Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

ScienceDirect
Energy Procedia 48 (2014) 715 – 720

SHC 2013, International Conference on Solar Heating and Cooling for Buildings and Industry
September 23-25, 2013, Freiburg, Germany

Modeling the soiling of glazing materials in arid regions with

geographic information systems (GIS)
Jan Herrmanna, Karolina Slamovaa, Rüdiger Glaserb, Michael Köhla
a
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Heidenhofstrasse 2, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
b
University of Freiburg, Institute of Environmental Social Sciences and Geography, Chair of Physical Geography, Werthmannstrasse 4,
79098 Freiburg, Germany

Abstract

The deposition of dust and other airborne particles on the glazing of solar collectors (soiling) reduces its transmittance and
therefore its efficiency significantly. This effect is particularly relevant in arid regions with high amounts of mineral dust. This
study uses Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to model the soiling potentials in Middle East and North Africa (MENA).
Various environmental parameters like wind conditions, precipitation and earth’s surface conditions are involved in this model.
The first result, a dust risk map of the MENA region, implies a significant differentiation of soiling potentials. This study makes
a contribution to the development of appropriate indoor durability testing procedures and the identification of the most favorable
solar locations.

© 2014
© 2014The
TheAuthors.
Authors. Published
Published by Elsevier
by Elsevier Ltd. Ltd.
Selectionand
Selection andpeer
peer review
review by by
the the scientific
scientific conference
conference committee of SHCof2013
committee SHC 2013
under under responsibility
responsibility of PSE AGof PSE AG.

Keywords: soiling; glazing; dust risk map; geographic information system; arid region; desert; modeling; mapping

1. What is soiling and why is it a problem?

The actual efficiency of solar systems is influenced by various factors. Beside global irradiance and technical
characteristics, the local environmental conditions are crucial for the reliability and resulting power output. In this
respect, the deposition of airborne particles on the glazing of solar thermal collectors and photovoltaic modules has
to be considered as an important aspect [1]. Soiling, as the accumulation of dust and other inorganic and organic
particles on surfaces is commonly named, causes a reversible optical loss and reduced transmittance of the glazing.
Several empirical studies investigated this phenomenon by correlating the time of exposure or the amount of dust on
glazing materials with the measured performance of solar collectors [2,3]. All studies report a reduction in efficiency

1876-6102 © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Selection and peer review by the scientific conference committee of SHC 2013 under responsibility of PSE AG
doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2014.02.083
716 Jan Herrmann et al. / Energy Procedia 48 (2014) 715 – 720

with increasing soiling rates. In some cases efficiency losses of 30 % and more are found [4]. However, extreme
events like a nearby construction site can increase this value significantly [5]. Fig. 1 illustrates soiling on a thermal
collector over a long period of time without cleaning on Gran Canaria (Spain). Our own initial indoor soiling
experiment with one short simulated dust event and different solar glass produced an average transmittance loss of
about 10 %.
Thus, soiling is a potential key factor for the economic feasibility of larger solar energy plants in particular [6]. In
addition to the accumulation of particles on glazing, longer periods of exposure in critical conditions can also cause
an irreversible degradation of components by abrasion.

Fig. 1. Example of soiling on a thermal collector on Gran Canaria (Spain).

2. Soiling in arid regions

Arid and semi-arid areas cover a big part of the earth’s surface. They are mostly located around the tropics about
23° north and south of the equator (Fig. 2). According to the commonly used Köppen-Geiger climate classification
these areas are defined by limited precipitation and high potential evaporation rates. The climatic conditions
especially of the hot deserts seem to supply the best requirements for the effective use of solar power. High rates of
solar irradiation throughout the year promise huge energy outputs (Fig. 3). But high amounts of available mineral
dust and frequent dust events induce heavy soiling and therefore the advantages of this area could be reduced
considerably. Special coatings, designed to reduce the accumulation of dust on the glazing, have to be adapted to
these particular conditions. Beyond the economic view, the necessary cleaning process consumes serious amounts of
water. Considering the deficit of this resource in arid regions, soiling potentially reduces the sustainability of solar
power usage. Therefore, a better understanding of the complex soiling process in deserts and, as a result, a dust risk
map is needed.
This base study investigates the soiling potentials of glazing materials in the greater region of Middle East and
North Africa (MENA) covering the Sahara and the deserts on the Arabian Peninsula and, in the case of Africa,
extending the economic definition of this region to the south. It forms the largest coherent arid area in the world and
is of considerable interest for future solar power installations on a large scale. In general, the different deserts are
characterized by manifold natures. In a first geomorphologic approach we can distinct three basic desert landscapes
shaping large parts of the MENA region: sandy deserts with or without dune fields, stony deserts dominated by
gravel covering and strongly shaped rocky deserts. They form a diverse mosaic of landscapes with different soiling
potentials and mechanisms.
 Jan Herrmann et al. / Energy Procedia 48 (2014) 715 – 720 717

Fig. 2. Arid and semi-arid regions according to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. The red color shows the study area.

Fig. 3. Average yearly Global Horizontal Radiation (based on NASA SSE dataset).

3. Modeling soiling mechanisms with geographic information systems

Soiling in its entirety is a very complex process compound by many different technical and environmental
factors. They can be outlined by three main categories:

x The earth’s surface conditions around the area of interest

x The corresponding climatic conditions
x The collector characteristics like glazing, coating of glazing, operating temperature and tilt angle

Here, soiling is specified as a function of various meteorological and other environmental parameters. Each
mentioned category contains a number of parameters influencing the soiling of glazing materials in a positive or
negative way, some even in opposed ways at the same time. The wind speed for example is an important factor
responsible for the initial production of airborne dust but also for a possible cleaning of soiled surfaces.
Table 1 gives an overview of the most important environmental data used in the model. This work is mostly
based on longtime mean data obtained from different general available sources. Because of the spatial nature of the
718 Jan Herrmann et al. / Energy Procedia 48 (2014) 715 – 720

data they are often provided in continuous vector and raster formats or as punctual grids. Beside measured data by
ground stations and remote sensing also simulation results are used. The desert areas are characterized by a very low
density of measurements stations meaning a limitation for the spatial resolution. Spatial interpolation methods like
Kriging have been implemented to achieve datasets with continuous area-wide accuracy.

Table 1. Environmental data used for the soiling model.

Data Source
Land cover Global Land Cover 2000
Vegetation Normalized Differenced Vegetation Index
Elevation SRTM 90m Digital Elevation Database
Soil Harmonized World Soil Database
Precipitation Meteonorm/Climatic Research Unit
Wind speed Meteonorm/NASA SSE
Wind direction Earth System Research Laboratory
Humidity Meteonorm/Climatic Research Unit

Because of the high spatial and temporal diversity of the influencing factors, the use of a Geographic Information
System (GIS) is suitable as a base for the development of an environmental stress model. It enables the integration
and processing of vector and raster data of different sources and specifications into one system. This software tool is
widely used in all environmental sciences and many other applications. With a GIS, the specific environmental
effects can be captured by storing, processing and analyzing single aspects and parameters measured and identified
in the area of interest and by consolidating these components into a complete stress model with the help of the many
provided specialized tools and algorithms. In this context, the marked leading and commercial GIS software ESRI
ArcGIS is used in an up-to-date version. It is utilized by many research institutes all over the world for various kinds
of spatial analyzing and modeling and can be regarded as the standard GIS tool. The resulting data presented as
maps categorize the investigated regions in areas of different soiling intensities. This allows the comparison and
assessment of expected average soiling rates for individual regions. A similar approach was already successfully
applied to the modeling of atmospheric corrosion [7].

The currently developed soiling potential model covers all major processes involved from the generation of
mineral dust to the accumulation on the surface of thermal collectors. The statistical approach with longtime mean
data, the spatial resolution of the input data and the general knowledge gaps reduce the accuracy of the developed
model. Therefore the model has to be considered as a first qualitative approximation without attention to local and
seasonal variations.
The model is divided into three main steps which are processed sequentially. Fig. 4 illustrates the three steps of
the model together with the most important influencing input data. With the GIS all individual parameters are
assessed and combined into meaningful soiling potential maps. This approach is consistent with other general dust
models:

1. The emission of dust from the ground into the air. This is probably the most complex part of the model and of
contains high uncertainties. It is especially determined by the soil properties, the surface conditions and the wind
speed.
2. The transport of the airborne particles with the average wind speed and wind direction as input data is processed
in the second step.
3. The deposition of the dust on the ground and also on the collector surface is part of the third step. Here,
environmental and technical parameters are combined and also cleaning processes like heavy rain are considered.
 Jan Herrmann et al. / Energy Procedia 48 (2014) 715 – 720 719

Fig. 4. The three basic steps of the soiling model.

4. First results

Fig. 5 shows a first preliminary dust risk map of the MENA region based on a selection of parameters mentioned
in the previous chapter. The colors represent the average relative soiling potential. The map reveals a clear
difference between the desert and non-desert areas at the borders with steppe and moderate climate. But there is also
a significant variation within the deserts. High soiling potentials are implied for the southwest Sahara, the region
west of the Nile, the south of the Arabian Peninsula and parts of Iran. In contrast, the regions east of the Nile on the
African continent as well as the Asir Mountains on the western Arabian Peninsula and the high altitude areas of Iran
show relative low soiling potentials.

Fig. 5. Preliminary dust risk map representing the relative soiling potential in the MENA region.
720 Jan Herrmann et al. / Energy Procedia 48 (2014) 715 – 720

5. Outlook

The global soiling rates were estimated by using a Geographical Information System, which integrates the
techniques for acquisition and processing of the spatially distributed data, taking into account the influence of the
main soiling factors. With GIS it is possible to combine these different types of data and to present them as a
resulting soiling map. The information about spatial distribution of soiling potentials in the MENA region can be
used for the identification of the most favorable solar locations, as a reference for the selection of materials in solar
energy systems and the development of regional-specific indoor tests.
The presented methods and results are preliminary and could change with ongoing research. Further work will
focus on the refinement and validation of the model and the spatial and temporal extension to global and seasonal
soiling potential maps. The work is a contribution to the development of a general degradation stress mapping for
solar components.

Acknowledgements

The authors want to thank the industrial partners and the German ministry for the Environment, Nature
Conservation and Nuclear Safety (FKz. 0325969A) for their support and funding.

References

[1] Caron JR, Littmann B. Direct Monitoring of Energy Lost Due to Soiling on First Solar Modules in California. IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics.
2013;3(1):336–40.
[2] Mani M, Pillai R. Impact of dust on solar photovoltaic (PV) performance: Research status, challenges and recommendations. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2010;14(9):3124–31.
[3] Sarver T, Al-Qaraghuli A, Kazmerski LL. A comprehensive review of the impact of dust on the use of solar energy: History, investigations,
results, literature, and mitigation approaches. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2013;22:698-733.
[4] Al-Hasan AY, Ghoneim AA. A new correlation between photovoltaic panel’s efficiency and amount of sand dust accumulated on their
surface. International Journal of Sustainable Energy. 2005;24(4):187–97.
[5] Schill C, Brachmann S, Heck M, Weiß K-A, Köhl M. Impact of heavy Soiling on the Power Output of PV-Modules. Proceedings of SPIE.
2011;8112:811207.
[6] Massi Pavan A, Mellit A, De Pieri D. The effect of soiling on energy production for large-scale photovoltaic plants. Solar Energy.
2011;85(5):1128–36.
[7] Slamova K, Glaser R, Schill C, Wiesmeier S, Köhl M. Mapping atmospheric corrosion in coastal regions: methods and results. Journal of
Photonics for Energy. 2012;2(1):022003-1–9.