage of valuable time of the
communicator.
10. Quick expression of message: Non-verbal cues of communication like sign and symbol
can also communicate some messages very quickly than written or oral messages.
Disadvantages or limitations of non-verbal communication:
Despite of advantages of non-verbal communication, it is not free from its limitations or

disadvantages which are:
1. Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. Since in
this communication there is no use of words or language which expresses clear meaning
to the receiver. No dictionary can accurately classify them. Their meaning varies not only
by culture and context but by degree of intension.
2. Continuous: It is possible to stop talking in verbal communication, but it is generally
not possible to stop nonverbal cues. Also, spoken language has a structure that makes it
easier to tell when a subject has changed, for instance or to analyze its grammar.
Nonverbal does not lend itself to this kind of analysis.
3. Multi-channel: while watching someone’s eyes, you may miss something significant in a
hand gesture. Everything is happening at once and therefore it may be confusing to try to
keep up with everything. Most of us simply do not do so, at least not consciously.
4. Culture-bound: Non-verbal communication is learnt in childhood, passed on to you by
your parents and others with whom you associate. A few other gestures seem to be
universal. Evidence suggests that humans of all cultures smile when happy and frown
when unhappy. However, most nonverbal symbols seem to be even further disconnected
from any “essential meaning” than verbal symbols. Gestures seen as positive in one
culture (Like the thumbs-up gesture in the USA) may be seen as obscene in another
culture.
5. Long conversations are not possible: In non-verbal communication, long conversation
and necessary explanations are not possible. No party can discuss the particular issues of
the messages.
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6. Difficult to understand: Difficult to understand and requires a lot of repetitions in non-
verbal communication. Since it uses gestures, facial expressions eye contact, touch etc.
for communicating with others which may not be understandable for the simple and
foolish people.
7. Not everybody prefers: Everybody not prefers to communicate through non-verbal
communication with others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people or
listeners. It is less influential and cannot be used everywhere. It is cannot be used as a
public tool for communication.
8. Lack of formality: Non-verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or
structure like other communication. Most of the cases people unconsciously and
habitually engaged in non-verbal communication by moving the various parts of the
body.
9. Costly: In some cases non-verbal communication involves huge cost. For example, neon
sign, power point presentation, cinema etc are very much costly compared to others form
of communication.
10. Distortion of information: Since it uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, touch,
sign, sound, paralanguage etc. for communicating with others, there is a great possibility
in distortion of information in non-verbal communication.
Kinds of Non-Verbal Communication
Differences between verbal and non-verbal communication:
Verbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or messages through

written or oral words.
On the other hand, non-verbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or
messages through without using any spoken or written word. The important differences between
verbal and non-verbal communication are as follows:
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NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION TYPES
Non Verbal Communication Types It is a way of making others react with ideas, thoughts,
feelings and values transmitting the information or conveying the message. Here are seven other
nonverbal communications that, if you do correctly, will improve your chances of landing the
job.Communication is the exchange of information between people by means of speaking, writing
or using a common system of signs or behavior.
1. Tone of Voice: On the other hand, speaking up and changing the tone of your voices
makes you appear engaging. During phone interviews, for example, the only way your
interviewer can get an idea of your personality is whether or not you change the tone of
your voice. Dull, monotone talking has a tendency to make you appear unexciting. The
tone of your voice also acts as a form of nonverbal communication.
2. Hands: Also, does not talk too much with your hands or it may take away from the
content of your answers? Your hands should sit on the table, maybe gentle clasp together.
They should not fidget, nor should you do the “power pyramid” since you do not want to
be seen as intimidating. Hand gestures can portray a lot of information.
3. Leaving Space: You always want to be far enough that the interviewer is comfortable,
but you do not want to be too far either or you will give the impression you are distancing
yourself from the individual. Nonverbal communications occur all of the time. A perfect
example is with the personal space you give your interviewer.
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4. Smile: smile during your interview is a good way to build points with the interviewer.
Smiles are addicting and disarming. A good smile will relax your interviewer just as
much as it conveys a positive attitude.
5. Ticks: Interviewers do expect nervousness, but when you are answering an important
question, you do not want to appear nervous, which can take away from the strength of
your answer. You do not want to appear nervous and awkward. If you have nervous ticks,
such as shaking your leg up and down, clearing your throat, etc., try to do your best to
avoid them.
6. Good Posture: Keep your back straight and sit in your chair. Proper posture also displays
confidence. There is a certain aspect of trustworthiness that interviewers pick up on as
well.
7. Eye Contact: Eye contact shows confidence and clarity, and is also useful for building
rapport with your interviewer. Eye contact should be personable, but there is no need to
stare. Eye contact is a major part of nonverbal communication.
Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style
Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they both bears
their own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are:
1. Formal Communication
2. Informal Communication
1. Formal Communication
In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while
communicating message. Formal communication occurs in formal and official style.
Usually professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences undergoes in formal
pattern.
In formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct
pronunciation is required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal
communication.
2. Informal Communication
Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal
communication channels. It’s just a casual talk. It is established for societal affiliations of
members in an organization and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and
family. In informal communication use of slang words, foul language is not
restricted. Usually. informal communication is done orally and using gestures.
Informal communication, Unlike formal communication, doesn’t follow authority
lines. In an organization, it helps in finding out staff grievances as people express more
when talking informally. Informal communication helps in building relationships.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL COMMUNICATION
Horizontal communication occurs between people holding the same hierarchical position. Both
written and oral methods are used to make horizontal communication effective. The methods or
media or horizontal communication are discussed below:
 Oral Method: Horizontal communication is most effective when it is done through oral
means. Telephonic conversation, face-to-face discussion, meetings, interviews, seminars,
conferences etc. are the widely used oral means of horizontal communication.
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 Written communication: Horizontal communication also takes place through written
media; the written means of horizontal communication include letters, memos, reports
etc.
At last, it can be concluded that the efficacy of horizontal communication primarily depends on
verbal means, yet written methods can be used to transmit important messages.
Differences between horizontal and vertical communication
Horizontal and vertical communications are the two different types of internal communication.
These two types of communications differ in the following ways:
 Meaning: When information flows between persons holding the same position in the in
the organization, it is called horizontal communication. When communication occurs
between superior and subordinates, it is called vertical communication.
 Purpose: The purpose of horizontal communication is to coordinate the activities of
various departments and divisions of the organization. The purpose of vertical
communication is to provide necessary orders, instructions, and directives to the
subordinates in downward direction; and receiving suggestion, opinion and feedback
from the subordinates in upward direction.
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 Information flow: In this communication, information flows between people holding
same rank and status. In this communication, information flows form superior to
subordinates and vice-versa.
 Degree of formality: Horizontal communication enjoys greater degree of informality.
Vertical communication is more formal than horizontal communication.
 Method of communication: Horizontal communication is mostly done through oral
media. Vertical communication is mostly done through written media.
 Possibility of distortion: Message of horizontal communication are usually free form
distortion. Message of vertical communication may suffer from distortion.
 Length of communication line: Horizontal communication occurs in short line as it
happens directly between sender and receiver. Vertical communication passes through a
long line of communication.
What is Upward Communication? | Media or ways of upward communication
When information flows form subordinated to superiors, it is called upward communication. The
purpose of upward communication is to provide information to the managers form subordinates.
Through this communication, subordinates convey their opinions, suggestions, complaints etc. to
their superiors. The lower-level employees initiate up-ward communication and the message
ultimately reaches to the upper-level management. It may take place in the form of feedback of
downward communication. Some definitions of upward communication are mentioned below:
According to Ricky W. Griffin, “Upward communication consists of messages from subordinates
to superiors.”
 In the opinion of Weihrich and Koontz, “Upward communication travels from
subordinates to superiors and continue up the organizational hierarchy.”
 Boone, Kurtz and Block said, “Communication that flows form a supervisee to a
supervisor, is known as upward communication.”
 According to L. C. Bovee and Others, “Upward communication is the flow of
information from lower to higher levels in the organization.”
 Bartol and Martin defined, “When the vertical flow of communication is form a lower
level to one or higher levels in the organization, it is known as upward communication.”
The following figure represents the upward flow of information:
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that the communication where information flows
form subordinates to superiors is known as upward communication. Upward communication
conveys information related to periodic updates, requests for data, clarification of directives and
requests for additional financial support.
Media or ways of upward communication
The subordinates can communicate their problems, attitudes, complaints and suggestion to their
superiors through various ways. That means, there are a number ways or means or methods of
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upward communication. The important media of upward communication are mentioned in the
followed table:
1. Written media of upward communication: The popular written media of upward

communication are discussed below:
o Report: Report is one of the most important a widely used media of upward
communication. Subordinates prepare reposts periodically or regularly on various
routine issues. They also prepare special report when need arises. Reports are then
submitted to the higher authority for supplying necessary information.
o Memo: Memo is the short form of memorandum. A memo is a short piece of
writings generally used to exchange information among the persons within the
organization. Superiors usually send information to their subordinates through memo.
However, subordinates can also write memos to convey essential information to their
superiors for making decisions.
o Suggestion and complaint boxes: Some organizations install suggestion and
complaint boxes at some convenient places in the office or factory through
suggestion box, management invites the employees to submit their suggestions for
improving the efficiency of organizational operations. On the other hand, complaint
box is placed to submit any complaint of the employees regarding any aspect of their
employment.
o Direct letters: Subordinates can write letters directly to their superiors at their
superiors at their own initiation or they may be asked by their superiors write about
any directed matter.
o Questionnaire: Sometimes managers encourage upward communication by asking
questions to their subordinates. For this purpose, they distribute questionnaires to the
employees. Through questionnaires, management can know the attitudes, feelings
and complaints of the employees.
2. Oral media of upward communication: The oral media of upward communication are as
follow:
o Grievance procedure: Grievance is the employee dissatisfaction over any aspect of
their employment. Grievance procedure provides the employees with a formal
channel of appeal to their superiors. In modern organizations, there is well-
established procedure for handing employee grievances that acts as a mode of
upward communication.
o Joint setting of objectives: In participative organizations, superiors and subordinates
sit together for setting objectives. In this case, the superiors seek information and
suggestions from the bottom-level managers and employees.
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o Employer-employee meeting: Meeting between employer and employees is a very
useful medium of upward communication. In the meeting, the superior can raise
problems and seek information, guidelines or suggestions from the subordinates.
3. Other Media: In addition to written and oral media, superiors can encourage upward
communication through the following symbolic medium.
o Open-door-policy: Open-door-policy of management inspires the employees to feel
that the manger’s doors are always open to them. Whenever they want they can enter
into the manager’s room and talk everything to the superiors without any fear or
hesitation.
These are the commonly used media of upward communication. However, all the media
are not suitable for every message. Selection of a particular medium in a particular
situation depends on the nature and importance of the message.
What is downward communication? | Methods of downward communication
Downward communication is the communication where information or messages flows from

the top of the organizational structure from the bottom of the organizational structure. Downward
communication occurs when information flows down the hierarch form superiors to subordinates.
This type of communication may forms such as staff meetings, company newsletter, company
policy statement, information memos, e-mail, face-to-face contact, orders, instruction etc. some
important definitions of downward communications are given below:
 According to Bartol along with Martin, “Downward communication is a vertical
communication which streams style an increased levels to help more than one cheaper
levels within the organization. ”
 According to Medical professional. Urmila Rai, “Message which in turn should go in the
increased authority levels to the cheaper levels is actually downward communication. ”
 According to Ricky W. Griffin, “Downward communication happens any time facts
streams lower the actual power structure style finer quality than subordinates. ”
 According to Newstorm along with Davis, “Downward communication within an
organizastion is the flow involving facts style increased in order to lower levels of
authority. ”.
The graphical presentation of downward communication is as follows:
So, downward communication is the communication where information or messages flows from
the top level of the organizational structure form the bottom level of the organizational structure.
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Downward communication is that communication in which information flows form superior to
subordinates. Through downward communication, managers communicate organizational goals,
policies, procedures, orders, instructions, decisions etc. to their subordinates.
In the process of downward communication, messages of the top executive reach to the lower
levels moving through the chain of hierarchy. Downward communication can be of written or
oral. Written forms of downward communication are manuals, handbook, notices, electronic
news displays etc. whereas, face-to-face conversation, telephonic conversations, speeches,
meetings etc. are the oral media of downward communication. In the following, some quotations
on downward communication are cited:
 In the opinion of Weihrich and Koontz, “Downward communication flows from people
at higher levels to those at lower levels in the organizational hierarchy.”
 Newstrom and Davis defined, “Downward communication in an organization is the flow
of information from higher to lower levels of authority.”
 According to Ricky W. Griffin, “Downward communication occurs when information
flows down the hierarchy form superiors to subordinates.”
 L. E. Boone, Kurtz and Block said, “A message that flows form a supervisor to a
supervisee is known as downward communication.”
 Bartol and Martin opined, “When vertical communication flows form a higher level to
one or more lower levels in the organization, it is known as downward communication.”
 According to Himstreet and Baty, “Downward communication is that form superior to
subordinate-from boss to employee and from policy makers to operating personnel.”
The flow of downward communication is shown below:
In conclusion, we can say downward communication occurs when messages flow form upper
level of lower levels by following the organizational hierarchy. The objective of downward
communication is to carry organizational objectives, plans, policies and procedures form higher
level to lower levels of the organization.
Methods of downward communication
Both written and oral methods are used in transmitting messages of downward communication.
Actually, section of media depends on the nature, urgency and importance of the message to be
communicated. The followings are the frequently used media or methods of downward
communication.
1. Oral Media or Method: Downward communication is mainly done by means of oral
media or method. Usually, the supervisors give instructions to their subordinates through
face-to-face and telephonic conversation. Beside this, managers also exchange relevant
information to their subordinates through meetings, conferences, lectures etc.
COMMUNICATION
2. Written Media or Method: Organization of any size and nature sends important
information to its employees in written forms through letters, circulars, manuals,
bulletins, posters annual reports etc. generally, letters and memos communicate important
organizational directives; circulars, manuals and bulletins communicate policies and
procedures and annual report communicates organizational activities and performance at
the end of the year.
3. Other Media or Method: In addition to oral and written media or method, audio, visual
and audio-visual media are also used in downward communication. Radio, television,
poster, signal, symbol, graphs etc. some of the commonly used instruments that convey
messages to the subordinates.
Objectives or purpose of downward communication
It is a system of communication where communication takes place form upper level to downward
or form the superior to subordinate level. The following objectives are available in downward
communication.
1. Supply information: Work style, method, responsibility, duties etc. are supplied to
subordinates by this communication system.
2. Assigning work: Through downward communication, superior assigns different works to
their subordinate.
3. Explaining policies and plan: The objective of an organization is to inform institution’s
plan, policy, program etc. to lower level by this communication system.
4. Responsibility and duty: Inter departmental duties and responsibilities are distributed by
this communication system.
5. Directing subordinates: Downward communication is directive in nature. To give
directions to the subordinates, top executives use this communication method.
6. Evaluation of performance: Top executives evaluate the performance of their
subordinate through this communication method. After evaluation of workers work, the
analyzed result is informed to others for incentive.
7. Explain the change environment: Any change or organization’s plan, policy, method
and program are informed to all employees with the help of this communication system.
8. Coordination and cooperation: To coordinate and cooperate of the subordinates of their
works downward communication is needed. For achievement of expected result,
downward communication is the best method.
9. Delegate authority: In large organization, it is very much essential to delegate some
authority to their subordinates. Without downward communication delegation of
authority is impossible.
10. Establish discipline: Top level hierarchy of the organization try to maintain
organizational discipline through downward communication to their subordinates by
issuing job related rules and regulation.
What is vertical communication? | Types of vertical communication
Within an organization when communication occurs among persons of different positions, stage
system vertical communication. It is a kind of internal communication. In this type of
communication, information moves completely and from bottom to top. When information moves
all the way through or from superiors to subordinates, it really is known as downward
communication. On the other hand, when information flow form bottom to top or form
subordinates to superiors, stage system upward communication. Here information may be
transmitted through formal or informal channels.
COMMUNICATION
In the following, we are quoting some definitions of vertical communication;
L. C. Bovee and his associates opined, “Vertical communication is a flow of information up and
down the organizations hierarchy.”
According to Stoner and Freeman, “Vertical communication consists of communication up and
down the organization’s chain of command.”
Ricky and W. Griffin defined, “Vertical communication is communication that flows both up and
down the organization, along formal reporting lines.”
The following diagram represents the vertical patterns of communication:
In conclusion, we can say that vertical communication occurs when information flows either form
superior to subordinates or form subordinates to supervisor within an organization structure.
Types or Varieties of vertical communication
When information flows from superiors to subordinates or from subordinates to superiors,
method Vertical communication. In accordance with its nature, vertical communication is
especially classified inside the following 2 types:
 Downward communication and
 Upward communication
These two types of communication are explained below:
1. Downward communication: Downward communication occurs information flows much
better than subordinates. Superiors send information, orders, instructions, decisions etc.
for their subordinates through downward communication. Downward communication
could possibly be of written or oral. Written forms of downward communication are
manuals, handbook, notices, electronic news displays etc. whereas, face-to-face
conversation, telephonic conversation, speeches, meetings etc. include the oral media of
downward communication.
2. Upward communication: Upward communication occurs when information flows from
subordinates to superiors in the organization hierarchy. The aim of upward
communication is usually to provide information for the managers from subordinates.
Generally, subordinates convey their fallings, attitudes, opinions, suggestions, complaints
etc. making use of their superiors through this communication. Upward communication is
initiated with the lower to the next stage the organization and reaches the content up
management hierarchy.
COMMUNICATION
SPOKEN COMMUNICATION
TELEPHONE SKILLS
Effective Telephone Communication
With more and more business being done over the telephone and the increasing use of 24 hour
professional call centres to handle customer enquiries, knowing how to to have both face to face
and effective phone communication skills is vitally important. To help you get your message
across clearly, politely and efficiently recruitment experts Kelly Services highlight some common
problems and provides some techniques to put them right. This fact sheet brings you essential
know-how on the different ways you can polish up your communication.
Customer clout
We live in an era where the customer is king. Gone are the days when customers were thought of
as an interruption or that answering their queries was doing them a favour. Nowadays good
customer service provides an organisation with its competitive edge and customers expect to be
dealt with professionally and competently. Whether you are involved with customers on the
telephone or deal with them direct, the following common sense guidelines will help you to make
the right impression and give your customers what they are looking for.
Image wreckers
If you answer the telephone or if you greet visitors you need to beware of ruining professional
images with comments that often give the wrong impression such as:
 They are still at lunch (they're taking a long break)
 They are not in yet (they're late)
 They have left already (they've slipped off early)
 She's at the dentist (this is too personal)
 He's just popped out (and does so all the time)
 I don't know where he is (internal communication is bad)
 They are tied up (they are too busy to talk to you)
It is far easier and much more professional to say...
"She's not available at the moment - may I get her to call you back etc."
Top six telephone frustrations!
 Being cut off or put through to the wrong person

 Being left hanging on with no explanation
 Not knowing who you are talking to and if they can help
 Being asked lots of questions
 Not being given the chance to explain yourself
 Being called at an inconvenient time
COMMUNICATION
Service standards
Think about what is meant by good service. It involves many different qualities and will depend
on the circumstances involved but whatever business you are in, there are a number of basic good
practices which should be taken on board.
Be courteous
 Identify yourself and listen without interrupting
 Respond as necessary
 Stop talking if interrupted
 Give prompt service with the minimum of delay
 Don't keep the caller hanging on the line without going back to them
Be friendly and helpful

 Speak clearly and with a smile (yes, you can "hear" a smile!)
 Be aware of how important your voice is in conveying a friendly personality
 Be enthusiastic and show an interest
 Be sincere in your attempts to help
 Never lose your cool
 If you promise to take certain action do it as agreed
 Deal with any problems diplomatically
Learn to listen
Improving your listening skills can make a huge difference to having effective phone
communication skills - people need to know that you fully understand their case.
 Don't interrupt unnecessarily
 Don't switch off half way through
 Don't hurry people
 Try putting yourself in the caller's place
Information
When you are recording or giving information remember that it must be precise and detailed.
 Be clear and accurate
 Make sure that any information you give is correct
 Avoid jargon
 Talk with confidence
 Get the facts and record the information
 Confirm your caller understands the information you have supplied
 Answer questions if you can or offer to find out the information
Message taking
It is vital to collect all the relevant information when you are taking messages for other people.
The following checklist will help you to make sure you haven't forgotten anything.
 Who the call is for
 The date and time of the call
 Name of caller and company
COMMUNICATION
 Their telephone/fax number
 Reason for the call / is the call urgent?
 A convenient time to return the call
 Your name
 Details of anything you have agreed with the caller
Handling problems and complaints
When you are handling difficult situations it is important to keep calm and not let your emotions
get the better of you. In many ways a complaint is an opportunity - the chance to show you can
put things right. A customer whose complaint is successfully resolved will have a strong sense of
loyalty.
 Try and establish some rapport with the caller
 Use their name and recognise their importance
 Let the person explain and listen carefully
 Get all the facts and take notes
 Direct the conversation away from emotion
 Avoid defensive reactions
 Try and develop a solution giving a time frame and your actions
 Make a commitment to follow up
 Get agreement to your solution
 Thank the person for calling
Be positive
If you are in the front line of communication then it is vital that you have a positive attitude
because it is clearly reflected in both your voice and in the way you behave with others. Not only
will a positive approach make you feel good it will also get a positive response from others.
A well known business guru was recently asked what the three most important factors were for a
business to be successful. His reply was 'Communication, Communication and Communication.
How to Use the Telephone More Effectively
The telephone is effective when used efficiently, sparingly, and within the framework of a plan.
This list includes some tested guidelines for making the phone a tool that works best for you!
1. Know the purpose of your call.
Most of us talk on the phone too long. Have the purpose of your call clearly in mind before
dialing. If helpful, write down a "statement of purpose", together with 3 main points you want to
make on a scratch pad prior to dialing. Then "go for it"!
2. Know the audience you are calling.

Unless you're conducting "cold calling" for marketing or polling research, you probably know
something about your "audience" on the other end. Think of the needs of the person/people you
are calling. Then revise your "statement of purpose" accordingly prior to making the call.
3. Start off right!

State your purpose at the outset, and always ask if it is a good time for the other person to talk. If
not, set a specific time to call back.
COMMUNICATION
4. Use names whenever possible.

Identify yourself at the outset of each call. Spell it out, or sound it out, if necessary (e.g. I always
tell people "My last name is Vuocolo; Vuh-co-lo; think "Coca-Cola!"). Establish the other
person's name early in the conversation, and use it often throughout the call!
5. Pay attention and be aware of your tone.

Ask open-ended questions that invite response. Give the conversation your undivided attention -
don't be tempted to do two or three things at once and expect it to be a productive call. Smile!
This helps to make your voice sound friendly. If you're angry or anxious - put off the call until a
later time, unless it's an absolute necessity to conduct it now.
6. Listen carefully.
Pay attention to the first words spoken by the person called. You can learn a lot in the first few
seconds by listening carefully. Did you catch the person eating, arguing, gardening or partying?
Decide whether to proceed with the call or to call back, depending upon what you hear in the
background of the call. It's better to arrange to call back another time than to interrupt - and you'll
probably get a better audience!
7. Avoid initiating major business, if possible.

Always save the most important business to be conducted in person, if possible. If not, make a
careful transition from introduction to purpose of the call. Remember that a ringing phone
virtually always interrupts the party being called - so give them time to adjust before hitting them
with something major.
8. Avoid confrontation.
If you have bad news, or a difficult issue to discuss with someone, don't do it by phone unless it's
the only way.
9. Be assertive - not aggressive!

Always present your point of view in an assertive, positive, way. If you have difficulty being
assertive, try making your point while standing during the call. This helps you be more animated
and direct, even if the other person can't "see you" ... Although, with fiber-optics, they probably
soon will! (If you're an extrovert - please remain seated!)
10. Conduct a verbal review.

Before concluding the call, go over all agreed upon points. Repeat necessary dates, times places
and how and when you may be reached
INTERVIEWS
What is interview? |
Meaning of interview: The word interview comes from Latin and middle French words meaning
to “see between” or “see each other”. Generally, interview means a private meeting between
people when questions are asked and answered. The person who answers the questions of an
interview is called in interviewer. The person who asks the questions of our interview is called an
interviewer. It suggests a meeting between two persons for the purpose of getting a view of each
other or for knowing each other. When we normally think of an interview, we think a setting in
which an employer tries to size up an applicant for a job.
COMMUNICATION
 According to Gary Dessler, “An interview is a procedure designed to obtain information
from a person’s oral response to oral inquiries.”
 According to Thill and Bovee, “An interview is any planed conversation with a specific
purpose involving two or more people”.
 According to Dr. S. M. Amunuzzaman, “Interview is a very systematic method by which
a person enters deeply into the life of even a stranger and can bring out needed
information and data for the research purpose.”
So, an interview is formal meetings between two people (the interviewer and the interviewee)
where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information, qualities, attitudes, wishes
etc. Form the interviewee.
Types of interviews: There are many types of interviews that an organization can arrange. It
depends on the objectives of taking the interview. Some important types of interviews are stated
below:
1. Personal interviews: Personal interviews include:
o Selection of the employees
o Promotion of the employees
o Retirement and resignation of the employees
Of course, this type of interview is designed to obtain information through discussion and
observation about how well the interviewer will perform on the job.
2. Evaluation interviews: The interviews which take place annually to review the progress
of the interviewee are called the evaluation interviews. Naturally, it is occurring between
superiors and subordinates. The main objective of this interview is to find out the
strengths and weaknesses of the employees.
3. Persuasive interviews: This type of interview is designed to sell someone a product or
an idea. When a sales representative talk with a target buyer, persuasion takes the form of
convincing the target that the product or idea meets a need.
4. Structured interviews: Structured interviews tend to follow formal procedures; the
interviewer follows a predetermined agenda or questions.
5. Unstructured interviews: When the interview does not follow the formal rules or
procedures. It is called an unstructured interview. The discussion will probably be free
flowing and may shift rapidly form on subject to another depending on the interests of the
interviewee and the interviewer.
6. Counseling interviews: This may be held to find out what has been troubling the
workers and why someone has not been working.
7. Disciplinary interviews: Disciplinary interviews are occurring when an employee has
been accused of breaching the organization’s rules and procedures.
8. Stress interviews: It is designed to place the interviewee in a stress situation in order to
observe the interviewees reaction.
9. Public interviews: These include political parties’ radio-television and newspaper.
10. Informal or conversational interview: In the conversational interview, no
predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable a possible to
the interviewee’s nature and priorities; during the interview the interviewer “goes with
the flow”.
11. General interview guide approach: The guide approach is intended to ensure that the
same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee this provides more
focus than the conversational approach but still allows a degree of freedom and
adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee.
12. Standardized or open-ended interview: Here the same open-ended questions are asked
to all interviewees; this approach facilitates faster interviews faster interviews that can be
more easily analyzed and compared.
COMMUNICATION
13. Closed or fixed-response interview: It is an interview where all interviewers ask the
same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives.
This formal is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.
A set of questions for the interviews

 Question about the job and organization:
o Why do you choose the organization?
o Can you work independently?
o Would you work overtime if necessary?
o When could you start work?
 Questions about ambitions:
o Why did you take up this career?
o What do you look for in your job?
o Would you like to enter management?
o Will you be able to work in this job for 5 years?
 Questions about hobbies and interests:
o What do you do in your leisure time?
o How long have you been interested in this hobby?
o Are you attending any part-time job at present?
o Is there any course you wish to attend?
o What are your greatest strengths and weaknesses?
 Situation question:
o You have an urgent piece of business after work but your employer asks to stay
late. What will you do?
o What would you do? If you realize that your employer has left for an overseas
business leaving some important documents.
o Entering into your room, you found your desk broken. What will you do? Etc.
Anticipate questions for the interview process:
It is difficult to list the questions that might be actually asked at an interview. However, we give
below a sample of possible questions that are asked during the employment interview:
1. What is your name?
2. Please brief us your academic background shortly?
3. What is your future plan?
4. How do you spend your spare time?
5. In what type of positions are you most interested?
6. Why do you think you would like to work for our company?
7. What jobs have you held? How were they obtained and why did you have?
8. What courses did you like best? Why?
9. Why did you choose this particular field of work?
10. What do you know about our organization?
11. What qualification do you have that make you feel that you will be successful?
12. What salary do you expect to receive for this job?
13. Do you prefer any specific geographic location?
14. How much money do you hope to earn at age 25, 35?
15. How did you rank in your graduating class?
16. What do you think determines a person’s progress in a good company?
17. What personal characteristics are necessary for success in your chosen field?
18. Why do you think you would like this particular job?
COMMUNICATION
19. Are you looking for a permanent and temporary job?
20. Do you prefer working with others or by yourself?
21. What kind of boss do you prefer?
22. Can you take instructions without felling upset?
23. How did previous employers treat you?
24. Do you like routine work?
25. What is your major strength and weakness?
26. Do you have an analytical mind?
27. How long do you expect to work?
28. What size city do you prefer?
29. Will you fight to get ahead?
30. Moreover the employer asks the questions about word work experience, education and
training, leadership, initiative, persistence, motivation and communication skills etc.
APPRAISAL
Employees need to know how well they’re communicating and dealing with others so that they
can effectively carry out their responsibilities and meet their short-term and long-term objectives.
Ironically, some managers have difficulty communicating assessments in these two areas,
especially when it comes to written comments. The managers are concerned that their feedback
on communication won’t be communicated clearly, and they worry that providing feedback on
interpersonal relations will actually strain the working relationships instead of improving them.
When written comments focus on vague and general trends and themes, these outcomes are the
most likely.
Written and Verbal Communication
Exceptional: Consistently exceeds expectations

 Is a master of written communication
 Is the go-to person when others need help with writing
 Has the most readable writing in the company
 Keeps e-mail messages on target and to the point
 Has clear, direct, and concise writing
 Writes without grammatical errors
 Creates reports and documentation that are consistently outstanding
 Is a compelling speaker
 Says more by saying less
 Actively listens to others
 Thinks before he talks
 Uses captivating language
 Gives highly organized presentations
 Is a superb public speaker
 Is totally comfortable in front of a group
 Is known as the company wordsmith
 Is a great debater
 Is a great communicator
 Is an enthralling speaker who easily holds the attention of others
 Reads other people well
 Senses when others are on data overload and when they need more information
Excellent: Frequently exceeds expectations
 Has very readable writing
COMMUNICATION
 Hits the perfect level of detail
 Writes to the point, rather than around it
 Is a gifted writer
 Has raised the writing in her department to a new level
 Sets the standard for excellent business writing
 Proofreads carefully
 Carefully crafts all his writing
 Is always well organized with her written work
 Selects the appropriate writing style for different readers and situations
 Holds the interest of others in his writing
 Is a clear and articulate communicator
 Has an outstanding vocabulary, but never overdoes it
 Generates a great deal of interest whenever she speaks
 Communicates easily with everyone
 Is an excellent writing coach
 Effectively reads subtle cues and body language
 Is smooth without being slick
Fully competent: Meets expectations
 Is confident and comfortable with writing projects
 Is at ease and effective in front of a group
 Prepares thoroughly before making presentations
 Communicates easily with employees at all levels
 Is not inclined to talk for the sake of talking
 Is a good listener
 Uses words effectively and economically
 Is clear and informative when speaking or writing
 Avoids excessive use of jargon
 Writes with very few grammatical errors
Marginal: Occasionally fails to meet expectations
 Uses a writing style that can be difficult to understand
 Hasn’t shown interest in becoming a better writer
 Procrastinates on projects that involve writing
 Sends e-mail messages that are unclear
 Writes too much on every project
 Has writing that lacks adequate detail and specificity
 Doesn’t listen carefully enough, and communication suffers as a result
 Speaks without organizing his thoughts
 Provides too much detail
 Doesn’t provide enough detail
 Uses e-mail style for formal written business communications
 Needs to listen more and talk less
Unsatisfactory: Consistently fails to meet expectations
 Writes with numerous grammatical errors and typos
 Takes a long time to get to the point
 Ignores punctuation
 Is a grammatical nightmare
 Tends to ramble
 Tends to mumble
 Uses inappropriate terms and expressions
 Is insensitive to others in her comments
 Is unaware of messages that his body language is sending
COMMUNICATION
 Produces work that always needs significant editing
 Often uses the wrong words
 Rushes when writing, and it shows
 Doesn’t pay attention to the cues and body language of others
 Doesn’t listen
REWARD
 Reward has a key role to play in employee engagement, but many employees
underestimate the full value of their reward package. Employers could therefore be losing
out on the full benefit of the investment in their employees.
 In many cases, a communication exercise could ensure that employees are fully briefed
on what pay and benefits are available to them, and what those benefits are worth.
 Below, we have highlighted a number of issues that you should think about when putting
together a reward communications plan.
1. Set aside a budget
 This is often overlooked, but is likely to represent only a small proportion of the overall
spend on pay and benefits. For only a small investment, employers may be able to make a
big difference to how employees perceive the value of their pay and benefits.
2. Identify your audience
 Employees will be the key audience for pay and benefits communications, but employers
should also bear in mind anyone who may have a role in delivering the communication,
such as line managers and HR.
 It may also be beneficial for the employer to segment its audience, in order to tailor the
communication to suit different groups. There are several ways of doing this, for example
by level of interest in the subject, or by attitudes and behaviours.
3. Choose your communication media
 There are numerous different ways to communicate with employees, but employers
should consider what they are trying to achieve when choosing the most appropriate
method – posters are good for generating general awareness, for example, but leaflets are
better for passing on more detailed information. Organisations will also need to decide
how creative they want their communication campaign to look – and maybe draft in help
from a consultancy with this.
4. Plan your communications
 The communication plan will need to fit in with other key pay and benefits milestones
throughout the year, such as the annual pay review, flexible benefits enrolment window
and the bonus date. Employers should put these dates into a calendar, along with the
messages they want to communicate and how they will go about it.
COUNSELLING
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (9th Edition) gives at least two definitions of counselling, which
appear to be conflicting, adding to potential confusion:
 “give advice to (a person) on social or personal problems, especially professionally.”
and
 “the process of assisting and guiding clients, especially by a trained person on a
professional basis, to resolve especially personal, social, or psychological problems and
difficulties.”
Counselling is:
COMMUNICATION
 The process that occurs when a client and counsellor set aside time in order to explore
difficulties which may include the stressful or emotional feelings of the client.
 The act of helping the client to see things more clearly, possibly from a different view-
point. This can enable the client to focus on feelings, experiences or behaviour, with a
goal to facilitating positive change.
 A relationship of trust. Confidentiality is paramount to successful
counselling. Professional counsellors will usually explain their policy on confidentiality,
they may, however, be required by law to disclose information if they believe that there is
a risk to life.
Counselling is Not:
 Giving advice.
 Judgemental.
 Attempting to sort out the problems of the client.
 Expecting or encouraging a client to behave in a way in which the counsellor may have
behaved when confronted with a similar problem in their own life.
 Getting emotionally involved with the client.
 Looking at a client's problems from your own perspective, based on your own value
system.
Counselling Skills
 Communication skills are obviously of utmost importance to counsellors, we have lots
of further pages covering these skills including: active listening, clarification, reflection
and effective questioning skills.
 The counsellor will attempt to build a certain amount of rapport with their client, but not
to an extent that would allow them to become emotionally involved.
 Counsellors need to be empathetic, seeing things from the client’s point of view, rather
than sympathetic (feeling sorry for their clients). Empathy can help the counsellor to ask
appropriate questions and lead the client to positive conclusions.
Basic communication skills
Since counselling is a conversation or dialogue between the counsellor and client, the counsellor
needs certain communication skills in order to facilitate change.
The counsellor needs the following basic communication skills to do effective counselling:
1. Attending

Attending refers to the ways in which counsellors can be “with” their clients, both
physically and psychologically. Effective attending tells clients that you are with them
and that they can share their world with you. Effective attending also puts you in a
position to listen carefully to what your clients are saying. The acronym SOLER can be
used to help you to show your inner attitudes and values of respect and genuineness
towards a client (Egan.)
 S: Squarely face your client. Adopt a bodily posture that indicates involvement with your
client. (A more angled position may be preferable for some clients - as long as you pay
attention to the client.) A desk between you and your client may, for instance, create a
psychological barrier between you.
 O: Open posture. Ask yourself to what degree your posture communicates openness and
availability to the client. Crossed legs and crossed arms may be interpreted as diminished
involvement with the client or even unavailability or remoteness, while an open posture
can be a sign that you are open to the client and to what he or she has to say.
 L: Lean toward the client (when appropriate) to show your involvement and interest. To
lean back from your client may convey the opposite message.
COMMUNICATION
 E: Eye contact with a client conveys the message that you are interested in what the client
has to say. If you catch yourself looking away frequently, ask yourself why you are
reluctant to get involved with this person or why you feel so uncomfortable in his or her
presence. Be aware of the fact that direct eye contact is not regarded as acceptable in all
cultures.
 R: Try to be relaxed or natural with the client. Don't fidget nervously or engage in
distracting facial expressions. The client may begin to wonder what it is in himself or
herself that makes you so nervous! Being relaxed means that you are comfortable with
using your body as a vehicle of personal contact and expression and for putting the client
at ease.
 Effective attending puts counsellors in a position to listen carefully to what their clients
are saying or not saying.
2. Listening
Listening refers to the ability of counsellors to capture and understand the messages clients
communicate as they tell their stories, whether those messages are transmitted verbally or
nonverbally.
Active listening involves the following four skills:
 Listening to and understanding the client's verbal messages. When a client tells you his or
her story, it usually comprises a mixture of experiences (what happened to him or her),
behaviours (what the client did or failed to do), and affect (the feelings or emotions
associated with the experiences and behaviour). The counsellor has to listen to the mix of
experiences, behaviour and feelings the client uses to describe his or her problem
situation. Also “hear” what the client is not saying.
 Listening to and interpreting the client's nonverbal messages. Counsellors should learn
how to listen to and read nonverbal messages such as bodily behaviour (posture, body
movement and gestures), facial expressions (smiles, frowns, raised eyebrows, twisted
lips), voice�related behaviour (tone, pitch, voice level, intensity, inflection, spacing of
words, emphases, pauses, silences and fluency), observable physiological responses
(quickened breathing, a temporary rash, blushing, paleness, pupil dilation), general
appearance (grooming and dress), and physical appearance (fitness, height, weight,
complexion). Counsellors need to learn how to “read” these messages without distorting
or over interpreting them.
 Listening to and understanding the client in context. The counsellor should listen to the
whole person in the context of his or her social settings.
 Listening with empathy. Empathic listening involves attending, observing and listening
(“being with”) in such a way that the counsellor develops an understanding of the client
and his or her world. The counsellor should put his or her own concerns aside to be fully
“with” their clients.
Active listening is unfortunately not an easy skill to acquire. Counsellors should be aware of the
following hindrances to effective listening (Egan, 1998):
 Inadequate listening: It is easy to be distracted from what other people are saying if one
allows oneself to get lost in one's own thoughts or if one begins to think what one intends
to say in reply. Counsellors are also often distracted because they have problems of their
own, feel ill, or because they become distracted by social and cultural differences
between themselves and their clients. All these factors make it difficult to listen to and
understand their clients.
 Evaluative listening: Most people listen evaluatively to others. This means that they are
judging and labelling what the other person is saying as either right/wrong, good/bad,
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acceptable/unacceptable, relevant/irrelevant etc. They then tend to respond evaluatively
as well.
 Filtered listening: We tend to listen to ourselves, other people and the world around us
through biased (often prejudiced) filters. Filtered listening distorts our understanding of
our clients.
 Labels as filters: Diagnostic labels can prevent you from really listening to your client. If
you see a client as “that women with Aids”, your ability to listen empathetically to her
problems will be severely distorted and diminished.
 Fact�centred rather than person�centred listening: Asking only informational or factual
questions won't solve the client's problems. Listen to the client's whole context and focus
on themes and core messages.
 Rehearsing: If you mentally rehearse your answers, you are also not listening attentively.
Counsellors who listen carefully to the themes and core messages in a client's story
always know how to respond. The response may not be a fluent, eloquent or “practised”
one, but it will at least be sincere and appropriate.
 Sympathetic listening: Although sympathy has it's place in human transactions, the “use”
of sympathy is limited in the helping relationship because it can distort the counsellor's
listening to the client's story. To sympathise with someone is to become that person's
“accomplice”. Sympathy conveys pity and even complicity, and pity for the client can
diminish the extent to which you can help the client.
3. Basic empathy
 Basic empathy involves listening to clients, understanding them and their concerns as
best as we can, and communicating this understanding to them in such a way that they
might understand themselves more fully and act on their understanding (Egan, 1998).
 To listen with empathy means that the counsellor must temporarily forget about his or her
own frame of reference and try to see the client's world and the way the client sees him or
herself as though he or she were seeing it through the eyes of the client.
 Empathy is thus the ability to recognise and acknowledge the feelings of another person
without experiencing those same emotions. It is an attempt to understand the world of the
client by temporarily “stepping into his or her shoes”.
 This understanding of the client's world must then be shared with the client in either a
verbal or non-verbal way.
Some of the stumbling blocks to effective empathy are the following:
 Avoid distracting questions. Counsellors often ask questions to get more information
from the client in order to pursue their own agendas. They do this at the expense of the
client, i.e. they ignore the feelings that the client expressed about his or her experiences.
 Avoid using clichés. Clichés are hollow, and they communicate the message to the client
that his or her problems are not serious. Avoid saying: “I know how you feel” because
you don't.
 Empathy is not interpreting. The counsellor should respond to the client's feelings and
should not distort the content of what the client is telling the counsellor.
 Although giving advice has its place in counselling, it should be used sparingly to honour
the value of self�responsibility.
 To merely repeat what the client has said is not empathy but parroting. Counsellors who
“parrot” what the client said, do not understand the client, are not “with” the client, and
show no respect for the client. Empathy should always add something to the
conversation.
 Empathy is not the same as sympathy. To sympathise with a client is to show pity,
condolence and compassion - all well�intentioned traits but not very helpful in
counselling.
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 Avoid confrontation and arguments with the client.
4. Probing or questioning
Probing involves statements and questions from the counsellor that enable clients to explore more
fully any relevant issue of their lives. Probes can take the form of statements, questions, requests,
single word or phrases and non-verbal prompts.
Probes or questions serve the following purposes:
 to encourage non-assertive or reluctant clients to tell their stories
 to help clients to remain focussed on relevant and important issues
 to help clients to identify experiences, behaviours and feelings that give a fuller picture to
their story, in other words, to fill in missing pieces of the picture
 to help clients to move forward in the helping process
 to help clients understand themselves and their problem situations more fully
Keep the following in mind when you use probes or questions:
 Use questions with caution.
 Don't ask too many questions. They make clients feel “grilled”, and they often serve as
fillers when counsellors don't know what else to do.
 Don't ask a question if you don't really want to know the answer!
 If you ask two questions in a row, it is probably one question too much.
 Although close-ended questions have there place, avoid asking too many close-ended
questions that begin with “does”, “did”, or “is”.
 Ask open-ended questions - that is, questions that require more than a simple yes or no
answer. Start sentences with: “how”, “tell me about”, or “what”. Open-ended questions
are non-threatening and they encourage description.
5. Summarising
It is sometimes useful for the counsellor to summarise what was said in a session so as to provide
a focus to what was previously discussed, and so as to challenge the client to move forward.
Summaries are particularly helpful under the following circumstances:
 At the beginning of a new session. A summary of this point can give direction to clients
who do not know where to start; it can prevent clients from merely repeating what they
have already said, and it can pressure a client to move forwards.
 When a session seems to be going nowhere. In such circumstances, a summary may help
to focus the client.
 When a client gets stuck. In such a situation, a summary may help to move the client
forward so that he or she can investigate other parts of his or her story.
6. Integrating communication skills
Communication skills should be integrated in a natural way in the counselling process. Skilled
counsellors continually attend and listen, and use a mix of empathy and probes to help the client
to come to grips with their problems. Which communication skills will be used and how they will
be used depends on the client, the needs of the client and the problem situation.
GRIEVANCES
Grievance procedure is a formal communication between an employee and the management
designed for the settlement of a grievance.
The grievance procedures differ from organization to organization.
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1. Open door policy

2. Step-ladder policy
Open door policy:

 Under this policy, the aggrieved employee is free to meet the top executives of the
organization and get his grievances redressed. Such a policy works well only in small
organizations. However, in bigger organizations, top management executives are usually
busy with other concerned matters of the company. Moreover, it is believed that open
door policy is suitable for executives; operational employees may feel shy to go to top
management.
Step ladder policy:
 Under this policy, the aggrieved employee has to follow a step by step procedure for
getting his grievance redressed. In this procedure, whenever an employee is confronted
with a grievance, he presents his problem to his immediate supervisor. If the employee is
not satisfied with superior’s decision, then he discusses his grievance with the
departmental head. The departmental head discusses the problem with joint grievance
committees to find a solution. However, if the committee also fails to redress the
grievance, then it may be referred to chief executive. If the chief executive also fails to
redress the grievance, then such a grievance is referred to voluntary arbitration where the
award of arbitrator is binding on both the parties.
REPRIMANDS
ORAL REPRIMAND
 The Oral Reprimand is the least severe form of formal discipline. Prior to the Oral
Reprimand, the supervisor should meet with a member of the Employee Relations
Services team to discuss the situation and determine the appropriate course of action. A
Record of Oral Reprimand Form should be completed and the supervisor should have a
meeting in private with the employee. The supervisor should inform the employee that
this is an oral reprimand; should cite the specific standard of conduct being violated;
explain the necessary corrective action; and advise the employee of possible future action
if the problem is not corrected. The supervisor should have the employee sign the oral
reprimand form to acknowledge receipt, not agreement with the action, and should send a
copy to Employee Relations for inclusion in the employee's personnel file.
WRITTEN REPRIMAND
 A written reprimand is a more severe form of discipline. Prior to the written reprimand
the supervisor should meet with a member of the Employee Relations Services team to
discuss the situation and determine the appropriate course of action. Employee Relations
will assist the supervisor in preparing and writing the written reprimand. The supervisor
informs the employee in writing of the specific offense(s) warranting disciplinary action
and states in the written reprimand that further disciplinary action may occur if the
problem is not corrected. The supervisor should meet in private with the employee to
discuss the disciplinary action. The supervisor should inform the employee that this is a
written reprimand; should cite the specific standard(s) of conduct being violated; explain
the necessary corrective action; and advise the employee of possible future action if the
problem is not corrected. The supervisor should have the employee sign the written
reprimand to acknowledge receipt, not agreement with the action, and should send a copy
to Employee Relations for inclusion in the employee's personnel file.
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SUSPENSIONS
 A suspension is a severe form of discipline usually following one or more written
reprimands or as a result of a very serious offense. Suspension is an action taken by the
University to temporarily relieve the employee of duties and place the employee on leave
without pay. Prior to the proposed suspension the supervisor should meet with a member
of the Employee Relations Services team to discuss the situation and determine the
appropriate course of action. Employees receive written notice of a suspension from the
President, Provost or Vice President to whom the employee reports. The notice shall
include the specific action taken, the specific offense for which the employee is being
suspended; the reason for the suspension; the dates of the suspension; the consequences if
the offense is repeated; and the right to file a grievance (grievance form). The supervisor
should have the employee sign the suspension to acknowledge receipt, not agreement
with the action, and should send a copy to Employee Relations for inclusion in the
employee's personnel file.
TERMINATIONS
 Termination is the final and most severe form of discipline. Prior to the proposed
termination the supervisor should meet with a member of the Employee Relations
Services team to discuss the situation and determine the appropriate course of action.
Employees receive written notice of a termination from the President, Provost or Vice
President to whom the employee reports. The notice shall include the specific action
taken, the specific offense for which the employee is being terminated; the reason for the
termination; the effective date of the termination; and the right to file a grievance
(grievance form). The supervisor should have the employee sign the written reprimand to
acknowledge receipt, not agreement with the action, and should send a copy to Employee
Relations for inclusion in the employee's personnel file.
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MEETINGS
 A meeting is a group communication in action around a defined agenda, at a set time, for
an established duration. Meetings can be effective, ineffective, or a complete waste of
time. If time is money and effectiveness and efficiency are your goals, then if you arrange
a meeting, lead a meeting, or participate in one, you want it to be worth your time.
 Meetings can occur face-to-face, but increasingly business and industry are turning to
teleconferencing and videoconferencing options as the technology improves, the cost to
participate is reduced, and the cost of travel including time is considered. Regardless how
you come together as a team, group, or committee, you will need to define your purpose
in advance with an agenda.
Meaning of meeting: Generally meeting means an occasion when people come together to
discuss or decide something. Meeting member to get together and discuss about a problem or
issue or a special matter. It is also defined as a situation in which two or more people meet
together in order to take decision. It is an effective and important tool in the communication
process. Meeting enables face to face contact of a number of people at the same time. Many
meetings take place in business organization. Some definitions of people at the same time. Many
meetings take place in business organization.
Some definitions of meetings are as follows:
 According to Denyer, ”Company means an organized assembly of persons according to

law for transaction of business of common interest.”
 According to Thill and Bovee, “Meetings are called to solve problems or share
information’s.”
So, meeting is a situation in which two or more people meet together for formal group discussion
about a specific problem, issues, predetermined topic.
Advantages of meetings:
In the business organizations meetings are used for a variety of purpose. There are some
advantages of meeting which are stated below:
1. Democratic process: Meeting is a democratic process of taking decision. None can
blame other for the decision because it is taken in presence of all the members.
2. Improve decision: Improve decision can be taken through meeting. Because every
matter is discussed pros and cons and nothing is left over unconsidered. Proverb says
”Two heads are better than one.”
3. Participative management: Participative management can be materialized through
meeting. Al the departmental heads and supervisors may sit together for taking decision.
4. Help in co-ordination: Meeting can help for co-coordinating the work as a whole
because all the parties or members are presented in the meeting.
5. Covey information to a large gathering: Meeting can convey information for all
departments. Besides the presented members exchange their views, idea, opinion and
feeling at a large gathering.
6. Others: Provide necessary information to a group of people, report on some incidents or
activities, create involvement and interest, formulate policies etc.
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Disadvantages of meetings:
There are some limitations and disadvantages of meeting. These limitations and disadvantages are
discussed below:
1. Time consuming: Meeting takes much time to take decision. We know that to hold a
meeting is very time consuming.
2. Costly: It is too much expensive. Because the company has to decorate the conference
room, pay the T.A. and D. A. to the members, pay for cards etc.
3. Formalities: There are many formalities to hold on a meeting. Agenda, minutes,
regulations are needed for a valid meeting.
4. Difficult to control: Sometimes it becomes very difficult for the speaker or chairman to
control over the meeting because proverb says, “Many men many minds.”
Preconditions of a valid meeting:
A valid meeting should have the following elements:

1. Legal objectives: Any meeting must have legal objectives. Meetings on illegal or
unethical purposes cannot be valid in the eye of law.
2. Convened by proper authority: A valid meeting should be contended by the proper
authority of the company.
3. Serving proper notice in proper time: Notice of a meeting must be served timely by
maintaining rules and regulations of the companies act.
4. Presence of authorized persons: To make a meeting valid person who is entitled to
present in a particular type of meeting should be present in the meeting.
5. Presided over by a chairman: A valid meeting should be presided over by a chairman
who will be selected by the members.
6. Specific agenda: A detail agenda should be prepared before the meeting and the meeting
should be operated by following agenda.
7. Quorum: Quorum is the minimum number of persons that must be present in the meeting
to make it valid.
Types of company meetings
Several types of meetings take place in the business organizations. Especially the company
meetings can be shown by following diagram:
1. SHAREHOLDERS MEETING: When the meeting is held with the shareholders of the
company it is called shareholders meeting.
 Statutory meeting: According to company laws, after getting the letter of commence, the
company arranges a meeting after one month of six months. This is the first general
meeting of the company and during the life of the company this type of meeting held
once. The company gives the circular before 21 days of the meeting. The decisions of the
meeting are called statutory decision.
 Annual general meeting: After registration of the company, the company is bound to
invites the first general meeting with in eighteen months. Then the general meeting will
be held in every year. The differences of the two general meeting cannot be more than
fifteen months. The decisions of the meeting are called general decision.
 Extra-ordinary general meeting: If necessary of the company this type of meeting can
be held on any time. The director or some shareholders can invite this meeting one tenth
of the shareholders may give the requisition to the Board of directors to arrange this type
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of meeting. After getting the requisition of the board of Directors fail to arrange a
meeting with in twenty one days, the shareholder can invite the meeting within three
months. The decision taken by the meeting is called special decision.
2. DIRECTORS MEETING: When the meeting is held among the directors of the company it is
called directors meeting. It is classified into two parts. They are:
 Board meeting: According to article of association. The board of directors meeting is
called Board Meeting. If nothing about this type of meeting in the article of association,
then by Table- A rules of the company law this type of meeting can be held on.
According to rules of company law the company is bound to arrange the meeting once in
one month and at least four times within a year the Quorum: is filled up by 3/1 rd of the
directors present or at least two directors present. Each director is preserved one vote and
if any case the directors vote can be divided equally, then the president give the casting
vote and take the decision.
 Committee meeting: According to article of association the Board of Directors
sometimes make special committee to complete in any special work among some
directors of the company. This committee member sometimes meets together for
coordinating the work properly. This type of seating is called committee meeting
3. SPECIAL MEETING: For any special situation, when the meeting is arranged by the
company, it is called special meeting. The types of the special meetings are as follows:
 Class-meeting: The Company has different kinds of shares. When the meeting is
arranged by any one kind of shareholders it is called class meeting.
 Creditors meeting: The directors or their appointed lower can invite this type of
meeting. Moreover this type of meeting may be arranged by the order of the court. If
necessary to reconstruct or to dissolve or to any amalgamate the company to preserve the
rights of the creditor this type of meeting is invited by their proper authoritative person.
The creditors who will be present in the meeting or the presence of three-fourth credit
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holders of the total credit can take the decision and the court will give the instruction on
the basis of this decision and the creditors are bounded to abide by the decision.
Essentials of a valid meeting | Conditions of valid meeting

Requirement or essentials of a valid meeting or, necessary conditions of a valid meeting:
There must be some requisites in order to validate the meeting. The necessary pare-conditions of
a valid meeting are stated below:
1. Right convening authority: A valid meeting must be convened by the proper authority
otherwise it wills loss its validity. Company’s secretary is the proper authority to call a
formal meeting.
2. Proper notice: Duty signed notice must be submitted to members before meeting. The
place of meeting, time and date must be stated on the notice.
3. Proper publicity of agenda: Every member of the meeting should be properly informed
of the agenda.
4. Legal purposes: Every meeting must have a legal purpose. Any meeting should be
properly informed of the agenda.
5. Requisite quorum: For valid meeting requisite quorum is necessary. The meeting should
not be stared until the requisite members of member s are resent.
6. Presence of right persons: Only legal members can present in the meeting. If there is an
unauthorized person in the meeting, the meeting will lose its validity.
7. Proper presiding officer: The chairman of a valid meeting must be a proper person.
8. Conducting meeting according to the agenda: A valid meeting must be conducted
according to the agenda. No decision will get validity, if it is not related to the agenda.
Role or function or duties of chairmen of a meeting:
In all types of meetings, you have the following responsibilities as a presiding officer.
 Arranging the time and place
 Preparing and serving an agenda.
 Calling the meeting to order on time
 Making clear the purpose of the meeting
 Keeping the discussion on course
 Controlling over enthusiastic members
 Electing contributions from each member
 Creating a good atmosphere
 Summarizing the discussion form time to time
 Working to end the meeting on schedule
 Thanking to the members
Secretarial work relating to statutory meeting
1. Functions before the meeting:

 Maintaining time for statutory meeting,
 Preparing statutory statement or report,
 Drafting a notice for the meeting,
 Collecting the auditor’s certificate,
 Selection the place of the meeting,
 Preparing agenda of the meeting,
 Listing the name of members who will attend the meeting,
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 Calling on board of directors meeting,
 Preparing final notice of the meeting.
 Serving the notice to the concerned members.
2. Functions at the meeting:
 Determining the quorum of the meeting,
 Stating or reading the agenda,
 Supply of the necessary explanations,
 Giving the explanations,
 Writing the rough minutes
3. Functions after the meeting:
 Preparing final minutes and resolutions,
 Submitting the statutory report
What is notice? |
A notice is a written or an oral statement that contains the particulars of holding a meeting. When
a circular is served among the members of the meeting to attend the meeting, it is called a notice.
It is letter of invitation that carries the request to the members to attend a meeting. A notice
includes time, place, date and agenda of a meeting. The notice should be sent by the proper
authority in due time so that the members can attend the meeting in time.
So, notice is formal written or formal information, notification or warning about a fact or an
invitation to the concerned person for attending the meeting.
Essential elements or factors of a valid notice:
The essentials or elements or factors of a valid notice are given below:

1. Signature: The notice must be signed by the proper authority. Only the legal authority
should serve the notice.
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2. Proper time: The notice must be served in proper time. It should be circulated according
to the rules and regulations of the company or the organization.
3. Time date and place: The time, date and place of the meeting must be stated in the
notice.
4. Unconditional: There must be no condition or complexity in the notice about attending
meeting. Always a notice is unconditional.
5. Agenda: Agenda means topics to be discussed in a meeting. A valid notice should
contain the agenda of the meeting.
6. Conciseness: The notice must be short in size. It should be clear, simple and easy.
7. Proper persons: Notice should be served to the proper persons who are entitled to attend
the meeting.
8. Enclosure: An explanatory statement should be sent with the notice.
Specimen of notice:
Notice of statutory meeting of a company
Eastern Jute Mails Ltd.
102, New York C/A
New York-1000
Date: March 20, 2013
NOTICE FOR STATUTORY MEETING
Notice is hereby given that the statutory meeting of the company will be held on March 30, 2012
at 12 p.m. in the registered office of the company according to the section ……………. Of
company Act. 1994.
Concerned shareholders are requested to attend the meeting.
Mr. John
Secretary
On behalf of the board Of directors.
Notice of the meeting of the board of directors
Supto and Co. Ltd.

12 KDA- New York
New York- 9002
Date: March 10, 2013
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NOTICE OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTOR’S MEETING

Dear Sir,
Being authorized I am informing you that the second meeting of the Board of Directors will be
held at the head office of the company on March 20, 2013 at 10 a.m.
You are duly requested to attend the meeting.
Sincerely yours
John
Secretary
Agenda:
1. ……………………………
2…………………………….
3……………………………
AGENDA
Agenda means things to be done. It is usually sent along with the notice of the meeting. It is a list
of the topics to be discussed in a meeting.
Sometimes the agenda is prepared after the circulation of the notice in order to include the
member’s opinion. If the subject matter of the meeting is secret, the agenda may not be
circulated. Some definitions of agenda are as follows:
 According to Rajendra pal and Korlahalli, “Agenda is document that outlines the
contents of a forth coming meeting.”
So, agenda is an items or issues prepared by the secretary and which are to be discussed or
transacted in a forth coming mitten.
Features or characteristics of agenda:
The features of agenda can be state as follows:

1. Generally, agenda is sent along with the notice of the meeting.
2. It is written at the end but before or after the signature of the convener of the meeting.
3. It is arranged according to the importance of the end.
4. Controversial topics should be written at the end.
5. The topics are determined by the secretary with consulting the higher authority or the
convener of the meeting.
6. It written in brief but explicit manner.
Specimen of Agenda:
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Importance or necessities of agenda:

Agenda is the explicit topics to be discussed in a meeting the members. No one can ignore the
importance of an agenda. The necessity or importance’s of an agenda are as follows:
1. As it is circulated in advance, the members of the committee or meeting can take

preparation to discuss the topics accurately.
2. It helps to take prompt decision.
3. Since it has a set of order, it helps the chairperson to conduct the meeting smoothly.
4. It can ensure covering all the topics that will be discussed in a meeting.
5. It helps to control the unnecessary talking in the meeting.
6. It is helps to write the minutes and resolution of the meeting.
7. As it is served earlier, the members of the meeting can exchange their thought and ideas
informally before holding the meeting.
What is minute? |
 Minute is an official written statement of the motions and resolutions taken in a meeting.
It is brief but a complete record of all discussions held among the members of the
meeting. It is also defined as the official record of the proceeding of a meeting that
should be needed to approve by the participating members of the meeting.
 An accurate written record of meetings is essential not only for all those who attended the
meeting but also for those who were unable to attend. Some definitions of minute are as
follows:
 According to Rajendra Pal and Korlahalli, “Minutes are the official records of the
proceedings of meeting.”
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 So, minutes are the brief and complete official written record of all discussion which is
held among the members of the meeting.
Types of minute:
Generally the minutes of a meeting can be divided into two groups. They are the follows:
1. Minutes of narration: These minutes will be a concise summary of all discussions which took
place, reports received, actions to be taken and decisions made. It includes:
 Names of the participating members.
 Name of the proposer and supporter.
 Discussion summary. Resolutions.
2. Voting pattern etc.Minutes of resolution: Minutes of resolution means the written statement
of the decisions that have been taken and approved by the participating members of the meeting.
Only the main conclusions which are reached at the meeting are recorded in minutes of
resolution. These are usually used for minutes of AGMs and other statutory meeting.
 Example: Purchase of photocopier- the company secretary submitted a report from the
administrative manager containing full details of the trial of the AEZ photocopier. It was
resolved that the AEZ photocopier be purchased at a cost of $250
Difference between agenda and minute:

Both agenda and minutes are the important documents of a meeting. But they differ from each
other in respect of the following points:
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Factors considered in drafting minute:
The following factors should be considered in drafting minutes of a meeting:
1. Name and address of the organization

2. Name of the meeting
3. Date, time and venue of the meeting
4. Name of the chair person
5. Name and signature of the participating members
6. Serial number
7. Following of the rules and structure of minutes
8. Name of the prosper and supplier of resolutions
9. Number of regret letters
10. Easy and understandable language
11. Divisions
12. Proper data
13. Signature of the president
Strategies for Effective Meetings
You want an efficient and effective meeting, but recognize that group communication by
definition can be chaotic and unpredictable. To stay on track, consider the following strategies:
 Send out the last meeting’s minutes one week before the next meeting.
 Send out the agenda for the current meeting at least one week in advance.
 Send out reminders for the meeting the day before and the day of the meeting.
 Schedule the meeting in Outlook or a similar program so everyone receives a reminder.
 Start and end your meetings on time.
 Make sure the participants know their role and requirements prior to the meeting.
 Make sure all participants know one another before discussion starts.
 Formal communication styles and reference to the agenda can help reinforce the time
frame and tasks.
 Follow Robert’s Rules of Order when applicable, or at least be familiar with them.
 Make sure notes taken at the meeting are legible and can be converted to minutes for
distribution later.
 Keep the discussion on track, and if you are the chair, or leader of a meeting, don’t
hesitate to restate a point to interject and redirect the attention back to the next
agenda point.
 If you are the chair, draw a clear distinction between on-topic discussions and those that
are more personal, individual, or off topic.
 Communicate your respect and appreciation for everyone’s time and effort.
 Clearly communicate the time, date, and location or means of contact for the next
meeting.
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OTHER IMPORTANT TERMS
Constitution: A set of rules and regulations which govern the organisation. These have
been accepted by members during the inaugural (very first) meeting. The
constitution is that which prescribes to the members how they must
behave and which decisions are legally binding.
The Quorum: A minimum of members, as prescribed by the constitution, must be
present during a meeting before a legally binding decision may be taken.
Voting on issues, therefore, presupposes that the prescribed minimum
number of members should be present (before any legally binding
decision may be made.)
The Chairperson: This person presides at the meeting. The chairperson’s duty is to
maintain order during the meeting and to control the procedure. The
chairperson's role is to run meetings in a way that encourages decisions.
The chairperson should allow fair and open discussion of matters and
stick to the agenda, so that decisions can be made. If there is no
committee, the owners corporation chairperson must be a lot owner.
The Secretary: The role of the Secretary is to support the Chair in ensuring the smooth
functioning of the Management Committee. In summary, the Secretary
is responsible for: Ensuring meetings are effectively organised and
minuted. Maintaining effective records and administration.
The Treasurer: The main duties of a treasurer are to oversee the financial
administration of the organisation, review procedures and financial
reporting, advise the board on financial strategy, and advise on
fundraising. A treasurer is in charge of the organisation’s financial
matters.
Proposal: This is a suggestion made by someone during the meeting. If a proposal

is given to be discussed before the meeting, then we call it a motion. A
motion becomes a resolution when the motion is either accepted or
rejected.
Ad hoc Committee: During a meeting, it may become clear that certain issues have to be
attended to. The appointment of members on the committee is then done
on a temporary basis: they are expected to conduct investigations into the
matters and then report back to the members at another meeting after the
completion of the investigation.
Voting: It is sometimes necessary to vote ( to reach a decision on a matter).
Voting procedures have their own terminology:
Ballot: Voting in secret, either by ballot (putting votes in a ballot- secretly- or
voting anonymously.
Deadlock: Sometimes a situation rises where equal numbers of votes are for and
against a proposal.
Casting vote if a deadlock exists, then the chairperson may have the casting vote, in
other words, the deciding vote.
Nemine despentiente:(nem.dis) No one disapproves of a motion, everyone approves of
it: this is called unanimous approval.
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Nemine controdicente:(Nem.con.): No one votes, against the motion but a few people
abstain from voting.
Abstain: To refuse to vote.
Proxy: The permission given to a person by another member (who cannot be
present at the meeting) to vote on his behalf.
Resolution: Agreement by a majority of the members at a meeting on a motion – this
agreement may be positive or negative (for or against the motion).
Unanimous; When all members vote in favour of a motion.
Motions each item to be discussed will have a proposal, normally called a motion
to which members will speak. A motion is a proposal put forward for
discussion and decision at a meeting. It can be in writing before the
meeting or may be a proposal during the discussion.
Changes motions may be changed before they are voted upon by amendment or
addendum. An amendment is a proposal to alter a motion which has
been submitted to a meeting e.g. by adding, inserting or deleting words
of the original motion.
Addendum: is the addition of words to a motion and is treated in the same way as an
amendment.
Closure: End of a meeting.
Guillotine ruling: This is a specific time restriction placed on a discussion of a proposal or
the time given to a speaker or on the actual duration of a meeting.
In camera: When the proceedings for a meeting take place behind closed doors. It is
of a sensitive, confidential nature.
Attendance Register: The actual record of numbers attending a meeting.
Point of order: The chairperson has to decide if a member’s contribution to the meeting
is in line with the constitution or relevant to the point on the agenda.
Verbatim: The exact words of a speaker.
Second: To second a proposal, means that another person agrees with the
original proposal, necessitating the meeting’s attention to the matter.
Precedent: When something that occurred in the past is used as a basis for future
actions.
Suspension: The prohibition of a member from taking part in the activities of an
organisation.
Honorarium: An honorarium is paid to any person for recognition of duties performed
during a year, e.g. the treasurer, for accounting duties.
Status quo: The current situation.
Ex officio: the authority which a person has as result of his or her position.
Adjournment: When a meeting is closed before all the topics on the agenda have been
discussed, the discussion, however, will resume after a break. This is not
an official closure.
Co-option being invited to join the deliberations of a meeting, but not allowed to
vote.
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TYPES OF MEETINGS
a) Public meeting - every member of the public is allowed (to discuss, e.g. political issues.)
b) Private meeting – Only the members of the organisation are allowed to attend the
meeting.
c) Management Meetings (command meetings) – are attended only by management;
general meetings are attended by members of staff on a regular basis (annually, weekly,
monthly) and on special occasions (special meetings).
d) Committee meetings are attended only by members serving on a specific committee.
Meetings are governed by the following:
Common Law: Common law refers to the unwritten laws which are applied by the courts
as just, It is common law that a quorum must be present before a decision
made during a meeting can be legally binding; it is also common law that
members must be notified of forthcoming meetings.
Constitution: The rules and regulations which govern the organisation and its meeting
procedures are known as the constitution.
The following is expected from:

The chairperson: He she plays a key role in the success of the meetings: The chairperson
should therefore be tactful, diplomatic, sincere, a good communicator
and above all a respectable leader. The main function of the chairperson
is to maintain order during the meeting.
Secretary: The secretary must be well organised and attend to matters such as the
venue for the meeting, the drafting of the notice and agenda and taking
down the minutes of the meeting, The secretary should therefore, be well
skilled in communication,
NOTICES, AGENDA AND MINUTES
1. NOTICE
A notice can be formal or informal.
MUTARE POLYTECHNIC
Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education
NOTICE OF A MEETING
Notice is hereby given of a monthly academic board meeting. It is to be held in the

boardroom on the 21st of June 2012 at 0900 hours.
The minutes of the meeting held on the 20th of May 2012 are attached.
C Gatsi
Chairwoman
Cell: 0772 950 037
10 June 2012
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Notice of a monthly meeting is given above. If you are requested to write the notice of an annual
meeting, then it is obvious that you’ll replace monthly with annual.
Below is the agenda of the monthly meeting. N.B points 1-7 on the agenda are standard for most
meetings for all organisations. Points 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3 are specific “new Business” matters
pertaining to the specific organisation. Points 8 and 9 are standard.
AGENDA
1. Attendance Register.
2. Apologies.
3. Opening and Welcome.
4. Finalisation of the agenda.
5.Minutes of meeting held on 20 May 2012
6. Matters arising.
7.New business:
7.1 Symposium and Miss Poly
7.2 Main Graduation
7.3 MOTION; That the Symposium invitation letters to High Schools be
sent to the Regional offices of Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture
Offices.
PROPOSAL: Ms G Sithole
SECONDED: Ms T Mawoyo
8. Date of next meeting.
9. Closure.
The main parts of an agenda for a standard meeting are BELOW

Meeting Agenda Elements
Term Definition
Title, time, date, location, phone number, e-mail contact, and any other
Title Header
information necessary to get all participants together.
Participants Expected participants
Subject Line Purpose statement
Call to Order Who will call the meeting to order?
If everyone is new, this is optional. If even one person is new, everyone should
Introductions
briefly introduce themselves with their name and respective roles.
Roll Call This may quietly take place while introductions are made.
Notes from the last meeting are read (if applicable) with an opportunity to
Reading of the
correct. These are often sent out before the meeting so participants have the
minutes
opportunity to review them and note any needed corrections.
Term Definition
List any unresolved issues from last time or issues that were “tabled,” or left
Old Business
until this meeting.
New Business This is a list of items for discussion and action.
This is optional and applies if there are subcommittees or groups working on
Reports
specific, individual action items that require reports to the group or committee.
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Term Definition
Good of the This is the time for people to offer any news that relates to the topic of the
Order meeting that was otherwise not shared or discussed.
Note time, date, place meeting adjourned and indicate when the next meeting is
Adjournment
scheduled.
BUSINESS LETTERS
The letter that contains business related issues and information is called business or commercial
letter. It refers to the letter in which business people or person exchange information with various
business firms, customers, suppliers, employees, banks, insurance, companies, government
agencies, business associations with aimed at selling or buying goods, obtaining information,
placing orders, making inquiry etc and other related issues. Some important definitions of
business letter are given below:
 According to Hanson, “The letters which are exchanged among businessmen connected
with business affairs are called business or commercial letters.”
 According to M. Omar Ali, “Any letter designed and directed to the exchange of
information connected with trade and trade related activities is known as a business
letter.”
 According to W. J. Weston, “Business letter is the process of accomplishing a business
transaction in written form.”
So, Business letter refers to formal written letter where business related issues and information is
exchanged with the suppliers, customers, clients, banks, insurance companies, government
agencies or other external parts of the organization.
Essentials of a good business letter
The following are some of the important characteristics of a business letter.
1. Well defined objectives: There is an old saying an aimless ship never able to reach the
destination. In case of business letter-a letter without specific objectives is meaningless. Thus
to be effective business leaders need to have well defined objectives.
2. Contact information: The header of the business letter includes the senders name, phone
number, address and email address, which may be left or right justified or centered at the top
of the page. This is followed by the date the letter was sent, which in turn is followed by the
“inside address.” The inside address contains the recipient’s name, job title and company
address.
3. Benefits: Discuss the benefits offer to the receiver or customer before the nuts-and-bolts
basic information. Benefits to the customer could be tangible, such as saving money and
having more choices in service packages or intangible but still more choices in service
packages, or intangible but still valuable, including gaining peace of mind.
4. Brief description: Any business letter must be short. The significance of a short letter is that
the person reading the letter must understand the significance of the letter in the minimum
possible lines. This is usually done in order to save time and energy of the receiver of the
letter.
5. Definite structure: The structure or main text of a business letter is typically divided into
three sections: the introduction, the body and the closing. Introductory paragraphs should be
brief and explain the letter’s intent. The body should elaborate on that intent and may include
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facts and statistics, descriptions and or explanations. The closing should thank the recipient
for his time and include a ”call to action,” which indicates the next step in the communication
process, such as a phone call or a scheduled meeting.
6. Positive approach: The writer has to be optimistic regarding the achievement of the goal.
Thus throughout the letter a positive tone must be present. Positive approach not only helps to
convince the reader but also express the confidence of the writer.
7. Courtesy: The tone of the letter is another very important aspect of the letter. The letter must
sound polite, courteous and firm. The letter should also sound convincing the must have a
polite tone.
8. Coherence: Factually the business letter must be relevant and the facts and thoughts should
be presented in a very systematic manner.
9. You-attitude: To ensure effective writing the writer should put himself or herself in the
reader’s place and then try to realize how the reader will respond to the letter. The ‘you
attitude’ emphasis on the readers rather than the writer. Example of you-attitude is as follows:
I or we attitude: I will give you a 10 % discount. You-attitude: You can get a 10 % discount.
10. Clearness: A business letter must be readable and clear. If the reader of a business letter fails
to understand the message, it will matter little to him. So the messages of the letter must be
clear in meaning.
11. Relevance: One of the important qualities of a business letter is relevance. The writer of a
business letter should avoid the irrelevant matter that can vex the reader’s mind. So,
unnecessary words should be avoided.
12. Simplicity: A good business letter should be simple and easy. The writer of a business letter
should use simple language in drafting a letter so that the reader can easily understand the
meaning and significance of the letter.
13. Free from error: A business letter should be free from all kinds of errors. So, the writer
should be aware of spelling, grammatical sense and letter style in drafting a business letter.
14. Appropriate timing: Appropriate timing is one of the important qualities of a good business
letter. All letters must be sent and replied at the most appropriate time.
15. Clear concept: If the writer does not have a clear concept about the subject matter then it
will be very difficult on his or her part to make the subject matter understandable to the
reader.
16. Evaluation of the reader’s position: This is perhaps the most important thing that should be
taken into consideration to draft an effective letter. The attitude, cultural and religious
background, educational level, level of understanding etc. If the reader is likely to be different
from those of the writer. That is why to be successful the writer must try to get an idea about
the aforesaid aspects of the reader.
17. Accuracy or correctness: There is nothing painful than preparing a letter with wrong
information. It not only fail to achieve the goal but also detrimental for the goodwill of the
firm. Thus correctness of the message must be ensured.
18. Completeness: It means messages should be presented in such a way that helps the reader to
understand what the writer actually wanted to convey. Incomplete messages not only create
confusion but also can damage the mutual relationship.
19. Persuasion: To convince the reader or to motivate him or her to do some favor business
letters must be written in a persuasive tone.
20. Use of simple language: To be effective business letter should avoid the use of difficult
words and jargon’s. Simple and plain language should be used to clarify the message.
Business letters are often the common form of communication that people have in an
organisation. The basics of good business letter writing are easy to learn. The following guide
provides the phrases that are usually found in any standard business letter. This basic of business
letters are important because certain formulas are recognized and handled accordingly.
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TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTERS
INQUIRY LETTER
 A letter of inquiry is a request for information that the writer believes the reader
can provide. Regardless of its subject, the objective is to get the reader to respond
with an action that satisfies the inquiry.
 The action taken can benefit either the writer or the reader, and sometimes both.
That being the case, the scope must include enough information to help the reader
determine how best to respond.
 Make an inquiry when you are requesting more information about a product or service.
This type of business letter tends to include specific information such as product type, as
well as asking for further details in the form of brochures, catalogues, telephone contact,
etc. Making inquiries can also help you keep up on your competition!
How can inquiry letter be made effective?
A letter that asks information about persons, products or services or other matters is an inquiry
letter. The questions to be included in a good inquiry letter should be carefully planned.
Following are the suggestions for making inquiries effective.
1. Make questions specific, clear and courteous.

2. State each question in a separate paragraph and number the questions if appropriate.
3. Use a separate sheet of paper for listing the questions if they are in large number.
4. Carefully arrange the questions – generally with the easiest to answer sheet.
5. Word the questions in neutral way to that the reader is not influenced.
6. Word the questions to get more than ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer if details are needed.
7. Word the question to get ‘yes’, ‘no’ or ‘don’t know’ answers, if numerous questions are to be
tabulated.
8. Express confidence in the reader.
9. Assure secrecy.
KINDS OF INQUIRY LETTERS:
Inquiry letters fall in three categories:

1. Trade inquiry, 2. Status inquiry and 3. General inquiry
1. Trade Inquiry:-
A trade inquiry (or sales related inquiry) is written with the intention of making business deals
with the addressee. Such inquiry letters are written regarding products or services purchased or
being considered for purchase. The trade inquiries ask information about the supply of goods,
availability of goods, delivery time, leaflet or catalogue, quotations or price, method of transport,
insurance, samples and terms and discount, etc.
2. Status Inquiry:-
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Status inquiry is written to know the financial position of some individual or firm usually
prospective buyer. Inquiries about the character, qualifications, experience and performance of
the applicant for job or membership may also be termed as status inquiries.
3. General Inquiries:-
General inquiry is made to get information about rules and procedures used in other
organizations, government policies, market conditions etc. General inquiry may also seek
information for private or business research. For example a firm may receive injuries for various
data from students, teachers or executives of other organizations.
Specimen or Sample of business status inquiry letter

Specimen: John House, Washington, New York, has applied for credit purchase form Anna
Enterprise, 20, TUCSON AZ 85705 USA. In the letter, John House has mentioned the name of
Mr. Michel, Manager, Mahan Boutiques and Fabrics of Taxes, as reference. Write business status
inquiry letter on behalf of Anna Enterprise.
Anna Enterprise
(Wholesaler of Quality Fabrics)
20, TUCSON AZ 85705 USA
December 07, 2013
Mr. Michel
Manager
Mahan Boutiques and Fabrics,
Texas.
Sub: Inquiring the financial status of John House, Washington, New York.
Dear Mr. Michel,

Will you please respond to the following questions about John House, Washington, New York,
which has listed your name as a credit reference on its letter for credit purchase?
1. How long John House has a credit account with your company?
2. What is the credit limit you currently extend to them?
3. What is the maximum amount of credit you have ever extended to them?
4. Has it ever been delinquent in paying his dues?
I assure you that information provided by you will be treated confidentially. If you send answers
to the above questions with December 25, 2013 will be highly appreciated. We will be highly
glad to provide you any such help in future.
Sincerely,
(Mr. Michel Jackson)
Manager, Credit Division
Specimen of business status inquiry letter-Sample of business status inquiry letter
COMMUNICATION
Sample of reply letter to business status inquiry letter

Assume that you are the manager of Mr. Anna Trade International, 54, Washington, New York.
Mr. Michel Trading Agency, 302, TUCSON AZ 85705 USA has a letter to you inquiring the
financial solvency of John and company, 14/1, Taxes, Washington. Write a positive response to
this business status inquiry letter. (Favorable reply to the inquiry letter given in specimen).
Anna Trade International

54, Washington, New York
Phone: 914554656 Fax: 099-9152752568
Date: November 31, 2013
Manager
Mr. Michel Trading Agency
302, TUCSON AZ 85705
USA.
Subject: Reply to financial status inquiry of John and company, 14/1, Taxes, Washington.
Dear Sir,
Thank you for your letter of November 28, 2013. We have regular and satisfactory business
relation for long time with John and company, 14/1, Taxes, Washington about whom you have
sought information. They are doing business in this line since long ago with utmost sincerity and
honesty. Their financial capability and business goodwill are highly appreciable. Their business
dealings and payment records with us during the last several years can be held in high esteem.
You can supply them goods worth 1300$ on credit in a single consignment without any
hesitation.
We feel proud to provide information about the firm and we think our confidence on this firm
will never be misplaced. Expecting your business success.
Thanking you.
Sincerely yours.
(Mr. Jonson)
Sample of reply letter to business status inquiry letter

Contents or elements of reply letter to business status inquiry letter
COMMUNICATION
The particular answer business standing inquiry letter can be sometimes positive as well as
negative. Regardless of the characteristics associated with response is actually, its full of a
number of normal information as well as unique positive as well as negative view. This items are
likely to be a part of an answer to business standing inquiry letter:
 Acknowledging this notice from the inquirer. This means, acclaim with the notice
associated with request should be mentioned.
 Name, address along with points with the corporation regarding which usually
information is actually provided.
 Giving certain information as questioned through the inquirer. Data delivered should be
appropriate in addition to applicable whether it’s positive as well as negative.
 The particular replier must not fit his or her own assumptions while using the
information.
 Any affirmation producing this intention to never take any legal responsibility resulting
from long term orders while using the likely shopper.
 Requiring this enquirer to keep up secrecy with the information delivered.
 Offering warranty associated with providing additional help out with long term.
 Producing ache if the information delivered is going from the possible shopper.
 Making use of basic in addition to unambiguous words and phrases in addition to
paragraphs.
 Wanting inquirer’s business success along with thank you.
 Mentioning this name, location in addition to address with the information provider
SALES LETTERS
Sales Letters are used to introduce new products to new customers and past clients. It's important
to outline an important problem that needs to be solved and provide the solution in sales letters.
This example letter provides an outline, as well as important phrases to use when sending out a
wide variety of sales letters. It is a piece of direct mail which is designed to persuade the reader to
purchase a particular product or service.
It should:
• Have a clear and powerful headline

• Have an immediately clear benefit for the intended audience or target.
• Must build the readers’ trust
• Have the customer’s needs coming first, not your desire to sell something
• Be upfront and bold about promising a prize or a tangible reward in exchange for time
and attention
• Explain “WIFM” or “what is in for me”.
Before writing a sales letter one must acquire and analyse appropriate lists of targeted customers.
Replying to an Inquiry
Replying to inquiries is one of the most important business letters that you write. Customers who
make inquiries are interested in specific information, and are excellent business prospects. Learn
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how to thank the customers, provide as much information as possible, as well as make a call to
action for a positive outcome.
Account Terms and Conditions
When a new customer opens an account it is essential to inform them of account terms and
conditions. If you run a small business, it is common to provide these terms and conditions in the
form of a letter. This guide provides a clear example on which you can base your own business
letters providing account terms and conditions.
Letters of Acknowledgment
For legal purposes letters of acknowledgment are often requested. These letters are also referred
to as letters of receipt and tend to be rather formal and short. These two examples letters will
provide you with a template to use in your own work and can be easily adapted for a number of
purposes.
COLLECTION LETTER
Meaning of collection letter: Letters written for realizing payments from the debtors are known
as collection letters. The need for writing collection letters arises from credit sales. Selling on
credit is a traditional business policy that enhances volume of sales. Under the credit sales policy,
the sellers allow the customers a definite period for payment of dues. However, sometimes the
buyers make unexpected delay in paying their dues. Even, some custom stances, the sellers write
letters reminding and requesting the customers to pay the due bills. Instead of sending one letter
or repeated copies of the same letter, credit departments send a series of letters.
 In the opinion of Kitty O. Locker, “Collection letters ask customers to pay for the goods
and services they have already received.”
 Quibble and others defined, “Collection letters are used by an organization to entice its
charge customers to pay an outstanding charge-account balance.”
 Collection letters are written in a series. When collection letters are written in a series
beginning with a simple reminder and end with a warning letter indication legal action
the dues promptly by retaining the customers with the company.
Features of collection letter
Collection letters possess some distinct features that differentiate them from other business
letters. Some of the features of collection letter are as follows:
1. Parties involved: Buyer who buys on credit and seller are involved in collection letter.
Seller writes this letter to the buyer for payment of dues.
2. Series of letter: Collection letters are written in a series. The series includes remainder
letter, inquiry letter, appeal and urgency letter and warning letter.
3. Objective: The prime objective of writing collection letter is to realize the dues from the
customers.
4. Governing principle: The governing principle of the letter is to collect the dues by
retaining the customers with the company.
5. Referring the previous letter: When dunning letters are written in a series, every
subsequent letter mentions the reference of immediate earlier letter.
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6. Threat for legal action: The last letter of collection letter series warns the customer that
the matter has been handed over to the lawyers for taking necessary legal action.
7. Sent through registered post: The seller sends collection letter especially, the lat letter
of the series though registered with acknowledgement to avoid unnecessary delay, or
missing of the letter or denial from the part of the customer.
8. Language: The letter is written by using friendly, persuasive but straightforward
language.
Sample of collection letter | Specimen of collection letters
Polite First Reminder Letter for a Good Customer

Dear {client};
You have been a valued customer for many years, and you have always been
conscientious about paying your bills within the 30-day payment period. This is just a
reminder that your payment of {amount} for invoice # {0000} has not been received by
our office. If you forgot to mail us your payment, please send it today. If you have
already mailed your check, please disregard this notice.
As always, if you have any questions or problems feel free to contact us at {phone
number} or {email address}.
Sincerely,
{Your Name}
{Your Title}
Collection Letter - First Notice 30 Days Late

Dear {client};
We know that life can sometimes be difficult and staying on top of invoices is not always
easy. That’s why we wanted to send you a friendly reminder regarding invoice # {000} in
the amount of {$.00} that is currently past due. If you experienced an issue with your
order, please do let us know. If you have any questions regarding this invoice, please call
us at {phone} or contact us via {email}.
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We value your business and are here to help you. If your payment has already been
submitted, we thank you and please disregard this notice.
Sincerely,
{Your Name}
{Your Title}
Collection Letter - Second Notice 60 Days Late

Dear {client};
We hope that everything is going well for you and that you are enjoying the products that
we provided.
However, it has been two months now since we have received a payment and we are
wondering if there is some sort of problem we can help you with. Have you already put a
check in the mail to us in the amount of {$.00} for invoice # {0000}?
If not, please give this matter your attention today, since we want to be able to extend you
credit the next time you shop with us.
Of course, if there is some sort of problem, know that you can contact us at {phone
number} or {email} so we can help.
Sincerely,
{Your Name}
{Your Title}
Collection Letter - Third Notice 90 Days Late

Dear {client};
We show your account has a past due balance of {$.00} Previous attempts to collect the
balance have failed.
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Please call me immediately at {phone} to resolve the balance on your account and to
avoid having invoice # {000} referred to a collection agency. Your prompt attention is
required to resolve this issue.
Sincerely,
{Your Name}
{Your Title}
Collection Letter - Final Notice - Collections/Legal

Dear {client};
Your account is now seriously past due. We have sent you numerous payment requests
and still have not received your past due payment in the amount of {$.00}.
Please remit {$00} from invoice # {000} within three days or your account will be
closed, any outstanding orders will be cancelled, and this matter will be referred to a
collection agency.
Please call me within the next three business days at {phone} so that we may discuss how
to resolve this quickly.
Sincerely,
{Your Name}
{Your Title}
QUOTATION LETTER
 A letter of quotation is any letter written in reference to the price of a service or product.
 A formal statement of promise (submitted usually in response to a request for

quotation) by potential supplier to supply the goods or services required by a buyer,
at specified prices, and within a specified period. A quotation may also contain terms
of sale and payment, and warranties. Acceptance of quotation by the buyer
constitutes an agreement binding on both parties.
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 This could range from a customer or client requesting or accepting a quote, to the supplier or
service provider sending the quote amount.
 Either of these letters could be headed as a letter of quotation.
 For example you would write a letter of quotation to a ventilation company explaining your
situation and requesting a quote to complete the job.
 Because money is likely to be exchanged it is important for both parties to be clear about the
service or product in question and the terms of the agreement.
Letter of Quotation Request Sample
DESU, HEAD OFFICE

9/2, Surya Kiran Building,
New Delhi (India).
25/02/2016
M/s Popular Cables,

C-12/5, Sadar Market,
Delhi (India).
Dear Sirs,
You have previously supplied us cables and we should be glad if you would now quote
for the items named below, manufactured by Saru Cables. The cables we require are
listed in your Catalogue no. 24 and 38.
Catalogue No. Dimensions
No. 28.............3/2
No. 36.............3/41
No. 27.............7/20
No. 40...........1/40
Prices quoted should include packing and delivery at the above address.
While replying please state (i) discount, (ii) mode of payment, (iii) date of delivery
Yours faithfully,
K. Madan
(Manager)
COMMUNICATION
Letter of Quotation to Customer Sample
POPULAR CABLES
C-17/7, Sadar Market,
Delhi.
28/02/2016
DESU Head Office,

9/1, Surya Kiran building,
New Delhi.
Dear Sirs,
With reference to your inquiry of 19th Oct. 1996 for further supply of our cables, we are
pleased to quote at follows:
Cable Dimension Rs. Per Cable

3/2...................... 178 each
3/41.................... 120 each
7/20................... 238 each
1/40................. 140 each
These prices include packing and delivery charges.
We can deliver from our stock and will allow you a discount of 100% but only on items
in quantities of 200 or more. In addition, there shall be a cash discount of 5% on total cost
if payment were made within 45 days from the date of invoice.
We hope you will find these terms satisfactory and look forward to your order.
Yours faithfully
Satrajit Jana
(Manager)
COMMUNICATION
ORDER LETTER
 An order letter, also known as a purchase order or PO, begins the paper trail of a
specific purchase. The objective is to provide the vendor with detailed instructions
for fulfilling an order. It also serves as a legal record of the transaction and,
consequently, should be written with care. Is a document that confirms the details
of a purchase of goods or services from one party to another. It usually includes
more information about what you are ordering, like quantity, model number, or
color, the payment terms, and the matter in which the products are to be shipped.
When the recipient receives this letter, they will process the order and send the
merchandise.
Placing an Order
As a business person, you will often place an order - especially if you have a large supply chain
for your product. This example business letter provides an outline to make sure your order
placement is clear so that you receive exactly what you order.
What are main points of a good order letter?
Mention the circumstances under which an order letter needs reply.
An order letter needs to be correct, complete and definite so that the reader may fill it exactly.
Incompleteness or errors may mean further correspondence, shipping delays, complicated billing,
repacking and reshipping and loss of business.
Therefore, a good order letter should:
1. Include full details of quantities, prices, colors, sizes etc.

2. Quote catalogue number if any.
3. State the requirements as to delivery – date, place, mode of transport etc.
4. Confirm the terms of payment agreed in preliminary negotiation.
5. Refer to the enclosure of cheque, pay order or draft or samples or colour of material if any.
Replying of Orders:
Ordinarily order letters need to reply. But replies should be written under following circumstance.
1. When a customer requests for acknowledgement in confirmation of the order.

2. When an order is incorrect incomplete or vague.
3. When an order cannot be complied with.
4. When extra time is needed to fill the order.
COMMUNICATION
The letter that is written by a potential buyer to the seller requesting him to deliver goods is
known as order letter. By writing inquiry letters, buyers can collect necessary information about
the price, quality of goods and terms of sale. If the buyer finds the quoted price, quality of goods
and terms of sales satisfactory, he places an order to supply goods in his address. The seller
delivers the good according to the buyer’s order.
In modern time, sellers supply printed orders forms to the customers and customers place orders
by filling up those printed order blanks. In this case, the printed order sheet or blank is considered
as the order letter.
Factors to Be Considered In Writing Order Letter or, Contents of Order Letter

Through order letter, the potential buyers request the suppliers to deliver goods to them. In
modern time, printed order blanks or purchase order forms supplied by the seller are typically
used for placing orders. However, in absence of order blanks and purchase order forms, order
letters are written. Such letters contain three major categories of information:
 Information about the items being ordered;
 Information relating to shipping; and
 Information relating to payment.
1. Information about the items being ordered: An order letter must contain full particulars of
goods ordered. Such information include the followings:
 a. Product name
 Brand name
 Quantity
 Catalog number
 Model number
 Color
 Size
 Weight
 Unit price
2. Information relating to shipping: Shipping information is very important. In absence of
shipping information, there can arise misunderstanding between buyer and seller. Shipping
information may include the followings:
 Desired receipt date;
 Desired shipping location; and
 Mode of shipping (rail, road, or waterways).
3. Information relating to payment: Mode of payment of prices for the ordered items must be
clearly indicated. The seller will accept the order letter only when both of them come to a
common ground relation to payment of price. Payment information include the following:
 Mode of payment (cash, cheque, draft)
 Payment data
The above stated factors are usually included in order letter. However, the buyer can include any
other instruction or element if he thinks necessary.
Starting to Write
 Politely thank the buyer or client for their custom.

 Briefly outline the details of the transaction, such as the item model name, color
etc, the name of the buyer or client, their address if relevant, and the medium of
COMMUNICATION
payment. This is essentially a summary of the order to reassure the recipient that
everything is going smoothly.
 Provide contact information so the recipient can get in touch if there’s a problem.
Letter of Order Sample
Mancini Kitchen Equipment

Troy D. Mancini
4220 Straford Park
Harold, KY 41635
Dear Mr. Mancini,
We would like to purchase twenty two (22) individual stand mixers (Model #43423), all in the
color red.
We would like you to charge this purchase to the preexisting account that we have with you,
business account #543234.
We hope to receive this order no later than Friday, November 11th, 2009. Attached to this letter
please find our preferred shipping method and receiving address.
Please confirm that you received this order by calling us at 232-231-4563 anytime during
business hours, Monday to Friday.
Thank you for your cooperation

Keller Kitchen Co.
Letter of Order and Acknowledgment Sample
Hello Victor,
Thank you for your recent purchase from Furniture World. The team are currently working on
getting your item dispatched, and it should be with you within 5 working days.
Order Details
Order Number: 86675564
Mellow White Leather Sofa
Price Inc Delivery: $754
Payment Method: Credit Card
COMMUNICATION
Delivery Address:
8561 Honey Pioneer Autoroute, Burnt House, Wisconsin, 53091-3064
Note: Because this is a large item you will need somebody to sign for the delivery upon arrival
and to grant the drivers access to the property in order to position it somewhere convenient.
If you should have any problems or queries about this order please contact customer support on
(534) 872-9133, or via email at support@furnitureworld.us
All the best,

Furniture World
CLAIM LETTER
 When affected buyer writes a letter to the seller raising complaints and demanding
compensation, it is known as clam letter.
 Generally, a losing buyer writes claim letters to the seller.
 However, sometimes the buyer writes the letter to the transportation authority if any
damage is caused by their negligence.
 Again, seller or transportation authority may also write claim letter to the buyer claiming
their demand.
 , “A claim letter is a message designed to inform its recipient about the writer’s
dissatisfaction with a product or service.”
 “A claim letter is a request for adjustment. When writes ask for something to which they
think they are entitled refund, replacement, exchange, payment for damages and so on the
letter is called a claim letter.”
Mode of claims or Type of claims
Although claim letters are written for possible compensation or adjustment but the mode of
claims asked for are not always same. Depending on the nature of damage or loss, the buyer can
claim one or more of the followings:
 Partial or full refund of purchase price of the product or service.
 Future delivery of the products with correct items.
 Replacement of defective products.
 Repair of the damaged products.
 Reduction in the price.
 Credit the amount to purchase account.
 Cancellation of order or portion of order.
 Rescheduling the payment installments.
 Correction of error in bill.
Making a Claim
COMMUNICATION
Unfortunately, from time to time it is necessary to make a claim against unsatisfactory work. This
example business letter provides a strong example of a claim letter and includes important
phrases to express your dissatisfaction and future expectations when making a claim.
What are contents of claim letters?
A dissatisfied party may either discontinue business contact or may complain through a claim
letter. The former option can never be recommended. Complaint is basically unpleasant,
therefore, should be based on the following points:
1. Statement of claim, supported by facts and figures.

2. Indication of loss and inconvenience.
3. Request for explanation of the cause.
4. Emphasis on quick action.
5. Suggestion for reasonable adjustment.
6. Courteous and non-accusatory words.
Adjusting a Claim
ven the best business may make a mistake from time to time. In this case, you may be called upon
to adjust a claim. This type of business letter provides an example to send to unsatisfied
customers making sure that you address their specific concerns, as well as retain them as future
customers.
Sample of claim letter | Specimen of claim letter

SAMPLE: M/s. Anna cloth store, House no. 07, Road no. 14 North 302, TUCSON AZ 85705,
USA has purchased 2000 miters of suit cloths with a total cost of 12000$. Form Michel
enterprise. : M/s. Anna cloth store has returned the shipment as quality does not match with the
order specification. Write a claim letter to the manager, Michel enterprise, 20, Kualampur,
Malaysia. Claiming full refund of the purchase price.
M/s. Anna cloth store

House no. 07, Road no. 14 North 302,
TUCSON AZ 85705,
USA
November 27, 2013
Manager
Michel enterprise
(Wholesaler of quality fabrics)
20, Kualampur, Malaysia
Dear Manager,
On November 07, 2013 we purchased 2000 meters suit cloths. The quality of your shipment does not match
with our order specification. Since the use of low quality cloth will damage our business goodwill, we have
returned your shipment along with a request for cash refund of 12000$.
We believe that your company has deep concern for its customers. We are also convinced with the earlier
dealing of your company.
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Refunding the money within the next 10 days will be highly appreciated. We are looking for future
business.
Sincerely,
(Mr. Jonson)
Purchase Manager
Sample of claim letter
SAMPLE 2: The Bangladesh Commerce College, Road No 7, Uttara, Dhaka has purchased some
books from Jamuna Publishing Pvt. Ltd. Bangla Bazar, Dhaka. The publisher has sent older
edition of the books. Write a claim letter for replacing the books with the new edition.
The Bangladesh Commerce College

ESTD. 1992
Road No. 7, Uttara, Dhaka.
Phone————————
November 25, 2013
Manager
Jamuna Publishing Pvt. Ltd.
Bangla Bazar, Dhaka
Dear Sir,
In response to our November 10, 2013 order letter, you have sent the ordered books. You delivery
has reached to us on November 20, 2013. We have got all the books. But you have sent the older
edition of some books.
Books of older edition are being returned. We are requesting for replacing the books with 2013
edition.
Your replacing the books soon will be appreciated
Sincerely
(Mr. Jonson)
Principal
Specimen of claim letter
Suggestions for improving the effectiveness of claim letter | Characteristics of good claim
letter
A claim letter possesses the general qualities of a good commercial letter like completeness,
conciseness, use of easy and simple language etc. however, a good claim letter is one that has the
following characteristics:
1. Fair claim: An effective claim letter contains a realistic, fair and honest claim or request.
If the buyer makes any unfair claim, it proves his dishonesty. As a result business
relationship between buyer and seller may end.
COMMUNICATION
2. Showing confidence upon the seller: The buyer should be confidant that seller will
accept his claim. Such confidence will motivate the seller to settle the claim with due
consideration.
3. Free form anger: An effective claim letter never shows anger to the recipient. Anger or
antagonism reduces the chance of getting compensation.
4. Inclusion of facts courteously: A good claim letter states all relevant facts logically.
Courteously and impersonally. It includes neither exaggerated nor irrelevant facts.
5. Definite request: An effective claim letter makes a definite request. Such request may
be of the followings:
o Replacement of the product or service.
o Partial or full refund of the purchase price of the product or service
o Replacement of shipments
o Cancellation of an order or part of the order
o Correction of an error in bill
6. Free from guess and opinion: It is unwise to guess or to give opinion holding any
specific person responsible for the damage. The letter should be written impersonally and
the charge of detecting the responsible persons should be given to the seller.
COMPLAINT LETTER
What is complaint letter? | Cause of drafting complaint letter
 A complaint letter advises the reader of an error in a business transaction or a defect discovered
in a consumer product or service. The objective is to provide detailed information regarding the
error or defect and to serve as a legal document recording the writer's claim and the corrective
action or adjustment being requested.
Keep in mind that your reader is a trained customer service professional and not very likely to be
the person responsible for the error or defect. Rather than being angry, use a firm but courteous
tone when stating a complaint. Remember, you want results, not a fight.
The scope of a complaint letter should include only those facts that validate your claim and a
request that corrective steps be taken. It may also detail the options that you are willing to
accept in satisfaction of the claim.
The letter written for this purpose is known complaint letter.
 In business, occurrence of mistakes is common and natural even though the parties are
causations and careful. Some of the customary mistakes are supplying low quality
products, charging high prices, low quality packaging, damage of products due to poor
packaging etc. so complaint letter is drafted by the buyer mentioning the mistakes
occurred or claiming for the damage to the seller or to the transportation authority.
Cause of drafting complaint letter
After placing orders, customers expect that sellers will deliver the products accordingly. If the
seller fails to do so, customers write complaint letter. Such letter is usually written for the
following reasons or causes:
 Merchandise not received.
 Part of the merchandise not received
 The merchandise received was not received
COMMUNICATION
 Delivery of defective products
 Goods received in a damaged condition
 Quantity of good is not what was ordered
 Goods delivered to wring address
 Delivery of goods is delayed
 Impoliteness of office staff of the seller
 Delivery of mix-up products
 Clerical or book keeping errors
 Mistakes in the bill
 Charging high price
 Price included for goods returned
 Reminders for payment of bill already paid
 Poor quality of packaging
 Faulty insurance coverage
 Missing of products during transportation
 Carelessness of transportation authority
 Ignoring the provisions regarding brokerage, commission and discount
Factors to be considered while drafting complaint letter
A complaint letter should be written in a polite and considerate way by incorporating the
following factors or elements:
1. Specific cause of complaint: In a complaint letter, the customer should mention the
specific cause of complaint. This will help the seller to understand his fault and to take
necessary step for adjustment.
2. Nature of loss: Complaint letter must specify the nature and extent of damage caused in
terms of money, loss of sales, loss of service or goodwill.
3. Amount of loss: If any financial loss has to fault to the seller or transport authority,
actual amount of loss should be mentioned with supportive documents.
4. Possible remedy: A complaint letter should clearly indicate the probable remedies for
setting the complaint.
5. Avoiding assumptions: In the letter, the buyer should include only the actual event.
There should not be any assumption on the part of the buyer.
6. Courteous language: Language of complaint letter should be simple, easy, courteous
and friendly. However, its tone should be straightforward.
7. Documentary proof: Sufficient documents should be enclosed as proof of complaint.
Without necessary documents, the letter may have no value to the recipient.
8. Controlling anger: Though anger is a natural reaction of the affected buyer, it is not wise
to express anger. Rather, the buyer should make the complaint in a respectful and
considerate way.
9. Art of presentation: Complaint should be made artfully. That is the buyer should raise
the complaint in a way that does not hurt the seller. Artful presentation requires raising
the complaints passively rather than directly.
10. Mentioning preventive measures for future: For preventing the mistakes in future, the
buyer can suggest the seller some alternative course of actions.
Sample of complaint letter | Specimen of complaint letter
SAMPLE 1: M/s. Anna Food Products Ltd. has placed an order on December 05, 2013 to Mr.
Michel Flour Mills Ltd. For 2000 bags of flour to be sent within December 15, 2013. Mr. Michel
Flour Mills has accepted the order but the delivery of shipment was delayed for 3 (three) days, for
COMMUNICATION
the a complaint letter to the Manager, Mr. Michel Flour Mills Ltd. 10, Washington, New York,
for the delay.
M/s. Anna Food Products Ltd.

302, TUCSON AZ 85705,
USA
December 20, 2013
Manager
Michel Flour Mills Ltd.
10, Washington, New York
Dear Manager,
We have placed an order on December 05, 2013 for 2000 bags of flour to be sent within
December 15, 2013. You have sent an order acknowledgement letter and promised to deliver the
shipment within the stipulate time. But it is unfortunate that the actual delivery was delayed for
03 (Three) days.
Due to your delay in sending the shipment, we could not maintain promise with our customers.
Recurrence of this problem will force us to business elsewhere.
We expect that you will take the matter seriously and will take necessary step to prevent its
recurrence. We are looking for future business.
Thanking you,
(Mr. Jonson)
Manager
Sample of complaint letter
COMMUNICATION
Sample of complaint letter 02
SAMPLE 2: M/s. Anna enterprise, House no. 07, Road no. 14 North 302, TUCSON AZ 85705,
USA, is the seller of high quality local and foreign furniture for home and office. It has purchased
100 nos. office desks from Michel furniture Ltd. Kualalampur, Malaysia, on February 10, 2013.
After receiving the shipment, some of the desks were found defective. Write a complaint letter to
the manager of Michel furniture Ltd.
M/s. Anna enterprise

House no. 07, Road no. 14
North 302, TUCSON AZ 85705,
USA
February 25, 2013
Manager
Michel furniture Ltd.
Kualampur, Malaysia.
Dear Manager,
We have purchased 100 nos. of office desks on February 10, 2013 and the shipment reached to us
on February 22, 2013. After inspection of the shipment, we have found 20 (Twenty) defective
desks. Sale of the defective desks will have a negative impact on our reputation. Therefore, we
have kept those desks in the storeroom.
We believe that it was an inadvertent mistake and you will take necessary step to stop its
recurrence.
We are waiting for your decision regarding the defective desks.
Thanking you,
(Mr. Mr. Jonson)
Manager
Specimen of complaint letter
ADJUSTMENT LETTER
 Adjustment letter is a reply letter to the buyer’s complaint or claim. In other words, when
seller or transportation authority writes letter in response to the complaint or claim letter
of the buyer, it is known as adjustment letter. This letter informs the customer either
COMMUNICATION
acceptance or rejection of their complaints and claims. Acceptance of the claims may
take different forms such as simply regretting for the mistakes, or making correction to
the mistakes through payment of compensation. Reply to complaint letter plays a vital
role in enhancing the goodwill of a company and maintaining relationships with the
customers.
 An adjustment letter is a response to a written complaint. The objective is to inform the reader
that their complaint has been received. It is also a legal document recording what decisions were
made and what actions have or will be taken.
Keep in mind that your reader has been inconvenienced. This is a prime goodwill building
opportunity. Everybody makes mistakes and when a business owns up to one it goes along way
to renewing the customer's confidence in a continued business relationship.
The scope of your adjustment letter should reiterate the relevant facts of the claim. When the
customer is right, include a forthright admission to that effect and extend a sincere apology.
When the customer is not right, explain the reasons clearly and with every courtesy.
Counter any negativity that may be in the complaint letter with a positive approach. Be gracious
and emphasize the corrective steps being taken. Explanations for why the situation occurred are
of less importance than the solution.
 According to Murphy and Hilderbrandt, “An adjustment letter is the reply to a
compliant or claim letter”.
 Finally, we can say that an adjustment letter gives answer to the customer’s claim letter.
Though this letter, the seller notifies the customer whether his claim is granted or
rejected. Since this letter settles the claims of the customers, it is also termed as letter of
claim settlement. This letter helps to build and maintain goodwill with the customers.
 An adjustment letter is a reply to a complaint (claim letter). It is better to make
adjustment than to risk losing a customer. Complaints should not be discouraged, because
(1) they provide a means of discovering and correcting poor service, and (2) They
provide an opportunity to win back goodwill.
Analysis of Complaint:
In dealing with a complaint all related facts should be investigated to determine (a) whether the
complaint is justified and (b) whether, and how, adjustment is to be effected.
Justification of Complaint:
Experience proves that most of the complaints are justified. They are usually a result of fault on
the part of the seller or third party (transporter, etc.). A complaint is considered unfair when buyer
is at fault and the request is for undue advantage.
Grant of Adjustment:
A justified complain needs proper adjustment, e.g., refunding money, replacing merchandise,
performing additional service, admitting fault and assuring care in future, and taking rightful
action against third party responsible for the damage. Proper explanation is necessary if buyer is
at fault or complaint is based on misunderstanding.
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Adjustment Principles:
1. Answer promptly to avoid further complaint. When immediate adjustment is not possible, an
acknowledgement letter assures that the complaint is being conserved.
2. Give the customer the benefit of doubt by assuming that the customer is right, unless the facts
prove him/her wrong.
3. Accept blame gracefully when it is justified: to beg pardon or be unnecessarily humble is
considered poor acceptance that may result in loss of goodwill.
4. Be diplomatic, especially when the addressee is at fault or complaint is based on
misunderstanding. A diplomatic writer can say anything without insulting the reader.
Organizing the Adjustment Letters:
The ideas in an adjustment letter are ordinarily arranged as follows:
1. Conciliatory Statement:
 Expression of regret even if the customer is at fault or appreciation for having been
informed is an effective start of an adjustment letter.
2. Explanation of Facts:
 Explaining the facts relating to complaint, clarifying the position in case of
misunderstanding or indicating the customer’s fault (if any) should be the next step.
3. Statement of Adjustment:
 Grant of the adjustment (if any), suggesting a substitute for requested adjustment (when it
cannot be granted) or a mere acceptance of fault with assurance of taking care in future,
should be stated as the third step.
4. Statement of Goodwill:
 A last paragraph may be added (if appropriate) for rebuilding of goodwill and renewal of
business relations.
Factors to be considered while drafting Adjustment Letter Or, Contents of Adjustment

Letter
In drafting adjustment letter, the following points should be kept in mind so that in can convince
the affected buyer:
1. Acknowledging the claim letter: At the begging of the adjustment letter, seller should
acknowledge the claim letter of the customer and thank the customer for pointing out the mistakes.
2. Regretting for mistakes: Reply letter should regret for the mistakes and inconvenience of the
seller sincerely. If the seller is definitely at fault, he can apologize by saying,” I am sorry”, “We
apologize” etc.
3. Immediate reply: After receiving the complaint from the buyer, the seller should give its reply
immediately. Delay in reply may create further arrogance.
4. Granting immediate promise: If the customer demanded for something specific like a refund or
replacement, the seller should grant the promise immediately.
5. Assuring preventive measures: After receiving the claim from the customers, preventive
measures taken by seller should be indicated. Seller must also assure the customer that he will not
face any such inconvenience in future.
COMMUNICATION
6. Offering further cooperation: In order to promote goodwill of the company and sustain
relationship with customers, the seller should offer further cooperation and assurance of
satisfaction.
7. Convincing customer: If the claim of the customer is unfair, unreasonable and unjust, the seller
should not react violently. Rather, he should convince the buyer to consider the matter from the
seller’s angle.
8. Courteous and friendly language: The language of adjustment letter must be courteous and
friendly. Such language will cool down the anger of the buyer.
How to write a letter of adjustment
COVER LETTERS
Cover letters are extremely important when applying for a new position. Cover letters should
include a short introduction, highlight the most important information in your resume and elicit a
positive response from your prospective employer. These two examples of cover letters are part
of a larger section on the site providing all the information you will need on taking an interview
in English during your job search.
Think of a basic business letter in three steps:
1. Introduction - The reason for writing

The introduction helps the reader understand in which context the letter should be considered.
Possibilities include job interview inquires, business opportunity requests, complaints, and more.
Each type of business letter has its own standard phrases which you can find in this guide to
different types of business letters.
2. Details - What you would like to accomplish
COMMUNICATION
The detail section of a business letter is extremely important. This is where you achieve your
goals in writing a business letter.
3. Conclusion / Next Steps - What you would like to happen in the future
Provide a call for future action. This can be a chance to talk in person, a follow-up letter or more.
It's important and expected to make it clear what you would like for the next step from the person
reading your business letter.
a) The start of any business letter begins by addressing the recipient of the letter.
-Dear Personnel Director,

-Dear Sir or Madam: (use if you don't know who you are writing to)
-Dear Dr, Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms Mbona: (use if you know who you are writing to, and have a
formal relationship with - VERY IMPORTANT use Ms for women unless asked to use Mrs or
Miss)
-Dear Jill : (use if the person is a close business contact or friend)
Note: If you are unsure how formal you should be, always choose a more formal form. Writing to
a specific person is always preferred if at all possible.
b) The Reference
Begin by referencing a specific conversation or other contact means. If this is the first letter in
a conversation, you can also provide the reason for writing.
-With reference to your advertisement in the Times, your letter of 23 rd March/ or your phone
call today,
-Thank you for your letter of March 5 th.
c) The Reason for Writing

I am writing to:-
... inquire about ...
apologize for
... confirm
... comment on
... apply for
Examples:
I am writing to inquire about the position posted in The Daily Mail.
I am writing to confirm the shipment details on order # 2346.
I am writing to apologize for the difficulties you experienced last week at our branch.
Once you have introduced the reason for writing your business letter, move on to stating more
specifically the purpose of your letter.
Here are a number of possibilities:
1. Requesting e.g. Could you possibly forward your job requirements?

I would be grateful if you could
2. Agreeing to Requests e.g. I would be delighted to...............
3. Giving Bad News e.g. Unfortunately/ I am afraid that I will be able to attend the conference
next week.
4. Enclosing Documents e.g. I am enclosing/ Please find enclosed/ Enclosed you will find
5. Closing Remarks e.g.Thank you for your help, Please contact us again if we can help in any
way / there are any problems/ you have any questions.
COMMUNICATION
6. Reference to Future Contact e.g. I look forward to / hearing from you soon/ meeting you
next Tuesday/ seeing you next Thursday.
a) The Finish
Yours faithfully, (If you don't know the name of the person you're writing to)
Yours sincerely, (If you know the name of the person you're writing to)
Best wishes/ Best regards, (If the person is a close business contact or friend)
SAMPLE LETTER (Here is a sample letter using some of these forms)
Mutare Polytechnic
P O Box 640
Mutare
Tel:
Fax:
Email: Emman @cheese.com
October 23, 2016
Garwe Restaurant
P.O Box 3240
Eastlea
Harare
Dear Ms Mvukwe:
With reference to our telephone conversation today, I am writing to confirm your order for: 120 x Cheddar
Deluxe Ref. No. 856
The order will be shipped within three days via UPS and should arrive at your store in about 10 days.
Please contact us again if we can help in any way.
Yours sincerely,
Nyaradzai Mazaiwana
DELIVERY LETTER
Director Garwe Restaurant
The _______
(designation),
_______________
(company).
COMMUNICATION
Subject: Acknowledgement Letter for Receiving Goods
Dear Sir,
It is to inform you that I acknowledge the receiving of goods by your company. The slip
and invoice has been checked. All the goods are passed from the session of checking and
no defect have been found.
The number is items is proper and without any doubt. Under signatory is grateful for your
punctuality.
Warm Regards,
Name:________
Signature:_______
Designation:_______
Date:_________
COLLECTION LETTER
Businesses would not run if everybody had money for everything that s/he desired to
have. It is only because of money being available with someone that there are people who
fulfill their dreams. A Creditor may be a person or an institution or a bank that offers the
facility of giving money as loan to be paid back with interest. A Debtor on the contrary is
a person or an organization that takes the money for its business or any other
requirement.
A creditor usually writes a Collection Letter to her/his debtor. This letter is written when
a payment is either due or overdue. It could also be just a simple reminder Collection
Letter for the debtor.
Written notification of the pending amounts, meant to prod past-due customers to make a
payment. Collection letters are sent usually one after another, with the tone and language
getting more direct with each successive letter, until at least some payment is received.
An effective letter of collection achieves its purpose without destroying the customers'
goodwill that was painstakingly acquired over the years. Also called dunning letter. Not
to be confused with collection letter.
DOS AND DON’T’S OF COLLECTION LETTER
COMMUNICATION
 A Collection Letter should be written well before the payment due date so that it
gives enough time to the debtor to arrange for the funds
 It should be short and brief
 The letter should only talk about the current payment due or about any pending
payments only
 Even though the creditor writes this letter, the tone of the letter should not be rude
or insulting or humiliating or threatening. The creditor must not forget that the
debtor has taken money under some compulsions
 The language of the Collection Letter should be simple and easily understandable
 It should clearly give the deadline by when the payment needs to be made
 The letter must also have the date when the letter has been written to be able to
track it later
 Since it is a Collection Letter and it has a loan reference attached to it, the
reference number should also be mentioned in the letter to track the payment
history of that particular loan
 A Collection Letter is purely an official letter so it should always be typed
 There should not be any grammatical or punctuation errors
 Any repercussions for non payment should also be mentioned in the letter to
ensure transparency of communication
SAMPLE COLLECTION LETTER
_________________ (Name and address of debtor)
________________ (Date)
Subject: Reminder for collection against first installment
Dear Ms/Mr ___________
This is with reference to the loan that you have taken from our institution vide docket number
_____________ dated ____________.
We would like to inform you that your first installment is due on _________ (date) as per the loan
agreement. This is a payment collection reminder for the same.
Please let us know how and by when will the payment be made to us. Alternatively we can also
send our representative to collect the payment from you at a time convenient to you.
Just to reiterate that if the payments are not received before the due dates, we will have to take
legal action.
We hope to have a pleasurable business relationship with you.
Best regards,
(Name of signing authority)
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Related Letters:
Factors to be considered in writing collection letter
Collection letters are written in series. Each successive letter comes stronger in tone. However,
letters should be written in such a way so as to collect the dues promptly by maintaining
relationships with the customers. A thorough consideration of the following factors may help the
seller to achieve the goal of writing collection letters:
 Expressing regret: In collection letter, the seller should regret that the account of the
customer is still unsettled.
 Mentioning the dues: The amount of dues, due date of payment, terms of sales etc.
should be clearly included in the collection letter.
 Persuading the customer: In writing an effective collection letter, an attempt is to be
taken to persuade the customer to pay the bill promptly.
 Honour to the customer: The language of this letter should be courteous, polite and
gentle. It should be written in a motivating tone. No such word that can hurt the customer
should be used.
 Considering the nature of customer: In writing collection or dunning letter, focus
should be given on the particulars of customers like their previous dealings, position in
credit rating, goodwill, business honesty, size of business, present circumstance of the
customers etc.
 Mentioning the reference: If collection letter are written in a series, every subsequent
letter should mention the reference of the previous letter.
 Giving importance to the customer: In order to realize the dues, the seller needs to put
importance and value upon the customers. For doing so, the seller can use some
motivating words or phrases.
 Indicating legal action: If the customers do not pay the dues after sending reminder and
appeal letters, the final letter of the series should be written by indicating that necessary
legal action would be taken against them.
 Sending through post: The seller should send collection letters especially, the last letter
of the series through registered with acknowledgements. It helps to avoid unnecessary
delay or missing of the letter, or denial from the part of the customer.
Finally, we can conclude that the ultimate goal of a collection letter is to maintain goodwill
while getting overdue payment form the customers. Lack of concern about customer’s goodwill
cause them to do business elsewhere. Therefore, collection letter should always rely on the art of
persuasion.
MEMORANDUM
What is memo or memorandum?
Memorandum is popularly known as memo. The literal meaning of the word memorandum is a
note to assist the memory. Memos are the written internal communication means for exchanging
information relating to day-to-day functions within the organizations.
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 According to Lesikar and pettit, “Memorandum is a form of letters written inside the
business”.
 According to Stewart and Clark, “Memos are used to communicate with other
employees, regardless of where the employees may be located in the same organization.”
 According to S. Taylor, “Memo is a written communication form one person to another
(or a group of people) within the same organization.”
So, memorandum or memos are an internal short note or letter in which information exchanged
among superiors and subordinates or same potion of employees in the organizational structure.
Advantages of memo
We know memorandum serves various purposes. it is a common means of writer, communication

within the organization. The main advantages of memos are discussed below:
1. Time saving: We can see that may organizations use printed memo. As it is usually
printed, it takes less time to draft it.
2. Less formality: No formality is necessary in drafting a memo, usually inside address,
salutation and complimentary closing is omitted in it.
3. Maintenance good relationship: It can help to maintain the good relationship among the
boss and subordinates, because the bossing attitude is absent here.
4. Low cost: The cost of communication through a memo is less than those of others.
5. References: Memo is a written document. So, it can be used for future references.
6. Inform the decisions and actions: The main objective of memo is to inform the
decisions and actions. For this purpose, it should be written by the higher authority.
7. Request the decisions and actions: The objective of memo is to request the decisions
and actions. For this objective, it may be drafted by the sub-ordinate.
8. Provide information: Another important objective of the memo is to provide
information form one level to another within the business.
9. Remain someone of action: Memo is also written to remind someone of action, if
requires.
10. Others: Issuing orders and instructions, providing response, providing suggestions,
presenting informal report, solving problems.
Disadvantages of memo
There are few limitations or Disadvantages of memos they are:

1. Limited application: It is not widely used means of communication. Memorandum is
mainly used in business firms. It maintains communication only among the employees of
the same firm regardless of distance.
2. Time consuming: It takes time to be sent to a distant branch or office.
3. Expensive: As usually a memo is a per-printed form, it is expensive than other means.
Sometimes huge printed memos remain unused.
4. Lack of formality: It provides only informal communication.
5. Lack of explanation: Memo is written in a short form. So the meaning of it may not be
cleared to the reader.
6. Less important to the reader: As it is an informal means of communication, it can be
less important to the reader.
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7. Not suitable for illiterate people: Office memo is a one kind of written communication.
So, illiterate people are not able to read and understand it.
Guidelines for writing effective memos or drafting memos
In order to make interoffice communication easier, please adhere to the following guidelines for
Writing effective memos:
1. Summarize the conclusions in the introduction paragraph

2. State the basis for conclusion in the introductory paragraph
3. Begin each subsequent paragraph with a thesis statement
4. Support the thesis statement in the body of the paragraph
5. Be concise
6. Know the audience
7. Avoid jargon
8. Stay objective
9. Use active verbs
10. Anticipate counterarguments
11. Provide “road signs” as needed
12. Cite the sources
13. Number the pages
14. End with a concluding paragraph
DIFFERENT PARTS OF A BUSINESS MEMO | SAMPLE MEMO
1. The title “MEMO” or “MEMORANDUM”
2. The Heading:
 TO: [Reader’s name and job title]

 cc: [List others who are receiving copies]
 FROM: [Your name and job title]
 DATE: [Day, month, and year, spelt out]
 SUBJECT: [Topic of the memo]
o To: The name of the person or persons to whom the memo is being sent.
o cc: The name of person(s) receiving a copy (if appropriate)
o From: The name of the sender.
o Date: The date of writing memo is also important to take action in time.
o Subject: Short information of the memo.
o The subject is a brief statement telling what the memo is about.
o The subject line is not a complete sentence but rather a concise phrase which
indicates some specific information.
o In section ‘To’, a courtesy title – Miss, Mrs., Mr., Dr. is often included.
o But in section ‘From’ the write does not use a courtesy title.
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3. The message or body:

 Message is the main body of a memo.
 The message contains the following matters:
(a) Introduction: The message represents the main idea in the first paragraph. It is
called the background of the information. It should contain these key components of
a business letter: an opening that clarifies why the memo is being sent; -
(b) Details: In the second paragraph you should write details about information to
support the introduction. It should be logical and separate into paragraph. Details that
are needed for understanding or support of what is being presented or asked. -
(c) Response: It is called the action statement. In this paragraph you should state: action
you want to reader to take, Action you will take, Action that you are requested to
take, Dead line etc. Make clear what action is requested.
4. The Reference Initials

 Typed initials at the bottom of the page should be used to indicate who typed the
memo if that person is different from the person writing it.
5. Notations/ attachments
 If there is an attachment, it should be noted at the bottom of the page in the notations
part.
 If you refer to graphs, charts, policies, reports, minutes or other business documents
in your memo, attach them to the back of the memo.
 Include on the memo page a note at the bottom that one or more documents is
attached.
6. Your initials or Signature

 The person sending the memo should write his/her initials over or next to his/her
name in the ‘From’ part of the heading to document that it really came from him/her;
or, alternatively, the person may sign the memo at the bottom beneath the message. -
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RESUME | CURRICULUM VITAE |

Since the contents and layout of resume or curriculum vitae vary widely, there is no best way to
write it. However, depending in the background and career goal, there can be three formats of
resume. These are:
1. Chronological format resume: The chronological format is the most common way to
organize a resume, as most employers prefer it. In this format, work experience dominates the
arrangement of information. Work experience in usually placed after the opening section.
This format is suitable for experienced job seekers. In this format, employment information
like duration of employment, company name and job title etc. are listed by dates, chorological
format may be of two types:a. straight chronological order and b. reverse chronological
order.
2. Straight chronological order: In straight chronological order, experience is listed with the
sequence of date. That is the most recent employment is placed in the last. An example of
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straight chronological order of experience is shown below:
3. Reverse chronological order: In this approach, list of experience is given in the reverse way
where the most recent employment appears in the first. An example of reverse chronological
order of experience is show below:
4. Functional order: A functional resume or curriculum vitae focuses on the academic

qualifications, skills and accomplishments of the applicant. Therefore, academic
achievements, skills and accomplishments section appears at the beginning of the resume. It
is useful for candidates who have outstanding academic record and possess special skills for
performing a job. Fresh graduates who have little or no experience usually follow this format.
5. Combination approach: It is the combination of the previous two approaches. It combines

the best features of chronological and functional approaches. Combination approach
emphasizes on job skills and special capability that differentiate the application from others.
Therefore, this approach is suitable for persons whose job related skills and capabilities are
superior to academic attainments. It also lists company names and dates of previous
employments.
Contents of resume/ CV
Contents of resume: Contents and layout of resume or curriculum vitae vary widely. There is no
single best way to write resume. However, a factual and effective resume usually contains the
following contents:
1. Opening section: Opening section of a resume generally includes following two items:
o Identifying information: Identifying information includes name, contact address
(both present and permanent), e-mail address and telephone number of the applicant.
o Career objective: A modern resume includes a statement of immediate and long-
term career objective of applicant. This statement helps the employer to evaluate
what type of job the applicant likes. Career objective also helps the employer to
categorize the applicants.
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2. Education or academic qualification: This section of resume contains a list of degree
achieved along with name of the in situation granting the degree, year of obtaining the
degree, courses taken, position obtained etc.
3. Work experience: In this section, a list of employment and description of work experience
are incorporated by following a reveres chorological order. It mentions employer’s name and
location, duration of employment and position held.
4. Achievements and awards: This section includes school and community memberships,
offices held, honors, publications, language skills etc. of the applicant.
5. Personal data: Personal data include applicant’s age, religion, gender, nationality, marital
status, hobby, height, date of availability etc.
6. Reference: Most resumes mention references from which the employer can seek information
about the applicant. Generally, name of the former employers and teachers are mentioned as
reference.
Contents of resume
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REPORTS
-are fixed format documents. They are written as a result of instructions given to someone to
investigate and report on a problem.
A report is written for a clear purpose and to a particular audience. Specific information and
evidence are presented, analyzed and applied to a particular problem or issue. The information is
presented in a clearly structured format making use of sections and headings so that the
information is easy to locate and follow. When you are asked to write a report you will usually
be given a report brief which provides you with instructions and guidelines. The report brief may
outline the purpose, audience and problem or issue that your report must address, together with
any specific requirements for format or structure. This guide offers a general introduction to
report writing; be sure also to take account of specific instructions provided by your department.
Purposes or Objective of Business Reports
Reports are the primary means of communication in organization. In large-scale organizations,

there is no alternative to use reports. Reports also play an important role in small-scale
organizations. Some points highlighting the purposes or objectives or important of business report
are presented below-
1. Transmitting Information: Business report is very important for transmitting information
from one person to another or form one level to another. Although a manager can personally
collect required information in a small scale enterprise, it is not possible in the context of a
large scale organization. In the latter case, the managers rely on reports for obtaining
necessary information.
Interpretation and Explanation of event: Report provides interpretation and explanation of
information. As a result, readers can easily understand it.
2. Making decisions: A report is the basic management tool for making decisions. The job of a
manager is nothing but making decisions. Reports supply necessary information to managers
to solve problems.
3. Communication with external stakeholders: In addition to internal use, reports also
communicate information to the external stakeholders like shareholders, creditors, customers,
suppliers, government officials and various regulatory agencies. In the absence of formal
business report, such stakeholders would remain at dark about the organizations.
4. Development of information base: Reports also contribute to the development of
information base in organization. It develops information base in two ways. Firstly, day to
day information is recorded permanently for writing reports. Secondly, the written reports are
preserved for future reference. In these ways, reports help in developing a strong and sound
information base.
5. Developing labour management relationship: Reports also help to improve labour
management relationship particularly, in large organizations. In a large organization, there is
little opportunity of direct communication between top-level management and employees. In
this case, report is used as mechanism of keeping both sides informed about each other and
improving their relationships.
6. Controlling: Controlling is the final function of management. It ensures whether the actual
performance meets the standard. In order to perform the managerial function of controlling,
report serves as a yardstick. It supplies necessary information to impose controlling
mechanism.
7. Recommending actions: Reports not only supply information but also recommend natural
actions or solutions to problem. When someone is given the charge of investigating a
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complex problem and suggesting appropriate remedy, the investigator usually submits a
report to the concerned manger.
Above discussion makes it clear that reports are the commonly used vehicles that help mangers in
planning, organizing, staffing and controlling. In a nutshell, report is indispensable for carrying
out the management functions. Report is the nerve of an organization that circulates information.
The major purposes of reports are to -:

• Inform
• Record facts
• Persuade
• Help in decision making
• Recommend action
Reports are widely used in organisation for making decisions:
1. They should be based on careful research.

2. Clearly and logically written in an objective, impersonal style.
3. Constructed with the appropriate sections.
4. Well presented with high readability.
5. Written with a specific audience in mind.
Characteristics of Report
 Complete and Compact Document: Report is a complete and compact written

document giving updated information about a specific problem.
 Systematic Presentation of Facts: Report is a systematic presentation of facts, figures,
conclusions and recommendations. Report writers closely study the problem under
investigation and prepare a report after analyzing all relevant information regarding the
problem. Report is supported by facts and evidence. There is no scope for imagination in
a report which is basically a factual document.
 Prepared in Writing: Reports are usually in writing. Writing reports are useful for
reference purpose. It serves as complete, compact and self-explanatory document over a
long period. Oral reporting is possible in the case of secret and confidential matters.
 Provides Information and Guidance: Report is a valuable document which gives
information and guidance to the management while framing future policies. It facilitates
planning and decision making. Reports are also useful for solving problems faced by a
business enterprise.
 Self-explanatory Document: Report is a comprehensive document and covers all
aspects of the subject matter of study. It is a self-explanatory and complete document by
itself.
 Acts as a Tool of Internal Communication: Report is an effective tool of
communication between top executives and subordinate staff working in an organization.
It provides feedback to employees and to executives for decision making. Reports are
generally submitted to higher authorities. It is an example of upward communication.
Similarly, reports are also sent by company executives to the lower levels of
management. This is treated as downward communication. In addition, reports are also
sent to shareholders and others connected with the company. It may be pointed out that
report writing / preparation acts as a backbone of any system of communication.
 Acts as Permanent Record: A report serves as a permanent record relating to certain
business matter. It is useful for future reference and guidance.
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 Time Consuming and Costly Activity: Report writing is a time consuming, lengthy and
costly activity as it involves collection of facts, drawing conclusion and making
recommendations.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A REPORT
 They have clearly defined sections.

 They are based on facts.
 They are used for making decisions.
 They often give detailed technical information.
 They should be set out in a highly readable way.
 They should be written in a formal, impersonal style.
 They are often accompanied by a letter of transmittal. This letter records that the work
has been done.
Reports are written for a variety of audiences. Major types are:
• Informative report (stresses about facts) –give the facts of a situation. The writer will
also stress the procedures
• Investigative Reports (gives results of an investigation and recommends action) – are
written because the writer has been instructed to investigate the problem, draw
conclusions from the facts and recommendations. The writer for example has been asked
to investigate the causes of the factory fire, draw conclusions and recommendations
• Feasibility Reports (examines whether something can be done or not and recommend
action) are related to investigation reports. They are written because someone has been
instructed to investigate whether something can or should be done or not.
• Evaluative reports – investigation and feasibility reports evaluate the facts.
• Technical reports – contains large amounts of technical information. Information often
set in tables, graphs e.tc
• Interim reports - Are written to inform managers of the progress of a project.
• Self-inaugurated reports
• Investigative reports
• Annual reports to shareholders and employees
• Organisation and method studies
• Work studies.
PROGRESS REPORTS
Progress reports are common and critical documents in science and engineering. The basic point
of a progress report is to summarize the status, progress, and likely future for a particular project.
In a progress report you are often expected to commit to an exact schedule for the project
completion, discuss the status of the materials being used and account for the money spent, and
summarize concretely both the current findings and the predicted results. The professionalism of
the progress report is often vital to the future of the project.
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Style for Progress Reports
The following stylistic advice can be applied to most progress reports you write:
 Include a working title and the words “Progress Report” at the top of the page.
 Use section headings in the report to simplify both the writing and reading process.
 Open the report with a “Scope and Purpose” section, where you give a condensed version
of your future report’s introduction and objective.
 Always include a section entitled, for example, “Progress,” which summarizes the work’s
pace and progress and explains any snafus, dilemmas, or setbacks.
 Always include a section entitled, for example, “Remaining Work,” which honestly
assesses the work that must still be completed. Think right on the page in this section,
posing questions, speculating meaningfully, exploring your options.
 Always include a section that projects the expected results. Commit to a schedule for
obtaining those results if possible.
 If necessary, include a section in which you directly solicit advice from your teacher or
advisor. Be forthright and professional about the nature of the advice you need.
 Keep your paragraphs short and focused—just a few paragraphs per section, typically.
 Your tone can often be straightforward and familiar—therefore, as a rule, you can use “I”
and “you” freely—but do not lapse into informality.
 Avoid being overly optimistic, pessimistic, apologetic, cocky, or self-deprecating.
RECOMMENDATION REPORT
OVERVIEW
A recommendation report proposes a solution to a problem or evaluates possible solutions and
recommends one. Before proposing or recommending a solution, the report needs to identify the
problem.
Think about the various problems you encounter everyday or read about in the paper.
EXAMPLE: A HEALTH CARE/ECONOMIC PROBLEM

For instance, Parliament is trying to figure out how to control the ever-increasing cost of
Medicare/Medicaid. The problem seems to be that if we don't reform the system, part of Medicare
(health insurance for seniors) may go broke in ten years (though such predictions have existed
ever since Medicare was created). But reforming the system may require some seemingly
unpleasant lifestyle changes: seniors may have to enroll in managed care plans (HMOs); in the
case of a terminal illness, no extreme measures would be taken to effect an (unlikely) cure or to
extend life. This would mean that certain conditions--like liver failure late in life due to
alcoholism--would be treated with measures less expensive than a liver transplant, while other
conditions, such as hypertension would get more, and faster, treatment. Are HMOs the solution?
A feasibility study would evaluate this solution *among others* as a way to respond to the
problem of rising Medicare costs.
EXAMPLE: TECHNOLOGY UPGRADE

In technology, problems are often resolved with a technical upgrade. For instance, you put dual
airbags in cars because people too often don't use seat belts, and airbags prevent further injury
even when seat belts are used. The problem here, which motivates people to improve a process, is
that people continue to sustain severe injuries despite the availability of seat belts and dual
airbags. Taking this one step further, some car companies (like Volvo) are not installing side
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airbags, in addition to the two in front, to protect people against side impacts, which often do not
activate the two front airbags.
EXAMPLE: SOCIAL SCIENCE/COMMUNICATION

In the areas of social science and communication, a "technical upgrade" might exist in the field of
small-business management, where many researchers are discovering that a business will run
more efficiently if the employees are asked for their advice about how to improve processes.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN DEVISING A SOLUTION

1. Be SITE SPECIFIC. That is, don't propose a general solution; propose one that is
specific to your situation.
2. Survey what is currently known about your subject through research. SUPPORT your
recommendations with RESEARCH.
3. Consider ECONOMIC ASPECTS. Since money is involved in the improvement of
almost anything, you must take into account the economic aspects. Do a long-term cost
analysis. Will the improvement, over time, be worth the increased cost? How would one
determine that?
4. Consider CHANCE and human nature. Try to anticipate the unexpected. For instance,
Corridor H in WV may not be built--not because of all the environmental studies, but
because we have now learned that there are Civil War sites along the route--which no
one, apparently, knew about before.
ORGANIZING THE REPORT

The PROPOSAL FORMAT will probably fit most topics better than the feasibility study format.
If you want to adapt either of these patterns, discuss your plans with your professor.
In brief, here are the basic elements of each pattern. Please be sure to look at the book to see the
sub-sections for each of the main points outlined here.
PATTERN 1: FEASIBILITY STUDY
1. Introduction
2. Comparison of Alternatives
3. Conclusions
4. Recommendations
PATTERN 2: PROPOSAL REPORT
1. Problem
2. Proposed Solution
3. Needed Equipment/Personnel
4. Schedules
5. Budget
6. Evaluation System
7. Expected Benefits
8. Summary/Conclusions
TIP
1. Establish credibility:
o Demonstrate knowledge of the problem
o Show expertise in your recommendation(s)
o Integrate research
2. Show an awareness of readers' needs in your decisions about organization
3. Show an awareness of readers' needs in your decisions about content. Specifically:
o in your decisions about tone and style
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oin your decisions about the amount of detail you provide in descriptions,
explanations, or analyses of the problem, solution, costs or effects.
o in your decisions about what points you will emphasize (through graphics,
placement in your text, use of supporting documentation, etc.)
4. Demonstrate your attention to format:
o Set up the recommendation report as a short memo report addressed to the person
whom you hope will act on your proposal. (Since this memo is not addressed to
your professor, attach a simple cover sheet to the top of your report. List your
professor's name, your name, and date just to be sure your paper ends up in the
right mailbox)
o Use headings, paragraphing, spacing, and typography well
o Include a graphic if relevant
5. Demonstrate your ability to document a source.
o Use parenthetical documentation in the text.
o Use accurate APA style to list only the references cited in the text of your report.
o Integrate at least three current sources (nothing older than two years).
6. Demonstrate attention to fine-tuning revisions..
o Improve SENTENCE STYLE
o Attend to WORD CHOICES
o Avoid WORDINESS
o Use ACTIVE VOICE when possible
o Avoid SUBJECT-VERB disagreements
o Attend to COMMA USE after introductory clauses
o Avoid SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
o Avoid RUN-ON (OR "FUSED") SENTENCES
o Use APOSTROPHES accurately
o Use PARALLEL STRUCTURE
o Avoid other errors in GRAMMAR AND PUNCTUATION)
o PROOFREAD carefully
INVESTIGATION/ EXAMINATION REPORT
CONFIDENTIAL INVESTIGATION REPORT- Department of <NAME>

Allegation/Issue
Name/Designation of employee <Name, Job title>
subject to investigation (if
appropriate)
Name of complainant
(if appropriate)
Investigator(s) <Name 1, Job title, Department>, <Name 2, Job title,
Department (if appropriate)>
HR Support/Link <Name, Job title, contact number>
Background
 Identify how the situation came to light (based on the factual information
provided by the instigating manager); what actions have already been taken
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prior to the investigation commencing; what communications have taken place.
 Provide brief details of the ‘subject’ of the investigation, their employment
history, current role and how long held etc.
 Note if employee suspended and when, whether redeployed for duration of
investigation or if there are any specific changes in place to allow the
investigation to take place i.e. line management responsibility removed, budget
responsibility suspended, taken off usual duties but still within department etc.
Executive Summary (Optional - delete if appropriate)

 This may be suitable for complex investigations and should provide a brief
summary of the main findings/conclusions.
Remit of Investigation
 Define remit of investigation, i.e. what allegations/concerns were identified as in
need of investigation (provide concise bullet points list of all allegations, that
will be expanded upon in “Findings” section).
 State policy under which the investigation was carried out (e.g. University
Disciplinary Policy, Research Misconduct etc).
Investigation Process
Explain how the investigation progressed, including reasons for decisions which were
made and the direction the investigation went including:
 A brief description of the method(s) used to gather information.

 Use table template ‘Appendix 1’ to record what interviews/statements were
undertaken, when, and their appendix number within the bundled of evidence
 If the investigator has not interviewed all individuals suggested by the ‘subject’
of the investigation the decision should be recorded in this section (including
reasons e.g. character reference only).
 A timetable of events. (Detailing any delays in the investigations).
 What documents/evidence were reviewed (Appendix 2: Record of Evidence)
Findings
Provide a summary of the findings and observations:
 Present the findings separately for each point/allegation/issue of concern in
turn, by confirming the facts established by the investigation, identifying the
sequence of events, cross-referencing any documentation and highlighting any
mitigating factors e.g. lack of procedural guidance, management action or
expected documentation and any other actions / behaviours which may have
compounded or aggravated the situation
 Avoid using vast extracts from statements - only quote directly from the
statements where it is necessary. It is the investigator’s responsibility to analyse
all the statements and draw out all corroborative evidence. Interviewees are not
always articulate during interviews and the investigator should therefore use
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their own words to concisely convey the findings.
 If the evidence is inconclusive or there is no evidence to substantiate an
allegation - say so. The instigating manager wants to know whether there is any
evidence to support the allegations - it is also the investigator’s responsibility to
explain how significant the evidence is - this should come across throughout the
report.
 Note any specific actions that demonstrate a breach of policy or standards of
conduct/performance that did not meet those normally expected.
 Refer back to the agreed remit of investigation, ensuring that you cover all the
points.
Conclusion
NOTE: When reviewing the evidence, investigators need to aim to demonstrate a
reasonable belief as to what happened, based on their assessment of the evidence
available. The standard of proof for internal investigations and any subsequent
disciplinary hearing or grievance meeting is based on the “balance of probabilities”,
i.e. that on the basis of the evidence it was more probable than not that the alleged
misconduct was committed. Investigators are not required to demonstrate beyond
reasonable doubt, unlike in criminal investigations, but do need to act reasonably on
behalf of the employer.
 For each allegation/concern/issue provide an overall fact based opinion on a)

whether there is any evidence to support the allegations and b) the strength of
the evidence.
 Support the conclusions with the strongest evidence without repeating the text in
the main body of the report (where possible) - the conclusions should be clear
and concise.
 Identify to the reader the strengths and weaknesses in the evidence - emphasising
the importance of any issues and where evidence can be open to different
interpretation / scenarios.
 Draw out key facts which demonstrate particular breaches of policy e.g. Code of
Conduct, Harassment, Financial Regulations, service policies & procedures etc
 If there are any special circumstances/mitigating factors ensure that they are
clear within the conclusions and it is important to explain their significance.
Appendices
 Chronology of events; witness statements; investigatory interview notes; about
the Job documents; organisational structure; medical advice etc.
Signed by Investigatory Officer

Date
Appendix 1:
The following table gives the names of the people who provided statements for this
investigation.
COMMUNICATION
Name Post Reason Date Appendix
Appendix 2: Record of Evidence

Date Item Appendix
Investigation Statements
Supporting Documentation
ACCIDENT REPORT
Accident Report Form
What is an Accident Report Form?
All accidents are considered as incidents; however an accident report form focuses more on the
injury whereas the incident report form is intended to focus on the cause and prevention of further
occurrences.
The Accident Report Form is in 2 parts. The first part is completed by the employee who suffered
the accident, and the second part is completed by the supervisor.
An accident report is an important tool used to document the accident and assist in investigating
the cause. It also assists to develop procedures that may be put in place to prevent it from
happening again.
The supplied template calls on the employees, with the assistance of a manager, to fill in the first
page details including:
 employee details,
 injury details- including date, time and expected time off,
 medical treatment required, and
 events leading up to the injury- this is important to gain the employees perspective of
what actually happened.
The second section of the form is to be completed by the manager and requires the manager to
identify the following:
 witness details,
 how the accident happened, and
 how a recurrence can be prevented.
It is important to show outcomes of the investigation, and to document what actions can or will be
taken to prevent another injury occurring in a similar scenario.
COMMUNICATION
The Manager should decide, or, if requested by employees, whether or not the accident should
also be documented as an incident needing further investigation. This may well be the case
depending on the cause of the accident and the possibility of it happening again due to job design,
system or procedural faults needing additional investigation and control.
Should your company decide to merge both the accident and incident form together into one
document then the suitability of this should be assessed at senior management level to ensure that
a detailed and documented approach to both matters is still achieved.
EMPLOYEE DETAILS
Name: ____________________________ Position:_____________________________
Address: _______________________________________________________________
INJURY DETAILS
Date of accident: ___________ Time: ________ Date Reported: __________ Time: _________
Date ceased work: __________ Time: __________ Supervisor: __________________________
Time lost (to date): ___________________ Time lost (anticipated overall) __________________
Medical Treatment required:

______________________________________________________________________________
COMMUNICATION
Nature and extent of injury
□ Head □ Trunk □ Multiple
Part of body injured □ Eyes □ Arm □ General
□ Neck □ Leg □ Unspecified
□ Sprain □ Laceration □ Burn
Nature of injury □ Fracture □ Concussion □ Superficial
□ Multiple □ Dislocation □ Amputation
□ Contusion □ Other
□ Flying □ Manual handling □ Electricity

object
Type of incident
□ Struck by □ Poisons □ Fall
□ Caught in □ Temperature □ Other
Describe the events leading up to the injury and how the injury occurred (witness or
injured person’s statement).
Witness Details
How did the accident happen
COMMUNICATION
□ Ineffective □ Lack of protective □ Lack of training

guarding equipment
What caused the
accidents □ Lack of □ Safety rules not □ inexperience
maintenance followed
□ Unsafe work □ Misconduct □ Workplace design

methods (equipment, design,
layout)
□ Weather □ Poor housekeeping □ Language

difficulties
Explain
How can a recurrence be prevented?
Supervisor’s name: _______________________________________________________
Signature: _____________________________________ Date: ____________________
Appropriate Government/insurance bodies Advised? (If applicable) Yes/No
Date :_________________________
Is this a Work-related injury? Yes/No
Employer/Supervisor comments:
COMMUNICATION
COMPILING A REPORT: SCHEMATIC REPORT

BODY OF REPORT
• Introduction
• Procedure for gathering
• Conclusions (insight and implications)
• Recommendations (the action to be taken)
• Findings (the Facts)
• Bibliography
• List of references
• Appendices
THE PURPOSE
• It is important to establish immediately the exact purpose of the report. Think of who is
to read it, what is it intended to achieve and how it will be used.
FORMAT OF A REPORT
1. COMPANY NAME
2. REPORT TITLE
3. TERMS OF REFERENCE.
• They form the opening of the report.
• They should include the following:
(a) By whom the report has been requested e.g.
At the request of a sales director or as directed by the board.
(b) The precise areas to be covered e.g.

To enquire into present procedures of.................
To examine how the................................................................................
To carry out a feasibility study into the...................................................
(c) What is intended should be the outcome of the report e.g.
To establish the nature and extent of existing problems and make recommendations for their
solution.
To inform shareholders of plans for rationalisation.
(d) Establishing the limits of the report, such as recognition of financial or economic
constraints, company policy, union, agreements or factors external to a department which
partially determine the working method.
4. PROCEDURES
This element concerns the method of investigation to be adopted. Methods which might be
mentioned include:
(a) Experiment
(b) Observation – observation of customer of staff behaviour
COMMUNICATION
(c) Survey
(d) Consultation
(e) Research
5. FINDINGS – Found when the procedures are analysed.
6. CONCLUSION - These are the solutions.

- The derived from findings.
7. RECOMMENDATIONS - These are suggestions.

They are derived from the conclusions.
8. SIGNATURE.
9. NAME – His /Her name full.
10. DESIGNATION – His / her post or position in the organisation.
EXAMPLE OF A SCHEMATIC REPORT

Terms of Reference
Margaret
Anderson, Director of Personnel has requested this report on employee benefits satisfaction. The
report was to be submitted to her by 28 June.
Procedure
A representative selection of 15% of all employees was interviewed in the period between April
1st and April 15th concerning:
1. Overall satisfaction with our current benefits package
2. Problems encountered when dealing with the personnel department
3. Suggestions for the improvement of communication policies
4. Problems encountered when dealing with our HMO
Findings
1. Employees were generally satisfied with the current benefits package.
2. Some problems were encountered when requesting vacation due to what is perceived as
long approval waiting periods.
3. Older employees repeatedly had problems with HMO prescription drugs procedures.
4. Employees between the ages of 22 and 30 report few problems with HMO.
5. Most employees complain about the lack of dental insurance in our benefits package.
6. The most common suggestion for improvement was for the ability to process benefits
requests online.
Conclusions
1. Older employees, those over 50, are having serious problems with our HMO's ability to
provide prescription drugs.
2. Our benefits request system needs to be revised as most complaints concerning in-house
processing.
3. Improvements need to take place in personnel department response time.
4. Information technology improvements should be considered as employees become more
technologically savvy.
COMMUNICATION
Recommendations
1. Meet with HMO representatives to discuss the serious nature of complaints concerning
prescription drug benefits for older employees.
2. Give priority to vacation request response time as employees need faster approval in
order to be able to plan their vacations.
3. Take no special actions for the benefits package of younger employees.
4. Discuss the possibility of adding an online benefits requests system to our company
Intranet.
Important Points to Remember
 A report is divided into four areas:
o Terms of Reference- This section gives background information on the reason
for the report. It usually includes the person requesting the report.
o Procedure- The procedure provides the exact steps taken and methods used for
the report.
o Findings- The findings point out discoveries made during the course of the
report investigation.
o Conclusions- The conclusions provide logical conclusions based on the findings.
o Recommendations- The recommendations state actions that the writer of the
report feels need to be taken based on the findings and conclusions.
 Reports should be concise and factual. Opinions are given in the "conclusions" section.
However, these opinions should be based on facts presented in the "findings".
 Use simple tenses (usually the present simple) to express facts.
 Use the imperative form (Discuss the possibility ..., Give priority ..., etc.) in the
"recommendations" section as these apply to the company as a whole.
INTERVIEWS
It is a planned conversation between two partners during which questions are asked and
answered. A job interview is aimed specifically at trying to find the suitable interviewee for the
job.
Purpose
 The interviewer wants to form an impression of the interviewee.

 Interviewer wants to confirm the accuracy of information supplied in the application
letter and CV.
 The interviewer is given a chance to explain the job in detail.
 Interviewer also gets to form an impression for the organisation.
 Facilitates the selection of the best candidate.
Types of Interviews
Structured Interviews are carefully planned in advance and questions asked are usually closed
ones where one word answers are required.
Unstructured Interviews
They offer more flexibility, more scope is allowed to the interviewee to answer questions, Open
ended questions are asked.
COMMUNICATION
Interviewee ‘s preparation
 Gain as much knowledge as possible about the company.
 Study the job specifications closely.
 Prepare to sell yourself i.e. state what you can do for the company.
 Think carefully about your career objectives.
 Draw up a list of questions that colud be asked and plan how to answer them.
 Drw up a list of questions that you would like to ask.
Interviewers Preparation
 Prepare a job description.
 Prepare a range of general and specific questions suitable for each candidate.
 Prepare the room well.
 prepare a checklist for the desired characteristics.
 Prepare a score sheet so that each candidate can be rated on a set of characteristics.
Questions asked may cover the following:
 Home background
 Education and Training
 Work history
 Career Plans
 Reasons for applying the job.
 Leadership
 Initiative
 Flexibility
 Independence
 Ability to get on with others
 Motivation
 Communication skills
Examples of interview questions include;
 Why have you applied for this job?
 Why are you here/ Why did you pick the organisation?
 What kind of a person are you?
 Assuming you can do the job what distinguishes you from 10 other people who can do
the same job?
 What have been your achievements so far?
 What preparations did you make before coming for this interview?
 When can you start?
 Do you have any challenges?
 What qualities will you bring into this organisation if offered a job?
 For how long do you intend to stay with us?
 Where do you see yourself in 5 years time?
 What do you think of this organisation?
 What is it that you least enjoy about your job?
 What qualities do you think a Marketing Manager should possess?

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COMMUNICATION & COMPUTER SKILLS

*NB* _The computer is made up of hardware, software and peripheral devices_

 Refers to the tangible, physical and mechanical components of a computer.

*PROGRAM* (computer program)

 A set of instructions, written in a specific programming language, which a computer

 Firmware is a software program permanently etched into a hardware device such as a

 Originally, firmware had read-only memory (ROM) and programmable read-only

 Hardware serves as the delivery system for software solutions. The

Nature  Hardware is physical in nature.  Software is logical in nature.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM( block diagram)

DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF EACH COMPONENT.

 The registers are the memory of the processor.

*CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)*

*ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT* (ALU)

_ALUs routinely perform the following operations_

_CU functions are as follows_:

 Controls sequential instruction execution

_CUs are designed in two ways_:

 *Hardwired control*: Design is based on a fixed architecture. The CU is made

MAIN MEMORY AUXILIARY OR BACKUP STORAGE

PRIMARY MEMORY SECONDARY MEMORY

 The primary memory is categorized as  The secondary memory is always non

 Primary memory is known as main memory  Secondary memory is known as additional

 Primary memory is temporary  The secondary memory is permanent

 Commonly used primary memory (main  Generally secondary memories range

 *According to data handling, computers are analog, digital or hybrid*

 ANALOG COMPUTERS work on the principle of measuring, in which the

 HYBRID COMPUTERS incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer

 *According to, computers are classified as*

 *Hybrid Computer* (Analog + Digital)

*CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF SIZE*

Major classes or categories of computers

 Minicomputers are used by small businesses & firms.

*FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN YOU WANT TO PURCHASE OR BUYA

3. *APPLICATIONS PACKAGES*; Which application packages will I run on my

5. *MANUFACTURER AND SELLER REPUTATION*. Check out the

6. *WARRANTIES & GUARANTEES*

7. *PC ARCHITECTURE*. PC architecture refers to the design and construction of

8. *MICROPROCESSOR SPEED*. Selecting the right microprocessor is extremely

The STORAGE CAPACITY of a hard disk is an important consideration because it

THE DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

ATTRIBUTES OF GOOD INFORMATION

BOTH INPUT–OUTPUT DEVICES:

Storage devices can be used as input devices

Sr.No Keys Description

The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer

 A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball held by a socket containing sensors

OPTICAL CHARACTER READER(OCR)

BAR CODE READERS

OPTICAL MARK READER (OMR)

 A webcam is a hardware camera connected to a computer that allows anyone

MAGNETIC CARD READER

 Chorded keyboard ,GKOS keyboard ,Keyer ,Telegraph key

 Alternatively referred to as an audio output device, sound board, or audio card.

Sound card connections

Uses of a computer sound card

12. VDU (Visual Display Unit)

 Sometimes abbreviated as FPD, a flat-panel display is a thin screen display

What is the difference between impact and non-impact printers?

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IMPACT AND NON-IMPACT PRINTERS

IMPACT PRINTERS NON-IMPACT

Give two advantages of non-impact printers over impact printers.

Give three examples of impact printers &three examples of non-impact printers.

NB _The computer is made up of hardware, software and peripheral devices_

PROGRAM (computer program)

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

 Hardwired control: Design is based on a fixed architecture. The CU is made

 According to data handling, computers are analog, digital or hybrid

 According to, computers are classified as

 Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)

CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF SIZE

3. APPLICATIONS PACKAGES; Which application packages will I run on my

5. MANUFACTURER AND SELLER REPUTATION. Check out the

6. WARRANTIES & GUARANTEES

7. PC ARCHITECTURE. PC architecture refers to the design and construction of

8. MICROPROCESSOR SPEED. Selecting the right microprocessor is extremely