The Electricity Journal 35 (2022) 107139

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The Electricity Journal

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tej

Wind energy in the city: Hong Kong’s offshore wind energy generation
potential, deployment plans, and ecological pitfalls
Laurence L. Delina 1
Division of Environment and Sustainability, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong

A B S T R A C T

Hong Kong seeks to achieve a low carbon future by investing in renewable energy solutions. With almost all its energy demand met by imported supply, primarily
from Mainland China, developing Hong Kong’s indigenous renewable energy from offshore wind offers the potential to meet the city’s low carbon ambition and, at
the same time, pursue energy reliance and resilience. This paper reviews the potential for harvesting Hong Kong’s offshore wind energy to show that the territory
possesses significant wind resources that can be converted into useful energy. It also discusses extant plans from its two power providers, Hong Kong Electric and
China Light and Power, which signified intentions to build offshore wind farms in Hong Kong’s southern and southeastern waters, respectively. The paper also
examines the impacts these infrastructures pose to marine species and ecosystems in the proposed sites. It finds that, although construction-related effects can
detriment marine life in the short term, these impacts can be mitigated with careful planning and can even increase biodiversity in the site over time. The paper ends
by calling for policy to be strengthened to ensure that Hong Kong’s local wind resources are exploited. Wind power development can accelerate the city’s low-carbon
ambition.

1. Introduction
Wind energy is the fastest growing renewable source of energy
globally (International Energy Agency (IEA, 2020a)). As countries gear
for low-carbon to even net-zero emissions before 2100, wind energy
installations are most likely to speed up alongside an accelerating cost
reduction and improving efficiencies of wind energy technologies (Wiser
et al., 2021; IEA, 2020b). In Hong Kong, one of its distribution utilities,
the Hong Kong Electric, constructed the one-unit 800-kW Lamma Wind
Power Station in Hong Kong’s Lamma Island as the territory’s first
commercial-scale wind turbine. This wind turbine produces, on average,
one million units of renewable electricity and offsets 800 tonnes of CO2
emission annually (Hong Kong Electric, 2020). Originally put up as a
renewable energy demonstration project, the Lamma wind turbine evi­
dences the plausibility of wind energy as a key contributor to the city’s
energy mix.
Offshore wind energy, which can be built in Hong Kong’s waters,
offers the most significant energy transition technological option for the
city. In addition to wind energy’s contribution to climate change miti­
gation, these wind farms can also increase the city’s energy mix diver­
sification. With greater use of its own municipal renewable energy
resources, Hong Kong can also reduce its energy import dependency.
Generating renewable energy from Hong Kong’s wind energy potential
also contributes to the city’s Climate Action Plan 2050 + , which sets out
the city’s carbon emissions reduction target for 2050 (Hong Kong Spe­
cial Administrative Region’s Environment Bureau, 2021). This offshore
wind energy option also addresses the city’s limited land challenge,
which is a crucial limiting factor to deploying land-based energy in­
frastructures in the territory.
Yet, offshore wind farms, just like any large-scale technological
systems, are not free of challenges. Despite their potential to mitigate
emissions, their lifecycle is not carbon-free (although studies have
shown that these emissions are offset within the first six months of wind
farm operations (Reimers et al., 2014)). There are also concerns about
aesthetics and noise (Karydis, 2013; Kitzing et al., 2020), which had
been a challenge for eliciting public support in several geographies
(Dalton et al., 2020; Gebreslassie, 2020; Upham and Johansen, 2020).
Yet another challenge is the wind farms’ impacts on ecosystems and
species. Onshore wind farms, for instance, can affect the migration and
flying paths of avian species, such as birds and bats (Cook et al., 2018;
Gaultier et al., 2020).
While these challenges are well documented, little is known about
the impacts wind farms sited offshore had or can have on marine species,
particularly in east Asian waters. This paper attempts to address this gap
by presenting a review of the potential of offshore wind energy in Hong
Kong (Section 2), the plans for constructing and operating offshore wind
farms in the territory (Section 3), and the possible challenges to marine
life attached to these infrastructures (Section 4). This review used

E-mail address: lld@ust.hk.

1
ORCID: 0000–0001-8637–4609

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tej.2022.107139
Received 4 March 2022; Accepted 30 April 2022
Available online 26 May 2022
1040-6190/© 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
L.L. Delina
secondary materials including peer-reviewed articles, government
websites, and reports from non-government organizations.
2. Hong Kong’s wind energy potential
In 2020, the global cumulative wind power capacity reached 1590
Terawatt-hour (TWh); wind energy also became the most significant
contributor to renewables growth that year (Our World in Data, 2021a).
By 2025, the International Energy Agency (2020b) projects that this
number will further increase with annual capacity additions ranging
from 65 to 100 gigawatts (GW). China leads in cumulative wind power
capacity at 466.5 TWh in 2019, followed by the United States (336.5
TWh) and Germany (134.5 TWh) (Our World in Data, 2021a). Offshore
wind energy deployments are also increasing primarily due to higher
wind energy potential at sea, where winds are its strongest (Liu et al.,
2008). Plentiful space in offshore locations also means that large-scale
wind turbines can be installed over these waters, ensuring high-rated
power (Capuzzi et al., 2014). Wind farms located offshore and away
from the population centres further meant that noise and visual impacts
are minimized, hence reducing public opposition (Lamy et al., 2020) and
diluting NIMBY challenges.
Offshore wind power’s global capacity was forecast to reach 5.3 GW
in 2020 (IEA, 2020b) and, in 2021, new additions are expected to reach
a record 7.3 GW, with China leading in new development (IEA, 2020b).
Taiwan also hopes to start operating the first large-scale commercial
offshore wind project in east Asia (IEA, 2020b). The Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region (SAR), a global, densely populated megacity
hosting one of the world’s key international financial and commercial
centres, however, is yet to put up its first offshore wind farm.
Hong Kong’s energy mix is still fossil fuel-oriented. Coal-fired power
plants provided half of the city’s energy capacity, and natural gas (27%)
and nuclear energy (11%) exports from Mainland China provided the
rest (HKSAR, 2021). In terms of electricity service, ensuring energy
reliability is vital for Hong Kong. The city has never experienced power
supply interruption, which is critical for its commercial and financial
operations. Even when Typhoon Mangkhut ravaged the city in
September 2018, Hong Kong’s electricity system proved very reliable as
only 2% of the population reported power interruptions (Chung and Xu,
Fig. 1. Locations of proposed Hong Kong Electric and China Light and Power wind farms in Hong Kong.
Source: Drawn by the author from Google Maps using data from Hong Kong Electric (2006), Wind Prospect (HK) Ltd. (2006) and WWF (2018).
2
The Electricity Journal 35 (2022) 107139
2020).
In 2021, the Hong Kong SAR released its Climate Action Plan 2050,
which includes mentions to develop offshore wind farms in Hong Kong
(Hong Kong SAR Environment Bureau, 2021a). The Plan reiterates the
city’s feed-in tariffs scheme for small-scale renewable energy in­
stallations up to 10 MW. For an energy transition to scale in Hong Kong,
policy and funding support towards large-scale renewable energy in­
stallations, however, need to be strengthened and the ambition
increased, especially for offshore wind farms.
Offshore wind energy offers Hong Kong the largest potential to
continue meeting its energy reliability while also achieving sustain­
ability. This technological choice also acknowledges the city’s spatial
limitations. A Stanford study revealed that Hong Kong could meet its
projected 674 TWh energy requirements for all purposes, including
electricity, transport, and industries, in 2050, with 100% renewable
energy from local wind, water, and sunlight resources (Delucchi et al.,
2016). This study suggests that offshore wind energy supply can
contribute 97.2% of that energy demand (The Solutions Project, n.d.)
and not just 4% as suggested in Hong Kong Climate Action Plan 2050
(Hong Kong SAR Environment Bureau, 2021a).
Studies using observational wind records at near-ground levels also
hinted at the attractiveness of offshore wind energy for Hong Kong. Shu
et al. (2015a, 2015b), for instance, pointed at Hong Kong’s southeastern
waters as the most suitable region for offshore wind farms. A wind farm
near Waglan Island in the southeastern waters northeast of Po Toi Island
(see Fig. 1 for location) can also harvest about 32,400 kWh of electricity
per year using 37-m-high wind turbines according to a study by Lu et al.
(2002). Gao et al. (2014) further found that close to 360 square kilo­
metres can be developed for offshore wind farms in Hong Kong waters,
producing 112.81 × 108 kW h of energy at its highest efficiency. In their
study of Hong Kong’s wind energy potential relative to the territory’s
topography and the influences of monsoons and tropical cyclones, He
et al. (2020) confirmed the southeastern waters and South Lamma as
locations with higher wind energy potential in the city.
3. Plans for offshore wind farms in Hong Kong
In 2006, Hong Kong SAR received two proposals to exploit the city’s
L.L. Delina The Electricity Journal 35 (2022) 107139

wind energy potential. These proposals suggest that offshore wind farms Ninepin Group, a group of 29 islands in the city’s easternmost waters,
can be located in Hong Kong’s southeastern waters and South Lamma. which also have rich biodiversity profile (see Fig. 1). The possible im­
Hong Kong Electric, which serves electric consumers in Hong Kong Is­ pacts of wind farm construction and operation to marine species found
land and Lamma Island (about 20% of Hong Kong population), proposed near these sites – from benthos to fishes to sea turtles to dolphins and
a 100-Megawatt (MW) offshore wind farm consisting of between 28 and porpoises – are discussed below. These impacts pose some issues to some
35 wind turbines off the southern coast of Lamma Island (Hong Kong marine species, but they can also strengthen the quality and diversity of
Electric, 2006). Hong Kong Offshore Wind Ltd. (2006), a 100% subsid­ their ecosystems. Since the proposed sites are not within bird migrating
iary of Wind Prospect (HK) Ltd, also proposed 50 turbines, each with a pathways, the impacts on avian populations are excluded from the dis­
rated capacity of 3 MW and spaced at least 560-m apart, in the south­ cussion below.
eastern waters that year (Wind Prospect (HK) Ltd., 2006). When fully
operational, this wind farm can generate up to 150 MW of electricity
4.1. Possible impacts on benthos
(Wind Prospect (HK) Ltd., 2006). China Light and Power, the other Hong
Kong power company and the largest of the two electric utilities, also
Soft coral and gorgonian communities, most notably the Christmas
plans to build one of the world’s biggest offshore wind farms off Sai
Tree coral (Antipathes dendrochristos) (see Fig. 2b), are some of the
Kung in the southeastern waters generating 200 megawatts a year (Hong
sensitive marine species found near Hong Kong Electric’s proposed site.
Kong SAR, 2020).
The most certain predicted impacts for benthos can occur during the
As disclosed by the Hong Kong SAR Secretary for the Environment in
construction of the wind farm, which can include sediment dispersion
the Legislative Council on 6 May 2020, the Hong Kong Electric and
(Hutchison et al., 2020; Anon, 2010). Sediment dispersal within the area
China Light and Power projects will have a total capacity of about 300
of a wind turbine foundation can lead to the direct loss of 0.14–3% of the
megawatts, provide an estimated less than 1.5% of the city’s total
seabed (Anon, 2010). Suspended sediment can affect coral fertility and
electricity consumption, and cost over HK$10 billion (HK$7 billion for
overwhelm some benthos, including barnacles and molluscs (Guarinello
the China Light and Power wind farm) (Hong Kong SAR, 2020). Fig. 1
and Carey, 2020). However, these effects can be minor since wind farm
shows the proposed locations of these wind farms. Both proposed sites
construction is short-term, (Anon, 2010).
are located more than 2-km away from land to minimize their impacts
As the wind farm operates, impacts can include anoxia, habitat en­
on coastal ecosystems. In August 2011, Hong Kong Electric set up a wind
hancements, and trawling exclusion effects (Hutchison et al., 2020;
monitoring system using Light Detection and Ranging technology to
Anon, 2010). Anoxia can occur as deposits of organic material increase
monitor the wind in its proposed site. In 2012, Hong Kong Electric
around the bases of the turbines. Mussels attaching to the foundations
released an Environmental Monitoring and Audit report on its findings
could produce more ammonia as nutrient supply increases in their ‘new’
(Hong Kong Electric, 2012). This wind monitoring project was set to
habitats. This enrichment, then, can lead to an increased phytoplankton
complete in 2015, but the wind farms’ funding issues and environmental
and algae growth (Hutchison et al., 2020; Degraer et al., 2020). As a
concerns delayed its completion. The following section discusses some
result of changing sediment characteristics and increasing nutrient
of these challenges.
supply, benthic communities can be affected with new food webs being
introduced (WWF, 2014).
4. Possible marine ecological impacts of the proposed wind
Wind turbines could also affect water flow, changing the natural
farms
transport paths of sediments (Degraer et al., 2020; Hutchison et al.,
2020). Sediment particles that contain nutrients can settle in
From commissioning through decommissioning, wind farms impact
slow-moving water, providing food for the benthos. When this occurs in
the local environment throughout their lifecycle (Reimers et al., 2014;
wind turbine foundations, these structures can actually act as artificial
Mello et al., 2020). The significant environmental impacts from wind
reefs, thus providing new habitats for species (Degraer et al., 2020). As
farm construction include high noise intensity, possible avian collisions,
food availability increases around the wind farm, smaller organisms
changes and loss of habitats, changes in food webs, and pollution from
could attract bigger predators, thus creating an even healthier marine
increased sea traffic (Bailey et al., 2014; Nazir et al., 2020).
environment than pre-construction conditions (Taylor et al., 2018;
Hong Kong waters are rich in biodiversity, especially marine life.
Degraer et al., 2020).
These species include the threatened Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins
(Sousa chinensis), known as the Chinese white dolphins, and, in Hong
Kong, are commonly called pink dolphins (see Fig. 2a). A marine con­ 4.2. Possible impacts on fish population
servation priority site in southern Lamma Island (see Fig. 1) is the closest
in distance from the Hong Kong Electric proposed site, albeit this dis­ Noise, sedimentation, and habitat loss can affect fish populations.
tance is already almost more than 5 km from the conservation site. Pile driving during the construction stage creates noise that can cause
Meanwhile, China Light and Power’s proposed location is close to the hearing loss in fishes and even kill them (Pace, 2015). Behavioural
changes, such as avoidance and displacement, can occur during this

Fig. 2. Some species with habitats in Hong Kong waters: (a) an Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis), (b) a Christmas Tree coral (Antipathes den­
drochristos), and (c) an Indo-Pacific finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides).
Sources: (a) Chem7, CC BY 2.0, (b) NOAA, Public domain, and (c) 냥이, CC BY-SA 2.0 KR.

3
L.L. Delina
time, as shown, for example, in the decreasing herring population near
Scroby Sands offshore wind farm, two years after the wind farm was
constructed. Plausible reasons for reduced species numbers include
increased mortality due to noise or displacement. In the case of the
herrings in Scorby Sands, these species abandoned their original spawn
following the introduction of wind turbines in the area (WWF, 2014).
Suspended sediment can also clog the fishes’ gills, affecting their proper
function or even suffocating them (Anon, 2010).
4.3. Possible impacts on sea turtles
On the south coast of Lamma Island is Sham Wan Beach, the only
known regular nesting site for Green Turtles in Hong Kong and one of
the few known sites in the South China Sea (Hong Kong SAR Agricul­
tural, Fisheries and Conservation Department, 2021c). The noise from
wind farm construction work can cause damage to the turtle’s hearing,
similar to the impacts mentioned above on some fish species. Studies,
however, have shown that turtles tend to stay in areas with sound fre­
quencies that they are most sensitive to despite expressing startle from
certain types of noise, such as from drilling (Samuel et al., 2005).
4.4. Possible impacts on dolphins and porpoises
Although the pink dolphins do not travel towards the east of Hong
Kong’s waters, where China Light and Power proposes its wind farm,
there were instances when these dolphins could be seen in the south­
western waters near Hong Kong Electric’s proposed site (Hong Kong
SAR Agricultural, Fisheries and Conservation Department, 2021a). The
Indo-Pacific finless porpoises (Neophocaena phocaenoides) (see Fig. 2c)
are also shown to travel in these southern waters (Hong Kong SAR
Agricultural, Fisheries and Conservation Department, 2021b).
Hearing is essential for both dolphin and porpoise communication
and for them to hear predators. With excessive piling noise produced
during wind farm construction, these dolphins and porpoises can
experience hearing impairments, especially if drilling is done within a
100-meter radius (WWF, 2014; Pace, 2015). In extreme circumstances,
the noise can even cause them nerve damage (WWF, 2014). Dolphins
and porpoises are also most likely to move away from piling areas as this
noise is introduced, which means that they can be forcedly displaced
from their natural habitats during the construction stage. However, they
may return once construction is over as shown, for example, in Scot­
land’s Robin Rigg offshore wind farm. There, porpoises were displaced
only in the short term and returned after construction (WWF, 2014). A
short-term Dutch study in another wind farm site in Europe had even
found an increase in the number of dolphins within the wind farm site
post-construction (Lindeboom et al., 2011).
4.5. Mitigation plans
Hong Kong Electric had avoided any marine parks when choosing
their proposed South Lamma site and planned to implement environ­
mental impact mitigation methods (Hong Kong Electric, 2012). During
the installation of their wind-monitoring system, for instance, Hong
Kong Electric minimized the noise generated from this activity by using
quieter hydraulic hammers in their piling work (Hong Kong Electric,
2012). In case the equipment was still noisy, Hong Kong Electric used
acoustic decoupling, a soundproofing method involving a double stud
wall that inhibited vibration transmission. Hong Kong Electric also
slowly ramped up its drills to prevent animals from being surprised and
scared (Hong Kong Electric, 2012). They briefed their vessel operators in
areas with dolphin populations to slow down (Hong Kong Electric,
2012). They also properly managed effluents from vehicles and enforces
a strict no dumping policy for all workers (Hong Kong Electric, 2012).
Hong Kong Electric also delayed the construction during animal activity
peak seasons, such as, for example, in December and May, which are
considered peak seasons for finless porpoises.
4
The Electricity Journal 35 (2022) 107139
When their wind farm is constructed, Hong Kong Electric planned to
adopt the preceding measures. They will also delay their foundation
construction if any turtles or mammals are present in a 500-m vicinity
(Hong Kong Electric, 2012). Hong Kong Electric would conduct checks
before commencing any scheduled work (Hong Kong Electric, 2012).
Once constructed, Hong Kong Electric also plans to select appropriate
colours to visually warn avian animals of the presence of wind turbines
in the area despite the site not being on any bird migration paths (Hong
Kong Electric, 2012).
For China Light and Power, they plan to monitor an exclusion zone
for sensitive marine life and ensure proper waste management tech­
niques in compliance with Hong Kong’s environmental ordinances to
reduce the ecological impact of their proposed wind farms in the
southeastern waters. They also suggested using suction caissons for
turbine foundations, a method that does not require drilling or piling,
thereby reducing noise during the foundation layout stage (Hong Kong
SAR, 2010).
5. Conclusion
Hong Kong’s energy transition from primarily climate change-
inducing coal and natural gas systems to renewables can be acceler­
ated with the deployment of offshore wind farms. The territory’s spatial
limitations regarding putting up land-based renewable energy systems,
alongside its topography and unique wind phenomena, namely mon­
soons and tropical cyclones, make a strong case for offshore wind energy
generation. The global reduction in cost and the increased efficiencies of
wind energy technologies, as well as the city’s Climate Action Plan 2050,
further favour the offshore wind energy option. This review paper
looked at the studies on the city’s offshore wind energy potential and the
plans to deploy them in Hong Kong’s eastern and southwestern waters.
The paper also critically examined the potential impacts to Hong Kong’s
marine ecosystems and species when these offshore wind farms are
constructed and began operation. Impacts to avian species are not
described since the proposed areas are not on any species’ migration
paths.
The review suggests possible impacts on pink dolphins and finless
porpoises traveling in the South Lamma waters, where Hong Kong
Electric plans to put up their wind farm but not on China Light and
Power’s proposed site in the southeastern waters. The construction of
wind turbine foundations can impact the hearing of these animals, as
well as of fishes and sea turtles. Green sea turtles, whose only known
nesting grounds in Hong Kong are located towards the direction of Hong
Kong Electric’s proposed site, can be significantly affected. While there
will be impacts during the construction stage, Hong Kong Electric has
proposed mitigating actions to address these concerns, while China
Light and Power planned not to use piles. In the longer term, wind
turbine foundations can become artificial reefs that can result in
increased diversity of marine life in the wind farms. These outcomes are,
of course, additional to the avoided benefits from reduced emissions in
energy generation and increasing Hong Kong’s energy reliance and
resilience. Mitigating future emissions has long-term impacts on marine
life through decreased ocean acidification and the planet and its in­
habitants as a whole.
5.1. Policy implications
The impacts to marine species brought about by offshore wind farm
construction and operation should, by no means, disregarded. Public
policy, thus, could be introduced mandating power generation com­
panies to locate their wind farms away from identified marine conser­
vation sites. Re-siting the Hong Kong Electric and China Light and
Power-proposed wind farms may appear to be the most optimal solu­
tion. New proposals could locate future wind farms further south of
Lamma Island and further east of the Ninepin Group of islands. Earlier
studies have identified these locations as the most optimal sites for
L.L. Delina
offshore wind farms in Hong Kong.
Public engagement also matters since the discussions on the impacts
on marine ecosystems are all valid arguments that wind farm proponents
must consider to ensure public buy-in of offshore wind farms in Hong
Kong. Hong Kong SAR should therefore increase the visibility of future
offshore wind farm projects in the city by supporting public engagement
activities. Spaces for public deliberation should be opened up so that
citizens can know more about the potential of offshore wind energy in
Hong Kong waters.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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Laurence L. Delina is an Assistant Professor at the Division of Environment and Sus­
tainability at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. His research interests
are on sustainable development with focus on rapid mitigation of climate change and
accelerating sustainable and just energy transitions. Laurence was a Balik Scientist at the
Philippine Department of Science and Technology, a Rachel Carson Fellow, and a Visiting
Fellow at Harvard Kennedy School. He received his PhD from the University of New South
Wales (Sydney).