Political Science Notes 1

Prepared by: Rashid khan from Malakand, SS English/ MPhil English.
Ahmad Khan from Malakand (MA Political Science Gold Medalist)
Political Science Paper 1 Notes
S. No. Topic Title Pg.No.

01 Plato 03
02 Aristotle 10
03 Niccole Machiavelli 16
04 Thomas Hobbes 21
05 John Locke 26
06 J.J Rousseau 31
07 Montesquieu 36
08 Jeremy Bentham 39
09 John Stuart Mill 44
10 Fredrick Hegel 48
11 Karl Marx 51
Muslim Political Philosophy 56
12 Abu-Al Nasar Al-Farabi 56
13 Abu-Al Hassan Al-Mawardi 59
14 Abu-Hamid Al-Ghazali 62
15 Ibn Khaldun 65
16 Syed Jamal Uddin Afghani 69
17 Allama Muhammad Iqbal 71
18 Theories of Origin of State 75
19 Nation State System 89
Branches of Government 93
20 Legislature 93
21 Executive 99
22 Judiciary 102
Classification of Government/Forms of Government 103
23 Federal/Federation System 103
24 Unitary Form of Government 108
25 Parliamentary/Cabinet/Ministerial Form of Government 111
26 Presidential Form of Government 115
27 Democracy 119
28 Dictatorship/Totalitarianism 122
Political Ideologies 125
29 Capitalism 125
30 Communism 128
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31 Socialism 130
32 Fascism 133
33 Nazism 134
34 Islam as an Ideology 135
Political Participation 137
35 Pressure Groups/Interest Groups 137
36 Political Parties 138
37 Public Opinion 140
38 Propaganda 142
39 Political Socialization 143
40 Political Culture 144
41 Rights and Duties 145
42 Fundamental Human Rights in Islam 148
43 International Laws and Conventions on Human Rights 149
44 Human Rights in Pakistan 150
45 Sovereignty 153
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Political Philosophy
Plato
Concept of State: He is of the opinion that some objectives cannot be fulfilled by themselves or an
isolated individual. For this reason a man needs to live with other individuals of the society in order to
fulfill certain needs and here comes the concept of state. Plato believes in collectivism that is why he
sacrificed individual‟s liberty for the sake of ideal state.
Platonic Concept of Ideal State
“Ideal is the real”, according to Plato reality only exists in the ideas of things. According to him the
permanent and eternal reality of anything is its idea (form). This idea is concrete, permanent and absolute
which is immune to social or political changes. Plato like his teacher Socrates holds the idea that although
the idea is manifested in the physical form behind the world of perception. According to him there are
two worlds: one is the world of being and other is the world of becoming. The world of being is static and
unchangeable while the world of becoming is changeable and subject to social and political changes in the
physical world. Moreover, the world of being is the ideal world which possesses universality while the
world of becoming has particularity and changes from time to time and place to place. This concept of
particularity and universality was best illustrated in the “Allegory of Cave”. Therefore, according to Plato
it is the ideal which is the real rather than the real that is the ideal. The actual is inconsistent and in
continuous flux of change and therefore has no reality. Therefore, no real state can be real because it
constantly goes through political, social and legal changes and it is only the ideal state which is based on
universal and eternal principles that can be real. The ideal lies behind the actual and it is the goal to which
every actual state tries to evolve. Believing that ideal is real, Plato constructs his Ideal state in “The
Republic”. His state was meant to be a model state for all places and times. He just wanted to give the real
and universal idea of state irrespective of its particularity.
Distinctive features of Platonic Ideal state
1: Functional Specialization: Plato presented the organic theory of his ideal state based on the analogy
between an individual‟s soul and state. . He applied Pythagoras‟s tripartite concept of human nature
dividing human soul into three parts: the desiring parts, the spirited part and the rational part represented
by three organs of the body the belly, heart and brain respective. He argues that state is the magnified
form of individual. Reason is the rational part of human body, courage and the appetite are the emotional
or non-rational parts. He therefore, divides his ideal state into three administrative faculties, Kings,
Auxiliaries and the Producers. Reason, courage and appetite represent them respectively the two non-
rational parts must be ruled by the rational part.
 Brain--------reason/knowledge: the Ruling class (Philosopher kings)

 Heart--------courage/spirit: The Military class (Auxiliaries)
 Belly--------- appetite/desire: The Professional class (Artisans)
2: Educational System: Moreover, Plato devised his own state led education system in order to prepare
the desired functionally specialized administrative class for his ideal state.
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 1-6 years age consist of telling moral stories in order to educate them about good and
bad.
 6-18 years age students are to be given physical and mental training through athletics and
gymnastics.
 18-20 of age one class is dropped when it does not qualify for the next stage. In this stage
they are philosophically educated. Two classes are prepared in this stage: one physically
strong to defend the state and another class consists of teachers, collectors and
magistrates.
 Those who show extraordinary performance in mental abilities are further taught
philosophical education till 35 years and then 15 years practical experience of
administration who become the philosopher kings. They can be male or female.
3: Justice: Next quality of Plato‟s ideal state is his theory of justice. According to him, justice is to
provide what is due. For this sake he presents his concept of federation in order to provide justice to the
nuke and corner of the city-state.
4: Rule of Philosophy: Philosophy was a sacred discipline of at that time. According to Plato the highest
virtue is the highest knowledge of philosophy. According to him the knowledge of the actual world can be
achieved through senses and that is subjective while the knowledge of ideal world can only be grasped
through reason which is objective. Philosophers possess the highest knowledge of virtue and therefore,
deserve to rule the state.
5: Monarchy: Plato was very much disappointed by the democracy of Athens. Therefore, he favored
monarchy form of government for his ideal state. According to him monarchy is the best form of
government because a wise ruler (philosopher king) rules the state. Such king is immune to making
mistakes. Moreover, the king should remains beyond the law because the law is devised for common
people and the king never breaks the law of the state.
6: Communism: Plato favored communism for his ideal state not only in the economic aspect but also in
social and political aspects. He separated economic and politics from each other. He was influenced by
the spirit of Sparta who could scarify their wives for the state. Therefore, he deprived the kings and
soldiers from the ownership of private property, wives and off-springs. These two classes are only
allowed to have state-regulated temporary common wives and common children.
Criticism:
 Plato‟s concept of state is theoretical:

 A beautiful dream.
 It demands only sacrifices.
 It is a decorating piece.
 Half-communism:
 His foundation of state is self-contradictory because on one hand he preaches
justice while on the other hand he deprives two classes of the state form the
ownership of private property, wives and children while the professional class is
free of communism.
 Functional Specialization:
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 Only the highly educated class can rule which is against human nature.
 He ignores character building, arts and literature.
 Education System:
 He gave more importance to music and games while ignored the other basic
subjects like mathematics, law, psychology.
 Rule of Philosophers:
 Philosophy only creates men of thinking than men of action. Therefore, they
cannot cope with immediate crisis.
 This is against the concept of democracy.
 Absolute Monarchy:
 Absolute power is given only to one person or few persons ignoring the rest of
the people.
Although his ideal state as presented in his Republic, but towards the end of his life, Plato wrote another
book, The Laws, in which he came to realism. In this book he constructs a model state which should have
5040 citizens, 12 tribes and is governed by a state council consisted of 12 communities each of which
service an equal part of the year. It should be located inland, and away from the sea in order to prevent
naval militarism and discourage commercialism. Community of this state should be agriculturist and self-
sufficient. He discourages commercialism because it fills the state with those whose main concern is
profit rather than civic duties.
Plato’s Concept of Justice
Previous Theories of Justice:
Various theories and concepts of justice existed before and during Plato‟s era. The concepts of some of
the well-known philosophers regarding justice are the following:
Cephalus: He presented his concept of justice in three lines:
i. Justice is telling the truth and paying one‟s debts.

ii. Justice is doing good to friends and harm to the enemies.
iii. Justice is giving to man what is due to him.
iv. Plato rejected these ideas presented by Cephalus on the grounds that there is no logic in relating
justice to truth. According to Plato how could we come to know about true friend and enemy?
How can we give a rifle to a mad man that is due to him?
Polemarchus and Thrasymachus:
 According to them justice is the right of might. They argue that injustice is better than justice.
According to them self-aggrandizement is the real justice. They justify their argument on the
grounds that there is natural difference between the stronger and the weaker.
 According to Plato it is the extreme point of individualism while he favoured collectivism
because according to him there is no logic in the argument that justice is only due to stranger over
the weaker.
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Glaucon:
 Glaucon holds that justice is artificial and conventional. It is the child of fear and is based on the
necessity of the weaker and the interest of the stronger. It is good to be unjust but bad to suffer
injustice. It his theory that later on became the foundation of “Social Contract theory”.
Plato’s Concept of Justice:
 Plato rejected all these concepts on the ground that all of them are external in nature having
nothing to do with the inner self of an individual. According to Plato, justice is related to the soul
and resides in the heart of individual and the state. For him one is the soul and the other is the
body that means justice is the soul of the state. Platonic justice is “giving to everyone what is due
to him, what is due to him is that he should be treated as what he is. What is due from him is the
honest performance of those functions which have been allotted to him.” Plato‟s justice has two
aspects: individual and social. Individual means self-control, which makes a man refrain from
following his selfish impulses and persuade him to do the desirable actions. Social aspect
demands self-control on the part of various classes in the society which makes each mind its own
business and not to interfere in other affairs.
 Functional Specialization/Rule of Reason: According to Plato , there are three faculties in an
individual: 1. reason (wisdom), 2. Courage (Spirit), 3. Appetite (desire). The proper inter-relation
among these faculties is justice. Justice further demands that the two non-rational faculties must
be under the direction of the rational faculty.
 Non-interference: Moreover, Plato Ideal state was a magnified form of an individual. Reason in
individual corresponds to the Guardian class in the state, courage to soldier/warriors, and appetite
to the artisan/producer. Therefore, justice demands that these classes should perform their allotted
duties and not to interfere in the affairs of one another. Hence justice means, “the will to
concentrate on one‟s own sphere of duty and not to meddle with the sphere of others.
 Geographical Division: According to Plato it is impossible to deliver justice to every citizen in a
large state. Therefore, justice demands that the state may be divided into smaller sub-
administrative units for the purpose of smooth deliverance of justice.
 Compensation according to one’s ability and capability: Justice demands that the philosophers
should reach to the apex position or ruling due to their rational abilities. The auxiliary class has to
defend the state because of its ability of having courage and the artisan class has to make
production for the state because of their ability of desires.
 Sexual Equality: According to Plato, justice demands that both the genders must have equal
rights. If a dog can watch so can the bitch also. Females are not decorating pieces.
 Mutual Cooperation: justice demands No interference + Mutual cooperation and no over-
lapping in each other‟s affairs. Honesty in work and balance between all these three classes is
justice.
 Anti-individualist: According to Plato detachment of individual from society is hurdle in the
way of justice. Justice demands reciprocal fulfillment of needs. E.g. if an individual buys
something from a shop, this activity fulfills the needs of both. Therefore, justice demands
collectivism in state.
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Criticism:
 Imbalance of rights and duties: Plato‟s justice makes only demands from individual in the form
of devotion to the state and ignores individual‟s rights while these two go hand in hand in a just
society.
 Sacrifice of individuality at the altar of the personality of the society: Plato‟s justice is only
based on self-control and self-abnegation in the interest of the society.
 Plato’s concept of Functional Specialization deprives the individuals of a full and rich
variety of life. It is intolerable for a an individual to be exclude from certain activities involving
community affairs. In Plato‟s state the lower class is deprived of participating in state affairs.
 Non-interference: Plato‟s justice stands for non-interference on one hand but on the other hand
regulate the two lower classes by the guardians. Moreover. The state also interferes in the
personal affairs of the guardians through communism depriving them of private property and
family.
 Abolition of Disable: Plato demands to have healthy society by abolishing the physically disable
children which is against human nature, humanity and which is not permitted by any form of
justice in the world.
 Women’s Position in the Society: On the one hand Plato talk of gender parity while on the other
hand they become breeding machines for the producing the guardians without even claiming their
husbands and children.
Plato’s Theory of Communism

Plato wanted a state free of all sorts of faults unlike Athens which had certain weaknesses. In his state the
ruling class surrenders its rights of property and wives for the sake of the welfare of the state because:
 According to Plato, personal property and wives were the sources of corruption. Therefore, he
considered communism of personal property, wives and wealth apt for the two upper classes.
That means that the two upper classes of his ideal state will not have personal property and wives
in order to devote their full time to the welfare of the state.
 The union of political and economic was fatal to political unity. Therefore, the Guardian class
shall have of property. They shall receive fixed salaries which may meet their natural desires.
They live in common barracks and shall be served with common food in mess. They shall not
have bank balance. This would avoid political competition for power among the ruling class.
In terms of family, neither marriages nor any monogamous union shall be allowed among
men and women in the ruling class. Breeding shall be regulated to have best offspring from the
stock. Excellent women shall be given to the guardians. They will have periodic mating and
intercourse. The offspring shall be reared by the state. Plato wanted to maintain the population of
his state at favourable size having the best of offspring. He allows abortion, infanticides and
neglect of chronically ill in order to maintain the size and quality of the community.
Features of Plato’s Communism:
 Half communism. His communism is only applicable to the two classes, guardian kings and
warriors.
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 Free-trade: he allows free trade in the state because it boosts state‟s economy. He therefore,
favours trade competition.
 Stability: For the sake of stability, Plato nationalizes property and wives of the guardian class
their ownership brings instability in the state by corrupting the ruling class.
 Guarantee of Justice: He wanted to insure equal distribution of wealth in the society by
nationalizing means of production.
 Eng to selfishness: his communism ends the selfish motives and self aggrandizement of ruling
class.
 End to Inter-conflicts: According to Plato, personal property brings inter-conflicts, therefore,
communism of personal shall end them.
 Separation of Politics and economy: According to Plato politics are affected by economic setup,
therefore, economic setup shall be separated from politics.
Criticism on his idea of communism

 Half communism because he ignores the lower class.
 Against human psyche
 Anti-individualistic because he sacrifices individuals‟ right for the sake of collective
interests. It sacrifices liberty to fraternity and equality to efficiency.
 Cutting guardians off the economic and social aspects will cause lack of interest and
practical experience of born of varied social life.
 Women life in guardian class was reduced to breeding or producing offspring only.
Women became breeding machines only. He emphasizes the biological aspect of both
genders and ignores the social aspect of marriages.
 His communism is self-contradictory because he allows free-trade that is against the
norms of communism.
Comparison of Plato’s and Modern Communism
Identical Features:
 Both stresses unity of the state. Plato by renunciation of family and property by
guardian class while modern by bringing all means of production under state control.
 Specialization of function. Plato achieves it by the division of society into classes while
the modern communism by merely dividing the people into skilled and unskilled. Each
department is under a technocrat who is responsible to the communist party.
 Both focus on collective interests than individuals’.
 Both strive to eliminate economic competition in society but Plato‟s in only for the
guardian class while modern is for the entire society.
 Both regard state a supreme entity which embraces the individual. Both stresses self-
abomination on part of individual.
Differences:
 Plato‟s communism stands for renunciation of property and family by the guardian class
while modern communism stands for ownership of the means of production like, land, banks,
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insurance, factories and mills etc. it is based on equal division and enjoyment of material
goods.
 Plato‟s communism is limited to the ruling class while the modern communism is applicable
to the entire society.
 Plato‟s communism affects family and property both, while modern communism applies to
property only.
 The end of Plato communism is ethical and political while the end of modern communism is
purely economic. Plato‟s communism does not stress the material well-being of the guardians
of people, rather it stresses the unity of the state while the modern communism is concerned
with material wellbeing of the people.
 Plato‟s idea of communism is ideal while modern communism is being practiced.
 Plato‟s communism believes in separation of economic and politics while modern
communism combines both in the hand so proletariat class.
 Plato is not concerned with nationalization of means of production while modern is the vice
versa.
 Plato‟s communism does not affect the working class individualistic system while modern
communism is against economic individualism and advocates state monopoly over means of
production.
 Plato‟s society has classes while modern communism stresses classless society.
Plato’s Classification of Government
In his Republic, Plato presented his classification of government. According to him there are three pure
forms of government and three perverted forms of these forms.
Number of rulers Subject to law/pure form Unrestrained by law/perverted

Rule of one Royaty/monarchy Tyranny
Rule of few Aristocracy Oligarchy
Rule of many Democracy Anarchy
Plato on Democracy:
He severely criticized Athenian democracy that he is looked at as an arch-enemy of democracy.

According to him, Athenian democracy was a sort of anarchy with liberty for each and absolute equality
for all. He criticized Athenian democracy because it was a system of appetite in which everybody claimed
rights, liberties and equality but nobody cared for duties and obligations. Nobody truly governs or is
governed and no respect for laws at all.
If democracy is based on rule of law, Plato will not condemn it. If it is based on written constitution and
recruitment on merit, Plato will commend it. He will prefer it to all other forms of government except to
Philosophic leadership if it wedded to the larger social good for which each individual must sacrifice his
own petty personal interests. Despite of chaotic condition that democracy had produced in Athens in his
time, there are other factors also which determined Plato‟s attitude towards democracy:
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 Defeat of Athens by Spartans aristocrats. This convinced him that democratic demagogues
exploit the ignorant masses merely in the name of liberty and equality but they cannot protect
them from internal and external forces.
 The assassination of Socrates: Plato‟s master Socrates preached radical doctrines which were
beyond the comprehension of democratic ruling class. They considered those ideas detrimental to
their position and thus, blamed Socrates for polluting the minds of the youngsters and compelled
him to sacrifice his life.
 Plato’s Philosophy: Plato strongly believed in Socratic doctrine that, “Virtue is knowledge”. To
him the most learned were the most virtuous. Therefore he believed that the selection of rulers
could be mad through prolonged training of men and women and not through popular voting.
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Aristotle Political Philosophy (384-322BC)
Introduction: Greek philosopher and scientist. He was born at Stagira Macedoniae. He moved to
Athens in the age of 17 to study at Plato‟s academy. He remained there for about 20 years, first as student
and then as teacher. Hr died in Euboea in 322 BC.
Aristotle on the origin of state
 Like Plato he also believed in the natural origin of state as opposed the conventional origin of
state. According to Aristotle, man is by nature political.
 In his views, state is the outcome of gradual and revolutionary process. For him, relation of man
and woman and master and slave form a household with limited needs. These limited desires keep
them a separate unit. When they seek a fuller life, their desires increase, and thus they need the
cooperation of other units, and this way they form a village.
 The state is therefore, a culmination of widening circle of human association based on human
wants.
 According to Aristotle, state is an economic and moral association.
 State comes into being for the sake of life by providing the basic needs to expanded fmily circle
but stays for the sake of good life.
 Man and woman----families--- village----polis----state.
Aristotle on the State of Nature
 He declares state to be a natural organism because it develops from the earlier natural
associations of family and the village.
 State embraces individuals and therefore, should be superior to them. It is prior to individual in
principle but later in time. It is the whole to which individual is a part. Therefore, state is the
magnified form of individual. State is a tree trunk and individuals are its branches.
 It is misleading to say that man produced the state because he just wished to satisfy his needs.
Men lived their social and political life not by choice but by their inherent nature. Their needs,
desires, strength and weaknesses make them do so.
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 Societies and states were necessary for the well-being of men and are therefore, as much a
product of nature as man himself.
 Family is the basic unit of state and the end of state is good life in which alone is completed the
self-sufficiency of individual.
 According to Aristotle, that “he who by nature is without state is either above humanity or below
it: he is the tribeless, lawless, and heartless.”
Aims and Objectives of State:

 Man is good by nature, therefore, state has to develop his good faculties into a habit of good
action.
 Every association has some aims and goods. State is the highest association and thus has a
supreme good.
 State does not exist merely for providing security from internal and external danger, or for the
sake of exchange of services and intercourse. The state is there to ensure a perfect and self-
sufficing life because its end was good life.
 State is a spiritual association in a moral life.
 One of the functions of state was to educate the citizens in virtue and not merely to restrain him
from vice. The state must provide means and media to the individual for the attainment of
intellectual and physical excellence.
 Aristotle hold organic theory of state, therefore, state must show virtues of courage, self-control
and justice which are the intrinsic features of an individual.
 Like individual, state acknowledges a moral law and like him it forces itself to conform to that
law.
Aristotle Concept of Government
He has given a detailed note on the concept of government in his book “Politics”.
Ruler and administration:
 As family or tribe heads administer their family and tribe‟s affairs, similarly, state‟s
administration needs a head and forceful authority to make and execute the laws.
 Government is machinery through which state runs its administration.
 Aristotle favours a single ruler who runs the administration.
Difference between State and Government
 State is a whole with a defined territory while government is confined to a person or some
persons who run state‟s administration.
 Government may be changed and ruler may be replaced but state cannot be changed or replaced.
 Government is temporary while state is permanent.
Basic Principles in the Formation of Government
 There are three principles: Birth, Wealth and Number.
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 Birth: by birth, a government means hereditary monarchy is not a suitable form of government
because the ruler may misuse the power and may be self-aggrandizing. Such ruler is like a rider
on horse. The rider must be expert and skilled to control the horse otherwise both will face
misfortune.
 Bu wealth, a government means that politics is based on wealth which is not less than a
catastrophic idea. Wealth-based politics creates exploitation in the society.
 By number, government means that ruler should be representative of and elected by the people.
Aristotle prefers such form of government.
Branches of Government
 Aristotle was the first who divided government into three branches:
1. Executive 2. Legislature 3. Judiciary
Monarchy-cum-Democracy
 Although, Aristotle prefers monarchy but the rest of the process of government in this system
is democratic in nature because Aristotle prefers consultation in state‟s affairs on the basis of
number rather than on the basis of wealth or inheritance in government.
Aristotle Classification of Government
Aristotle had studied 158 constitutions of his times and had concluded two broad principles about the
classification of government:
a) The number of persons in whom sovereign power is vested.

b) The end to which the conduct of government is directed. This principle makes distinction
between pure and corrupt or perverted form. Serving collective interests is the pure form
while directed towards the interests of few is the corrupt form.
Number of persons with The end to which the conduct of government is directed.
political power
Pure form Corrupt or perverted form
One Monarchy with promotion of supreme Tyranny based on deceit and
virtue as the guiding principle. selfishness.
Few Aristocracy, representing a mixture of Oligarchy representing the greed
virtue and wealth directed toward common for wealth by serving interests of
good. few.
Many Polity representing material and medium Democracy. Representing the
virtue. Power rest in middle class which principles of equality, liberty,
uses it for the welfare of all the members and majority rule power with
of state. poor. Serving interests of their
class only and neglect the rest.
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Aristotle Views on Personal Property
His concept of property developed in direct reference to Plato, but he remains the ablest defender of
property to the present day. According to Aristotle, men must eat, clothe and have shelter and in order to
do so they must acquire property. According to him, property achieved by one‟s labour must not be
snatched from him and it is the responsibility of the state to guard his property.
Aristotle gives three possibilities for citizens‟ possession of property:
1. The soil my appropriated but the produce may thrown to the common stock. (polity).
2. Property may be common and may be cultivated in common but the produce may be divided
among the individuals for their private use. (Socialism).
3. The soil and the product may be alike common.
Common Property: He was against the ownership of common property it is difficult to manage. He
divides the property into Personal or private property and public property. He says that when everyone
owns everything, nobody will take care of anything. Everyone has to chiefly think of his own interest and
hardly ever of the public interest.
Arguments in Favour of Private Property: Therefore, common property cannot be a source of unity as
Plato argues. That is why every individual must be allowed to have a minimum possession of possession
and liberty of action to best express his individuality in the service of society. Private property is thus a
natural, necessary and normal means of the development and expression of individuality. But property
should be regarded as means rather than an end itself
 When a person has personal property he will not complain against others having the same
possession.
 When everyone attend his own business, they will make more progress. Here Aristotle links
self-interest with social progress through greater individual efforts.
 The pleasure that one has due to a sense of having something which is his own. This pleasure
brings self-confidence and self-reliance which are must for personality development. He view
is as material realization rather than selfishness.
 Under communism no one can freely afford generosity and liberality because of excessive
equalization of property. In having private must lead to inequality where men may help each
others with the money they possess as private property.
 He says that when history has been supporting the idea of private property for ages then why
we should repudiate it. He further argues that communistic doctrines have not been in vogue
in history and therefore, must be repudiated.
 Private property is necessary for social development because it maintains social uplift and
social status of individual in society.
 It leads to fruitful and productive competition among individuals.
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Aristotle’s Ideal State
Aristotle was a realist and he convinced that the ideal could not be realized. Therefore, he was chiefly
concerned with the ideals of a good state. It is not ideal in sense of Plato, but what is best in Plato‟s “The
Laws” is ideal for Aristotle. His ideal state reflects the good life of individuals. The ingredients of good
life are three:
1. External good. (material condition)

2. Good of body. (Sound body)
3. Good of soul. (Moral ends)
Same are the ingredients of state which means good material condition, good administration, and
achievement of moral ends. An ideal state gives priority to the good of soul, (moral ends).
Salient features of Aristotle’s Ideal State
1. Middle Class and Stability: Quality and quantity are two contending forces in society: quality
means birth, wealth, education and status which are Oligarchic in nature.
Quantity means the number, the claims of the mass of the people, the democratic force. The
Oligarch possesses material power and they only know how to command. The poor lack spirit
because of their deprivation. They understand how to carry out commands. They are often misled
by the demagogues who lead them to revolt which brings instability. Therefore state only
dominated by either the rich or the poor would be bad and unstable states. These two forces
cannot be ignored or removed. Therefore, in ideal state the power must be lodged in the middle
class, between oligarchy and democracy to bring stability. It will be the most secure and law-
abiding state.
2. Rule of Law: the government of ideal state works through three institutions:
I. Popular Assembly composed of all citizens for deliberative work.
II. The system of magistracy and judiciary
III. The administrative department.
Therefore, his ideal state is not ruled by philosophers, rather by law of the land. There is rule of
law in his ideal state. All subjects are under one and the same law. All citizens participate in
state‟s affairs and take responsibilities. The rights of governance are not restricted to one class.
3. Character of the People: All citizens are expected to be tolerant and well balanced. The must be
men of integrity, intelligence and character, honest and dutiful. They must have spirit and courage
combined with intelligence.
4. Education: According to Aristotle, character of citizens depends on education which cultivates
intelligence, moral and physical excellence and enables a citizen to perform his duties properly.
Education system must be uniform and state regulated.
5. Peace and Tranquility: Aristotle‟s ideal state is peaceful, not aggressive and imperialist but it
keeps sufficient army for self-defense and self-preservation but will not use against its
neighbours.
6. Population: Certain minimum population to keep the state self-sufficient but should not rise
beyond certain maximum. Should be small enough to be self-sufficient and large enough not to be
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devoured by enemy. Citizens should know each other in order to be able to elect the right person
to different offices. Marriages should be state regulated; men at the age of thirty seven and
women in twenty should be allowed to marry. He also allows infanticide and abortion to keep the
population under the desired limits.
7. Size and Location: Neither too large nor too small. Territory should hard to access by enemy
and easy to egress by its citizens. Should be strategically located for defense. It must have access
to sea for trade and naval purpose. It should import its necessities and export its surplus. It should
not act as broker or shipper for other states.
8. Classes in the State: Agriculture, artisans, soldiers land owners, the administrators and the priest
classes should be there to make the state self-sufficing. Agriculture and art are time consuming
there they are not given rights of citizenship. Only citizens can possess land. Half of the land will
be commonly owned to meet the needs of citizens while half land will be held privately.
Therefore, these are the characteristics which the best state should attain.
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Niccolo Machiavelli of Florence (1469-1527)

He was the Italian historian, statesman and political philosopher whose amoral writings have turned his
name synonymous for cunning and duplicity. He was born in Florence on May 13, 1469. He remained
secretary of the Ten-man council that conducted the diplomatic negotiation and supervised military
operations. He became acquainted with many Italian rulers and studied their political tactic, mostly of
Cesare Borgia who was engaged in enlarging his holdings in central Italy. In 1512 the Medici family
regained power in Florence and dissolved the republic. Machiavelli was deprived of his office and briefly
imprisoned. He died on June 21, 1527.
He always sought to establish a state capable of resisting foreign attacks. Therefore, his writings are
mainly concerned with the principles on which such a state is founded. In his famous work The Prince, he
describes the method by which a prince can acquire and maintain political power.
Machiavelli a child of environment
He was deeply influenced by the political and intellectual tendencies of his age. By the beginning of 16th
century the democratice tendencies of the “Conciliar Movement” advocating constitutional government
both in church and state had disappeared. Pop was supremely ruling in church and on other side king was
adroitly risen to the crest on the tide of nationality. Italy became a battle field of all this struggle between
church and king. During 14th, 15, and 26th century there was constant political disorder in Italy. Securing
independence of Italy and giving peaceful life to its citizens became his passionate ambition which he
reflected in his famous works Prince and the Discoursi. He realized that the contemporary politics were
not based on true Christian ethics but on selfish political seizure and violence.
It was an era of renaissance which demanded greater intellectual liberty and freedom of thought from the
dogmatic and orthodox beliefs. Florence was center of renaissance in Italy. Renaissance challenged the
authority of church. Secular beliefs were making grounds. Machiavelli stood as bridge between medieval
and modern thoughts. Man had no significance in medieval era while through Renaissance man replaced
god‟s centrality in the world. Power replaced morality. He was influence by Ceasor Borgia. Savanarala
was moral and kind king and therefore was quickly overthrown and beheaded while Borgia was cunning
and cruel that is why he got supremacy.
He like Aristotle, also took his empirical observation from history. He says if you want to foresee what is
going to take place should see what has taken place. He was realist and not speculative. Therefore, taking
help from history was suitable to him. He was not political thinker, but was concerned with the art of
government. Preservation of state rather than an excellent constitution was his motive. He observed all
things from the standpoint of ruler rather than the ruled. Therefore, he made distinction in morality:
public morality and private morality. An action may be immoral for public but it remain moral for king if
he does for the sake of state. He rejected the co-existence of clericalism and secularism.
Machiavelli on Human Nature/Nature of State and End of State.
 The humanists of his time a positive idea of humans‟ nature that individual has much to offer for
the well-being of the state. They believed that individual‟s moral, political and intellectual growth
is possible within the state while Machiavelli took a very distinct idea of human nature.
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 Machiavelli takes a very low idea of human nature and builds his political theory accordingly. All
men to Machiavelli are wicked and essentially selfish. They are ungrateful, fickle, deceitful,
cowardly and liars. Machiavelli says that they are your when you serve their best interests and
they will turn against you if the time of adversity comes.
 He says that some have the desire to own more while others fear to lose what they already have.
The masses only seek security for person and property. Others desire for power.
 Love of wealth and ambition and envy are powerful motives of human actions.
 According to Machiavelli, government is found on the weakness and insufficiency of the
individual who is unable to protect himself unless supported by the power of the state.
 According to Machiavelli security and material propriety is the basis of political life among men.
The people are compelled to form society in order to live in security provided by the law of the
society. Therefore, successful government must aim at security of property and life before
everything else.
 Machiavelli concept of state is thus that it is not a natural organism but a device against the evil
nature of man.
 He ignores the issue of the end of the state in extra political, ethical, religious, cultural terms.
 According to him, power is an end in itself and he confines his inquiries into the means that are
best suited to acquire, retain and expand power. He identifies state with the ruler.
 He draws the conclusion that security of the state is the primary duty of the ruler and that
monarch should aim rather to be feared than to be loved. Because love is often sacrificed for the
sake of one‟s interests but fear holds them for their interests.
 A prince should be careful about flattery attitude of his people. He may listen to wise people of
his government but do what he wishes to.
 He promoted secular politics and state and rejected medieval concept of church regulated politics.
 He said that Italy has beseeched God to send someone to heal her wounds. The barbarous
cruelties have wounded much of Italy‟s political shape.”
Machiavelli: Separation of ethics and religion from politics
He broke away with the Aristotle and medieval thought that state is an ethical institution and its end is to
make people happy. For him state is not a mean to end but an end in itself. Interest of the state justifies
everything. It is wrong to tell a lie but a king can tell it for the sake of state as killing other is wrong but
state kills people for their crimes. According to him, nothing is good or bad but the end justifies them. He
praises chastity, virtue, liberality and courage for individual but divorce them from state affairs.
Therefore, he termed as unmoral or amoral rather than immoral. According to him nothing is good or bad
but its end determines its goodness or badness. Therefore, he called the founder of modern “utilitarian
ethics”.
Machiavelli was not irreligious but unreligious because he restricted religion to a very low level in his
political thoughts. Religion and politics had remained intertwined for centuries but according to him,
religious passive ideas cannot serve Italian politics. He says that for Italian society pagan virtues like
cunning, duplicity and bravery are required. He knew that religion has public utility because it brings
unity among them but he thinks that religion should be an instrument in the hands of the statesman rather
independent of state. Church has place in state but not above or beside it. According to Machiavelli ethics
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and religion are social forces working within state rather above state. Therefore, ethics and religion
should remain subordinate to politics and state.
According to him responding to evil with goodness is nothing but encouragement of evil.
Love is flexible while hatred is rigid, that is ruler should have hatred and rigidity to control his subjects‟
evils and selfishness. There is greater security in being feared than loved. An evil can be resisted by
committing greater evil.
Corruption of religious leaders: Popes had worked for the restoration and preservation of Medici
monarchy while Machiavelli was trying to make Italy democratic.
End to Traditionalism. The popes of Italy had corrupted the system with old norms and values. Therefore,
Machiavelli wanted radical changes to root out the old system.
Religion is personal matter: state covers all political matters and religion is just related to personal matters
while state has no concern with personal matters.
State is the super-most institution: state is the highest institution therefore, it defense must be maintained
at any cost even if it leads to cruelty, injustice or mercilessness.
Criticism:
 His personal matters with popes and Medici family made him secular.
Machiavelli’s Concept of Diplomacy

 Definition: Diplomacy is a recent coinage that means the skill in dealing with the people for the
purpose of smooth and efficient administration of the country. Machiavelli does not use this term
but give principles of diplomacy to his Prince because he served his country as an ambassador
twenty three times and visited places like Rome, Paris and other countries. In the words of
Sabine, “he writes about nothing and thinks about nothing except politics, statecraft and the art of
war. “
 Theory of preservation of state rather than theory of state. According to him, preservation
and security of state from internal and external threats is the utmost duty of the prince. A king
should not even spare his life for the sake of the state.
 Ruler as the Super-most Entity: Ruler is the most effective body of the state. He must have
qualities of ego, wisdom, brutality and cunning.
 Self-aggrandizement: The king should be respected and honoured but he should not do the
same to others because insulting behaviour towards others is necessary for maintaining power.
 Hypocrisy and Dual Standard: The king should be like honey in front of his subject but should
be filled with hatred and aggression inside.
 Fear in the minds of subjects: The king should have the courage of a line and cunning of a fox.
Force and fraud the main shields in his hands. He should set fear in the minds of his subjects.
 Caution against Flattery: he advises his king to let the men understand that to tell him the truth
did not offend him in order to guard himself against flattery.
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 Harsh Laws and Violent Actions: a king must implement harsh laws and show violent action to
suppress the rebellious thoughts in his subjects. He should avoid politeness and truth or justice for
the sake of the security and stability of the state.
 King should be aggressive and constant inquirer than a good listener.
 The king should keep faith only when necessary or when no disadvantage results from it.
 Recast fro customs and institutions: King should pay recast for customs and institution because
they are dearer to the people than their life and liberty.
 Private property: The king should never confiscate the property of his subjects because people
can forget the killing of their fathers but never they forget the loss of property.
 Material Satisfaction of subjects: The king must do all he can to keep his subjects materially
contented.
 Taxes: He must not impose heavy taxes.
 Art and Literature: A prudent ruler always patronizes art and literature to win the sympathies
of intellectuals.
 Emotions: King must be free of emotional distances. He should take advantage of people‟s
emotions. He must be opportunist. He must appose evil by evil.
 Army: the king should not rely on mercenary army. He must develop a well-trained army.
 Attack: Destroy the enemy before he destroys you. The king must precede his enemy in making
attack.
 Affiliation during war: In case of war between two neighbours, the king should never remain
neutral. He must take side of the weaker so that the country should be obliged to him after victory
for support.
Criticism:
 Force and fraud cannot go longer. They may lead to hatred in people‟s minds towards the ruler
and the ultimately towards the state.
 Politics without ethics is devoid of kernel.
 State is founded on the minds of people who are moral agents. A good man will be a good citizen
only in a good state with good laws. People will always condemned immoral principles and
actions of the king.
Machiavelli’s Concept of Power Politics
Machiavelli was the first systematic writer who advocated the use of force to attain national
objectives.
 Power maintains super power over all the people. He considers all institutions of the state
means to this end.
 Power of a state determines its position in community of states.
 In “The Prince” he advises he king to secure his power by any mean or tactic necessary.
 According to him, power is obvious. Only a strong state can meet the challenges of the time.
 He advocated imperialism. He believed in the subjugation of other states to the rule of a
single prince. According to him, “the state either expands or expires”. He admired Romans‟
policy of expansionism.
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 He was against mercenary army. He always preferred a national army behind which stood the
sentiments of patriotism.
Machiavelli’s Impact on later Political Thoughts
Although Machiavelli‟s work “The Prince” remains a treatise of unmoral or amoral advice to his king but
his ideas deeply affected later political thinkers and political thoughts of many political philosophers.
1) Concept of Power Politics: This idea had existed before Machiavelli but in obscured form.
Hundred years before him, Lord Grey had also predicted that the politics of great states could not
be governed by the rules of morality. Karl Marx was also influenced who later reduced politics to
the study of power conflicts and their control.
2) Secularism: Aloofness of politics from religion. Mahatma Ghandi later supported separation of
religion from politics. Two opposing groups emerged regarding secularism:
 Western Group who favoured secularism.
 Muslim Group who opposed secularism, like Iqbal, Maududi.
3) Modern Nationalism: He was proponent and expounder of modern nationalism and absolute
sovereignty which later influenced the formation of nation-state‟s concept in 17th century under
Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.
4) State is an end: From the times of Greek philosophers till medieval ages, state power was
considered as a mean to achieve other ends but he rejected it and base state as an end in itself and
all other means are used to secure and maintain the state.
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Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Introduction:
Thomas Hobbes was a famous English philosopher and political theorist. He was born in Westport on
April 5, 1588. He was educated at Magdalen Hall university of Oxford. He fled to France during the civil
war in England. In 1608 he became tutor to William Cavendish, later Earl of Devonshire. It gave hi an
opportunity to come into contact with many renowned intellectuals of the time like, Frances Bacon,
Galileo, Rene Descrates, Pierre Gassendi. During his the second quarter of 17 th century England went
through civil war while France was going through scientific revolution. Therefore, his approach to
political science is self-consciously scientific in nature. He mostly used deductive method for his
inquiries. Therefore, he begins with the inquiry of the basic component of society, (individual human
being), studying his properties and behaviours in isolation. Then, he deduced from it rational conclusion
about social and political organization.
Further his approach to human was purely material than spiritual or moral. Hobbes had become
convinced as early as 1630 – largely thanks to Bacon‟s influence that the whole of the natural order can
be explained in terms of „body‟ without invoking such things as mind or spirit. The task of science, he
argues in De corpore, is to examine and describe the effects of various types of corporeal motion; this, he
thinks, is as true of physiology and psychology as it is of physics. His materialism – which earned him the
condemnation of his con temporaries for „atheism‟ – is central to his account of human behaviour. The
body of each human being is, he thinks, only a complex mechanism, somewhat like a clock. He develops
this imagery at length in De corpore. The heart is a spring; the nerves are wires; the joints are the wheels
that give motion to the whole
Leviathen first appeared in 1651 after the execution of Charles I in 1649. The Leviathen can be divided
into four parts:
1) First parts deals with Hobbesian state of nature.
2) Second part deals with the origin of state.
3) 3rd and 4th parts show Hobbes‟s erastianism, (the doctrine that state should have
supremacy over the church in ecclesiastical matters.
Hobbes on Human Nature
Hobbes believea that wisdom is not achieved by reading books but by reading men. Therefore,
he concentrated on human nature and based his political philosophy on the study of human
nature.
Mechanistic Approach: Hobbes studies human nature from mechanistic perspective. His
materialism – which earned him the condemnation of his con temporaries for „atheism‟ – is central to his
account of human behaviour. The body of each human being is, he thinks, only a complex mechanism,
somewhat like a clock having various functional components.
External Forces/Environment: According to Hobbes human behaviour is the product of external forces
operating upon organs of senses. It means, human actions are determined by his response to sensation. .
Its behaviour is a series of responses to the stimuli received through the senses from the outside world.
Some stimuli are pleasurable because they enhance our „vital motion‟. These we call good. Our feeling
towards them is one of desire, and we endeavour to maximise and prolong them. Our condition when we
are in a state where pleasure predominates is called „felicity‟. Other stimuli, which impede our vital
motions, are painful. These we call evil; our feeling towards them is one of aversion, and we endeavour to
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avoid them. „Good‟ and „evil‟ have no other meaning than „pleasurable‟ and „painful‟: they are the names
we give to what we desire and shun respectively.
Thus there are two driving forces in human nature:
1) One strives towards whatever is seemed desirable.
2) The second is avoidance of whatever is undesirable.
Therefore, whatever human desires is Good and whatever he shuns is Evil. Security is thus the greatest
good and insecurity is the greatest evil. Goodness and badness thus become subjective depending upon
the likes and dislikes of individuals.
Security and Power: Man can achieve self-preservation and avoid loss of life and possession only when
he has power. Since no man has enough power to fulfill these desires, therefore, he is always busy in
seeking power to secure what he already possess. Therefore, Hobbes says that security cannot be
separated from power.
Equality and Selfishness of Humans: According to Hobbes all humans are mentally and physically
equal; the rest is only a matter of time and experience that can be acquired by anyone. This equality
among men is the source of misery and trouble. If two men desire the same thing which they cannot
obtain, they both become enemies of each other and try to destroy each other.
Causes of Conflicts: Hobbes recognizes three causes of conflict among humans: competition, difference
and glory.
Means of Survival: Being selfish and power seekers, brutality, aggressiveness were the means of
survival in the state of nature. “A war of every man is against every man”. In order to overcome
discomfort for the sake of improving one‟s well-being is also the demand of the will or desire.
Therefore, Hobbes concludes that man is by nature selfish, fearful, self-seeking and competitive to the
point of combativeness. Man always follows his selfish despises and inclinations.
Criticism:
 He draws a dark picture of human. Man is not selfish. He is a bundle of natural impulses which
can be turned any way.
 His concept is based on the individualistic analysis of human rather than social.
 He takes into account only the mutual distrust among men and forgets the mutual cooperation.
Man is also sympathetic, generous, and has social obligations.
 Hobbes negates Aristotle‟s concept that “Man is a social animal”.
 He did differentiate between human and a wild animal.
 If human were naturally selfish and brutal like animals, how did they evolve to social beings?
Who changed their habits?
Hobbes on State of Nature

 Human Nature: Hobbes based his concept of state of nature on his idea of the selfish nature of
man. Man was individualistic, self seeking, fearful and competitive in state of nature.
 Unchecked/No Authority: Man was free to follow his selfish impulses and inclinations. There
was no one to keep men under check in state of nature, therefore, they were in a state of war of
every man against every other man. Man‟s desires were the only driving force of his action.
Therefore, state of nature was “pre-social” and “pre-political”.
 State of Fear and Strife: Due to fulfilling their desires, a state of perpetual fear and strife
developed that has three sources:
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1) Competition between man and man for means to gratify identical appetites.
2) The fear in each lest the other surpasses him in power.
3) The desire to achieve glory and power to be admired by others.
Therefore, natural relation of each individual to other individual is determined by motives of competition,
mistrust/differences and love of glory in the state of nature. Every man was the enemy of every other man
due to absence of a checking authority.
Absence of Sociality: Hobbes‟ state of nature was devoid of art, literature, industry, agriculture, facilities,
and trade. Thus the life of man in state of nature was thus solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.
Transformation towards Social Contract:

Awareness: slowly, men started recognizing each other, brutality and selfish impulses were slowly being
controlled but the fear and corrupt practices still existed, injustice still was prevailing.
Fear of Death and Desire of Comfort and Viable Society: Due to materialistic impulses: fear of death
and desire of comfort, a viable or working society developed between these competitive individuals and
consequently, in the interest of personal survival they can around and renounced their rights to use
violence. This brought an end to the state of instability. According to Hobbes, “man is neither social nor
political anima but civil society is the artificial invention of state of war to prohibit state of instability.
Distinctive features of State of Nature:
 There exist no distinction of right and wrong in the state of nature.
 There is no distinction of just and unjust in the state of nature.
 There is no such thing as private property in the state of nature.
Criticism:
 It is neither fully utilitarian nor ideal.

 An anti-social body is not likely to enter a social contract.
 Even primitive age had some code of morality which Hobbes has ignored.
 How did the selfish interests suddenly change into sense of duty and responsibility?
Laws of Nature:
Laws of nature according to Hobbes are precept of general rules found by reason by which a man is
forbidden to do that is destructive of his life or the means of preserving the same. Laws of nature include:
equity, justice, gratitude, mercy, modesty etc. Some laws of nature are the following:
 Everyone should seek peace and preserve the same.
 Man must be contented with so much liberty against others as he would allow other men against
him.
 Another law of nature demands that he must transfer some of his rights by a covenant.
 Men perform their covenant made.
 The man to whom the rights are transferred causes no injury to the one who makes the transfer.
They are not laws as we perceive but everyone should desire their observance. Law of nature in
a nutshell is, the principle of not doing that to other which one does not like to be done to
him by others.
Hobbes Natural Rights:

 Liberty. Everyone has the right to use power for the preservation of his life.
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 Natural rights are not moral rights but the capacity of holding thing and to be equated
with might.
 Thus enforcement of laws of nature is due to utility rather than on moral consideration.
Similarly, rights in the state of nature did not impose corresponding duties.
Hobbes Social Contract

Hobbes presented a very dark picture of human nature and stae of nature. State of nature was
predominated by fear and chaos. There was “Might is right” phenomenon because of constant
competition for glory and dominations.
Reason to have Social Contract: According to Hobbes the state of nature might have continued
but two factors inherent in man, Reason and Fear of violent death led to make a contract: Reason
demands that there be peace and some rights must be transferred, covenants must be made and
honoured.
Need of Authority: Lust of glory and power may temp man to break his pledges of natural rules
unless there is a restraining authority, strong enough to make him keep his promises.
Desire to End state of nature: Therefore, to get rid of the state of nature and have peace, men
are driven to get over themselves a common sovereign authority that can restrain their anarchical
impulses, stop killing, plundering and fear. Therefore, they get together to enter into a covenant
uttering the following words:
“I authorize and give up my right of myself to this man or man or this assembly of men on
the condition that thau give up thy right to him or them and authorize all his/her actions in
like manner.”
Implications of this Contract:
 (Ruler or assembly of men was not part of this contract. The contract was among the
subjects rather than between subject and the ruler. Ruler was eyond the rule of contract
and is not responsible to the subjects for his actions.
 The contract is irrevocable. Once one entered into civil society, he cannot annul his
compliance to the contract.
 The contract is social and not governmental.
 Nature of Government: Government was absolute and therefore, government under this
contract was sovereign and absolute.
 Government and state: Both are identical in this contract. Disobedience of one is the
disobedience of other.
 State as a means to an end: State is considered as an artifice, a means to maintain peace,
order and preserve life. Therefore, state is not an end but a means to an end.
 Freedom and liberty of people: people‟s liberty and freedom were in the hands of the
sovereign ruler. They could not re-demand their liberty of state of nature.
 Concept of Sovereignty: It was the origin of the sovereign ruler. His orders are laws and
he is above the laws.
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 Absolutism: Hobbes preferred monarchy to other forms of government. He wanted all
the legislative, executive and judicial powers in one hand in order to have effective
government.
 Revolution: The contract avoids any right of revolution against the sovereign ruler.
Defects or Criticism of Hobbes’ Social Contract:
 Such social get-together is impossible in the state of nature that Hobbes has presented.
How did such brutal and quarreling people come to peace?
 Unilateral contract: A contract is always between the ruler and his subject with equal
rights and responsibilities, while Hobbes‟ ruler is not party to the contract.
 How did a selfish man surrender to an irrevocable and unconditional contract?
 His contract is the result of fear that cannot be the base of a state. Will, not fear, is the
true basis of state.
 No distinction is made between state and society and state and government.
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John Locke (1632-1704)

John Locke was an eminent English philosopher who founded the school of empiricism and defended the
idea of a social contract. He was born in the village of Wrington, Somerset on August 29 th, 1632. He was
educated at the University of Oxford and lectured on Greek, Rhetoric and moral philosophy from 1661-
1664. He lived through the Glorious Revolution of 1688 which is called the bloodless revolution when
King James II was overthrown by the Union of English Parliamentarians. It was actually a strife between
Catholics and Protestants. The revolution was brought by the Whig party which banned Catholics from all
political activities. Locke was secretary to Shaftesbury who was the founder of the Whig party. Therefore,
Locke was a great proponent of the revolution. Locke returned from France when in 1688 the Protestant
king, William III took the throne. William appointed Locke to the board of Trade in 1696. He died in
Oates on October 28, 1704.
Locke’s Political Theories

Anti-divine theory of rights: Lock was against the theory of the divine right of kingship and of human
government. He rejected Robert Filmer theory of divine right and argued that sovereignty resides in the
people.
Republican: He believed that government only gets its power by the transfer of power from individuals
through a contract.
Pro-revolution: He also approves the right of revolution to people if they find the find the government
intolerably oppressive. This theory of Locke derives from his involvement in shaftsbury‟s plot against the
Catholic ruler.
Religious Toleration: he was advocate of religious toleration by the state. He rejected toleration of
atheism that he believed had no ground for loyalty or truthfulness.
Empiricism: According to Locke all knowledge other than deductive reasoning must be based on sensory
experience. Empiricist ideas were first put forward by English philosopher Frances Bacon in early 17th
century which Locke furthered in his essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1690. He regarded
human mind as Tabula Rasa (blank slates) upon which experience imprinted knowledge. He rejected the
belief of innate ideas, a concept that derived from Plato. Lock was a rationalist; therefore, all his political
or other ideas are based on reasons.
Locke on Human Nature

 His ideas regarding man and human nature were expressed in “An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding”. After the Glorious Revolution, Locke takes a bright picture of man and human
nature.
 Desire and Sensation: According to Locke human actions spring from the desire of men which
are produced by their sensation.
 Pleasure and Pain: Desire to Locke is the feeling of uneasiness which is identified with pain.
Every human being wants to get rid of pain. Therefore, the object of all human actions is to
substitute pleasure for pain.
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 Rationality: Reason is a dominant feature of human. Locke calls it “the spark of divine nature”.
Rationality inclines human towards society without the sanctions of government. Man was
basically social and capable of ruling themselves. They are superior to animals because their
evolution and development id due to their rational behaviour. Thus Locke‟s man in the state of
nature is social as well as rational.
 Human was Pre-political, not pre-social: Man is capable of recognizing moral order and knows
how to live in such order. Therefore, man in the state of nature was not pre-social but pre-
political. In state of nature man felt sympathy, love and tenderness towards his fellow beings.
Man is decent, orderly and lover of civil society. Men are capable of ruling themselves.
 Equality: According to Locke all humans in the state of nature were equal. There was natural
liberty of men to be free from any superior power or authority. Therefore, despite of their
physical or mental capabilities, human are equal.
 Utilitarianism: the main object for all human actions is to substitute pleasure for pain. There, a
thing is apt if it produces pleasure and it evil if it produces pain.
 Human Psychology: Haman nature has the qualities of love, sympathy and goodness which
tempted men to live together for the sustenance of their lives. Prior to the formation of a civil
society.
Locke on State of Nature

Peaceful and Cooperative: According to Locke the original state of nature was one of peace, good will,
mutual assistance and preservation. There was no jungle war of every man against every other man. Life
in the state of nature was not pre-social but pre-political.
Government by Law of Nature: Men were together by a law of nature. Laws of nature were determined
by reason for the guidance of men in their natural condition. These laws were capable of being understood
by the rational men in the state of nature.
Natural Rights: Under the law of nature human being had natural rights in the state of nature. They
included the right to life, liberty and property. Law of nature taught men not to harm one another and their
property. Humans were rational enough to observe these natural laws.
Right to Private Property: According to Locke, property in the state of nature was common in the sense
that everyone could take subsistence from whatever nature offered. But when a man mixes his labour, it
becomes his private property. Private property is the fruits of one‟s labour. According to Locke the right
ot private is inherent in human nature as labour is inherent in his nature. Therefore, it is man‟s right to
anything with which he has mixed his labour.
Duties in state of Nature: Along right, certain duties were also imposed on humans in state of nature. It
demands man to do what he can to preserve others provided his preservation does not come in conflict or
competition. Man liberty was conditioned to preservation of others‟ liberty. Law of nature also demands
that man should keep his promises because Truth and Faith belong to man as man and not as member of
society. Therefore, the state of nature in which there are rights and obligations is moral and social in
character.
Defects in the state of nature:
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 There wasn‟t any organization, such as magistracy, written laws and fixed penalties to give effect
to natural rights in the state of nature.
 These laws were self-imposed for the protection of one‟s life, property and liberty. Though men
in state of nature were equal but they were different in their intellect which interpreted these laws
in their own way which led to misunderstanding and shortcomings of the laws.
 There wasn‟t any established and known law. The laws of nature were differently interpreted as
per their interests and understanding. Therefore, clear-cut rules were needed.
 Lack of organization in the state of nature to settle their disputes. It lacked an indifferent judge.
Each person was a judge seeking his own interests and had little concern with justice for others.
There wasn‟t any fixed criterion for justice. Therefore, it was felt to have a fixed administration
of justice.
 There wasn‟t any executive power to enforce judgments. Each person was an executive authority
which brought insecurity and confusion in the state of nature
Therefore, due to these inconveniences in the state of nature, men moved towards a social contract in
order to establish an organization, fixed rules and justice which may govern all alike.
Locke’s Social Contract

Men wanted to get rid of the state of nature and enter into a civil society. This is a social and political
contract of all with all because it establishes a civil society. In the words of Locke:
“Each individual contracts with each to unite into and constitute a community. The end for which
the agreement is made is the protection and preservation of property. In the broad sense of the word, that
is of life, liberty and estate, against the danger both from within and without the community”.
Preservation of life, liberty and Estate: The individuals by means of this contract form a body of
politic, giving up their personal right to interpret and administer the law of nature in return for a guarantee
that their natural rights to life, liberty and property would be preserved and protected.
Specific and Limited Contract: Men surrendered certain rights whereby men‟s remaining rights will be
preserved and protected. Thus it is not general as with Hobbes but specific and limited.
Continuation of the state of nature: Man continues to under that law as he was before. In Locke‟s
words, “Obligation of the law of nature ceases not in society”. Only the right of the interpretation and
administration of laws was surrendered.
Formation and Obligations of Government: People having formed a society must institute a
government which is the trustee of people, and it functions for them and is responsible to them. The
government has no equal rights to those of people, it has only obligations to those who created it and for
whom it acts as agent. The authority surrendered to it was conditional and trust of people. It is responsible
to secure the rights of life, liberty and property.
Right to revolution: In case the government fails to secure the rights, people have the right to revolt and
overthrow it because the contract keeps the supreme power with the people. “The supreme power remains
still in the people”.
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Legislation and Executive: Locke believes in the representative assembly of men and gives supreme
power to it. Executive is subject to legislature but legislature is not all in all. There are certain limitations:
 Legislature cannot exercise power arbitrarily.

 Its power should be directed toward general welfare of society.
 It cannot deprive a man of his property without his consent.
 It cannot delegate its law-making power to other because is vested in it by the people. Only they
can do so.
Characteristics of the state under the social contract:
 The state exists for the people who established it, but they do not exist for it. It means state is not
an end but a means to an end.
 The state is founded on the consent of the people.
 It is a constitutional state in which men acknowledge the rule of law.
 The state is not absolute but limited because it derives its power from people and is responsible to
them.
Implications of the Social Contract:
 He painted the picture state comparatively realistic.

 He planted the concept of democracy.
 He ensured people‟s participation in politics.
 Rooted out the divine theory of origin of state and of rights to kingship.
 Preached pro-revolution ideas.
 He supported constitutional monarchy.
Criticism
 He has drawn a very high and civilized picture of the state of nature which does not need
establishment of political or civil institutions.
Locke’s Secularism or state-Church Relationship

 Competition between religion and politics: His era was predominated by a conflict between
Religion and Politics (Politicians and Roman Popes) who were competing for superiority and
dominance. Therefore, he separated religion from state‟ affairs.
 Collective and Individual Nature: According to Locke, religion and religious beliefs should be
free will because they belong to inner self of the individual while state is responsible for
collective affairs like, stability of collective life.
 Church Allegiance to State: Religious functions should be performed by church but church
should remain in allegiance to the state. Church should mind its own business but should remain
in allegiance to state.
 State is Superior Body: State is superior to religion because it has to deal with the collective
affairs of life while religion is related to individual‟s affairs.
 Separate Institutions: State and church must be distinct. Church should not bother about state
affairs. Church should not interfere in political affairs of the state. Similarly, the state should also
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not bother about religion and religious beliefs of the people. The state has no right to suppress any
opinion except those which are dangerous to the safety of the state.
 Material and Spiritual Aspects: State has to deal with the material affairs of the state like,
defense, maintenance of law and order and other social issues while religion needs to deal
spiritual affairs where state has no right to interfere.
 Religious toleration: Locke stood for religious toleration but was deadly against Roman Catholic
Church because of their foreign allegiance. He was against Muslims because of their peculiar
morality and because Islam make religion superior to state and politics.
 He was against atheism because they had no faith.
 His toleration was merely for the Protestants because he himself belonged to that.
Locke on Individualism
End of State: Locke was a thorough individualist and he placed his individual before the state. In his
philosophy state comes into existence to protect the rights of individual, especially, the rights to property.
These rights are not created by the state but state safeguards them. The state is thus a convenience and is
therefore, a mean to an end and the individual is the end.
Individual is the Center: state is founded and maintained on the consent of the individual. Therefore, all
the affairs of the state revolve around the individual.
Rational and Moral character of Individual: According to Locke, an individual enters to the state as
rational and moral being. Therefore, his moral or rational development is not due to the state.
Anti-absolutism: The second point of Locke‟s social contract is that government should be responsible
to the individual and should not be absolute in its actions and power.
Consent of Individual: The state and civil society are conditional to individual‟s consent. Therefore,
without the consent of the individual, state or civil society cannot exist.
Right to Revolution: The individual has the right to resist the state if it misbehaves.
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Jean Jacques Russeau (1712-1778)

Introduction:
He was a Swiss-born French philosopher, social and political theorist, musician, botanist, and one
of the most eloquent writers of the Age of Enlightenment. Rousseau was born in Geneva on June 18,
1712. He was abandoned by his father in early age and was raised by an aunt and uncle. He did not
receive proper education. In the age of 13 he was apprenticed to a wealthy lady, Madame Louise de
Warens, who significantly influenced Rousseau‟s writings. In 1742 he moved to Paris where he earned
his living as music teacher and political secretary. He also associated with the Enlightenment thinkers and
philosophers, especially, Diderot. Rousseau contributed article on musicology to the great project
Encyclopedia. He developed his own ideas that differed radically from their fashionable cult of reason
and from establishment orthodoxy. Indeed, Rousseau‟s most striking characteristic is his originality. He
changed the thinking of Europe, having an impact on political theory, education, literature, ethics, ideas
about the self and its relationship to nature, and much else. These influences, together with his elevation
of emotion and will above reason, make him the major precursor of the Romantic Movement.
His early „Discourses‟ offended the philosophers, while his two most famous works, Emile and The
Social Contract (both 1762), outraged the authorities, particularly because of their religious content. They
were burned by the public executioner in both Paris and Geneva, and Rousseau‟s arrest was ordered. He
fled France and spent several years seeking refuge in various countries, but returned in 1767 under an
assumed name of Renou. He spent his final years living in solitude on the estate of an admirer-patron near
Paris. Here he studied botany and continued to write, mainly autobiographical works. The Confessions
and Reveries of a Solitary Walker were both published after Rousseau‟s death in 1778.
Rousseau attacked and denigrated all that the philosophers held dear: reason, science, philosophy,
progress and intellectual sophistication. He extolled the virtues of the common man, his loyalty and
patriotism and sense of community, and admired dour, militaristic, anti-intellectual Sparta at the expense
of intellectually glittering Athens. As against the orthodox doctrine of original sin, Rousseau insisted that
human beings are essentially good, and that it is only society that corrupts them.
He contributed greatly to the movement I Western Europe for individual freedom and against absolutism
of Church and State. He favoured a totalitarian state that embodies the abstract will of the people and
strict enforcement of political and religious conformity. His idea of education that was psychologically
oriented influence German educator Freidrich Froebel and other educationists. He also influence
Romanticism and psychoanalytical theory in literature. He rejected the doctrine of original sin and
defended learning through experience rather than analysis.
Rousseau on Human Nature and State of Nature
Rousseau envisages Plato and Locke‟s concept of human nature. According to him, human is by nature
good.
Two Instincts: According to Rousseau, human nature consists of two original instincts:
 Self-regarding. It means self love, self-preservation and self-interest.
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 Others-regarding. Its means sympathy, mutual assistance and gregariousness.
Role of Conscience and environment: Self-love and sympathy often come into clash but man being
good by nature tries to adjust both by his sentiment of conscience. Conscience is guided by the ability of
reason in man. Conscience teaches a man to do the right and refrain him from doing wrong. Therefore,
reason and conscience enable a man to establish harmony between self-regarding and others-regarding
instincts. As long as man follows his natural instincts, he is natural and a good one. Imbalance in the
natural instincts and affect of bad environment transforms human character from good to bad.
State of Nature:
Rousseau has discussed his concept of the state of nature in “The discourse on the Origin of Inequality”.
According to Rousseau, life in the state of nature was not that gloomy as of Hobbes‟ and not as optimistic
as of Locke‟s.
Neutral life: Rousseau natural man is neither happy nor unhappy in the state of nature.
Care-free life: He further describes that the life in the state of nature was solitary, happy and care-free.
He knew neither speech nor dress. Man feels free, equal, independent and self-sufficient.
Non-social: Man was non-social, was unknown to good evil, or fear.
Free of Moral Obligations: man had no moral determinate obligations or relations to one another in state
of nature.
Property and Family: He had neither family nor property. He just followed self-interest or sympathy.
State of Peace: It was a state of peace and not of war.
Pre-political: His man was pre-political and noble. His noble savage was in a state of paradise.
Social Evolution and Group Life: with the passage of time, the problems and needs increase and they
were getting together making groups. Relationships started to develop. They got taste of wealth and
started accumulating it. The new dynamics in life changed their behavior towards the natural life.
Personal Property as Source of Problems: with entrance into social life, the concept of private property
developed which Rousseau calls a “Serpent in the shape of property”. Property aroused the desire to have
family and settled abode in place of wandering life. Therefore, the institute of private property created a
sense of jealousy and struggle. This gave rise to inequality among men.
Private Property as the Foundation of Civil Society: Rousseau says that the first man enclosing a piece
of land and saying it is mine and finding people to believe him was the real founder of civil society. The
concept of private property was the loss of natural equality and freedom of the state of nature.
Anarchy on Society: with the emergence of private property, the noble savage became subject to violence,
crime and all evils of society. That is why Rousseau said, “Give us back ignorance, innocence, and
poverty which alone can make us happy.”
Evolution towards social contract: The evils and inequalities caused by property holding led to anarchy
in society, they were in need of an authority to settle their disputes and end the inequality. It was the
beginning of going towards a social contract.
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Rousseau’s Social Contract

His work on social contract, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality and the Social Contract give a detailed
account of his concept of social contract. These ideas also inspired the French Revolution of 1789.
 Life in the state of nature was peaceful and happy but two things put an end to this life:
 Growth in Population.
 Origin of private property (Thine and Mine).
 In order to get rid of the state of anarchy, Rousseau suggests two options: either to return to the
state of nature or institute a civil society. The former is impossible, therefore, the only option was
to form political obligation which would reconcile authority and liberty, remove inequality and
establish natural rights and restore the benefits of the state of nature.
 When man realized that his individual power cannot defend him, he entered into a social pact
collectively to defend and protect with whole common force, his own and others‟ good. In uniting
with all, he still obeys himself alone and remains as free as before.
 Contract: Individual surrendering his natural rights enter into association saying:
“Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the
General Will and in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the
whole”.
 Formation of Moral and collective body: Man merges his individuality into society.
 Man does not surrender to a sovereign ruler but each man gives to nobody in particular but to all.
 Man surrendered natural liberty and unlimited rights but gained civil liberty and property rights.
In Rousseau words, man enters into two relations:
 As member of the sovereign body where he is bound to other co-sovereign individuals.
 As member of the state he bound to the sovereign.
 General Will and Sovereignty: Each individual surrenders himself to the community. And the
community is under the general will, (will of community). General Will remains sovereign
because it was created by the consent of all those who entered into it. General will is absolute and
sovereign and disobeying it is actually disobeying oneself.
 The prince is not above the law but he is a member under the law.
 Man under General will individual becomes a citizen with moral character.
Criticism: (Appraisal)
 Rousseau was advocate of popular sovereignty.
 He was a preacher of direct democracy.
 Differentiate between state and government: General will could not transform or perish while
government could change or perish.
 Authority of the government is finally based on the consent of the governed. Projected the notion
of, “will, not force is the basis of the state”.
Defects:
 Lack of historical proofs to his theory. It is impossible to believe that historically men in the state
of nature knowing nothing of political institutions should suddenly agree to set up a state.
Consent could not be the sole factor for the formation of state.
 He says that man lived a solitary life in state of nature wile researches show that clan or tribe but
not the individual was the social unit un primitive time.
 He calls man as noble savage but man has both brutish and selfishness as well. Hobbes went to
one extreme about human nature while Rousseau to the other.
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 He says that men enjoyed natural rights in the state of nature but rights also impose corresponding
duties which are lacking in his state of nature. Rights can only be maintained under organized
community.
 He calls General will neither the will of all nor will of majority which is confusing because
normally, it is understood as the will of majority and not the will of all.
 Mixture of Democracy, Absolutism and Socialism. He presented the idea of direct democracy.
His philosophy is based on absolutism of General will but if conflict arises between state and
individual, he considers state as superior to man. This is in contradiction to his General will. He is
socialist because he believes in uniform and equal humans and nationalize education.

Rousseau’s General Will
The concept of General Will is the crux of Rousseau‟s political system and his most distinguishing
contribution to political philosophy. By the concept of General Will, he revives the organic theory of the
state as given by Plato and Aristotle.
Concept: Rousseau develops his concept of General will with the help of two types of will:
1) Actual Will: Actual will is based on self-interest that conceives the present only and is
thus irrational and has no motives for collective welfare.
2) Real Will: it is the rational will which aims the real interest of an individual in relation to
the general welfare of the community. It is base on reason. General will is actually the
sum total or synthesis of the Real wills of individuals in community.
Formation of General Will: First actual wills of individual appear but selfish elements, pluses and
minuses cancel each other. This way the Actual wills of individuals with interaction are transformed into
Real wills. General will represent the synthesis of these Real wills. Thus General will is not mere a
compromise but represent a higher type of will of the community. It represents the common
consciousness of the common good after proper discussion and deliberation. Each individual utters:
“I have sworn to seek only the welfare of the community, no matter what the consequences may be
for me”
Aim of General will: it has two aims: first is general good that means the object of this concept is to give
good life to all. And second, it must come from all and apply to all that is the origin.
Difference between General will and the Will of All: General will considers the common interest while
the Will of all takes private interest into account and is a sum of particular wills. General will is organized
while the Will of all is unorganized. General will is organic unity while the Will of all is an aggregate.
Features of General Will:
 This will has permanent residence in men‟s heart.
 This will is not natural and can be improved by some external factors.
 It is unitary and indivisible. If divided, it will become sectional rather than general.
 It is based on unanimity.
 Major issues are to be dealt with the majority consent.
 Everyone should have a say in problem solution.
 Sovereignty is vested in General will. (As sovereignty is vested in conventions in Britain).
 It leads to the notion of direct democracy.
 Universal: it belongs to common good and interests of the whole community. It has nothing to do
with personal or individuals‟ personal affairs.
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 Combination of individuals: the will of each individual is merged into it. It is manifestation of
the wills of all.
 Voluntary surrender of individuals: it is based on the voluntary wills of individuals which form
the General will.
 It is always correct: it is always correct because it represents the best interest of the entire
community. It always favours the collective interests.
 Un-transferable: Super authority should be governed by it and cannot be transferred to an
individual or assembly of individuals.
 Eternal: it is not perishable. As long as the social life exists, it will remain.
 Democratic: It is democratic because it involves all people to participate in state affairs.
 Freedom: Rousseau opens his book the Social Contract with the words, “Man is born free but
everywhere he is in chains”. For him freedom lies in self-imposed laws. Rousseau says that if
one refuses to obey the General will, he shall be compelled to obey it and forced to be
free”. It indicates that freedom is not self-sufficiency or independency or solitary but
living under the generally accepted and self-imposed laws.
Criticism:
 It is vague and abstract. Because he says that the will of all is different form
General will. He further says, that all people can be wrong but General will
cannot be wrong. Sometimes he calls it the will of majority but sometimes he says
that it is not necessarily the will of majority.
 No proper distinction between General will and the will of all.
 General will is the sum total of individuals‟ essential will only and it discards the
non-essential or minuses which is difficult in real life to divide an individual‟s
will like this.
 General will represents common interests which is difficult to be defined because
various communities have different interests.
 It encourages totalitarianism.
 State is an end. State becomes superior to individual and individual‟s will is
discarded.
 Rousseau regards associations like churches and trade union obstacles in the
formation of General will but they are essential parts of the modern societies.
 Formation of General will and direct democracy is impossible in the modern
populous states.
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MONTESQUIEU (1689–1755)
Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de la Brède et de Montesquieu, was born at La Brède, France. He was
educated at the Oratorian collège de Juilly from 1700 to 1705 and thereafter at the University of
Bordeaux, where he read law. During his life, France was ruled by the absolute king Louis XIV. He was
skeptical and rational liberal and was against the absolutism of king Louis XIV. His works were
published anonymously and abroad. The Persian Letters (1721), Considerations on the Greatness and
Decay of the Romans (1730) and The Spirit of Laws (1748). Two things influenced his writings and
views: his stay in England influenced his political thoughts while the study of Roman history made him
critical of French social, political and social institutions. His method of inquiry was inductive,
comparative and historical and that is why he called Aristotle of the 18th century.
Themes: the central theme of Montesquieu is liberty. He was neither radical democrat nor equalitarian,
denouncing privileges. He might be termed as progressive conservative.
Theory of Separation of Power
His book The Spirit of Laws truly contributes to the doctrine of Separation of Power which was
previously introduced by Aristotle. He emphasized certain elements in this theory, especially in relation to
judiciary which give his theory a more important position. His book The Spirit of Laws inspired the
Constitution of USA and “The declaration of the rights of man”.
Various interpretations of his theory:
 According to the continent of Europe and jurist rather than political theorist see his theory a
thorough going separation of agencies, functions and persons.
 The other is represented by the fathers of American constitution, French writers such as
Benjamin Constant and English commentators of 18th and 19th century. According to them the
separation of power is partial. That is modified by the system of checks and balance.
 Some writers claim that his theory of separation of power is concerned only with the judicial
independence of the legislature and government and not a separation of functions or persons or
he demanded the “harmonious integration” of powers of government.
Tripartite Division of Government Functions: by 1748, Montesquieu had formulated the tripartite
division of government functions:
 To legislate is to make law.
 To execute is to put it into effect.
 The judicial power is the announcing of what the law is while settling disputes.
In this way he clearly differentiated the powers of government and established the idea of the three
branches of government: legislature, executive and judiciary. Each function should be exercised by the
appropriate agency of government and the personnel of the three branches should not coincide.
Why separation of Power? Montesquieu was weary of the role of Lord Chancellor who performed many
roles: as head of judiciary as well as member of cabinet and as a presiding officer of House of Lords. He
was of the view that power in the hands of one person or body corrupts and leads to tyranny. As Lord
Acton has said, “Power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely”. Therefore, in this backdrop, he
discovered the theory of the Separation of Power which later culminated in the American constitution.
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He saw two types of government power existed that time: Monarch (sovereign) and the Administration,
(legislature, executive and judiciary). Therefore, he asserts that the power of administrative branches be
separated for effective functioning.
 Combining legislative and executive: “When the legislative and executive powers are
united in the same person or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty”.
 Combining Judiciary and Legislature: There is no liberty if the judicial power be not
separated from legislative and executive. Were it joined with the legislative, the life and
liberty of the subjects would be exposed to arbitrary control, for judge would then be the
legislator.
 Combining Executive and Judiciary: If judiciary is joined to the executive power, the
judge might behave with violence and oppression.
 Combining the three in one person: There would be end to everything were the same
man or the same body, whether of the nobles or of the people.
Therefore, Montesquieu asserts that to promote man‟s liberty effectively, these three organs must function
independent of each other.
Representative Body: The representative body ought not to exercise function because it is not suited to
him. The legislator should not be entrusted with executive power because it will turn legislature into a
body of arbitrary power.
Separation of Personnel: although, Montesquieu did not clearly work out in detail the problem of the
overlapping of the personnel of the agencies of government but from his assertions it can be interpreted
that dual powers should not rest in the hands of one person or one agency.
Checks and Balances:
Montesquieu theory of separation power further developed the concept of checks and
balance between legislature and executive. He did not rely on the concept of exercising
negative checks with antagonistic agencies but he advocated the positive checks by
placing powers of control over the other branches in the hands of each of them.
Legislature and Executive:
 Power of executive over legislature:
 The executive officer ought to have a share in the legislative power by a veto over
legislation but he ought not to have the power to enter positively into the making of
legislation.
 Executive should have the power of calling and fixing the duration of meeting of the
legislative body. This way the executive branch will be able to prevent the encroachments
of the legislature on its authority in order to ensure that legislature does not become
despotic.
 Power of Impeachment with Legislature: The legislature should not stay the executive
but it should have the power to examine the manner in which its laws are executed. The
legislature should not be able to judge the person or the conduct of the person who
execute the laws should advice the councilors upon whose advice thee unwise policies
are adopted may be punished. For this purpose the power of impeachment must lie in the
legislature, with the Lower House accusing and the Upper House judging.
 Judiciary: He does not involve judiciary or the “power of judging” in checks and
balance theory. Judiciary has no power over the other branches. Courts are supposed to
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be the mouthpieces of law only and not representing any social force in the state. Neither
to check nor to be checked.
Through this scheme of separation of power, power cannot therefore achieve unwholesome
concentrations, despotism cannot arise, and the liberty of all is guaranteed.
Why Montesquieu is called Aristotle of 18th century?

 Realist and Practical: like Aristotle, Montesquieu also based his approach to the problems on
realistically. As Dunning says, the methods followed by Montesquieu for the solution of
problems are like those of Aristotle.
 Influence of physical environment on institution: like Aristotle, Montesquieu also paid
attention to the influence of physical environment and institutions and the life of men.
 Historical Methods: Like Aristotle, Montesquieu also looked back to history for the inquiry of
the subject matter.
 Laws, the product of collective wisdom: he borrowed from Aristotle the idea that the laws are
produced by the collective wisdom of the society and that laws should suit the existing
circumstances.
 Classification of government: both classified the government on the basis of the number and
manner of rulers into Monarchy, Republic and Despotism. He like Aristotle believes that each
form of government has its own nature and principle Its „nature‟ is defined by where sovereign
power is located in it; its „principle‟, in the absence of which it will not work successfully
 Moderate: Both presented a moderate theory of government and did not go to any extreme or
idealistic end.
 Both are constitutionalist: Aristotle was a constitutionalist who saw security in constitutional
form of government where the community determines the ends to be pursued and only the experts
would select and apply the means. Similarly, Montesquieu also emphasized the constitutional
separation of power of legislature, executive and judiciary and asserted that they should not
indulge in each others‟ affairs.
 Variance in constitutions: The form taken by government and law will depend on the „general
spirit of each nation‟, and this spirit will itself be determined by a number of variables: climate,
soil, occupation, history, geographical location, religion and so forth. As India and Britain both
practice parliamentary system but the system varies in both countries as per the demands of their
local conditions. in emphasising how different circumstances favour and produce different
constitutional forms, Montesquieu is really only pursuing the kind of analysis pioneered by
Aristotle.
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Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

Introduction
He was a British philosopher, economist, and jurist who found the doctrine of utilitarianism. He was born
in London on Feb, 15, 1748. He was a prodigy, reading serious treatise at the age of three, playing the
violin at the age of five, studying Latin and French at the age of six. He studied law at the age of 12 in
Oxford and worked to reform the legal system and theory of law and morality. He was the leader of the
Philosophical Radicals, whose members included James Mill and his son John Stuart Mill. They projected
reformist ideas by editing the Westminster Review. He became known for his “Introduction to the
Principle of Morals and Legislation” in 1789. In this book he advanced utilitarianism as the basis for
reform. He claimed that it was possible to ascertain scientifically was morally justifiable by applying the
principle of utility. Thus, actions were right if they tended to produce the greatest happiness for the
greatest number of people. He is chiefly remembered as the most notable early exponent (though not
strictly the founder) of utilitarianism: the doctrine that assesses the rightness of acts, policies, decisions
and choices in terms of their tendency to promote the happiness of the people affected by them.
According to him, all human beings seek to maximise pleasure or happiness and minimise pain.
As the final gesture of a remarkable life, he directed in his will that his body be dissected for the purposes
of scientific research. His mummified remains now sit in a glass case in University College, London,
which he helped to found. He died in London on June 6, 1832.
Bentham on State and Government

Formation of State: According to Bentham, when in a group some members habitually render obedience
to other due to utility, that whole group constitutes the political society. Therefore, state is a group of
persons organized for the promotion and maintenance of utility, e.g. the happiness of the people.
Rejection of Social Contract theory: Bentham discards the social contract as the basis for the origin of
state. Habit born of utility and not the contract was the basis of the state. They obey the state for their
interests rather than as a promise of them or their ancestors to do so.
End of State/Government: He says that governments exist because they are believed to promote the
happiness of those who live under them. Therefore, the end of the state is not to develop the personality of
the individual or promote the moral life of the people, but to promote the greatest happiness of the
greatest number. Therefore, state is an agency to promote utility or interests of its people.
Democratic State: According to Bentham the state exist for the individual and it can promote happiness
only when it is democratic in which all men are equal and take active part in its affairs.
Right to Revolt: People have the right to resist the state if it does not fulfill the function of promoting the
greatest happiness to the greatest number. But the utility of resistance should be greater than the evil of
obedience. Revolt is therefore, a moral right and not a legal one.
Reconciliation between Self-interest and Community’s Interests: He says that men by nature are
selfish, therefore, their personal interests may sometime collide with the interests of the community.
Therefore, reconciliation between self and community interests is must.
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Representative Government: He says that the duty of government is to promote the greatest happiness
of the greatest number. Therefore, government must inform the people of the utility of her actions and the
people have the right to know, protest and oppose the government. Therefore, the best form of
government is the representative form of government because in this form the happiness of the governed
coincides with the happiness of the governor and thus, there will be no conflict of interests.
Universal Suffrage: He proposes universal suffrage, secret ballot, annual election to the representative
body of the people, (parliament), widespread education of masses, and competitive examination for
administrative offices.
Adjustment of Freedom and Authority: He says that representative government is self-government;

therefore, there are lesser chances of conflict between freedom and authority. There should be no need of
separation of power, check and balances if the government is guided by the concept of utility.
Ignoring Public Opinion: He says that, the representatives should be able to maintain public interests,
even if they have to ignore public opinion or pressure, because the public is not always capable of
knowing its own interests. Here he is a bit confused because the legislators act in accordance with the will
of the public for their votes in a democratic government.
Bentham’s Theory of Utility

He had studied Priestley‟s writing like, Essay on Government (1768), that describes the good and
happiness of the members of any state are determined by the standard of the philosophy of that state. It
was this pamphlet that led Bentham to present his theory of utilitarianism.
Pleasure and Pain: Bentham says that humans are placed under the governance of two sovereign
masters: pleasure and pain. These two masters determine our actions. Our actions yield either pleasure or
pain.
Measurement of Pleasure and Pain: Bentham suggests that the rightness or wrongness of an action can
in principle be determined by a „felicific calculus‟ (sometimes the phrase „hedonic calculus‟ is used)
.According to Bentham, pleasures and pains could be measured by considering the following seven
factors: 1. Intensity 2. Duration 3. Certainty 4. Nearness 5. Fruitfulness 6. Purity
7. Extensiveness.
Object of Human Actions: Every human action is motivated by the desire to obtain as much pleasure
and avoid as much pain as possible. Thus, the concept of Good and Bad are the products of pleasure and
pain. What brings pleasure is good and what produces pain is bad. On the basis of this Bentham develops
the concept of utility or the principle of the Greatest happiness of the greatest number.
Definition of Utility: Utilitarianism is an ethical doctrine testing the moral values of an action by its
utility in creating the greatest happiness of the greatest number. A thing is said to promote the interest of
an individual if it tends to add to the sum total of his pleasure or if it tends to diminish the sum total of his
pain. His concept of utility is an answer to the question that what a man ought to do? This was answered
that he should do what produces the greatest happiness and best possible consequences.
Bentham mentions fourteen simple pleasures and twelve simple pains:
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Pleasure: pleasure of sense, wealth, skill, enmity, good name, power, piety, benevolence,
malevolence, memory, imagination, exception, relief, and association.
Simple Pains: Pains of privation, sense, awkwardness, enmity, ell-repute, piety, benevolence,
malevolence, memory, imagination, expectation, association.
Constitution, Legislation and Utility: Utility is what the legislator must understand. In framing
legislation, the legislator must consider only the probable effect in terms of pleasure and pain of a
proposed legislation upon the community. The legislator must sum up the happiness and pain of
legislation. If pleasures overweigh the pain of legislation, it should be adopted, but if pains overweigh
pleasures then it should be dropped.
How to reconcile individual and communal happiness? Individual‟s and communal happiness are not
always identical. Therefore, Bentham suggests two measures to resolve it:
 Through education men‟s minds must be elevated to make them understand happiness of
one‟s self includes good-will, sympathy, and benevolence for others.
 Through institutional environment man‟s selfish impulses should be channelized into
socially useful purposes so that he understands that this will be contrary to his own
interest if he harms others. Political institutions should be devised in such a manner that
everyone should feel that he has a share in the government. Therefore, Bentham‟s utility
demands democratic government and policy of laissez faire.
Criticism:
 This theory is criticized for its focus on materialism and neglecting moral or spiritual sense
because he has based good and bad, right and wrong on the basis of calculable values.
 Good and bad are not constant and similar for all humans. They differ from man to man.
 Happiness is independent of state and legislature. It is subjective.
 He has based his concept of happiness on rational behaviour of man but he has ignored the
emotional and aesthetic factors which persuade man to self-interest or happiness only.
 He did not differentiate between pleasure and happiness: happiness in broader sense is more
durable than pleasure.
 Pain is reality. Seeking pleasure may sometimes lead to pain and hardships. Therefore, we cannot
always avoid pain.
 Theoretical concept with no practical mechanism for the attainment of these pleasures.
 It is self-contradictory. Prof. Jones criticizes the idea of utilitarianism that on one hand Bentham
says that “man cannot but seek his own pleasure, while on the other hand man ought to aim at the
greatest happiness at the cost of his personal happiness.
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Bentham Theory of Law and Punishment

Utility of Actions: He devoted much time to the application of the principle of utility to the criminal law.
No act or motive, he believes, is wrong in itself. There is no such thing as abstract wrong which it is the
law‟s business to punish. The law should not seek to regulate matters of private morality. Acts are
criminal only if they adversely affect the general happiness. Utility of actions determines them good or
crime.
Origin of Crimes: He believed that man is selfish and his selfish interest may come in conflict with the
general happiness of the community. If man‟s own interest disturbs the greatest happiness, it is termed as
crime. Therefore, man‟s own interests must be reconciled with interests of community through certain
sanctions. The most effective is political sanction that formulates the law.
What is Law? Law is the expression of will in the form of a command. Law is enjoyed by the authority
which the people have to obey in a political society. State is law-making body and act on individuals
through law. Law is a restrain on individual natural liberty to do as he likes.
Source of Law: Source of law is neither nature nor reason but the will of the sovereign. Law is the
expression of will of man and god but not nature. Therefore, there shall divine law or human law but not
natural law. He discards divine law because it is unascertainable. In political society there must be some
human who give law and hold sovereign power.
Purpose of Law: Law must promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number.
Theory and utility of Punishment: According to Bentham, punishment is always an evil because it
causes pain. He justifies punishment on the ground that it either prevents a greater future pain, or it repairs
an evil already done. Therefore, the utility of punishment is that it should be preventive or corrective
rather than retaliatory. Punishment should be in proportion to the crime and must enable the person not to
commit the wrong again. Punishment should not be inflicted where it is needless, ineffective or
unprofitable.
Punishment for crimes should widely be circulated to that everybody is aware of punishment. The
accuracy of punishment is its ability to secure public welfare.
Principles of Punishment: fixing the proportion between offence and punishment, certain governing
principles must be taken into consideration.
 The quantity of punishment should be variable according to the offence.
 Punishment should be equable, (steady, unchangeable).
 Punishment should be commensurate with other punishment in like cases.
 It should be exemplary.
 It should be frugal of pain (as required for pain).
 It should compel the offender to compensate the injured.
 It should disable the offender for future mischief.
 It should be popular. It should not excite sympathy for the offender.
 It should always be remissible, (able to be pardoned).
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Bentham wanted reforming the criminal. He was against hard labour of criminals in jails. He suggested
that criminals must be trained and educated to make them good citizens when they are released. He
wanted to treat criminals as patients who are supposed to be reformed.
Bentham on Rights
One has right only when others leave him free to act in a certain way while the duty of others to one has
reality only when letting him alone will have consequences agreeable to them. It means rights and duties
are those which are agreeable to the two parties of the community. The right of one should not offend the
others.
Types of Rights: Bentham divides rights into three types:
1) Legal Rights: those rights which are given by the sovereign to the subjects in the law and
constitution and are recognized by the law in courts of the state.
2) Moral Rights: Moral rights are not expressly given by the sovereign but which are considered by
individual or group of individuals as their rights in moral sense.
3) Natural Rights: Bentham calls them abstract rights and therefore, are nonsense.
Types of Duties: He divides duties into three types too.
1) Legal or Political Duties: those duties whose violation is punishable law and constitution of the
state. Sovereign of the state determines punishment of their violation.
2) Moral Duties: Duties which violation is not punishable by law of the state but are moral
obligations.
3) Religious Duties: Those duties which are imposed by the religion. If the state is secular, then the
violation of these duties is not punishable by the state. But if the state is theocratic, then certain
punishments are determined by the religion for non-religious actions.
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JOHN STUART MILL (1806–73)

John Stuart Mill was born in 1806 in London, the eldest son of the utilitarian social theorist and
economist James Mill. He was born on May 20, 1806 in London. Educated at home by his father, with the
assistance of Jeremy Bentham and Francis Place, J.S. Mill began Greek when he was three, Latin when
he was eight, logic at twelve and political economy at thirteen. During 1821 and 1822 he studied Roman
Law with the jurist John Austin and began to read the works of Bentham. In 1823 he was arrested and
jailed overnight for distributing literature on birth control to working-class Londoners. At the age of
nineteen, working as a clerk in the East India Company and at the same time acting as Bentham‟s
amanuensis, Mill edited Bentham‟s Rationale of Judicial Evidence in five volumes. During 1826 and
1827, Mill found himself exhausted, depressed and unable to concentrate. One of the things that helped
him to recover, he tells us, was reading the poetry of Wordsworth. He became chief of the examiner‟s
office in East India Company and held the position till 1858 when the company was dissolved. Mill
stands as a bridge between the 18th century concern for liberty, reason and science and the 19th century
trend towards empiricism and collectivism. In Philosophy he systematized the utilitarian doctrine of his
Father James Mill and Jeremy Bentham in his work Utilitarianism (1863). He worked actively for
improvement of the conditions of the working people. In parliament, Mill was considered a radical
because he supported such measures as public ownership of natural resources, equality for women,
compulsory education and birth control. His advocacy of women‟s suffrage in the debate on the Reform
Bill of 1867 led to the formation of the suffrage movement.
Works: Those of his works that are chiefly of interest to us here are his essays On Liberty (1859),
Utilitarianism and Considerations on Representative Government (both 1861). Other works include On
Subjection of Women (1869), his Autobiography (1873) and three Essays on Religion (18740.
Utilitarianism was first published in Fraser’s Magazine (it came out in book form in 1862). Mill‟s object
in writing it is to rescue the utilitarianism of Bentham and James Mill from the charge brought against it
by Carlyle and others, that a philosophy which so emphasises quantitative pleasure is a doctrine worthy
only of swine.
Mill’s Modification of Bentham’s Utilitarianism

In the beginning Mill strongly supported Bentham‟s utility but later he felt revising it because it was
charged with being bias, degrading, and sensuous because of hedonism. The following are the
modifications of Mill in Bentham‟s theory of utility:
1. Pleasure: The desire for one‟s own greatest happiness is the sole motive of the individual; the
greatest happiness of everyone is the criterion of social good and the object of moral action. But,
Mill argues, not all pleasures are equal. Pushpin is not, after all, as good as poetry. Pleasures can
be ranked as superior or inferior in moral quality, with pleasures of the mind higher, and hence
more desirable, than bodily pleasures.
2. Source of Good: Bentham says that pleasure not its source matters. For Bentham, pleasure is the
end. For Mill, the source of pleasure does matter. Men may attain pleasure not by direct means as
Bentham suggested but by doing something moral or humane. Therefore, the criterion of good
was not pleasure but moral elevation. Human beings do not achieve the good through the pursuit
of pleasure pure and simple, but by achieving for themselves „a manner of existence which
employs their higher faculties‟
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3. Self-regarding vs Others-regarding: Bentham utility is based on self-regarding or self-interest
motives while Mill based it on self-regarding as well as others-regarding motives. Bentham
wanted to bring identity in individual and public interest through the sanction of utility while Mill
regarded these sanctions external and inadequate. Therefore, he added to them the internal
sanctions of conscience and fellow-feeling because fellow-feeling and desire of unity is a
powerful principle in human nature. It is sound and ethical principle.
4. Human Nature: Bentham‟s utility is based on the selfish and static nature of man and society.
Mill claims that it not the selfish but the social and moral nature of man that accounts for the
solidarity of society.
5. End of Man: For Bentham, maximum pleasure and liberty is the end of man. For Mill, moral
community is the one in which everybody is respected and not the one where everybody is happy.
6. Realistic and Humanistic: Bentham‟s theory was mechanical and materialistic while Mill
revised it into humanistic and realistic. Bentham based political institutions on utility and interest
and ignored Will, while Mill attaches great importance to Will in the growth of institutions.
7. Laissez Faire: Bentham stood for Laissez Faire. To him, both liberty and property had to prove
their utility before they were converted into rights. Mill was neither individualist nor collectivist.
He argues that, the ideas were determined by the subject-matter to which they were to be applied.
8. Franchise: Bentham was in favour equal franchise: one man one vote. Mill stood for the plurality
of votes to talented persons. Bentham favoured secret ballot while Mill stood for open ballot.
Bentham supported unicameral system while Mill stood for bicameral system.
Therefore, to sum, it can be said that Mills only modified Bentham theory of utility by adding humanistic
and moralistic values to it. Despite of these differences, Mill owes much to Bentham.
Mill on Liberty
Mill is regarded as the prophet of sane Individualism or liberalism.
Liberty to Individual: He argues that the progress of society depends on the energies of individual.
Therefore, if he is set free, he will develop his personality and serve the society with all his original
abilities. Therefore, the society should not produce individuals of the same pattern through its regulating
them.
Non-interference in Self-regarding: Mill says that human has two aspects of life, individual and social.
Similarly, his actions are divided into self-regarding and others-regarding. The state should never
interfere in the self-regarding of individuals. As far as the others-regarding is concerned, the state may
and should interfere but to the minimum and not to become social tyranny.
Essential Liberties of Individual: Mill prescribes certain liberties for individual which are essential for
the development of his personality. 1. Freedom of conscience. 2. Freedom of thought and expression.
3. Freedom of pursuit and taste. 4.Freedom of association. 5.freedom to pursue
one‟s vocation in life. 6. Freedom of religion and morals. But Mill emphasizes liberty of thought and
expression because freedom of opinion can help in achieving the greatest happiness of greatest number.
Therefore, one‟s ideas or opinions should not be suppressed because they were contrary to the commonly
held opinion. His arguments in favour of freedom of thought and expression are:
 Silencing an opinion is to ruin humankind because if the silence opinion was right, the loss is
obvious and if it was wrong, men lose the chance to clarify the conflict between right and wrong.
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 Truth is changing thing. Truth alters with change of circumstances. Therefore, to maintain the
validity of truth, free speech is necessary.
 Some argue that truth always triumph at the end and has nothing to do with its suppression but
Mill argues, that history is full of examples of truth put down by persecution.
 People silence opinion through their assumption of infallibility but no one is infallible and no one
is capable of knowing the whole truth.
 Truth must be constantly attacked in order to prepare its vigour.
 Individual knows his interests best and should be allowed to pursue them without public
interference.
 Freedom of action is necessary for one‟s moral and mental education.
State Interference:
In his later days Mill began to concede measures of state interference in the affairs of individuals.
 State could insist on children education against the will of the parents.
 State could legislate to release persons from contractual obligations in perpetuity.
 Public enterprises which are monopolistic may be subjected to regulation by the state.
 State can enforce limitations on hours of labour to prevent exploitation.
Criticism:
 Mill advocate individuals‟ liberty for their personality development but some impulses and
desires of individuals may not be healthy to develop his personality.
 Categorizing self-regarding and others-regarding is difficult as Mill did.
 Mill idea of retrain on part of state is faulty. Is it evil to restrain a person from committing
suicide? Therefore, Mill‟s concept that man knows his interests best and should be left free to
pursue them cannot be accepted.
Mill on Representative Government

Democracy: Mill was a democrat because he believed that democracy is the best form of government
where due weight is given to all different elements of society.
Requirements of Democracy: He also believes that democracy does not suit all the people. There are
some requirements:
 Democracy is only recommended for a society whose citizens have got the requisite quality of
character.
 The representative/legislators should also be wise, educated and enlightened. They should be
independent to rise above selfish considerations.
 Liberal society. Liberal government must be backed by a liberal society to reap democracy‟s
fruits.
 Therefore, the rulers and the ruled in true democracy should be educated, enlightened, public
spirited, selfless and tolerant.
Personality Development: Democracy allows people‟s participation which helps them develop their
personality. Democracy raises people‟s moral character which resultantly, mends public affairs.
Representative Government: In large societies, direct democracy is impossible, therefore, the best form
of government is representative government. Mill‟s representative government has three level:
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 People: they take active part in election campaign through discussion, criticism etc which train
them.
 Elected Representative: The representative in legislation discuss, deliberate, supervise and
control.
 Policy Making Body: they are experts and trained personnel bureaucrats who frame policies and
proposal and submit them to the representatives. Representative in turn debate these proposals,
question them and the policy making body explain their proposals to representatives which
educate them by approving or rejecting the proposals.
 Authority of Representatives: they have the authority to remove the members of policy making
body because they themselves can be removed by the people of their respective constituencies.
Dangers to Democracy: Mills points out two dangers to democracy:

 General ignorance and incapacity in the controlling body in state and members of parliament.
 The danger of the democratic machinery in the hands of a particular section whose interests may
not be identical with the welfare of the community.
Remedies: he was aware of the danger of tyrannizing of minority by majority. Therefore, he suggested
his remedies:
 He supported system of proportional representation give representation to minorities which will
prevent majority tyranny.
 He favoured universal suffrage to all men and women but he would give the right of plural votes
to highly educated and intelligent people.
 Mill considered vote not a right but a trust demanding general good instead of personal interest.
 He was against representative having direct administrative powers. It should monitor the
activities of government, listen to people grievances and bring to the executive. The real functions
of representatives are discussion, deliberation, supervision and control. The administration should
be left to the executive.
Criticism:
 Mill says that democracy does not suit all people that deny the essence of democracy. Democracy
may produce different results in different places. People with the help of democracy may
overcome their weaknesses and reap its fruits.
 Modern democracy rest on political equality: one man one vote while Mill favoured intelligent
aristocracy with his notion of plural votes.
 Who is to determine the intelligence of the people for the right of plural votes?
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Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)

Introduction:
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was born in Stuttgart in 1770, the son of a provincial official. Hegel was
a remarkably late developer. He was diligent but undistinguished both at school and, later, as a theology
student. He worked as a private tutor for a number of years before obtaining his first lowly university post
at the age of thirty-three. It was not until five years later that he published his first major work, The
Phenomenology of Spirit (1807), which outlined the evolution of human consciousness. Hegel was
Professor of Philosophy at Berlin from 1818 until his death in 1831 during the great cholera epidemic that
swept Europe at that time.
Hegel was a major influence upon European thought generally and had much to say about politics – set
out in detail in his Philosophy of Right. However, he tends not to be as widely studied as perhaps he
should be, especially in the English-speaking world. A major reason is Hegel‟s bewildering and notorious
obscurity.
Evolution of Human Self-consciousness
Geist or Spirit:
We have to begin by imagining the universe totally empty. All that exists is Geist, which is Mind or
Spirit; not a particular mind or spirit, but mind or spirit in general (it is also God, but a very strange and
peculiar notion of God). It is Mind, but is totally without consciousness – more potential mind really. It
contains just one idea, the concept of being.
Concept of Thesis, Antithesis and Synthesis: Hegel calls his logic as dialectic. In the dialectic things
turn into their opposites and then into something that brings together the two opposites in a higher
synthesis. It means that when spirit existed (thesis), it gradually turned into its opposite, the matter
(antithesis) and finally, when the two, spirit and matter conflicted, a higher came together in a higher
form, humanity, (Synthesis).
Objective of Mind/Spirit: It is because Mind (Spirit, Geist) has a destiny. All that happens – the creation
of matter, the emergence of organised life, the appearance of mankind and the whole of human history –
all happens so that Mind can fulfill that destiny, which is for Mind to achieve self-understanding and
therefore freedom.
When Mind becomes matter, Mind is, so to speak, buried in matter, and gradually emerges again over
time. Organic life represents progressively higher levels of complexity and rational organisation that
finally culminate in the emergence of humanity. It is with the emergence of human beings that Mind (or
Spirit or God), for the first time, achieves consciousness. But it is only consciousness; it is not yet self-
consciousness. Self-consciousness is only achieved over the course of human history.
Climate of Human Civilization: Therefore, Hegel sees human history as the evolution of Mind or Spirit
which resembles stages of human life like, babyhood, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and so
forth with a higher destiny. The human civilization is passing through stages of self-realization and
reaches a level of maturity in each stage. In each civilisation Spirit or Mind objectifies itself, expresses
itself in the forms of social life, morality, politics, science, art, religion and, above all, philosophy. All the
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elements of a given civilisation are united by a common theme or quality or essence: the zeitgeist, the
spirit of the age.
Rational is Actual: to Hegel, the universe is an organic whole in which reason is the only reality. “What
is real is rational and what is rational is real.”
Morality: he envisages social morality having been emerged from social environment. Therefore he
argues that the assertion of abstract rights of man, divorced from any social context, was, he believed,
responsible for the violence and terror of the French Revolution. Therefore he abhorred French
Revolution.
Distinction between State and Civil Society: he was the first theorist to make clear distinction between the
two. He saw the state as embodying the ethical will of the whole people like the General Will of
Rousseau. Civil society embodies the moral will of the individuals that harmonize the competing claims
and interests and decide on what is best for all.
Hegelian Dialectics
 In every society, new ideas emerge and the traditional setup resists these new ideas. Finally, a
third idea emerges in between these two ideas which is the basis of Hegel‟s philosophy.
 He believes that the evolution of ideas occurs through a dialectical process, that is the concept
givers rise to its opposite idea and as a result, a third view emerges that is the synthesis or the
high level of truth.
 For Hegel, the actual is the reason. It may be called an idea or thought, reason is the outcome of
idea or thought while idea or thought is the result of reason.
 He argues that to know the reality, we need to know the ideas first, but to know the ideas we need
to resort to the reason behind the outburst of ideas.
 Hegel says that there are various reasons which give rise to new ideas because during the
developmental process of those ideas certain obstructions occur which pave the way for the rise
of a third idea.
 Therefore, Hegel proposed that truth is always reached through a continuing dialectics, in which a
concept (Thesis) always gives rise to its opposite (Antithesis) and the interaction of the two leads
to the creation of a third concept (synthesis) which is the higher level of truth. Therefore, to
Hegel, movements and processes are the results of conflict of opposites.
 Thesis, an idea may contain some incompleteness in itself which gives rise to the antithesis, the
opposite idea. And resultantly, the merger of both gives rise to a third view or idea that is higher.
 Hegel applies the same concept to government as well. Despotism (Thesis) – Democracy
(Antithesis) – Aristocracy (Synthesis). According to Hegel, this is a continuous process. The
synthesis will finally become a thesis, and then an antithesis will rise and ultimately will lead to
synthesis.
Hegel‟s conception of the fully developed state was, therefore, a complex dialectical synthesis of the
different levels of social life: of family, civil society and the state itself. It is through participating in these
different levels that the individual finds self-expression and fulfillment.
Hegel: Father of Totalitarianism
State as the Ultimate Destiny: In Hegel‟s philosophy the ultimate destiny of Mind/Spirit/God is
fulfilled. Mind or God is not some separate being but ourselves, each one of us is part of the whole – the
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collective mind – and it is only through human thought that Mind or Spirit or God can express or
understand itself. In achieving self-understanding God/mankind is no longer alienated; the world is no
longer a strange place, but is an objectification of Mind, which is the ultimate reality. He calls “State is a
march of God on earth and the ultimate objectification and manifestation of reason. Family (thesis)- civil
society (antithesis) and finally, state (the synthesis).
State is the End: For him, state is the end. Therefore, it is above all other institutions, bodies and
individuals. State is unchecked by the moral laws because it in itself is the creator of morality. State is the
truest interpreter of tradition of the community. State is the actually existing and realized moral life. State
is a means to enlarging the freedom and restricting the freedom. Freedom is the outstanding characteristic
of the modern state. State helps men to fulfill themselves.
Ruler of the State: He gave the concept of a state that grants the maximum rights to its people but all the
power should remain with the ruler. He should be absolute monarch.
Individual: The individual has moral values because he is part of the state which is the complete
actualization and manifestation of reason and spirit. He abhorred the Greek City-states because they
subsumed individuals.
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Karl Marx (1818-83)

Introduction:
Marx was born in Trier, Germany, on May 05, 1818, the son of a successful lawyer. His family was
Jewish, but had adopted Lutheranism to avoid the anti- Semitic persecution prevailing in Germany at that
time. It is said this gave Marx his cynicism and hostility to religion generally. In Berlin, Marx came under
the spell of Hegelian philosophy, which influenced his thought profoundly (see G.W.F. Hegel); there he
joined the group known as the Young Hegelians, whose members believed that the dialectic of history
had yet to achieve its final stage in the full emancipation of humanity.
Among the Young Hegelians, Marx met Frederick Engels, who was to be his lifelong friend and
collaborator. Both Marx and Engels had run into trouble with the authorities in Germany because of their
radical journalism and been forced into exile, which they spent mostly in Paris, where Marx associated
with French socialists and anarchists and developed his ideas. When the Europe-wide revolutions of 1848
broke out, Marx and Engels responded with the Communist Manifesto. With the failure of the 1848
revolutions, Marx and Engels moved to England where they both settled.
In the Paris Manuscripts Marx sets out his theory that the human essence is labour. That is, what is
distinctly human, what it is that differentiates us from the animals, is not so much reason as such, nor our
moral capacity, as various previous thinkers had suggested, but the human capacity for labour. What
Marx means by labour has to be understood in terms of human interaction with nature. It is using a
combination of mental and physical effort to shape nature according to our needs. Proper physical labour,
like craftsmanship or farming, involves intelligence and creativity.
Through this labour mankind creates its own world to live in, a kind of second nature in which primary
nature is humanised. Man with the help of his labour produces objects to satisfy the needs of fellow
beings which create the social life. But in modern societies these feelings of satisfying fellow beings are
diminished because of exploitation by those who own wealth and means.
The Communist Manifesto: His major work, The Communist Manifesto published in 1848 shortly
before the February Revolution 1848 in Paris. It is divided into four sections preceded by an introduction
with the provocative words, “A spect is haunting Europe- the spect of communism”.
 The first section outlines the theory of history and prophecies an end to exploitation because
according to Marx, class struggle is the primary dynamic in history. He characterizes the modern
world as a stage for confrontation between the ruling bourgeoisie and the downtrodden proletariat
working class.
 The second part identifies the communist as the allies and vanguards of the proletariat. He also
disapproves the necessity of private property. He also describes the classless society after the
social revolution takes place.
 The third section criticizes various alternative socialist visions.
 The forth section compares communist tactics with the opposite parties in Europe and ends it
with the call for unity.
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Das-Capital:
One of the most influential books on economic in 19th century that analyses the capitalist
economics which later became Marxism or Communism. It was the time of capitalism, industrialism and
economic practices in England that he analyzed. He also presents his theory of surplus value in this book.
Marx’s Dialectic Materialism, Scientific Communism, Economic

Determinism and Class Struggle
Main Features:
 Materialistic Conception of History: “Scientific communism is that history has a material
basis”. Marx says that “A man must eat to live”. A man is moved to activity and struggle by his
material needs. He believes that the whole evolution of human society and civilization from the
primitive to the modern times has been due to material causes.
 Economic Determinism: Marxism is determinist, it does not totally believe in the free will of
man. Man has work within the material conditions around him.
 Basis and Division of Society: The foundation of society is material. Marx divides society into
two classes:
 The forces of production. Forces of production are of two types: animate and
inanimate. The former mean the labourer, engineers, inventors etc. the latter means soil,
the raw material, tools (sources and technology).
 The relation of production: The forces of production create the relation of production.
They are the social classes in society which develop out of the possession and ownership
of the forces of production. The owner (Haves) of forces of production command and
those who don‟t own them (Haves Not) must obey.
 Foundation of Society: Thus, economic system provides the foundation for society which
includes government, laws, philosophy, religion, moral code and art etc. all of them are supposed
to support the economic system.
 Maintenance of Power by the Ruling Class: The crucial link between the base and the other
elements of society lies in the need of the ruling class to maintain its power. Thus the state– with
its instruments of law, its police and its armed forces – exists to protect the property of the ruling
class, and therefore its control of the economy. But the ruling class cannot maintain its control by
force alone; it needs the active co-operation of most of the population. This is where, according to
Marx, religion, education, the arts and prevailing ideas play their role. They help to maintain the
position of the ruling class by teaching people to believe that the way society is organised is
natural and right and should not be questioned.
 Determinism of Human Consciousness: „It is not the consciousness of men that determines
their existence, but, on the contrary, their social existence that determines their consciousness.‟
 Ideology: Marx used the term „ideology‟ to refer to ideas, beliefs and values that reflect the
interests of a particular class. In any society, he argued, the dominant beliefs and values are
always the beliefs and values of the ruling class, while those of the rest of society who accept
them (that is, most people most of the time) are in a state of „false consciousness‟. Ideology is
also, therefore, an instrument of class domination, along with all the other elements of the
superstructure.
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 Ideology of Modern Society: In capitalist society the ruling class is the bourgeoisie, who control
the finance, the factories and the machines upon which modern industrial production is based, and
therefore have the power to exploit the industrial workers (the proletariat). The classical laissez-
faire liberalism of the early nineteenth century, with its principles of free markets, individual
liberty, equality of opportunity and limited parliamentary democracy, is the ideology of
capitalism. But freedom, equality and democracy are all seen as a sham so long as the ruling class
owns the means by which the masses earn their living.
 Religion: Religion also makes its contribution to the bourgeois world-view. Protestantism
emphasises individuality, and (in some sects at least) views worldly success as a sign of God‟s
grace; while at the same time, as with medieval religion, it reconciles the exploited to their
sufferings by telling them that it is God‟s will and that their reward will be in Heaven.
 Art and Literature: Art and literature celebrate such bourgeois virtues as individuality, freedom
and the accumulation of property.
Thus, all the elements of the superstructure operate in the interests of the ruling class and
consequently are a direct reflection of the socio-economic organisation of society.
 Revolution: Expansion and improvement in the forces of production brings a new class with
novel laws and institutions which conflict with the old ideas and laws for adjustment because they
do not suit with the new ones. This results in discontent and the society enters into a revolution.
Therefore, the conflict between the forces of production and the relation of production ends in the
creation of new laws and institutions and a new social order based on new economic conditions.
Therefore, the system of production is the ultimate factor which determines the network of human
relationships. Thus, in any society its „superstructure‟ of laws, government, education, religion, art,
beliefs and values is a direct result of its social and economic organisation. Marx‟s theory of the basic
dynamics of historical change is built around four interconnected ideas: economic development, class
conflict, the dialectic and revolution. Therefore, each economic development brings a new class with its
own laws and ideologies which results in discontent among the traditional and new ideas causing struggle
between two forces and finally a revolution ends this struggle by bringing a new ruling class with new
economic system.
Feudalism to Capitalism and then to Communism: Marx focuses on the transition from Feudalism to
capitalism. But to Marx, capitalism is not the end of development. Marx believed that the transformation
of the capitalist stage into one further and final stage, communism, could be predicted. It would
necessarily be the final stage since it would resolve all conflicts and contradictions yet synthesise the best
in all previous societies.
Marx on Surplus Value
Labour Determines Value: His surplus value is based on the notion that value of every commodity can
be determined by the useful labour put in it. Therefore, labour is the only legitimate source of all the
values.
Surplus Value and Exploitation of Labour: In the capitalist economy the workers produce all the
wealth and yet remain poor, while the capitalist‟s wealth grows. Using the labour theory of value,
borrowed from the British classical economists, Marx explained that the workers generate value by
turning raw materials into finished products, but only receive a fraction of this value back in the form of
wages; the rest, what Marx called „surplus value‟, goes to the capitalist as profit. The capitalist, therefore,
exploits the workers, and the more he can exploit them the more successful he will be. According to
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Marx, the capitalist himself adds nothing to the process of value-creation, and so the capitalist class as
such is entirely parasitic.
Competition for Greater Production causes Greater Exploitation: At the same time the capitalist,
unlike the feudal lord, has to compete. He must constantly strive to better his rivals by producing more
goods at lower cost, by exploiting his workers more and more, to extract ever greater quantities of surplus
value. This fierce competition inevitably produces winners and losers: the stronger capitalists flourish
while the weaker ones go out of business. Thus, the capitalist class grows smaller and richer, while the
proletariat grows larger and more wretched. Marx explained this „trade cycle‟ in terms of what he
believed was the most fundamental contradiction of capitalism: the ever greater production of goods is
based on ever greater exploitation of the worker, while that same exploitation reduces the workers‟ ability
to buy the goods produced.
Destruction of Bourgeoisie: Capitalism is characterized by successive boom and slum. Marx believed
that each successive boom would develop faster and higher, and each successive slump would be deeper
and more catastrophic than the last. Eventually the slump would be so great that the impoverished
working class would be forced by sheer necessity to overthrow capitalism and establish a workers‟ state.
Revolution: The working class has the opportunity to achieve what Marx called „class consciousness‟. In
short, the working class will come to realise (assisted by intellectuals like Marx and Engels who defect to
the proletarian cause) that communism is the true outlook of the working class, and the only hope for the
future of humanity. Thus, when the revolution does come, the workers will understand their historical
task, which is not only to seize control of the means of production and the instruments of the state, but to
go on to build a communist society. Marx believed that the communist revolution would only come when
capitalism had reached the full peak of its development. But wherever it began, it would be a worldwide
revolution.
Global Class Consciousness: Marx thought that nationalism was an aspect of bourgeois ideology,
whereas proletarian class-consciousness was truly international: that is, workers had more in common
with fellow workers in other countries than with their own bourgeoisie. When the communist revolution
began in one country, therefore, it would quickly spread to others and eventually the whole world, so that
the whole of humanity would be emancipated together.
Transition Period after Revolution: The communist revolution would be immediately followed by the
establishment of the communist society. There would have to be a transitional period, which Marx called
the „dictatorship of the proletariat‟ in which the proletariat will be in control. They will have two tasks:
one to preserve and extend the resolution and second to prepare the stage for the establishment of a
classless, stateless communist society.
True Emancipation is in Communism: However, Marx completely rejected the idea that political or
natural rights were the means to human emancipation, as for example the French Revolutionaries seemed
to think (arguing that if the „inalienable rights of man‟ could be proclaimed and enforced, then humanity
would be free). This kind of freedom to enjoy life, liberty and property was, Marx thought, little more
than the right of individuals to exploit other individuals. It merely sanctified their isolation and the
competition of capitalist society. Genuine emancipation of humanity can only come about through
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communism, when private property and with it capitalism, exploitation, alienation and their consequences
are all overcome and abolished. Only then will humanity be restored to its fullness, the human psyche
made whole, and the individual‟s relationship with nature and with fellow human beings be what they
ought to be in accordance with essential human nature.
Features of Communist Society:
Communist society was not some utopian blueprint that people must aspire to but the actual society that
they would build as they thought best. However, some general features can be given. It will be a world
without class divisions and without private property; there will be no more poverty or wealth. It will be a
world without the state, at least as we have known it, since Marx sees the state as an instrument of class
oppression, so that in a classless society the state will, in Engels‟ phrase, „wither away‟. For the same
reason there will be no more ideology, no more distorted perception: people will see the world as it really
is.
It will also be a world of abundance. Capitalism has taught humanity the secrets of production, and once
production is designed to meet human needs and not the need for profit there will be more than enough
for all. Consequently, society can be organised on the principle of „from each according to his ability, to
each according to his need‟. In other words, everyone will contribute to society according to their talents
and capacities, and all will take whatever they need from the common stock. In this society every
individual will be able to develop all their talents – physical, intellectual and creative – to the full.
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Muslim Political Thinkers
Abu Nasr Al-Farabi

Introduction
Al-farabi was born at Wasij: a village nea Farab in 870 AD. He received his education mainly in
Baghdad. He was the first Turkish philosopher to make name. he witnessed the most turbulent days of the
Abbasid dynasty. The Mutazillite had met their fate at the hands of Al-Mutawakkil. During his life, two
rival caliphates, the Fatimids in Egypt and the Umayyed in Spain were established. The actual power in
Baghdad was too in the hands of Turkish soldiers. Mu‟nis Al-Muzaffar got the title of Amir al-Umara
and it was he who virtually enthroned and dethroned the caliphs. In 945 AD the caliph Al-Mustakfi
received the victorious Ahmad bin Buwayh and made him Amir al-Umara with the name of Mu-iz-al-
Dawla.
Al-Farabi witnessed all these political developments and they must have deeply influenced him in the
exposition of his political philosophy.
Al-Farabi on the Origin and Nature of State
Origin of State: Al-Farabi has enumerated various possible motives of the origin of state:
 Force: according to him, the first cause of cooperation of man with man is force. The person with
more physical or moral resources makes other people subservient to him.
 Patriarchal Theory: He says that some people think that the incident of birth causes cooperation
between father and children. Those descended from the same father are more likely to cooperate
with each other than with someone out of their family.
 Material Relationship: People came together because of their material needs and relationships.
 Organization of the people by the Supreme Leader (Raees-Awwal).
 Mutual renunciation of rights is also the cause of political cooperation which results from oaths
and promises of not harming each others‟ rights. All should be members of the same society and
in time of crisis against common enemy, language and custom also make a strong bond among
men.
 Geographical factor: People of the same habitat also keep people together.
Although, Al-Farabi only enumerates the opinions of other people about the causes of the establishment
and maintenance of the state but he actually analyses these views.
Nature of the State:
Organic Theory of State: He takes an organic theory of state. He compare state to human body. As heart
is the chief organ in human body, so the head of the state (Rais) should be as perfect as humanly possible.
As heart signifies the station of different organs in body and they serve the heart, similarly, Heart of the
State (Supreme Head) determines the status of various classes in society. The body consists of organs and
their importance decrease as they recede from heart till we come to the lowest organs bowel and ladder.
Similarly, state is a well-organized commonwealth: the supreme head collects, arranges and organizes the
different functionaries. Their status and importance increases or decrease according to their distance from
the supreme head of the state.
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Al-Farabi Theory of Leadership

Platonic Influence: Al-Farabi had a deep study of Greek philosophy and was inspired by Plato‟s concept
of ideal state and philosopher king. He too added more new material to his concept of ideal state taken
from the local sources.
Division of People: According to Al-Farabi, there are various types of people in society:
 Some have the intellect to draw conclusion better than others.
 Some convey their deductions to others with greater facility.
Qualities of Leader: According to him, the power of deduction lies at the bottom of all leadership. Those
who can draw conclusions from given facts lead those who cannot. Similarly, those who do not have the
ability to convey to others what they have learnt have not got true marks of leadership. Therefore, the
ability of deduction and conveying make leaders.
Two Leaders in Every Branch: he says there should be two leaders in every branch. The first with
greater deducing and conveying power leads the second, while the second leads his inferiors.
Raeesul Awwal (First Leader): According to Al-Farabi, First Leader is the one who has inherent
capacity of observation and conveying his senses to others. He is not instructed by others.
Sovereignty of Supreme Leader: Here Al-Farabi anticipates the doctrine of sovereignty which in
Europe flourished in 17th century by Jean Bodin and John Austinr . According to Al-Farabi, there is not
human superior over the head of the Foremost Leader. For if there is one, that would be the Foremost
Leader and the other will become the second leader.
Qualities of his Ideal Sovereign: Al-Farabi enumerates twelve qualities of an ideal sovereign: they are:
1. Perfection in physical organs 2. Great understanding. 3. Visualization of all that is
said. 4. A retentive memory. 5. Power to get to the root of things with the least arguments.
6. Power to convey to others according to his wish a deep love of learning. 7. Shunning of
Playfulness. 8. Control over desires like eating, drinking and sexual intercourse. 9. Love of truth
and hatred of lying. 10. Hatred of force and tyranny. 11. Power to distribute justice without
any effort, fearlessness in doing things. 12.Possession of a sufficient amount of wealth.
Al-Farabi knew that all these qualities may not be found in one person. Therefore, he says that the one
with five or six of these qualities would make fairly good leader.
Hereditary Leadership: He says that the one brought up under a leader with these qualities should be
preferred to leadership provided he follows his predecessor.
Council: If no one with such abilities is available, then a council of efficient men of two or even five
members possessing an aggregate of these qualities may be preferred.
Idealism: although he idealizes the leader with his prescribed qualities but he still is aware of the
possibility of not finding such leader. Therefore, he suggests the council of efficient men: the minimum
efficiency required for the smooth working of the state. His solution is more practical than Plato because
he contrasted between the ideal and the actual.
Al-Farabi’s Ideal State (Madina Al-Fadila)

Setting of state: Al-Farabi‟s ideal state is similar to that of Plato‟s but its setting is Islamic that is
different from Greek‟s environment.
Citizens: They help each other to gain those things by means of which true happiness (Falah in this world
and the world to come) is gained.
Perfection: As its rulers should be perfect or nearly perfect, similarly, its citizens are supposed to be
perfect or near perfection.
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Organic Concept of Arrangement: the highest is the chief (Raees) that is the heart. And the status of the
rest of the members is determined by their nearness to or remoteness from the heart (Raees). Members
nearest to the heart both rule and are ruled while those who are removed from heart only serve but all are
united in earning the purpose of the heart.
Ruler of Madina Al-Fadila: his ideal state Madina Al-Fadila is ruled by the perfect or nearly perfect
ruler giving the twelve or some of the twelve qualities that Al-Farabi has prescribed.
Role of Philosopher in the State: It means the ideal state cannot survive without a philosopher sharing
its government, at least in advisory capacity otherwise the state will gradually ruin.
Submission of Divine law of Shariah: the ruler of the ideal state possesses high level of moral and
intellectual abilities which permit him to perceive God under the guidance of the divinely revealed
Shariah. Ruler‟s high intellect enables the citizens to acquire independence, contentment and well-being
in this world as well as in the world to come.
Communism: Under the influence of Plato, he also speaks of communism but his communism is neither
of property nor of family. It is Islamic communism in which everything is held in trust for God and
everyone has equal rights to everything in the state. It is their right as well as duty to protect whatever has
been given in their trust.
Similarly, Plato‟s rulers are not permitted to possess wealth which may distract them from the service of
their subjects but Al-Farabi‟s ruler must possess sufficient amount of wealth enabling him to spend it for
the welfare of his subjects. His ideal ruler is not just a ruler but a father and a husband who works for the
welfare of his family and subject alike.
Ruler’s Origin: Al-Farabi‟s ruler is not the product of a special educational scheme but God-gifted
which distinguishes his ruler from Plat‟s ruler.
Therefore, it can be said that Al-Farabi did indulge himself in idealism in constructing his idea state but
his idealism is close to reality and he sorted out the possibilities of establishing his desired state like in
case of the ruler, limited qualities could be preferred if all could not be found.
Impact of Plato on Al-Farabi
Study of Plato: Al-Farabi had a deep study of Plato‟s works which were available at that time in Arabic
language. He is said to have mastered Plato‟s Republic, The Laws and The Statesman. He had produced a
summary of Plato‟s The Laws. His own work Ara‟ahl Al.Madinah al-Fadilah has been written under the
influence of Plato‟s Republic. His Madina Al-Fadila (ideal state) is a copy of Plato‟s ideal state in his
Republic.
Theory of Leadership: His theory of leadership also resembles Plato‟s theory of philosopher king.
Classification of Government: Both have similar concept of classification of government: that apart
from ideal state there are imperfect states like, timocracy, oligarchy and democracy.
Organic Concept: Like Plato and Aristotle, he also takes organic view of the state for the sake of unity
and integrity in the state.
Similar View of Man’s Nature: Like his master, he also stressed that man was social and political and
that the aims of the ideal state were complete virtue and happiness.
Communism: He does not support Plato‟s communism and believes in individualism as per the Islamic
notions.
Idealism to Realism: As Plato depicted his ideal state in his Republic and later on stepped down to the
world of reality in his later works The Laws and The Statesman, similarly, Al-Farabi first depicted his
ideal state in Madina al-Fadila but in his later works, the Fusul al-Madanlyah he comes down from the his
idealism to reality.
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Therefore, it can be said that many of his concepts are platonic but he has adapted them to the Islamic
tenets. He also integrate the Greek Hellenic philosophy into all his branches in Islam. But apart from
Plato, Al-Farabi also added his genuine material taken from his surrounding and his own understanding.
Therefore, he later influenced European philosophy to much extent.
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Abu Al-Hasan Al-Mawardi (974-1055)

Introduction: Al-Mawardi was born in 974. He belonged to the Shafi‟s school of thought. He began his
active life at Basra and Baghdad as professor of Law and jurisprudence. He was a great scholar of his
time and had great influence on later thought and action. He was a prolific writer but the following works
deal with politics and administration:
Works:
 Al-Ahkam Al Sultan (Ordinance of Government). It is the first systematic treatise on
political science and state administration in the history of Islam.
 Nasihatul Muluk (Advice to King). This book anticipate both Nazam Ul Mulk Tusi and
Machiavelli.
 Qawaninul Wazarat (Principles of Ministry). It is a thorough book on the grand office of
Wazeer which was taken from Persians.
 Tahsilun-Nazar Fi Tahsiluz Zafar (the control of sight for achieving victory).
Political Conditions and their Impact on Mawardi’s Political Philosophy:
 Deterioration of Buwayhid Dynasty: During his life time, Buwayhids were at the zenith of their
power. He witnessed the reign of At-Tai (974-991) and Al-Qadir (991-1031). During the reign of
these rulers, the Buwayhids‟ dynasty was deteriorating due family quarrels and insurrection
(uprising) in army.
 Ghaznavide Power and Allegiance to Caliph: Ghaznavide had subjugated a vast territory in
India but was in allegiance to the Caliph in Baghdad.
 Sunnite Resenment against Buwayhids: Buwayhids ruler Al-Qadir was struggling against
Sunnite resentment.
 Al-Mawardi’s work Ahkamul Sultaniyah is a reflection of the politicsl disturbance of his time
that is an exposition of the prerogatives of the caliph. It is assumed to be written on the orders to
the caliph. He was inspired from Islamic view of state and being sunni was chiefly concerned
with the emancipation of Sunnite caliphate from Shiite tyranny of Buwayh.
Al-Mawardi’s Theory of Caliphate
Need of Imamat: Imamat is needed for the defense of the faith and the administration of the world. There
are two opinions about the demand of imamat:
 Demanded by Reason: Imamat is demanded by reason because of men sagacity deem it
necessary to entrust their affairs to a leader who may protect them from oppression and tyranny
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and decide cases of conflict among them. In the absence of such rule personal rule will prevail
which will be a set-back to civilization.
 Demanded by Religion: imam promulgates the Shariah law. Mawardi justifies this view from
Quranic injunction, “Obey God and the Apostle and those in authority from among you”.
Election of Imam: Ijma or consensus of the learned is required for the contract between the Ummah,
which confers imamat and the Imam who administers it. There should be two classes: The electors and
the elected. There would not be any difference between those living in capital or those in far-off cities but
the ones in capital are more likely to be qualified voters to elect the imam as soon as possible.
He prescribes three qualities of the electors:
 1. Justice with all its essential conditions.
 Knowledge in order to know who deserve the imamat.
 Wisdom to distinguish between good and evil.
Qualification for Imamat (Caliphate):
 Justice (Adala): to administer justice.
 Knowledge (Ilm): enabling him to make independent decisions and pass judgments, Ijtihad).
 Mental Fitness (Hawas wa Nuqt).
 Physical Fitness. Easily moveable.
 Wisdom: necessary insight into governing the people and conducting state affairs.
 Courage and determination: to protect the territory and wage the holy war against his enemies and
infidels.
 Should be descendent of Qurayish (based on the Tradition of the Prophet PBUH).
Election:
An imam may be appointed by two ways:
 Vote of the Uli al amr: In this view some opine to have Uli al amr from every city but Mawardi
disapproves this view and quotes the incident at Saqifah bani Saaidah where homage was paid to
Abu Bakkr by those present there. His election was complete and Bayah from other cities was not
awaited.
 Nomination by the retiring caliph:five electors are sufficient for the election of imam. Hazrat
Usman by a board is quoted in this connection.
In case of Competition betweenTwo person for Imamat: According to Mawaardi, it is the
responsibility of the electors to elect the qualified person for imamat. In case of two person with similar
qualities, the one one with more age will be elected. In case of two persons, one Alim and other is
courageous, either can be elected according to the exigency of the time. If one is elected as imam and
later a more qualified person comes, the first remain imam.
Rejection of Two Imam at Time: he rejected the Shiite Doctrine of designation and of Al-Ashari to have
two imam and recognized only the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad to the exclusion of Umayyed in Spain and
Fatimids in Egypt.
Need of Bayah: he disapproves the idea that the imamat of qualified person is valid without the Bayah.
He argues that imamat is a contract which cannot be valid unless it has been trusted to qualified persn to
accept the offer. Unlike Zaydi doctrine, Al-Mawardi does not make it a compulsion for the whole Ummah
to see the caliph personally. They should however know his name and the it is must for the electors to
know the name and personality of the person for Imamat.
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Duties of Caliph
Al-Mawardi assigns ten principal duties of public concern to the imam. They are:
1) To guard the faith based on its established principles and on consensus Ijam.
2) To administer justice.
3) To defend the territory so the people may lead peaceful life and travel without fear.
4) To see the punishment for offences to be in accordance with the crime and prohibitions of
Allah and that the fundamental rights of people are not violated.
5) To defend the frontiers against foreign invasions to guarantee security of life and
property of Muslim and Non-Muslim in the state.
6) To wage war against those who have been invited to Islam but have refused until they are
converted or they accepted the status of Dhimmi (Protected people).
7) To collect Jharj and Zakat as per the laws of Shariah.
8) To award allowances and stipends from Baitulmal to deserving people with care.
9) To appoint honest and sincere men to the principal offices of the state and to treasury in
order to secure sound and effective administration and safeguard state‟s finance.
10) The imam should personally look into and apprise the state affairs so that he may direct
the national policy and protect the interests of the people.
Therefore, Mawardi made a blend of religion and politics in Islam in the duties of imam. He stresses the
administrative responsibility of the caliph along protection of the faith and dispensation of justice.
Al-Mawardi’s Theory of Government
His theory and Justification of Ministry or Wazirat: he was the first thinker who felt the need of a
coadjutor in the politics. He justified the need of wazir for imamat through the prophecy of Moses
appointed his brother Haroon as his wazir.
Kinds of Wazarat: he mentions two kinds of wazarat:
1) Wazi-e-Taf Wiz (Minister by Delegation) and his duties: who is appointed by the imam for
administering the realm (kingdom). He has opinion and say in administration.
His Duties:
 He must fulfill all the qualification necessary for imam except the descend of the
Qurayish.
 He must possess knowledge of was and finance. He can command and issue decrees on
behalf of imam. He makes appointments and leads the army in war.
 He can delegate his power to others to settle disputes on his behalf.
 He is solely responsible for the good government of the country.
Difference between imam and Wazir-e-Taf wiz:
 He cannot nominate his successor while an imam can.
 He can reign while an imam can.
 He cannot remove persons appointed by the imam while imam can remove person
appointed by the wzir-e-taf wiz.
Wazir-e-Tanfiz (Minister of Executive): He is the one appointed by the Imam to keep him informed of
the important events of the stat and to execute the orders of imam. Therefore, he acts as a link between the
imam and the Millat.
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Qualifications of Wazir-e-Tanfiz: Al-Mawardi prescribes seven qualities for the wazi-e-tanfiz. They
are: must be honest. Must be trustworthy. Must not be greedy. Must have the confidence of the people.
Must be male. Must be intelligent. Must not be luxurious.
Women are not eligible for wazarat. A zimmi can be wazire tanfiz but not wazir-e-tafwiz.
Difference between the two Wazarat:
2) Wazir-e-taf wiz can issue decrees and act as judge in criminal cases but wazir-e-tanfiz cannot.
3) Wazir-e-taf wiz has complete control on the purse of the country while wair-e-tanfiz does not
have.
4) Wazir-e-taf wiz can appoint government officers but wazir-e-tanfiz cannot.
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Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali (1058-1111)
Al-Ghazali was born at Ghazalah near Tus in 1059 AD. He was educated at Tus. Later he went Jurjan and
then to Nishapur. There he became pupil and later assistant to Juwaini till his death in 1085. He became
the advisor of NIzamul Mulk Tusi till 1091. Then he went to Baghdad, then to Syria, Egypt, Mecca and
Madina. In 1105 he was appointed president of academy at Nishapur and finally he retired to Tus where
he died in 1111 AD.
Al-Ghazali witnessed the reigns of Abbasid caliphs Qaim Al Muqtadar and Al-Mustazher who were
puppets in the hands of Saljuq sultans. Ghazali also saw the rule of Saljuq sultan and the civil was during
their rule. His principal works include Al-Munqidh Min Al-Dalal (Deliverance from waywardness), Ihya
Ul-Uloom (Renaissance of science), Kimya Al-Sadaat (Alchemy of goodness), Al-Iqtisad Fill Itiqad
(Moderation in belief). Although Islam rules out absolutism from its body politics and lays emphasis on
rule through consultation but during Al-Ghazali‟s time, rule by consultation was replaced by autocratic
rule. Therefore, Ghazali combined the two ideas together. He blended caliphate with kingship in a
moderate manner for the good of Umma. Ghazali makes counsel a pre-requisite for successful kingship.
He says that king must seek the advice of learned in state affairs for which he cites examples from the life
of the holy Prophet PBUH. Therefore, his concept of government was a blend of Muslim historical way
of rule and the current prevailing condition of his time which may be acceptable to the rulers as well as to
the learned.
Al-Ghazali on Origin of State

Nature of Man: Man always wishes to have the company of someone like him.
Reason of Having Company: Man wants to have the company of someone because of two reasons:
 For the sake of procreation that requires sexual intercourse and thus needs the company
of opposite gender.
 Need help of others in the upbringing of his offspring.
Therefore, having wives and children definitely demands cooperation with a large number of people
dependent on each others.
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Dependency of Human beings on each other: every individual of society is dependent on every other
for running his life or business.
Establishment of Cities: This dependency of men on each other and cooperation with each other compel
them to live together which forms cities.
Inequality and Injustice: there would be quarrels and exploitation of weak persons in these cities. Need
of King and Establishment of State: Therefore, there should be a king or Amir over the people to maintain
justice, appoint official for the welfare of the people and defend them from foreign aggression. Therefore,
Ghazali is of the view that no worldly organization can exist without a proper King and people obedience
to the king. Therefore, people‟s obedience to the rule in cities constitutes state.
Therefore, Al-Ghazali‟s concept is more modern and rational. He studies Aristotle‟s patriarchal theory of
the origin of state but he faces a blunt of human associations instead of just a heap of patriarchal theory.
Ghazali on Nature of State

Organic Concept of State: Ghazali regards state as a living organism and its different parts to different
body parts. State corresponds to the physical body, the professions to the limbs of the body, the ordering
magistrate to the desire of the living being, the police officer to the anger of the organism and the
ministers to common sense of the body. King corresponds to the heart who requires the assistance of these
organs for state affairs.
Nature of Magistrates and Police: they sometimes indulge in falsehood and exaggeration and works
against the dictates of common sense (the minister), while the police often wants to kill or wound others.
King (Heart) and Minister (Common Sense): when king and ministers control desire (magistrates) and
anger (police), only then will the state be managed well. But if the police and magistrates succeed in
incarcerating the common sense, then the whole body politics will be destroyed and the king will see very
bad days.
Al-Ghazali’s Theory of Government
Necessity of Imam: Imamat is an indispensible institution of Muslim life demanded by the Ijma of the
community after the death the holy Prophet PBUH.
Order of the World is Essential to Good order of Religion: Imam is responsible for the good order of
the world which is essential for the good order of the religion but this he needs the obedience of the
people. Ghazali quotes the saying in support of his contention that, “Din is the foundation and sultan
(authority) is the guardian”.
Qualification of Imam: he enumerates certain qualities of Imam. His concept of the qualitficationof
Imam is similar to that of Al-Mawardi. They are the following:
 Justice (Adala): to administer justice.

 Knowledge (Ilm): enabling him to make independent decisions and pass judgments, Ijtihad).
 Mental Fitness (Hawas wa Nuqt).
 Physical Fitness. Easily moveable.
 Wisdom: necessary insight into governing the people and conducting state affairs.
 Courage and determination: to protect the territory and wage the holy war against his enemies and
infidels.
 Should be descendent of Qurayish
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 Love of his subjects.
 Diplomatic bend
 Chivalric.
Delegation of Authority: The Imam can delegate authority to one possessed of showka who in turn
swears his allegiance to the Imam. But the ultimate responsibility of maintaining law and order and
welfare of the people remains with the Imam who is entitled to the obedience of the great men of the
realm and of Shura.
Sultans Allegiance the Imaam: in theory Imam is the lawful ruler but in practice Sultan rules. All state
affairs are in control of Sultan who owns allegiance to Imam and mention his name in the Khutba and
mints coins bearing name of the Imam. Imam reigns but does not rule. Sultan is backed by the military of
the state.
The Rule of Sultan Leads to Chaos: if sultan gets power by force of military. Institutions like judiciary,
finance and policing would be disregarded that would lead to tyranny of sultan and chaos in the state.
Obedience of Imam is Must: Ghazali argues that Imam must be obeyed even if he is usurper because
disobedience of Imam leads to chaos. If the does not remain qualified, his power may be transferred to the
Sultan instead of deposing him.
Therefore, Ghazali being a realist reconciled caliphate with the Saljuq Sultanate for the good of Muslim
Umma. This way he blended religion with politics too.
Ghazali on Duties and Functions of the Executive of the Government
Al-Ghazali says if the rules possess the above mentioned qualifications, he will become the shadow of
God on the earth. For successful administration, Ghazali prescribed the following routines for the ruler:
 After Morning Prayer, the ruler should ride and investigate is anything wrong is done to his
subjects.
 He should sit in courts and allow all to have direct access to him so he may have knowledge of
their complaints.
 He should take counsel form those excelling in knowledge, intelligence, and experience and
should give interview to foreign envoys.
 Ruler should be well-versed in diplomacy and politics and should not be inclined to peace by
timidity and fear of enemies.
 Ruler should not get indulged too much in drink, chess or hunting. “work while you work and
play while you play”.
 His time should be divided into four parts: one for prayers, another or state affairs, justice and
counseling with the learned people. Third for food and rest and the last for recreational activities
and hunting.
 Ruler should avoid advice of his wives.
 Ghazali warns the ruler against favouritism and recommends transparency of appointment and
activities and avoidance of praising the officers unduly.
Therefore, if Ghazali‟s advice to his ruler is compared to that of Machiavelli‟s to his Prince, it can be
clearly observed that Ghazali never leaves morality while talking of politics.
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IBN-E-KHALDUN (1332-1406)
Introduction:
Abdur Rehman Ibn Khaldun was born in 1332 in Tunis Africa which was a great center of learning in
those days. He got his education at Tunis. He learnt the Holy Quran by heart. He also studied the science
of Tradition and Maliki Jurisprudence as well as Arabic grammar and rhetoric. In hsort time he got fame
and the ruler of Tunis Abu Ishaq took him into service in the age of twenty. He also served Muhammad
BinYusaf, Sultan of Granada and headed a number of missions to the court of king Castile.
He completed his well known Prolegonama in 1377. He went to Cairo in 1382 where he spend the rest of
his life except for a short span of time in 1388 to Mecca for pilgrimage and in 1400 in a campaign with
his master Salikun- Nasir of Egypt against Taimur. During his stay at Cairo Egypt he was appointed chief
justice several times. He would also address large gathering of scholars. He completed his well known
universal history in Cairo. He died at Cairo in 1406 AD.
Ibn Khaldun on the Origin, Nature and Development of State

 Nature of Man: like Aristotle, Ibn Khaldun considered man social by nature and his necessities
and nature compel him live with others. Men must live with others in order defend and feed
themselves.
 Society: necessities and nature man bring them together which formed society.
Diversion from their Social Nature: their cooperation lead them to produce more than their needs of
survival for luxury which cause animals‟ motives in men and usurping the rights of others started.
 Need of Authority: in this situation, some sort of force was required to curb their animal motives
and order their relations.
 Preservation of Society: the community of men can only be preserved when they are ruled by
the most powerful and stable among them.
 Origin of Ruler and State: the ruler must have the capacity to restrain and reconcile the men and
forces them to follow his directions and when the men in society start obeying the orders and
directives of the person, he becomes their ruler, (Sultan or Mulk) and the society as “Dawla”.
Therefore, when a society is politically organized, it becomes a state.
 Power as the Basis of State: state is natural and necessary and power is thus, the basis of state
and the necessary instrument of the restraining authority without which man cannot live a social
life.
Stages of state
According to Ibn Khaldun, the state passes through five distinct stages of its development:
First Stage:
It is the initial stage of state. In this state, group-solidarity (Asabiyah) is based on blood relations
and religion for its preservation. In this stage new political relations and institutions are created and the
Asabiyah generates power. Religion plays important role in unifying them under the ruler because to
them, obeying the ruler is obeying the God. The ruler depends more on his kinsmen and regards himself
their chief than their lord. Ruler shares his powers with his kinsmen through the dictates of religion.
During this stage, the ruler determines the geographic boundaries of the state when he can no more
construct of conquer new areas.
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Second Stage:
The stage when the ruler starts creating and consolidating his absolute kingship. Natural solidarity and
religion are used at the discretion of the absolute king. Natural solidarity is replaced by a paid army and
learned bureaucracy who become the instrument of preserving the state.
Third stage:
The stage when the ruler increased income and becomes luxurious. He spends extravagantly on
beautification of cities and public works. This stage is characterized by economic prosperity, progress in
science, art and literature when all men of society enjoy the comforts and pleasures of the world.
Stage Four:
This is the zenith of the stage when both the ruler and the ruled are fully satisfied. The think that what
they possess has always existed and will always exist. The durability of this stage depends on the power
and achievement of the founder. Normally, the decline and disintegration of state starts in this stage.
Stage Five:
The last stage when wasteful spending starts. Vital forces of solidarity like, religion are
undermined. Heavy taxis are imposed which discourage economic activities. Luxury produces physical
weakness and moral vices. Diseases and plagues erupt in crowded population. The rulers become timid
and helpless against foreign invasions. Princes, generals and important kinsmen become independent. The
state is divided into smaller states or provinces. The mercenary troops and bureaucracy in the capital start
intriguing against the ruler to wrest power from him. Finally, a foreign invasion put an end to the life of
state.
Therefore, Ibn Khaldun‟s analysis is based on his study and mediations through the events he saw around
himself. That is the reason he is called a great historian, sociologist and political thinker.
Ibn Khaldun’s Theory of Asabiyah

Nature and Necessity of Men are the Bases of Social life: Men are by nature social and have many
needs which compel them to live together and cooperate with each other. Man must unite with many of
his kind to assure his protection and defense.
Need of Authority: when men live together, rivalry and conflicts arise. For the maintenance of law and
order situations, a restraining power is needed. This authority according to Ibn Khaldun is sovereignty
and the person who possesses this power is the sovereign.
Maintenance of Sovereignty and Asabiyah: for maintaining the sovereignty, the sovereign needs the
support of the like-minded men held together by a common bond. First, blood ties and family create
solidarity and second, religion create sense of oneness. This common outlook or sense of oneness is
Asabiyah (group fooling or group mind). It is this Asabiyah which give force to the restraining authority.
Asabiyah enables the ruler to maintain law and order situation in the state. Therefore, the one having this
power can exercise his authority over other men.
Aim of Asabiyah: the principal aim of Asabiyah is thus Mulk (dominion/rule).
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Status of the Sovereign: he is first the Raees (chief) who is first among the equals. He relies on Asabiyah
but uses it independently but he is obeyed. The one who does not belong to the group cannot be made
ruler.
Expansion of state and Asabiyah: with the expansion of state, instead of one group-feelings, many
groups-feelings arouse. These varying groups come into conflict, one of them gets victory and establishes
royal authority which means authority by force. Here the oneness of group-feelings deteriorate which
weakens the Asabiyah. Asabiyah is replaced with paid army and bureaucracy. And oneness of feelings is
replaced by force to maintain integrity and solidarity.
Imperialism and Triumph of Strong Group-Feelings: The ruler who establishes authority by force
starts using force against other state to subdue them which establishes empire. Here too the conflicting
groups-feelings give way to force used by the triumphant. Thus common group-feelings is replaced by
habitual obedience to a common lord. Therefore, Ibn Khaldun is convinced that a community with strong
group-feelings can never be overpowered by any other group. Here he anticipates Machiavelli that a state
either expands or expires.
Therefore, it can be noted that Asbiyah plays an important role in the establishment and downfall of the
states. The unity of purpose and oneness of feelings establishes solidarity among heterogeneous nations,
like Canada, Switzerland, Belgium, Pakistan etc in the current times.
Inb Khaldun‟s theory sovereignty is the most scientific of its time and led Hobbes and Austin because
Khaldun;s sovereign is neither above the law nor morality rather is limited by the divine law which
applied equally to all.
Khaldun on the Importance of Economics in Politics
Politics and Economy: he considers politics and economy interdependent. Their development go hand in
hand because state came into being because of the provision of necessities and protection of property of
the people. The life and duration of economy depends on the power-sustenance of the state. A powerful
state protects economic activities and develops civilized economic activities and in return powerful
economy contributes to the strength of the state.
Need of Civilized Economy: if the state relies on agriculture based economy, the life standard will be
simpler with light taxes and hard work will be required for prosperity. If the state rests on religious bases,
it will exact taxes provided by the religious law which will be limited. Therefore, private individuals and
enterprises are encouraged to engage in business that generate state revenue and ultimately, political
stability.
Weakening of the Asabiyah and Religious Feelings Affect Economic Activities: When the ruler
destroys Asabiyah and religion, and relies on paid army and bureaucracy, he becomes autocratic and
adopts higher standard of life which demands imposition of higher taxes. Imposition of higher taxes
brings downfall in economic activities and restlessness in the state.
Appropriation and Confiscation of Private Property: Arbitrary appropriation of men‟s property by
the government results in loss of incentives to gain which leads to slackening of enterprises. Economic
oppression ruins society while ruining of society leads to weakening of state. Here he anticipates
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Machiavelli that, “People forget the killing of their father but certainly not forget the confiscation of their
father‟s property”.
Balanced Budget: Khaldun is of the view that balance budget is required for the economic stability.
Wealth must be kept in circulation between the ruler and the ruled.
Ibn Khaldun’s Economic Theories
He chiefly focuses on labour and value, demand and supply, price, accupation, taxation, rural amd urban
economy, state expenditure, import and export.
Labour and Value: Profit comes from efforts and labour, like in agriculture, minerals, handicrafts etc.
the income from the craft is the value of the labour. Therefore, the expenditure of raw-material and labour
value should be added to the cost of the produce. The labour value should be added in accordance with
the extent of labour in various products because profit and income represent the value of human labour.
Demand and Supply: he presents the modern economic law of demand and supply that when the
demand increases, the supply decreases and vice versa. Demand and supply also determines the prices of
the commodity.
Price: according to Khaldun, custom duties increase the price of goods. If the price of a good is low and
the market is down, the traders will not tend to work in that commodity which may diminish their capital.
Concept of Wealth: Money is not wealth, gold, silver and precious stones are wealth having the
exchange value. Therefore, the quantity of such items in the hands of a man or country determines the
level of prosperity of the person of country.
Taxation: taxation is essential for running government and administration. The taxation remained lighter
in the early stage of the state but got heavier in the later stages when the ruler became autocratic.
According to Khaldun, if the state rests on religion, it only imposes taxes advanced by the shariah law,
like, Benevolence contribution, land tax, toil tax whose rates are low and fixed. Low taxes encourage
private enterprises to engage in economic activities. Heavier taxes increases prices and discourages
businessmen because of the disparity between their profit and burden of taxes which results in downfall of
production.
How to ImposeTax? Khaldun therefore, suggests to distribute taxes among all the tax-payers in fair and
just manner and no one should be exempted from tax because of rank, official position or richness.
Therefore, from his economic theories it is evident that Khaldun was ahead of his time and speak the
language of some of the greatest economists of the 19th century. He was the first medieval thinker who
gave that much importance to economy in the stability of politics.
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Sayed Jamal-Ud-Din Afghani (1839-1897)

Introduction:
Sayed Jamaluddin was born at Asadabd Afghanistan in 1839. He got his early education in the
traditional way at his own country. He came to India where he acquired knowledge of science and
mathematics of modern Europe. He went back to his country and played leading role in politics but due to
political differences, he left for Istanbul Turkey. On his was to Turkey, he also visited Egypt. Later he
visited India but was banished due to his revolutionary views and made his way to Paris.
Jamaluddin visited various Muslim countries and tried to awaken Muslims from their slumber. He played
an important role in the politics of Iran. He died in Istanbul in 1897.
He knew many languages and was a public orator. He wrote very little. The following are among his
noteworthy writings:
 A Refutation of the Materialists
 Reply to Rehan‟s Lecture on Islam and Science
 Leading articles in Al-Urwatal Wasqa.
Jamaluddin Pan-Islamism
Pan-Islamism means solidarity, integrity and unity of Muslim Ummah across the world. This idea in itself
is as old as Islam itself. The idea projected by Jamaluddin is multi faceted that basically aimed at welding
together the Muslims. It not only focused on unity but also revivalism and reformation of Islam in order
to present it as a great moral force and progressive. It discouraged political factionalism and dynastic
interests in the way of Muslim unity.
Features of Pan-Islamism
Unity among Muslim:
The basic aim of the movement was to bring unity and solidarity among the Muslims regardless
of their race, coulor, language etc. it stood for the revival of Islamic culture and civilization.
Anti-Materialist:
It aimed at bringing an end to the imperialism in Muslim world. Afghani wanted to make Muslim
a bull-work against the growing imperialism of Europe in Muslim world.
Socio-political Aspects:
It was not totally against Western culture. Afghani was of the opinion to take what is good in
their culture and is not against the spirit of Islam. He wanted Muslim to transfer the technology of the
west into their own hands. He also wanted restoration of constitutional government in Muslim countries
but did not mean restoration of one caliphate. He just stood for the spiritual unity among the Muslims.
Defense of Islam:
Another objective of this movement was to defend Islam against Western culture and civilization.
He wanted to purge Islam of all innovations which had been made in it and which had made Islam
unattractive to the young generation. He wanted to revive Ijtihad in Islam. He advocated modernization in
Muslim but not westernization. He also negated the propaganda that Islam was against modern science.
Common Foreign Policy:
He wanted Muslim countries to adopt common foreign policy against the imperial western power.
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Political Consciousness:
He aimed at developing political consciousness in Muslims through his movement. He inspired a
group of people to combat for the liberty and freedom of Muslims.
Therefore, it was Afghani whose ideas inspired the modernism in Egypt bringing Islam into harmony
with the modern age. Iqbal was also inspired by Afghani who later advocated Pan-Islamism in India.
Causes of Failure of Pan-Islamism
 Sultan Abdul Hameed of Turkey came in his way and imprisoned him. He did not allow Afghani
to leave Istanbul. Some other Muslim rulers also blocked his way to carry his message.
 Revolt of Arabs against Ottoman Empire: Arab Nationalism led to distrust among Muslim
countries which were against the reign of Turks.
 Abolition of Caliphate by Kamal Ataturk: Khilafat movement and abolition of Caliphate in
Turkey also damaged the spirit of this movement.
 His appeal was to the elites and not to the masses.
 His approach was revolutionary which frightened the imperialists and they left no stone unturned
in getting his movement failed.
Afghani Religious Reformation
 Understanding the True spirit of Islam: Afghani wanted Muslims to understand Islam aright
and live according to its teachings because according to him, success, strength and the solution of
Muslims‟‟ agony lie in following Islam in its true spirit. As he says”
“If Christians are strong, it is because they are not really Christians. If Muslims are weak, it is because
they are not really Muslims”.
 Following Western Advancement: He only encouraged imitating what was good for Muslim
and was in accordance with the spirit of Islam from West and discouraged following wets blindly.
 Role of Ulema: He wanted Ulema to play role in reviving the true spirit of Islam. He wanted
them to destroy the false conception and views about Islam and bring back Islam in its true spirit
in order to strengthen Islamic culture and civilization.
 Revival of Ijtihad: He wanted to revive Ijtihad which had remained banned for centuries due to
the sheer interests of certain sects.
 He was against Jamud or Taqlid (Imitation).
 Islam and Science: He also tried to eliminate the conception that Islam was against modern
science. He therefore, advocated Islam as a progressive religion.
 Unity among Muslim: he wanted to bring together Sunni and Shia.
 Revolt: he did not favour blind support to rulers. He therefore, favoured revolt if the ruler was
not just.
 Unity of Ummah: he was not merely concerned with the unity of Muslim leaders, rather, he
wanted to make one Ummah through political, spiritual and moral solidarity among Muslims of
different countries.
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Allama Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938)

Introduction:
His philosophy of politics is based on Islamic ideology. He adopted verses of Quran as his
medium of expression. He took serious interest in political matters during his stay in Europe. Iqbal
opposes the concept of Western democracy and promoted spiritual democracy which is based on the
concept of Muslim nationalism and leads to Islamic universalism which provided ideological foundations
to Pakistan movement and came to be known as „spiritual father of Pakistan.
Individual and Millat
In western philosophy, there are two extremes: Individualism and collectivism. The former refers to the
development of individual as the supreme end of life and the state and society are regarded as mean to
individual‟s development. While the latter stresses the importance of the state. To them, state is the end
and is more important than individuals of the society.
His Individual and Ego/Khudi:
Iqbal‟s views are different from these Western thoughts. Iqbal‟s individual is Mard-e-Momin who with
his moral and intellectual qualities can change the destinies. He is not the one who works his personal
interests and betterment but he works for the society. His goals are lofty and he always look high and
ahead. His individual possesses a high level of Ego (Khudi) to achieve his goals.
“Khudi ko kar buland itna k har taqdeer say pehle
Khuda bande say khud poche bata tere raza kia hay”
Fortification of Ego (Khudi):
Love ( the desire to assimilate), faqr (detachment from and superiority to one‟s material
possessions), tolerance, Kasbi Halal (equitting things and ideas solely through his own efforts and
struggle), creative and original activity. While beggary, fear, slavery and Sytraction (Nasab Parasti)
weaken Khudi.
His Millat/State:
His Millat or state is different from that of Western society. It has the following characteristics:
 Unity of Good (Tauhid)
 Center around the inspired leadership, (Prophethood).
 It has a divine code of law, (Qur‟an).
 Geographic center is Ka‟aba.
 It has a clear goal towards the entire community strives.
 It develops collective Ego.
 It tries to gain supremacy over forces of nature.
Individuality and State/Millat:

The State and individual are made interdependent. Here he maintains the balance between the
two, and regards them as equally important. Individual cannot realize his self spiritually without the help
of state and state cannot maintain itself and cannot make any progress without the inner worth of
individuals. Individual depends on society for his survival and society plays a supportive role. Iqbal
states, “This self is personality woven of individuality and sociality both of which develop side by side.”
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In this Iqbal pointed two terms individuality and sociality. Individuality composed of wishes,
desires, passions and intentions. All of these things are self -directed and self-determined which an
individual can utilize only in society because an individual can develop himself under certain social
condition. Living with other fellowmen is a natural desire of an individual. Society contributes to improve
and fulfill individual aims and goals. Iqbal was constrained to say subsequently in Bang-i-Dara:
“Fard Qayem Rabt millat say hay tanha kuch nahi
Mauj hay Darya may or beron darya kuch nahi”
“ An individual lives if with the Millathimself he identifies. If alone he stands, He surely dies. The waves
flourish in the bosom of the sea, Outside the ocean they all cease”.
Allama Iqbal address individual as a member of society. Individual and society are reciprocal to each
other.
“Afrad kay haatho may hay aqwaam ki taqdeer
Har fard hay millat k muqaddar ka sitara”
“Fortunes of states through individual prowess ripen, each men one star of their ascendant (destiny)”.
He further says that individual having his own personality must link himself to the society just as the
branch of a tree attaches itself to the tree.
“Millat k sath rabta ustawaar rakh
Pewasta reh shajar say umeed-e –Bhar rakh”
Iqbal is therefore, neither the individualist nor the collectivist. He takes a balance view regarding the
relationship of individual and state/Millat.
Iqbal On Democracy
Promoter of Islamic Ideology

According to Iqbal a social system should always have an ethical or moral foundation. An
ideology which does not insist on morality cannot refine and elevate human thought. He thinks that
democracy as understood and practiced in the West is an ideology which is devoid of moral and ethical
principles. It is this ideology which has created political and moral chaos. Iqbal was great promoter of
democratic government which is based on Islamic ideology. He believed that the message of Islam is
eternal and universal. As he says:
“Wialyat, Badshahi, Ilm-e-Ashyan ki Jahangiri
Ye sub kia hay? Faqat aik nuqta-e-Imaan ki tafseer”
“Province, kingdom, knowledge of the world! What is all this?
Only the interpretation of faith”.
Ethics and Politics:

Iqbal bitterly criticized Machiavelli for polluting Western thought by giving the idea of divorce
between ethics and politics. To him, politics divorced from ethics were meaningless. Relationship of
politics and ethics corresponds to the relationship of body and spirit. If politics is the body, then surely
ethics is the spirit.
Religion and Politics:
According to Iqbal politics cannot be separated from religion. If politics is separated from
religion then it changes itself into tyranny.
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“Jalal Padshahi ho kay jamhori tamasha ho
Juda ho Din siyasat say tho reh jati hay changizi”
When religion and state parted the ways for ever, it set the rule of avarice and greed.
Like a true Muslim, his conviction was that the separation of the two would lead to the moral, cultural and
political decay of the Muslims. This would render them incapable of achieving their goals in life.
Democracy to Iqbal:
Iqbal calls such democracy as “Spiritual Democracy”, which should be governed by parliament
members who strictly follow the teachings of Islam and would work on the principle of Ijtihad. They
would create Islamic laws which would satisfy our timely needs on the one hand and, eliminate
discrimination, reflect our collective perceptions and would be able to create unity among us. As he says:
“Let the Muslim of today appreciate his position, reconstruct his social life in the light of ultimate
principles, and evolve out of the hitherto partially revealed purpose of Islam, that spiritual
democracy is the ultimate aim of Islam.”
Iqbal became a strong critic of the Western democratic form of government where persons are counted,
not weighted; it is a material fact but not of personality, which is a spiritual fact.
“Jamhoriat aik tarz-e-Hukumat hay k jis may
Bandon ko ginah karte hai thola nahi karte”
Iqbal on Political Liberty:

His views on western democracy promote sectarianism
and extremist group. This kind of democracy gives all
sorts of freedom to individuals but destroys his good
qualities of following religious commands and he
become slave of his own desires. According to him,
giving complete liberty of thought and action to a layman
is to lead human beings to complete destruction because
complete liberty transforms humans into beasts by
making them followers of their own material interests.
Iqbal on Political Parties and Politicians:

He says that political parties and leaders in democracy coerce people in the name of political
ethics to follow party dictates even against their beliefs and conscience. Political leaders are like devils in
democracy.
Democracy is the Root Cause of Capitalism:
Iqbal criticizes Western democracy on the ground that it provides grounds for capitalist
exploitation which is in no ways different from despotism.
Therefore, Iqbal wanted to establish a political system which could secure complete social justice for the
masses as well as the leaders for which political democracy alone was insufficient. To him, the sole
purpose of spiritual form of democracy is to raise humanity to a high level of spirituality. Therefore,
Islamic political system is democratic in nature and rests on spiritualism in which individuality of man is
honoured.
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Muslim Nationalism and Pan-Islamism
Islamic Nationalism:
On the basis of the very philosophy of “spiritual democracy” Iqbal presented the concept of
Muslim nationalism in contrast with the nationalism followed by the geographical, racial and linguistic
movements of Europe. On one hand he wanted Muslims to liberate themselves from slavery of so-called
scientific thoughts and ideologies and on the other hand wanted to create confidence among them by
reminding them that teachings of Islam have complete political and social system in it and following them
is the only way to maintain their identity and dignity.
After his return from Europe Iqbal opposed the concept of Indian nationalism and adopted
Muslim Nationalism. Western concept of nationalism cannot be applied to India because Muslims and
Hindus possess separate cultures, languages, religions, and identities which are the essentials of
nationalism. According to Iqbal if nationality is not based on spirituality than it will results in
communalism. He observed that Indian nationalism will result in total suppression of the cultural entities
of the country and will create mutual bitterness and even oppression.
Sources of Unity and Solidarity:

To Iqbal a nationalist give more importance to artificial factors for unity and solidarity but true
solidarity is based on the spiritual and ethical foundation and in the case of Muslims unity and solidarity it
is achieved only on the basis of faith which based on two propositions that God is one, and that the
Prophet Muhammad, peace be up on him is the last messenger to guide mankind to the right ways of
living. Iqbal observed that any other way will be irreligious and contrary to human dignity. He asserted
that only one unity is required, the unity of brotherhood of man, which stands above race, nationality,
color or language.
Islamic conception of nationality is different from that of other communities of the world. Islam does not
believe in such material limitations as language, color and territory.
Pan-Islamism:
Universal Brotherhood/Muslim Universalism
The movement of Pan-Islamism strted by Jamal Uddin Afghani reached its highest watermark in
Iqbal‟s poetry and prose. His concept of Millat is actually Pan0_slamic. His image of the future of Islam
was Muslim universalism. To him, rejection of the universal brotherhood meant the rejection of the basic
principles of Quranic ideology.
Cause of Downfall of Muslims
Iqbal attributed the downfall of Muslim community to the disappearance of their unity.
Iqbal pointed out that all pillars of Islam serve the purpose of sociality. Individual works more effectively
when united. We can see its demonstration in term of collective prayers. So it is clear that according to
Iqbal individual can fully realize his own self only in a society. Iqbal contended that wherever the Qur‟an
calls upon the people to follow and join the Muslim party, the word „millah‟ or „ummah‟ is used. In the
following couplet of Iqbal, we hear the echoes of the universalism of the Muslims of the world:
“Batan-e Rang o khoon ko thoor kar millat may ghum ho ja
Na tu raani rahe baqi na Irani na Afghani”
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“Break, break the idols of color and race. In the Millat yourself you must efface. Call not yourself of
Turkish nationality, or an Iranian, or an Afghani”.
Need of Unity among Muslim Countries:
Iqbal believed that if Muslims want survive and compete the West, they must find a device which
could link them together as one compact entity. He also urged Muslims to counter Westernization and
western imperialism through their unity.
However, Iqbal advocated Muslim unity but like Afghani, it was not political unity but spiritual
brotherhood because Muslims are tied up by beliefs, history and outlook on life and hereafter.
================
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Theories of the Origin of State

Since the dawn of political consciousness, men have always asked themselves: how did the state come
into being? How has it developed? Theorists have given various explanation and theories about the origin,
evolution and development of state. Some of the dominant theories are the following:
1) Theory of Divine Origin.
2) Theory of Force.
3) Theory of Social Contract.
4) Patriarchal Theory.
5) Matriarchal Theory.
6) Evolutionary Theory.
Theory of Divine Origin

In ancient times religion and politics were not separate. It was then believed that God created
state as He has created everything else. God made certain people as rulers over others. In ancient times, in
Egypt and certain other countries, King was considered as ruler and priest or god-kings. In the middle
ages, kings were considered as the “shadow of God on earth”. Obedience to the king and his rules was
considered a divine duty. To disobey a king or his rules is not only a crime but also a sin. However, in
early modern ages, this theory assumed a new form: the Divine Rights of King, as expounded by the King
James I of England and Sir Robert Filmier in his book Patriarchy (1680). King James I even justified
wickedness and oppression of king as the punishment of for people‟s sins from God‟s side. He called
quarrelling with king as blasphemy. Similarly, Filmier in his book Patriarchy also justified that God
created Adam and gave him superiority over Eve and their children which has passed by descent to kings
and princes. But with the rising rationalism in 17th and 18th century, the theory of Divine Origin lost its
appeal and was discarded.
Major Concepts of this Theory:
1) State is created by God.
2) The kings are divinely appointed
3) They are answerable to God alone and to no human authority.
Criticism:
 State is a human not divine institution.
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 This theory justifies misrule and oppression of the people which is irrational. It leaves the people
at the mercy of despots.
 It engenders passivism and conservatism among the people. It was an attempt to check popular
awakening in England and other European countries.
 It only focuses on the monarchy form of government and gives no idea of republican and
democratic forms of state.
 It ignores human efforts and reason in the development of state.
Theory of Force
This theory has been advanced for two purposes: to explain how the state originated and how it was
maintained afterwards.
According to this theory, state is a child of force, that is of aggression, war, conquest and subjugation.
Might is Right: in primitive time, strong men or tribes would subjugate the weaker ones for political
obedience. The saying, “war begat the king” was the beginning of state.
Hierarchical: A strong man subjugated weaker men and became a tribe. Strong tribe subjugated the
weaker tribes and found a kingdom. A strong kingdom subdued the weaker kingdoms in its around and
found the empire. Example of Anglo-Saxon and other tribes of England. They were divided into seven
kingdoms and finally one among them conquered all other kingdoms and became England as we know it
today. In 19th century, England occupied other countries and became an British Empire.
Warfare: history of mankind is nothing but an endless story of constant wars, envisions and conquests.
Edward Jenks writes in his book, A history of Politics that “all political communities of the modern type
owe their existence to successful warfare”.
Increase in Population and Demand of Means of Subsistence: Increase in population increased the
demand of means of living which compelled men to improve the art of fighting to capture the means and
wealth of others for their sustenance.
President Woodrow Wilson says that war and the method of blood and iron has not only created great
empires in the past and present but “we shall see more of blood and iron methods in future”.
Force to Maintain a State: Once a state is established, it requires force to maintain it. Law and order is
maintained by suppressing the internal disturbances and revolts and repelling foreign aggressions.
Coercive power is used to punish lawbreakers and criminals and compelling others to obey the rule.
Criticism:
 It does have some justification for having one basic element (force) as the foundation of
state. Force was indispensable for creating, establishing and maintaining the state.
 It over emphasized the part played by force. Though it is an instrument of the state but
not the state itself.
 It ignores the consent of the people which is essentials for establishing and maintaining
the state.
 The survival of the fittest is true of savages but not human because humans do have
social and political consciousness which distinguish them from beasts.
 Force is only justified when sanctioned by law. Force under law becomes authority or
power but without sanction it becomes a sheer brute force on which the state cannot last
long.
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 The survival of the fittest is not true here because the struggle in society is a struggle
between ideas, beliefs and institutions. They do not survive because they are stronger but
because they meet the needs of the people or of truth and are acceptable to the people.
The Social Contract Theory

Background:
It is as old as political speculation. Plato, Aristotle also mentioned it. It remained in the cold
storage for many centuries when the eyes of philosophers were fixed on religion, heaven and life
hereafter. It regained appeal in 16th through 18th century when men awakened from the centuries long
slumber. Many philosophers provided their own version of social contract but Thomas Hobbes, John
Lock and Rousseau are prominent in this regard.
General Elements of the Theory:
This theory is basically concerned with three elements:
1) State of Nature: In this stage man was uncontrolled by any law of human imposition.
Man was guided by nature itself. They were called laws of nature. Men had certain
natural rights. Bu these laws and rights were not written. Some call this stage as pre-
social while others call it pre-political. Similarly, some believe that men were innocent
and peaceful while others say that men were savages, brutal and quarrelsome.
2) The Social Contract: Whether the state of nature was good or bad, but it is agreed upon
that men voluntarily entered into a contract in order to surrender their natural rights to a
common authority who in return guarantees protection of their life and property.
3) The Civil Society or State: Under this contract men left their isolation of the state of
nature and established a civil society or state where certain rules and obligations were
imposed upon all members of society. This is the called the origin of the state.
Hobbes on Human Nature
Hobbes believea that wisdom is not achieved by reading books but by reading men. Therefore,
he concentrated on human nature and based his political philosophy on the study of human
nature.
Mechanistic Approach: Hobbes studies human nature from mechanistic perspective. His
materialism – which earned him the condemnation of his con temporaries for „atheism‟ – is central to his
account of human behaviour. The body of each human being is, he thinks, only a complex mechanism,
somewhat like a clock having various functional components.
External Forces/Environment: According to Hobbes human behaviour is the product of external forces
operating upon organs of senses. It means, human actions are determined by his response to sensation. .
Its behaviour is a series of responses to the stimuli received through the senses from the outside world.
Some stimuli are pleasurable because they enhance our „vital motion‟. These we call good. Our feeling
towards them is one of desire, and we endeavour to maximise and prolong them. Our condition when we
are in a state where pleasure predominates is called „felicity‟. Other stimuli, which impede our vital
motions, are painful. These we call evil; our feeling towards them is one of aversion, and we endeavour to
avoid them. „Good‟ and „evil‟ have no other meaning than „pleasurable‟ and „painful‟: they are the names
we give to what we desire and shun respectively.
Thus there are two driving forces in human nature:
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3) One strives towards whatever is seemed desirable.
4) The second is avoidance of whatever is undesirable.
Therefore, whatever human desires is Good and whatever he shuns is Evil. Security is thus the greatest
good and insecurity is the greatest evil. Goodness and badness thus become subjective depending upon
the likes and dislikes of individuals.
Security and Power: Man can achieve self-preservation and avoid loss of life and possession only when
he has power. Since no man has enough power to fulfill these desires, therefore, he is always busy in
seeking power to secure what he already possess. Therefore, Hobbes says that security cannot be
separated from power.
Equality and Selfishness of Humans: According to Hobbes all humans are mentally and physically
equal; the rest is only a matter of time and experience that can be acquired by anyone. This equality
among men is the source of misery and trouble. If two men desire the same thing which they cannot
obtain, they both become enemies of each other and try to destroy each other.
Causes of Conflicts: Hobbes recognizes three causes of conflict among humans: competition, difference
and glory.
Means of Survival: Being selfish and power seekers, brutality, aggressiveness were the means of
survival in the state of nature. “A war of every man is against every man”. In order to overcome
discomfort for the sake of improving one‟s well-being is also the demand of the will or desire.
Therefore, Hobbes concludes that man is by nature selfish, fearful, self-seeking and competitive to the
point of combativeness. Man always follows his selfish despises and inclinations.
Criticism:
 He draws a dark picture of human. Man is not selfish. He is a bundle of natural impulses which
can be turned any way.
 His concept is based on the individualistic analysis of human rather than social.
 He takes into account only the mutual distrust among men and forgets the mutual cooperation.
Man is also sympathetic, generous, and has social obligations.
 Hobbes negates Aristotle‟s concept that “Man is a social animal”.
 He did differentiate between human and a wild animal.
 If human were naturally selfish and brutal like animals, how did they evolve to social beings?
Who changed their habits?
Hobbes on State of Nature

 Human Nature: Hobbes based his concept of state of nature on his idea of the selfish nature of
man. Man was individualistic, self seeking, fearful and competitive in state of nature.
 Unchecked/No Authority: Man was free to follow his selfish impulses and inclinations. There
was no one to keep men under check in state of nature, therefore, they were in a state of war of
every man against every other man. Man‟s desires were the only driving force of his action.
Therefore, state of nature was “pre-social” and “pre-political”.
 State of Fear and Strife: Due to fulfilling their desires, a state of perpetual fear and strife
developed that has three sources:
4) Competition between man and man for means to gratify identical appetites.
5) The fear in each lest the other surpasses him in power.
6) The desire to achieve glory and power to be admired by others.
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Therefore, natural relation of each individual to other individual is determined by motives of competition,
mistrust/differences and love of glory in the state of nature. Every man was the enemy of every other man
due to absence of a checking authority.
Absence of Sociality: Hobbes‟ state of nature was devoid of art, literature, industry, agriculture, facilities,
and trade. Thus the life of man in state of nature was thus solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.
Transformation towards Social Contract:

Awareness: slowly, men started recognizing each other, brutality and selfish impulses were slowly being
controlled but the fear and corrupt practices still existed, injustice still was prevailing.
Fear of Death and Desire of Comfort and Viable Society: Due to materialistic impulses: fear of death
and desire of comfort, a viable or working society developed between these competitive individuals and
consequently, in the interest of personal survival they can around and renounced their rights to use
violence. This brought an end to the state of instability. According to Hobbes, “man is neither social nor
political anima but civil society is the artificial invention of state of war to prohibit state of instability.
Distinctive features of State of Nature:
 There exist no distinction of right and wrong in the state of nature.
 There is no distinction of just and unjust in the state of nature.
 There is no such thing as private property in the state of nature.
Criticism:
 It is neither fully utilitarian nor ideal.

 An anti-social body is not likely to enter a social contract.
 Even primitive age had some code of morality which Hobbes has ignored.
 How did the selfish interests suddenly change into sense of duty and responsibility?
Laws of Nature:
Laws of nature according to Hobbes are precept of general rules found by reason by which a man is
forbidden to do that is destructive of his life or the means of preserving the same. Laws of nature include:
equity, justice, gratitude, mercy, modesty etc. Some laws of nature are the following:
 Everyone should seek peace and preserve the same.
 Man must be contented with so much liberty against others as he would allow other men against
him.
 Another law of nature demands that he must transfer some of his rights by a covenant.
 Men perform their covenant made.
 The man to whom the rights are transferred causes no injury to the one who makes the transfer.
They are not laws as we perceive but everyone should desire their observance. Law of nature in
a nutshell is, the principle of not doing that to other which one does not like to be done to
him by others.
Hobbes Natural Rights:

 Liberty. Everyone has the right to use power for the preservation of his life.
 Natural rights are not moral rights but the capacity of holding thing and to be equated
with might.
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 Thus enforcement of laws of nature is due to utility rather than on moral consideration.
Similarly, rights in the state of nature did not impose corresponding duties.
Hobbes Social Contract

Hobbes presented a very dark picture of human nature and stae of nature. State of nature was
predominated by fear and chaos. There was “Might is right” phenomenon because of constant
competition for glory and dominations.
Reason to have Social Contract: According to Hobbes the state of nature might have continued
but two factors inherent in man, Reason and Fear of violent death led to make a contract: Reason
demands that there be peace and some rights must be transferred, covenants must be made and
honoured.
Need of Authority: Lust of glory and power may temp man to break his pledges of natural rules
unless there is a restraining authority, strong enough to make him keep his promises.
Desire to End state of nature: Therefore, to get rid of the state of nature and have peace, men
are driven to get over themselves a common sovereign authority that can restrain their anarchical
impulses, stop killing, plundering and fear. Therefore, they get together to enter into a covenant
uttering the following words:
“I authorize and give up my right of myself to this man or man or this assembly of men on
the condition that thau give up thy right to him or them and authorize all his/her actions in
like manner.”
Implications of this Contract:
 (Ruler or assembly of men was not part of this contract. The contract was among the
subjects rather than between subject and the ruler. Ruler was eyond the rule of contract
and is not responsible to the subjects for his actions.
 The contract is irrevocable. Once one entered into civil society, he cannot annul his
compliance to the contract.
 The contract is social and not governmental.
 Nature of Government: Government was absolute and therefore, government under this
contract was sovereign and absolute.
 Government and state: Both are identical in this contract. Disobedience of one is the
disobedience of other.
 State as a means to an end: State is considered as an artifice, a means to maintain peace,
order and preserve life. Therefore, state is not an end but a means to an end.
 Freedom and liberty of people: people‟s liberty and freedom were in the hands of the
sovereign ruler. They could not re-demand their liberty of state of nature.
 Concept of Sovereignty: It was the origin of the sovereign ruler. His orders are laws and
he is above the laws.
 Absolutism: Hobbes preferred monarchy to other forms of government. He wanted all
the legislative, executive and judicial powers in one hand in order to have effective
government.
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 Revolution: The contract avoids any right of revolution against the sovereign ruler.
Defects or Criticism of Hobbes’ Social Contract:
 Such social get-together is impossible in the state of nature that Hobbes has presented.
How did such brutal and quarreling people come to peace?
 Unilateral contract: A contract is always between the ruler and his subject with equal
rights and responsibilities, while Hobbes‟ ruler is not party to the contract.
 How did a selfish man surrender to an irrevocable and unconditional contract?
 His contract is the result of fear that cannot be the base of a state. Will, not fear, is the
true basis of state.
 No distinction is made between state and society and state and government.
Locke on Human Nature
 His ideas regarding man and human nature were expressed in “An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding”. After the Glorious Revolution, Locke takes a bright picture of man and human
nature.
 Desire and Sensation: According to Locke human actions spring from the desire of men which
are produced by their sensation.
 Pleasure and Pain: Desire to Locke is the feeling of uneasiness which is identified with pain.
Every human being wants to get rid of pain. Therefore, the object of all human actions is to
substitute pleasure for pain.
 Rationality: Reason is a dominant feature of human. Locke calls it “the spark of divine nature”.
Rationality inclines human towards society without the sanctions of government. Man was
basically social and capable of ruling themselves. They are superior to animals because their
evolution and development id due to their rational behaviour. Thus Locke‟s man in the state of
nature is social as well as rational.
 Human was Pre-political, not pre-social: Man is capable of recognizing moral order and knows
how to live in such order. Therefore, man in the state of nature was not pre-social but pre-
political. In state of nature man felt sympathy, love and tenderness towards his fellow beings.
Man is decent, orderly and lover of civil society. Men are capable of ruling themselves.
 Equality: According to Locke all humans in the state of nature were equal. There was natural
liberty of men to be free from any superior power or authority. Therefore, despite of their
physical or mental capabilities, human are equal.
 Utilitarianism: the main object for all human actions is to substitute pleasure for pain. There, a
thing is apt if it produces pleasure and it evil if it produces pain.
 Human Psychology: Haman nature has the qualities of love, sympathy and goodness which
tempted men to live together for the sustenance of their lives. Prior to the formation of a civil
society.
Locke on State of Nature

Peaceful and Cooperative: According to Locke the original state of nature was one of peace, good will,
mutual assistance and preservation. There was no jungle war of every man against every other man. Life
in the state of nature was not pre-social but pre-political.
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Government by Law of Nature: Men were together by a law of nature. Laws of nature were determined
by reason for the guidance of men in their natural condition. These laws were capable of being understood
by the rational men in the state of nature.
Natural Rights: Under the law of nature human being had natural rights in the state of nature. They
included the right to life, liberty and property. Law of nature taught men not to harm one another and their
property. Humans were rational enough to observe these natural laws.
Right to Private Property: According to Locke, property in the state of nature was common in the sense
that everyone could take subsistence from whatever nature offered. But when a man mixes his labour, it
becomes his private property. Private property is the fruits of one‟s labour. According to Locke the right
ot private is inherent in human nature as labour is inherent in his nature. Therefore, it is man‟s right to
anything with which he has mixed his labour.
Duties in state of Nature: Along right, certain duties were also imposed on humans in state of nature. It
demands man to do what he can to preserve others provided his preservation does not come in conflict or
competition. Man liberty was conditioned to preservation of others‟ liberty. Law of nature also demands
that man should keep his promises because Truth and Faith belong to man as man and not as member of
society. Therefore, the state of nature in which there are rights and obligations is moral and social in
character.
Defects in the state of nature:
 There wasn‟t any organization, such as magistracy, written laws and fixed penalties to give effect
to natural rights in the state of nature.
 These laws were self-imposed for the protection of one‟s life, property and liberty. Though men
in state of nature were equal but they were different in their intellect which interpreted these laws
in their own way which led to misunderstanding and shortcomings of the laws.
 There wasn‟t any established and known law. The laws of nature were differently interpreted as
per their interests and understanding. Therefore, clear-cut rules were needed.
 Lack of organization in the state of nature to settle their disputes. It lacked an indifferent judge.
Each person was a judge seeking his own interests and had little concern with justice for others.
There wasn‟t any fixed criterion for justice. Therefore, it was felt to have a fixed administration
of justice.
 There wasn‟t any executive power to enforce judgments. Each person was an executive authority
which brought insecurity and confusion in the state of nature
Therefore, due to these inconveniences in the state of nature, men moved towards a social contract in
order to establish an organization, fixed rules and justice which may govern all alike.
Locke’s Social Contract

Men wanted to get rid of the state of nature and enter into a civil society. This is a social and political
contract of all with all because it establishes a civil society. In the words of Locke:
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“Each individual contracts with each to unite into and constitute a community. The end for which
the agreement is made is the protection and preservation of property. In the broad sense of the word, that
is of life, liberty and estate, against the danger both from within and without the community”.
Preservation of life, liberty and Estate: The individuals by means of this contract form a body of
politic, giving up their personal right to interpret and administer the law of nature in return for a guarantee
that their natural rights to life, liberty and property would be preserved and protected.
Specific and Limited Contract: Men surrendered certain rights whereby men‟s remaining rights will be
preserved and protected. Thus it is not general as with Hobbes but specific and limited.
Continuation of the state of nature: Man continues to under that law as he was before. In Locke‟s
words, “Obligation of the law of nature ceases not in society”. Only the right of the interpretation and
administration of laws was surrendered.
Formation and Obligations of Government: People having formed a society must institute a
government which is the trustee of people, and it functions for them and is responsible to them. The
government has no equal rights to those of people, it has only obligations to those who created it and for
whom it acts as agent. The authority surrendered to it was conditional and trust of people. It is responsible
to secure the rights of life, liberty and property.
Right to revolution: In case the government fails to secure the rights, people have the right to revolt and
overthrow it because the contract keeps the supreme power with the people. “The supreme power remains
still in the people”.
Legislation and Executive: Locke believes in the representative assembly of men and gives supreme
power to it. Executive is subject to legislature but legislature is not all in all. There are certain limitations:
 Legislature cannot exercise power arbitrarily.

 Its power should be directed toward general welfare of society.
 It cannot deprive a man of his property without his consent.
 It cannot delegate its law-making power to other because is vested in it by the people. Only they
can do so.
Characteristics of the state under the social contract:
 The state exists for the people who established it, but they do not exist for it. It means state is not
an end but a means to an end.
 The state is founded on the consent of the people.
 It is a constitutional state in which men acknowledge the rule of law.
 The state is not absolute but limited because it derives its power from people and is responsible to
them.
Implications of the Social Contract:
 He painted the picture state comparatively realistic.

 He planted the concept of democracy.
 He ensured people‟s participation in politics.
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 Rooted out the divine theory of origin of state and of rights to kingship.
 Preached pro-revolution ideas.
 He supported constitutional monarchy.
Criticism
 He has drawn a very high and civilized picture of the state of nature which does not need
establishment of political or civil institutions.
Rousseau on Human Nature and State of Nature
Rousseau envisages Plato and Locke‟s concept of human nature. According to him, human is by nature
good.
Two Instincts: According to Rousseau, human nature consists of two original instincts:
 Self-regarding. It means self love, self-preservation and self-interest.
 Others-regarding. Its means sympathy, mutual assistance and gregariousness.
Role of Conscience and environment: Self-love and sympathy often come into clash but man being
good by nature tries to adjust both by his sentiment of conscience. Conscience is guided by the ability of
reason in man. Conscience teaches a man to do the right and refrain him from doing wrong. Therefore,
reason and conscience enable a man to establish harmony between self-regarding and others-regarding
instincts. As long as man follows his natural instincts, he is natural and a good one. Imbalance in the
natural instincts and affect of bad environment transforms human character from good to bad.
State of Nature:
Rousseau has discussed his concept of the state of nature in “The discourse on the Origin of Inequality”.
According to Rousseau, life in the state of nature was not that gloomy as of Hobbes‟ and not as optimistic
as of Locke‟s.
Neutral life: Rousseau natural man is neither happy nor unhappy in the state of nature.
Care-free life: He further describes that the life in the state of nature was solitary, happy and care-free.
He knew neither speech nor dress. Man feels free, equal, independent and self-sufficient.
Non-social: Man was non-social, was unknown to good evil, or fear.
Free of Moral Obligations: man had no moral determinate obligations or relations to one another in state
of nature.
Property and Family: He had neither family nor property. He just followed self-interest or sympathy.
State of Peace: It was a state of peace and not of war.
Pre-political: His man was pre-political and noble. His noble savage was in a state of paradise.
Social Evolution and Group Life: with the passage of time, the problems and needs increase and they
were getting together making groups. Relationships started to develop. They got taste of wealth and
started accumulating it. The new dynamics in life changed their behavior towards the natural life.
Personal Property as Source of Problems: with entrance into social life, the concept of private property
developed which Rousseau calls a “Serpent in the shape of property”. Property aroused the desire to have
family and settled abode in place of wandering life. Therefore, the institute of private property created a
sense of jealousy and struggle. This gave rise to inequality among men.
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Private Property as the Foundation of Civil Society: Rousseau says that the first man enclosing a piece
of land and saying it is mine and finding people to believe him was the real founder of civil society. The
concept of private property was the loss of natural equality and freedom of the state of nature.
Anarchy on Society: with the emergence of private property, the noble savage became subject to violence,
crime and all evils of society. That is why Rousseau said, “Give us back ignorance, innocence, and
poverty which alone can make us happy.”
Evolution towards social contract: The evils and inequalities caused by property holding led to anarchy
in society, they were in need of an authority to settle their disputes and end the inequality. It was the
beginning of going towards a social contract.
Rousseau’s Social Contract

His work on social contract, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality and the Social Contract give a detailed
account of his concept of social contract. These ideas also inspired the French Revolution of 1789.
 Life in the state of nature was peaceful and happy but two things put an end to this life:
 Growth in Population.
 Origin of private property (Thine and Mine).
 In order to get rid of the state of anarchy, Rousseau suggests two options: either to return to the
state of nature or institute a civil society. The former is impossible, therefore, the only option was
to form political obligation which would reconcile authority and liberty, remove inequality and
establish natural rights and restore the benefits of the state of nature.
 When man realized that his individual power cannot defend him, he entered into a social pact
collectively to defend and protect with whole common force, his own and others‟ good. In uniting
with all, he still obeys himself alone and remains as free as before.
 Contract: Individual surrendering his natural rights enter into association saying:
“Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the
General Will and in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the
whole”.
 Formation of Moral and collective body: Man merges his individuality into society.
 Man does not surrender to a sovereign ruler but each man gives to nobody in particular but to all.
 Man surrendered natural liberty and unlimited rights but gained civil liberty and property rights.
In Rousseau words, man enters into two relations:
 As member of the sovereign body where he is bound to other co-sovereign individuals.
 As member of the state he bound to the sovereign.
 General Will and Sovereignty: Each individual surrenders himself to the community. And the
community is under the general will, (will of community). General Will remains sovereign
because it was created by the consent of all those who entered into it. General will is absolute and
sovereign and disobeying it is actually disobeying oneself.
 The prince is not above the law but he is a member under the law.
 Man under General will individual becomes a citizen with moral character.
Criticism: (Appraisal)
 Rousseau was advocate of popular sovereignty.
 He was a preacher of direct democracy.
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 Differentiate between state and government: General will could not transform or perish while
government could change or perish.
 Authority of the government is finally based on the consent of the governed. Projected the notion
of, “will, not force is the basis of the state”.
Defects:
 Lack of historical proofs to his theory. It is impossible to believe that historically men in the state
of nature knowing nothing of political institutions should suddenly agree to set up a state.
Consent could not be the sole factor for the formation of state.
 He says that man lived a solitary life in state of nature wile researches show that clan or tribe but
not the individual was the social unit un primitive time.
 He calls man as noble savage but man has both brutish and selfishness as well. Hobbes went to
one extreme about human nature while Rousseau to the other.
 He says that men enjoyed natural rights in the state of nature but rights also impose corresponding
duties which are lacking in his state of nature. Rights can only be maintained under organized
community.
 He calls General will neither the will of all nor will of majority which is confusing because
normally, it is understood as the will of majority and not the will of all.
 Mixture of Democracy, Absolutism and Socialism. He presented the idea of direct democracy.
His philosophy is based on absolutism of General will but if conflict arises between state and
individual, he considers state as superior to man. This is in contradiction to his General will. He is
socialist because he believes in uniform and equal humans and nationalizes education.
The Patriarchal Theory
Introduction:
This theory is as old as Aristotle who described it in his book Politics as, “the family arises first;
when several families are united and the association aims at something more than the supply of daily
needs, and then comes into existence the village. When several villages are united in a single community
perfect and large enough to be nearly or quite self-sufficing, the state (polis, as Aristotle calls it) comes
into existence.
As per this theory, state is the enlargement of family and the family remain under the complete
authority of the father. In course of time, the original family split into many families but all these families
remained under the authority of the eldest living male among them. They formed a group of families
which is called a clan. Several clan having a common or supposed ancestor formed a tribe headed by a
chief. The tribe expanded into a commonwealth or state headed by a king. The family was transformed
into state and the father‟s authority into king‟s authority.
Leacock describes it as, “first the household, then as patriarchal family, then a tribe of persons of
kindred descent, and finally, a nation.”
Dr. Diamond writes that in primitive times the administrative and executive head of the family
was usually the strongest male. On his death, the strongest male member of the family would succeed,
normally, the eldest son or eldest brother.
Major exponent of this theory, Sir, Henry Maine studies the joint family system of Indian
Hindus in 19th century and elaborated the patriarchal theory in his books “The Early History of
Institution” and the “Ancient Laws”. He describes the same procedure that family under the authority of
strongest male. Families make clan or house houses make tribe and the tribes make commonwealth. “the
flocks and herds of children are the flocks and herds of the father”. The eldest male possessed absolute
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and despotic authority over them. He owned all they produced. The authority of father was known patria
potestas in ancient Romans and kana in Hindus. The eldest male could do anything he would wish to do.
He would approve their marriages, chastise their children, he could punish them and so on.
Criticism:
 It focuses on one factor in the evolution of state: the kinship or father.
 The authority of the father is natural and limited while the authority of the ruler is political and
broader.
 The authority of the parents decreases as they get older while there is no such fluctuation in the
authority of government.
 The basic unit of state in primitive times is considered tribe rather than the family. Edward Jenks
argues that the primitive society was tribal in structure.
The Evolutionary or Sociological Theory
Rejection of the Previous Theories:
Dr. Garner argues that the state is “neither the handiwork of God, nor the result of the physical
force, nor the reaction of a contract, nor a mere expansion of the family.” “origins are always obscure”
says Maclaver.
History and Sociology:
History, Anthropology, Archaeology and other social sciences may help in finding out the origin
of the state. History and Sociology provide grounds for the formulating the Evolutionary or Sociological
theory about the origin of the state.
Stages and Forces in the Development/Evolution of State:
The following forces worked jointly in various combinations to give rise to the state with distinct roles.
1) Kinship:
 State demands relation of command and obedience or discipline.
 In primitive times, kinship was the only source of maintaining the relationship of
command and obedience. It was based on blood relations and birth.
 The earliest relation is of mother and child that established the matriarchal society. With
the invention of agriculture and domestication of animals, matriarchal society was
replaced with patriarchal society. Tribes consisted of relation through male ancestors
developed. Patriarchal tribe was a rudimentary state. Membership of this state was
determined by birth and blood relationship.
 Obedience of father and then the chief of the tribe by kinship was the first element of
social unity, social authority and first basis of discipline.
 Council of elders led by the chief was the first political authority in primitive society.
2) Magic and Religion:
 With kinship religion and magic also operated as unifying forces. Primitive men would try to
control the forces of nature with magical rites and practices which was their religion.
 Men who knew magic and medicines became the forerunner of the tribal chiefs and kings.
 When religion refined, it became a stronger source of social bond which increased the
authority of father in family and chief in tribes by common religious beliefs and practices.
Thus religion has influences the development of state down to the current times. Recently,
Pakistan and, Israel and India were established on the name of religion.
3) Property and the Rise of Economic Classes:
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 Property and the need of regulating economic relation also played an important role in the
development of state.
 It transformed the patriarchal tribes into tribal states when the nomadic tribes adopted a
settled life and agricultural practices.
 Authority was needed to define property relations and settle disputes among the community
and defend the common wealth.
 The growth of property created economic classes based on the inequality of wealth.
Economically dominant class also became politically dominant and the vice versa.
Therefore, the rise of the state can be attributed to the growth of property relation and classes.
4) War and Force:
 War and force also played an important role in the development of state.
 In the beginning “might was right”. In patriarchal society, force would be used to capture
lands, animals and wealth of neighbours. This resulted in wars between tribes.
 Thus war and wealth went hand in hand in ancient tribes.
 War needed strength and unity. Therefore, war transformed the tribes into political allies.
 Constant war led to the rise of permanent leadership by choice or necessity. As the tribes
fought, the strongest among them subjugated the weaker and the tribal chief became the ruler
or the king. Thus the tribal state changed into territorial kingdom or state. “War begat the
king” says Gettie.
5) Political Consciousness:
 Another factor in the development of state is slow rise of the political consciousness that
means the thought or knowledge of certain ends and purposes to be attained through political
organization.
 In early states, these ends were defense of state, life and property and settling disputes among
members of community.
 It is a slow process that has begun in the early times and has continued down to the present
times. In current era, it is far deeper, wider and rational.
 According to Prof Gilchrist, the word “why” is the keynote of all progress. Progress began
when man began to question the purpose of laws, institutions and social order.
Therefore, slowly, the political consciousness got mature and gave rise to the modern democratic
state which still improving.
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Nation State System

Introduction:
The history of nation state system starts with the political consciousness of man. The term nation
refers to a common ethnic and cultural identity shared by single people while state is a political unit
defined in terms of territory, population, organized government, and sovereignty. Thus nation state is “A
pattern of political life in which people are separately organized into sovereign states and interact with
one another”.
Features of Nation State in International Laws:
 Legitimacy: the state will have to recognize the legitimacy of other states.
 Sovereignty: The state should be sovereign both externally and internally.
 Dutiful Citizens: the people of the state must observe their duties in terms of relation with other
nation states.
History of Nation State System:
 Prior to the 500s, nation-states did not exist in Europe.
 People used to identify themselves with their region or feudal lord.
 Feudalism was not only an economic system but also was a political system.
Crusade wars and decline of Feudalism
 After Crusades wars European soldiers returned home with tales of the wealthy Muslims.
 This led to the development of trade routes b/w East & West, later on towns and cities began to
develop along these routes.
 Over time, these towns started demanding independence from local lords.
Rise of the Modern Nation-State System
 During 16th and 17th centuries Holy Catholic Church was ruling the West.
 But, few kings wanted to have control over religious affairs to get absolute power.
 In England, Henry VIII broke away from the Pope and established an independent Protestant
church in the 1530s.
Thirty Years Sectarian War 1618-1648
 The war involved almost entire Europe, including Germany, Austria, Sweden, France, and
Spain.
 Protestants defeated Catholics.
 Treaty of Westphalia 1648 ended the war. Treaty of Westphalia stated;
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 “sovereign ruler of a state has power over nation and state, including religion.”
 Resultantly, England, France, Germany, and Spain shook pope and became nation states.
 Treaty of Westphalia was meant to settle conflicts, especially conflicts over religion.
 Pope regarded this treaty as „Sin‟.
 Over the course of time, NSS evolved, brought democracy, int. Law, diplomacy, and mutual trade
etc.
Principles of Westphalian Peace
 Sovereignty: The idea that every state has the right of self-rule over its people and territory.
Only sovereign states could enter into relations. The treaty concluded two key principles: internal
sovereignty: the pre-eminence of the rulers against the claims of other centres within the state.
The principle of external sovereignty: the associated principle of external sovereignty, in other
words, independence from centres outside the state. As a result, England, France and Spain came
into being as nation states without Church control.
 Legal Equality: All states are equal as sovereign member of the International community.
o (Nepal = USA)
 Non-intervention: no interference was permitted in the affairs of other state
The UN Charter
Chapter 1: Purposes and principles
 Article: 2 (1) The organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its
member states.
 Article: 2 (4) All members shall refrain in their relations from the threat or use of force against
the territorial integrity or political independence of any state …...
Outcomes of Treaty
 1- Religion; Treaty Favoured secularism and ensured religious freedom.
 Since the empire was catholic and protestant reformation had begun in 1517-1521 under Martin
Luther King Sr. with two objectives;
 Identifying papacy as anti-Christ. Discovering Jesus and salvation by faith.
 2- Nationalism
 In the absence of religion Nationalism became the new religion for Europe.
Significance of Nation State System
 Each state can decide the best for its people without external pressures.
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 Other states, no matter how powerful, do not have the right to intervene into other sovereign
countries.
 The principle of autonomy does not allow exploitation of the weaker state by powerful states.
Evolution of Modern Nation State System:
 Westphalia to Utrecht (1648-1713): During this era conflict among UK, France, Holland and
Spain raised colonial supremacy. France faced great loss due to coalition of UK and Austria on
the question of Spanish succession.
 Utrecht to Vienna (1713-1815): Conflict between France and Austria took place. Fredrick the
great of Persia enforced France, Austria and Russia to form alliance. UK made alliance with
Prussia. Due these alliances the seven year war of 1756-1763 took place. Under Napoleon France
became dominant but soon was defeated by the combined efforts of UK, Russia, Prussia, Austria
and Sweden. As a result, the Vienna meeting of 1815 restored balance of power in Europe.
 Vienna to Versailles (1815-1919): During this period various states emerged in the world. This
period is known as the Pan-Britannica because during this period Britain maintain greater balance
of Power in Europe. On in 1854-56, Russia threatened Britain autonomy in the region during
Crimean war and in 1870-71, Germany displace France and established her supremacy in the
continent during the Franco-Persian war. After 1913, the decline of Turkey Caliphate and Spanish
power gave rise to many nation states. China also emerged as power after defeating Japan.
 Versailles to Present: As result of hash principles of treaty of Versailles, Nazism in Germany,
Fascism in Italy and Communism in Russia emerged which disturbed the entire world by bringing
the WWII. Resultantly, many British colonies got independence and became nation state.
Rights and Duties of States:
 Sovereignty and independence of states

 Equality of states
 Territorial jurisdiction
 Right to self-defense and self-preservation
 Power exclusively to control its own domestic affairs
 Power to admit or expel aliens from the state
 Privileges and immunities of diplomatic agents in other states
 Exclusive jurisdiction over crimes committed within its territory.
Duties of State:
 Not to resort to war

 To fulfill treaty obligations in good faith
 To duty of non-intervention
 The duty not to perform acts of aggression on the territory of another state.
 Not to allow territory preparations that are prejudicial to the security of another state.
 Not to interfere in the affairs of another state
 To play role in settling international disputes peacefully
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 Protection of human rights and fundamental freedom without any discrimination.
 Not to allow its territory for any such activity that may endangers international peace and
stability.
Challenges faced by NSS in contemporary World
Today, it faces the challenges from;
 Drone strikes,
 Non-state-actors like ISIS, Boko Haram, TTP, Al-Qaeda.
 Globalization/interdependence WTO, IMF, World Bank, MNCs.
 Regional Integration (EU, ASEAN)
 Humanitarian intervention: in Libya, Syria.
Although, nation state system has existed since man acquired political consciousness but the modern state
system is the produce of 17th century. Before 17th century, nation states existed but under the control of
Roman Catholic Church headed by Pope and the nation states had no sovereign status.
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Branches of Government
THE LEGISLATURE
STRUCTURE, COMPOSITION OF LEGISLATURE.
Aristotle divided the government into three branches i.e.
i) Legislature
ii) Executive
iii) Judiciary
Introduction:
Even today this division is used in all over the world. Legislature may be defined as “a political institution
that consists of the people‟s representatives who enacts, omits and amend laws according to the needs and
desires of the common people”. It is one of the crucial organs of the government. We have two kinds of
Legislature currently adopted in the world i.e. i) Unicameral and ii) Bicameral legislature. The legislature
which is consists of ONE house is known as UNICAMERAL and the legislature which is consist of TWO
houses is to be known as BICAMERAL.
Unicameral legislature
 It consists of a single house or a single chamber.

 This type of legislature is often formed in the UNITARY form of states.
 Members of such legislatures are elected through general elections.
 Till the 18th century and even up to the very half of 19th century it was much popular and
still it does exist in various states like that of IRAN and TURKY.
 Most favorable chamber and best suited in multi-racial states.
 Merits of Uni-cameralism:
Simple organization:
 No complexity between the division of powers.

 Whole powers are belongs to only and only a single house.
 Its structure is very simple and under comprehension.
 Its simplicity increases its output and the quality of legislation.
 Less expensive and saves national purse.
Uni-cameralism is Democratic:
 There should be only one will and that will should be represented by the ONE house of that
state.
 Democracy argues that it should not speak in two voices.
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 Abbe Sieve says that “Law is the will of the people and the people should not have two
different will on the same subject.
 The legislative body which represents the people ought to be essentially ONE”.
 Benjamin Franklin compared a bicameral legislature to the Cart with a horse on two sides
both pulling in opposite direction.
 The existence of bicameral legislature is against the spirit of democracy.
 Democracy requires that the people should be sovereign and authority will vast to one
chamber.
Uni-cameralism prevents duplication and wastage:
 Laski opined that a single chamber legislature seems best to answer the needs of the modern
states.
 The system of the two chamber legislation duplicates the work of law making.
 It saves time, wastage of energy and money of the nation.
The defects of uni-cameralism are remediable or non-existent:
 It is said that a single chamber can become despotic and endeavors to control the authority of
the executives.
 But this tendency can be kept check by such methods as the suspensive Veto of the head of
the state OR by the second vote in the same chamber after some interval.
 Moreover, the one chamber can provide proper representation to all the sections, interests
and minorities of the society.
 Laws are not made the chamber as it passes the laws but these are drafted by the experts in
which there is little probability of ill-consideration and hasty legislation.
Uni-cameralism suits in Federal set up:
 According to some political scientists, one chamber is suited in Federal system.

 There is no use of the giving the representation in the second chamber in legislature.
 The fear of imbalance in interests of the units can be taken away by having the system of
JUDICIAL REVIEW upon the laws made by the chamber.
 The federal court will have the power of judicial review to check on those laws which are
passed by the chamber.
 If those laws were repugnant to the interests of the units, the court will consider it null and
void OR ultra vires.
Trend of uni-cameralism:
 Centralization trend in various states,

 Uni-cameralism is given special importance and the powers of the upper house has been
vastly reduced.
 For instance, in England has given extensive powers to the lower house and upper house is
just like a spectator in the national machinery.
 Iran has totally adopted the concept of uni-cameralism.
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Fixation of responsibilities:
 In unicameral system the responsibilities are fixed and focused on one house alone.
 Inequality brings reluctance to attend the sessions.
 For example, in England in 1911 and in 1949 the powers of the upper house reduced and
only little peers take part in session.
 USA have powerful upper chamber, the senate, that is why people wants to be the members
of that house.
DEMERITS OF UNI-CAMERALISM.
Although there are various advantages of the Uni-cameralism but yet there are a lot of its disadvantages.
Unilateral decisions:
 The quality is sometime poor.

 Unilateral actions and decisions.
 No check over their decisions.
 Reduces pressure of work.
Despotic attitude:
 Leads to Dictatorship of a single house.

 Executive prestige is confined.
 Powers are in the hands of one house.
 Less individual liberty.
 Less independence of executive department.
 Crossing their limited powers.
 No revision of bills.
Against federal set-up:
 Absence of upper house brings inequality between federal in units.

 Brings clashes of interests between different units‟ representation.
 Lack in resources distribution.
 Federal does not suit single chamber.
No highly educated candidates:
 Absence of highly educated and skilled people in the house.

 Everyone can contest election for the house.
 People can become members of the house through illegal means.
Rush of work:
 Extensive rush of work.

 Less important bills are also presented in the house.
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Against federal structure:
 Cannot work for more populated provinces.

 It does not ensure parity to provinces.
 Absence of parity in Uni-cameralism.
BICAMERALISM:
Merits of bicameralism: the house which is consists of two chamber is known is bicameralism.
Following are the merits of bicameralism.
An end to despotism:
 Checking of the policies made and passed by the lower house.

 Upper house put the lower house on the right track.
 It prevents the house from dictatorship.
 Ensure freedom of executive.
It prevents hasty legislation:
 Both the house members are different in approach and thinking towards policies.
 Another house gives extensive deliberation to the policies and bills prepared by the lower
house.
 Often popular lower house is radical and the upper house is conservative.
 Bill is not viewed from a same standpoint.
 Consideration of upper house brings less likelihood to the ill-consideration bill become law.
Provision of proper representation to the nation:
 Bicameralism make possible to resolve the conflicting issues between national and
minorities.
 They represent special interests such as rich and educational institution and industry.
Review of legislation:
 Upper house members are educated and well experienced.

 Bills passed by the lower house are reviewed by these experienced people.
 Improve quality of laws.
Reduction of rush of hour:
 Modern governments have vast functions to perform so the less important bills are
presented by upper house to reduce the rush of work.
 Reduction of pressure of working.
 Brings rapid working.
Necessary in federal structure:
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 Units are equally represented by upper house.
 It provides parity to the provinces.
 Single house cannot perform this function.
Demerits of bicameralism:
Bicameralism divides responsibilities:
 It is like a cart having two opposite direction of horses and both of them pull that cart
towards each other.
 Different opinions are there.
 Upper house is against the spirit of democracy.
Second chamber is superfluous:
 If both houses are equal, than deadlocks are inevitable.

 If not equal than what is the use of upper house?
 Frenchman Abbes Sieyes says “Of what use will a second chamber be? If it agrees with
representative house, it will be superfluous and if it disagrees than it is mischievous”.
An ideal chamber is impossible:
 In every country second chamber is criticized.

 Satisfactory chamber is one which revises hasty legislation but does not obstruct
progressive legislation.
 Upper house should be like bulwark to revolutions but does not barrier to all against
reforms.
Defects of second chamber:
 It is often reactionary but it is sometime vested interests.

 It is conservative.
 It seeks to protect minority interests at the expense of national interests.
 It often delays passing of good laws.
Function and duties of legislature:

In the present modern and complex world, the function of the different branches of government has
expanded much. Different states‟ legislature have different functions. There are various functions that are
performed by the legislature. In some countries it is just like that of a consultative assembly like that of
Iran and Afghanistan and Russia. In parliamentary system the legislature has immense functions. The
following the functions pinned down by the legislature.
Legislation:
 To formulate new laws, amend and repeal old laws.

 Presentation of bills and passes through legislative procedure.
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 Laws plays role in general routine are made by this house.
 Law making with deliberation.
 While formulating new laws, the behavior of the people have to kept in mind.
Financial functions:
 National purse is controlled by the legislature.

 Powers of granting money to government.
 Approval for tax collection.
 Supervises revenue and expenditure.
 Discussing and reviewing national budget.
Administrative functions:
 It controls executives especially in cabinet /parliamentary form.

 Cabinet is responsible to it.
 Cabinet members are taken from legislature. And they participate in discussion and cabinet
members answer their questions.
 Parliament can passes motion of censure against cabinet members.
 Checks on the cabinet policies and works.
Amendment of the constitution:
 Even states with written constitution can amend the constitution and unwritten too.
 Like that of Pakistan and America passes by 2/3 majority while UK one is on simple majority.
Selective functions:
 In USA, if the presidential election is not clear and do not have a clear cut majority, than it is
congress who select the president and vice president.
 Pakistani legislature plays important role in electing presidential candidate.
A source of two way process:
 Bridge between people and the government.

 Ventilate the grievances of the common people.
 Discussion on problems of the people.
 Policies transmission of government to the people.
A source of political training:
 Floor of legislature provides skill, experience and trained leadership.

 Aware of the whole above mentioned points.
 Know-how of national politics.
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EXECUTIVE:
Introduction:
There are two views regarding this part
 Broader view: In this sense, it consists of all those personnel in administration of a

country which includes president, prime minister, secretaries and police/patwari.
 Narrow view: In this view, it consists of president, prime minister, secretaries.
 In UK it is Queen, PM and his cabinet.
 In USA it is president and his nominated secretaries.
 In Pakistan it is PM, his ministers and provincial government ministers.
Difference between executive and administration:
Executive Administration
Executive is formulating policies While administration enforces them.
It is politically elected While administration are non-political servants
It is for a period of some five years While this is for longer than political one
It is elected through votes While they are selected on the basis of special
rules of civil services
They are representative of the people While they are servants of the people
They are responsible to the legislature While they are answerable to their head of
department
Executive are politicians While they have to work with any of the parties
in rule.
Importance of executive:
 Government is an agency for maintaining law and order situation progress and happiness of the
people.
 Executive is more than other two branches.
 Essence of government is in executive.
 Legislature and executive are just for institutionalizing it.
 French king Louis xiv said “I am the state” which shows the very importance of executive.
 States are becoming more welfare and therefore the functions of executive becomes more
important.
Powers and functions of executive:
 Powers and functions of executive is not the same in various states.

 They are greater in cabinet then in presidential one.
 Greater in totalitarian states then liberal one.
 Greater in modern welfare state than old laissez faire one.
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Internal administration:
 Essential functions are to maintain laws and order situation.

 To direct and supervise the execution of laws.
 These functions are done by the home minister in interior department. (Police, prison and courts
are under its jurisdiction).
 Recruitment of administration is done through civil services rules.
Military functions:
 Defending state from foreign aggression.

 Preservation of internal situation from revolt and aggression.
 These functions are performed by the department of defense.
 Conducting war against other states.
 Controlling and directing the three armed forces i.e. army, naval and air force.
 Preparing defense and offense.
 All kinds of military installations i.e. base, cantonments and defense research.
 Declaration of war, peace, state of emergency and imposition of martial law.
Diplomatic functions:
 Conducting by foreign or external department headed by the foreign minister or secretary of state
for foreign affairs.
 Appointment of diplomats by this department and receiving other state diplomats.
 This department conduct negotiations, agreements and treaties.
 In USA negotiations, treaties and agreements are subject to the ratification of congress.
Legislative functions:
 Executive participates in the legislative functions but depending on the nature and form of states.
 Share of executive in legislature is greater in cabinet system.
 Ministers sit in legislature and present bill in it.
 It can summon, adjourn and even prorogue the legislature.
 It can conduct new general election.
Financial functions:
 Government collects and expends money performed by the financial department headed by the
minister of finance.
 Preparation of budget and then submit it to the legislature and approve it from there.
 Also audits the expenses and revenue of all other departments of government.
Judicial powers:
 Chief executive has the power of pardoning and clemency.

 Issuance of general proclamation of amnesty and setting free of prisoners.
Administrative justice:
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 Modern time administrators and ministers also act like judges within their limit.
 They hear cases and settle cases but within the premises prescribed for them.
Other functions:
 Regulation of trade, commerce, industry and agriculture.

 Education, health and transport also under its jurisdiction too.
Types of executives:
Before modern democracy, the executive was in the hands of monarch. Currently there are
various types of executive.
1. Nominal and real executive:

 In parliamentary system the president or king is the chief executive.
 In law or in constitution he poses great powers but in real sense he is bare hand.
 These powers are exercised by the PM and his cabinet which are the real executive.
2. Single and plural executive:
 A single executive is that which have all the powers in his hands like that of USA.
 He is helped by his secretaries and not his colleagues because all of them are nominee of
president and he is not bound to accept their advice.
 On the other hand the plural is the one which is consist of more than two person sharing
the same powers and they are not responsible for their actions regarding their own
department like that of SWISS federal council consists of seven members.
 Two kings of Sparta in ancient Greece.
 Two consults in ancient Room.
 Directory of French during French revolution in 1795-99.
3. Hereditary, elective and nominated executives:
I. Hereditary is related to monarchical system.
 Its term of office is long.
 Law of primogeniture.
 Oldest way of choosing monarch.
 Presently these types of system have changed its shape to constitutional monarchy like
that of JAPAN and UK.
II. Elective representatives:
 In modern world chief executives are elected in three ways i.e. i) direct election by popular
vote. ii) in-direct election by the electoralcollege. iii) election by legislature through
constitute of their own electoral college.
III. Nominated executive:
 Choosing the executive through nomination made the higher authority.
 Like that of colonialism and imperialism and in the subcontinent before partition of India,
the governor general has to appoint an executive.
4. Parliamentary and presidential executives:
Here the executive is also nominative and the real head is PM and his cabinet while the
presidential executive is powerful and real executive is president.
5. Dictatorship:
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It is same is with that of hereditary monarchy or absolute one who control everything alone and
there is no concept of power sharing.
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JUDICIARY:
Introduction:
 It is third organ of the government.

 Wide structure and composed of highly qualified judges.
 Where there is independence of judiciary, their democracy flourishes.
 Provision of justice to all without any distribution.
Importance of judiciary:
 It performs crucial functions.

 Protection of liberties and rights.
 It punishes criminals and those who breach the law.
 Protection of weak and innocent citizens from the suppression and oppression and usurpation by
others.
Function of judiciary: It perform the most important functions of the states which are as follows.
Settlement of disputes:
 Applying of existence laws to cases

 Settling of conflicted matters.
 First to find facts and then discover laws and then applies them over cases.
Interpretation of laws:
 Laws made by the legislature is to be checked by this and interpreted by the judiciary to know the
validity of law.
 Applying of laws according to the principles of equality and justice.
 In some cases judges may not find a suitable law and they decide the case keeping in view the
common sense which becomes a precedent.
Preventive justice:
 It also preventing the violation of rights and threatened infraction of the laws.
 Issuance of writ and restraining order and injunctions.
 Failure of obeying courts writ or injunctions become contempt of court.
Judicial review:
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 In federal state judiciary has the power to reject or declare acts of federal and province null and
void or ultra vires.
 This function is performed by the supreme-court.
Advisory opinion:
 Advisory opinion is requested by the executive regarding on the question of law.
Non-judicial functions:
 Certain miscellaneous functions of non-judicial nature.

 For executive, judges may be empowered to grant license.
 Acts as receiver in bankruptcy cases or guardians of minor administrators of estates.
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CLASSIFICATION OF GOVERNMENT OR STATES:

Federal system/ federation:
Federation is a system in which the state is divided in to political units like provinces, states and
republic but technically such units are called Federating units. In federation there are two types of
government i.e. federal government and government of the federating units. Powers are
constitutionally divided between the two. According to Hamilton “A federation is an association
of states forming a new one.” Although there are two level of governments but yet the sovereign
is the constitutional amending body and that is FEDERAL.
Nature of federation:
 Multi-racial states are in need of it.

 Prevent the racial conflicts.
 Provincial autonomy is guaranteed.
 Few affairs are managed by the center.
 While other functions related to units are handled by the provinces.
 Here no one is supreme.
Difference between Federation and Unitary, Federation and Confederation:
 Unitary is totally opposite to that of Federation.

 In unitary form there is superiority in center while Federation has no supreme center.
 Unitary have no units while federation have units.
 Unitary have no provincial governments while Federation have provincial governments.
 Federation is different than Confederation.
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 Confederation has strong states and weak center while Federation hasprovinces and center is
stronger than provinces.
 Confederation is a kind of welded states and a sort of alliance while federation is the
combination of units.
 In Confederation the foreign functions are mostly dependent upon the consultation of states
while in Federation the center determine it wholly and no intervention is done by the units.
Origin of federation:
 Generally federation is the outcome of two activities i.e. the INTEGRATION and
DECENTRALIZATION.
 In case of the integration, generally two or more than two states come together and form a
federation due to the fear of foreign aggression.
 Need of common defense and common economic progress like that of USA and Australia are the
outcome of INTEGRATION.
 In case of decentralization, an already existing state is divided into federating units and are
autonomous. That may be because of racial conflicts, language diversificationand economical
controversies etc. examples are Pakistan and India.
Essential conditions/ pre-requisites of FEDERATION: following are the essential circumstances.
Geographical proximity:
 Fundamental condition is geographical contiguity.

 The units must not be apart from federation.
 It produces easy in the promotion of integration and solidarity.
 Geographically apart states cannot form federation as that of British Common Wealth nations
could not make Federation because they were geographically + East and West Pakistan too could
not form federation. The reason was geographical detachment.
Willingness for union:
 It is outcome of small adjacent states who feel fear of foreign aggression.

 Wishes for unity to another stronger enough state.
 Example is the fifteen American states out of thirteen colonies felt themselves weak against
British and France.
Local autonomy:
 The unity is federation is not enough but they have the desire of autonomy.
 After the formation of federation, maximum powers are vested to the hands of federation.
 And a few important functions are left to the center like defense, communication and finance.
Common economical interests:
 Sometimes common economic interests leads to the formation of federation.

 Ceaseless endeavor to form federation.
 Federation of Pakistan, Iran, Turkey and some of the CARs states.
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Racial controversies:
 An existing unitary states, the racial clashes lead to federation.

 A unitary state ever remains instable because of the racial conflicts.
 In Pakistan one unit system was made but the situation became deteriorated and that turned the
unitary structure to federal one.
To form a single nation:
 Such states which same culture, language and traditions then there are greater chances of forming
a single federation.
 For example the UAE. Due to the same culture, traditions and race.
Equality among the units:
 Equal treatment is necessary among the units in a federation.

 Smooth running for federation.
 Equal status must be given for the smooth on-going of federation.
 The crucial point in USA federation is that she has given equality to everyone.
Maintaining balance:
 For the maintenance and survival of federation, it is must to balance them.

 Neither excessive autonomy nor much emphasis on unity.
 Excessive desire of unity leads to unitary and excessive emphasis on autonomy lead to
confederation.
S For the survival and sound maintenance of federation, the following are the essentials of federation.
Supremacy of the constitution:
 As a federation is an agreement and this agreement is present in the form of a

constitution.
 The constitution divided powers between the center and provinces.
 Allocation of sphere of powers between the two.
 No interference and overlapping.
 The division of powers is done only through the amendment of the constitution.
 The rigid and written constitution is need for it. As it prevents the doubts of distribution
of powers between them.
 The constitution must be rigid that it may not be amended easily.
 In this regard the American constitution is the best example here.
 Sovereignty must be with the amending authority of the constitution.
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Division of powers:
 In this system the constitution has divided the powers between them and this is different
from state to state.
 Various principles are adopted for this purpose.
 The first one is the BASIC PRINCIPLE, in which all the national importance powers are
belongs to the central government. While affairs of the regional importance are allocated
to the provinces.
 Powers of defense, currency, citizenship, banking and others important functions are
assigned to the center while the rest are belongs to the units.
 Thesecond one is CONCURRENT POWERS, are those powers which are always used
by both the center and the units. In case of the contradiction between the two upon the
same power, it is central legislation which is acceptable than that of units.
 The third one is RESIDUARY POWERS, are those powers which are undefined and
they are vested in the hands of central legislation or provincial legislatures. Commonly,
the powers of the central government are defined and the residuary powers are given to
the provinces.
Strong judiciary:
 In federal system, controversies may arise between them and those controversies are removed and
settled by the judiciary.
 The important duty of judiciary is to prevent both of them from interfering in each other
functions.
 In USA the judiciary has been much empowered to review the legislation and if it is against the
constitution or against the units and federal, than it is judiciary to decide it.
Bicameral legislature:
 Central legislation must be bi cameral.

 Lower house representation should be given on population basis.
 Upper house representation should be given on the basis of equality.
Shortcoming of federation:
There are some weaknesses which have been enlisted by the political analysts in the federation. The
nature of these shortcomings varies from state to state.
No satisfactory distribution of powers:
 It‟s a complicated issue of distribution of powers between the two.

 Excessive autonomy leads to disintegration.
 Like that of EX-USSR.
 On the other hand the center has given amending power upon which the center is little dominated
over the provinces.
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 The purpose of federation is killed when the center is little powerful then the units.
Issue of dominance:
 In federation the difference in area and population of the federating units produces confusion and
complications.
 Larger units dominate the smaller one.
 The system then remains instable.
 For example in Pakistan the Punjab has dominated the rest of the provinces.
Lack of organized relations:
 Organizational relations of both the center and provinces should be kept in a balance manner
that may not collapse each other.
 Defense, currency, foreign and communication should be given to center and the rest should be
given to the provinces otherwise the system will not function well.
 Provincial government need to be supervised not dominated.
Absence of satisfactory amendment procedure:
 The constitution of the federal system is supreme over the federal and provincial.
 It assures the autonomy of the federating units.
 Therefore amendment procedure should be adjusted in such a way that it cannot be unilaterally
amended.
 The upper house has no same power of amendment in the amendment to that of lower house
which ultimately results the disturbance.
 There is no power of participation in amendment procedure by the provincial governments.
Merits and demerits of federation:
Merits/advantages:
 A source of unity.
 Solution for racialism.
 Multiplying international peace.
 End of despotism in government.
 Development of internationalism.
 Political development.
 Economic development.
Demerits/disadvantages:
 Double system.  Expensive system.

 No uniform laws and policies.  Source of national disintegration.
 No perfect distribution of powers.  Complex system.
 Rigidity of the constitution.
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UNITARY FORM OF GOVERNMENT:

Introduction:
Unitary form of government is that one in which powers are centralized. A single center
is controlling the whole state. Although the state is divided in to units, cantonments and
departments but these divisions are not autonomous and powers are delegated to provinces by the
central government. The units are just like agents. This system suits well where there is no strong
nationalities and multi racialism.
Feature of Unitary form of government:
Centralization of powers:
 All powers are centralized.

 Absence of provincial government.
 Constitution empowered the center to legislate, execute and adjudicate.
 No share of governmental authority.
 Administrate the state affairs with confidence.
 No pressure from another body.
 Exercise of powers absolutely and without any criticism.
Single and simple government:
 It is so simple and obvious.

 There are neither provincial assemblies and executives nor the upper chamber at the center except
Britain.
 There is unicameral legislature at the center.
 Expenses are less.
Uniformity of laws:
 Laws are uniform due to the centralization of government for the whole state.
 Already made laws are enforced equally.
 According to the principles of justice and human beings.
No distribution of powers:
 No division of powers.
 No list of such divisions.
 All powers are in the hands of center.
Flexible constitution:
 Flexible in nature.
 Flexibility is there for the rapid changing in constitution with the changing of times and
orientation.
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 Its flexibility keeps it molded.
Local government institutions:
 Powers are in the grip of Urban bureaucracy and this is often limited to urban only. And has no
access to far remote control areas.
 For this purpose they constitute local government system and delegate powers to run the rest of
the state administration.
 Local government system in this system is strong enough.
 Financial support is given to the local government bodies.
 Through elected local representatives.
Responsibility:
 This system is more responsible than that of the federation.

 Central legislature is responsible for legislation, executive is for execution and judiciary is for
adjudicating them.
Miscellaneous:
 Political parties survive for the national importance.

 Unitary system is adopted in those states where there is no multi-racial conflicts.
 It suits to the smaller states.
Merits and demerits of unitary setup:
MERITS OR ADVANTAGES:
Strong and powerful:
 This system bears strength than the federal one.

 Center control the whole state affairs.
 Saves the country from breakages and maintain its integrity.
Simple and obvious:
 Foreign policy, internal policy and national defense are handled easily.
 It saves time while dealing with the national and internal issues.
Uniformity of laws:
 Center formulates laws for the whole of state with uniformity.

 Administration activities and functions are uniform.
 Absence of tension because there is no distribution of powers.
Less expensive:
 Absence of double government at provincial level.

 There is no large number of legislators.
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 Absence of upper house and provincial assemblies.
 This system is not t=burden on the national purse.
Flexibility:
 It is the attributes of unitary that it keeps the constitution flexible.

 It can be amended with the changing circumstances.
 Its natural evolution is preserved.
 It remains stable and successful.
 Like that of Iran and Britain.
Demerits or disadvantages:
Ineffective inn vast and multi-racial states:
 Modern experiments have proved that unitary system is ineffective in vast and multiracial states.
 Those cannot be ruled effectively and smoothly.
 These are instable states.
 There are racial conflicts.
Urban dominated:
 Central government have no knowledge of the problems of rural.

 Remote areas can be only dealt with federation.
 Centralization of authority in itself a problem.
 It sometimes causes totalitarianism and less influence and control in rural areas.
Despotism:
 Due to centralized command, there are no sub-ordinate commands to check the center‟s activity.
 Thus, center frequently becomes despotic in nature.
 Sometimes they use power extra-constitutionally.
Less democratic:
 As it only empowers the urban bureaucracy and ignore the rural needs.
 This system is useful in small states only.
 Like that of UK and IRAN.
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Cabinet/parliamentary or Ministerial form of government:

Introduction:
 Cabinet or parliamentary form of government is one in which the legislature and

executive are closely related and dependent upon each other. Government is formed by
the parliament and parliament is superior organ.
 There are two types of executive i.e. TITULAR executive and REAL executive.
 Titular executive is the nominal head of state and elected president while the real head of
government is Prime Minister.
 Such a system is responsible and democratic one for the reason that parliamentarians are
elected and government is responsible before the legislature.
 A parliamentary system is the combination of four parts i.e. president or king, prime
minister, council of minister/cabinet and parliament.
Pre-requisites or essentials conditions of parliamentary system:

Party system:
 Parties are instrument through which the game of parliamentarianism is played.

 In this system, it is must for prime minister to have support of the majority party.
 Without securing majority party support, it is almost impossible to be a PM.
 In a non-party house it is totally difficult to have majority support.
 For the reasons that in non-party house, everyone have their own territorial interests and there is
absence of common ideas, program or charter.
 Majority party in elections can select easily their PM.
 In this system legislation is done quit easily and with simple majority.
 For this purpose, two parties system is suitable and it would be stable as that of UK.
Sound political culture:
 As this system is represented by the representatives who are elected for a period and they
represent the concern communities.
 These politicians must some national and international outlook.
 They must have experience, education and patriotic.
 To have a sound culture we need to have creative cultured electorates who elects the
representatives.
 Cultural values must be rational and not sentimental and its focal point must be national interests.
 The stability of parliamentarianism must be achieved through installation of political culture.
Political consciousness:
 Every system is dependent upon the people.

 Parliamentary form of government has closely dependence over its citizens.
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 Its sustainability requires positive democratic values, culture, tolerance, acceptance and
respecting others.
 Eagle eyes are needed to critically evaluate the arena of politics.
 Political dormant society cannot go ahead and its survival is mainly dependent upon the
activeness and consciousness of individuals.
 If these people are politically aware of their due rights then there is less chances of betrayal and
they will not be deceived by the seasonal, professional and opportunist politicians.
 This area must be filled and the political consciousness must be brought by increasing literacy
rate and that should be according to the national needs.
Independence of media and press:
 Media and press are the backbones of democracy.

 Relationship of the ruler and ruled are dependent upon the role of media.
 It ventilates the grievances of the people to government and the policies of government are
exposed to the people.
 Government, bureaucracy, cabinet and other members of the government are inform from the
reactions of the people and the common people are kept aware of the government policies.
 Furthermore, a sound political culture, political awareness and political education is impressively
provided by the media.
 So, freedom of media and press is necessary to give the real face of happenings in the country.
Spirit of team work:
 In this system the legislature and executive are to work according to the principles of
parliamentary system.
 They are to share their works and they are responsible to each other in their sphere of work.
 In parliamentary system, the ministers are to swim together in a same boat. They can swim or
sink together.
Constitutionalism:
 Constitution in an agreement between the rulers and ruled.

 Every government can be run according to the basic principles of law.
 In parliamentary system there are frequently floor-crossing, lotacracy, bargaining and horse
trading in the developing countries.
 Extra constitutional means are adopted to stabilize the system but that further aggravated the
situation.
Miscellaneous:
 It is seen in this system that political parties are to facilitate the members through unfair means
which can destabilize the country‟s situation.
 Political bribery, favoritism, victimization and corruption are the major points in this system.
 It pollutes the political culture and democratic values.
Features of parliamentary system:
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 Formation of cabinet  Coordination of powers.
 Team work.  Political responsibility.
 Supremacy of prime minister.  Term of government.
Advantages and disadvantages of parliamentary system:
Merits/ advantages:
Balance between legislative and executive:
 In this system the ministers are simultaneously the members of cabinet and legislature.
 Therefore, there is a close relationship between the organs.
 Ministers present a bill in the legislature and they are responsible for them.
 This system is truly democratic as they are taken from the legislature.
 There is coordination of powers.
Responsible system:
 Legislature is the people‟s elected body and they are responsible to them.
 Both the legislature and executive are responsible to the people.
 Any disturbance can be checked easily.
Flexible system:
 In the time of tension, ministers may be changed peacefully and constitutionally and even the
legislature may be dissolved during the national crises.
 There is no rigid fixation of the term of government.
 Therefore, it can be molded according to the changing circumstances.
Able executives:
 All the ministers are taken from the legislature and they are crucial and able one.
 PM selects the able and skillful persons in his cabinet.
 Portfolios are allotted to the ministers keeping on view certain factors.
 It is the need of the hour that ministers are to be able to face collective responsibility.
Educative system:
 The kith and kinship between the legislature and executive and the members possess great
qualities like leadership, power of speech and knowledge.
 The responsibilities of ministers keep them alert to face the problem any time.
 Therefore education is give preference while selecting the ministers,
More representative and democratic:
 Compare to presidential system, presidential is more responsible and democratic one.

 Executive in this system simultaneously responsible to the press, voters and legislature.
 If executive becomes dictator, legislature is to remove the government.
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Demerits OR disadvantages:
Sudden change in the cabinet:
 The term of cabinet is fixed and that can be removed any time.
 As long as it enjoys the support of majority in the parliament.
 In case of weak majority, the system goes downward and from bad to worse.
Party government:
 It produces party government and people are divided in to various groups of parties.
 Mainly the system is composed of party or groups.
 Ruling party tries to do the things and opposition tries to obstruct them.
Actual legislative powers with executives:
 In this system the parliament is just like a like stamp.

 A machinery to endorse the bills drafted by the executives.
 More than 80% bills are drafted by the executive and the legislature has to pass it.
 In case if any bill is rejected by the legislature, than it means there is no confidence on
cabinet and the bills are actually prepared by the highly intellectual Bureaucracy who are
the real law makers.
In-effective during the foreign aggression:
 It has been observed that in time of foreign aggression, this system remains in-capable.
 This is the reason why national government is formed during external aggression.
 In England during the 1st and 2nd WWs the national governments were formed.
In-effective in multiparty system:
 Except in a few states, the multi-party system ever remained instable in parliamentary
setup.
 Generally coalition of government is formed and that is nothing but a mixture of political
parties and absence of unity.
 Their charters and thoughts are different on a view.
 Consequently differences arise and the system fails badly.
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Presidential form of government

Introduction:
In this form of government, the head of executive is president. There is separation of powers i.e.
legislature and executive are different and their powers are separated. President is directly elected by
the people and he selects his ministers but not from the legislature. In USA the president elected
and due to the system of spoil he selects his ministers where he wants to pick them up. In USA
the legislature is know is CONGRESS. The organization is;
President: there is no difference between titular and nominal head of executives but the only
real head of state and government is the president. He is not responsible and have rigid fix
tenure except of impeachment. He is the boss of ministers and he is not bound to act on their
consult.
The council of ministers: they are responsible to president and he selects them out of
legislature. This system has no responsibility to the legislature. They are for helping the
president. They are only responsible to president and president to people.
Legislature: Legislature makes and formulates laws are not responsible to the president. President
indirectly impresses the legislature through the sending of messages, political bargaining, direct contact
and through his party
Feature/ attributes of the presidential system:
Separation of powers:
 There is clear-cut difference between the two organs of government i.e. executive and legislature.
 There is no ministerial involvement in the legislative functions.
 Bills are presented by the legislatures.
 There is no direct influence over each other.
Election method:
 Presidential election is done through direct or indirect.

 People elect the electoral-college and then they elect the president.
 In USA the president is elected indirectly while in Pakistan in Ayub khan era, the basic democrats
has to elect the president.
Term of office:
 In this system the term of office is fixed and the president cannot be removed from his office until
he commits a serious crime.
 The only serious way to check him that the people do not elect in the next elections.
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Council of ministers:
 Here the president is the soul form of executive and the real executive head.
 He nominates ministers in his discretion power but no from the parliament.
 They are not responsible to parliament but to president only
Check and balance:
 Despite the separation of powers, both the organs can interfere in each other function through a
check and balance system.
 President can veto the legislation.
 Foreign agreements and treaties are subject to the ratification of congress and congress has the
power to reject it.
Supremacy of the president:
 In this system, president is more superior.

 He is the boss his ministers.
 He is direct choice of the people.
 He is supreme because he is the real head of the state and government.
Pre-requisites or essential condition for presidential system
Effective leadership:
 Success of a system is greatly dependent upon the leadership.

 The president is the sole authority over executive and it depends upon him to carry it out well.
 A qualitative leadership leads a system from bottom to peak.
 He is allowed to select his assistants all around the state that he may not excuse while running the
state administration.
Strong electoral system:
 In this system the president is elected through electoral-college.

 This college is strong enough in the field of education, skill and experience.
 This is the reason here is strong electoral system.
 Election is impartial and transparent.
Genius of the people:
 Every system is framed according to the mind and psychology of the people.
 UK people are tradition loving people therefore their system reflects customs and tradition.
 In USA the people love presidential set up.
 Pakistani people also favor parliamentary system.
Political awareness:
 Awareness is must in the common people that they might know their system well.
 Political parties play a decent role in this arena.
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 Through political parties, media, press, educational set up and socialization play an immense role
in bring the awareness in the people.
 President is also responsible to the people in commencing in election only.
 A strong check through president‟s powers by the people.
Political parties’ role:
 Political parties are the soul of every system.

 In presidential system its importance is multiplied.
 Due to separation of powers, parties play an important role.
 Elections are frequently happens.
 In USA the original is silent about the political parties but currently there are parties and this is
due it is the need of the hour.
 Creative political culture, democratic values, literacy rate and socialization.
Merits of presidential system:
Stable government:
 The president term is rigid and fixed and cannot be removed except in special cases.
 President policies have long life not like that of parliamentary system.
No dictatorship:
 Due to the theory of separation of powers, there is no chance of becoming dictator by either
house.
 Neither executive nor legislature can directly influence each other.
 In USA there is the system of checks and balance.
Able executive:
 President appoints the able ministers for himself to consult him in every affair.
 They are selected through their ability.
 They are responsible to the president for their acts.
Responsibility:
 President is alone responsible to all the people for his government policies, but in reality he is not
responsible to anyone.
 The only check on him by the people is that he cannot be reelected in the next election.
No severe party spirit:
 Bills are presented by the private members and not by the government.
 Therefore, bills are thoroughly discussed in the parliament without any party restrictions.
 Neither government tries to pass the bill, nor opposition try to obstruct the bills.
 The resultant legislation ever remains strong.
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Disadvantages of the presidential system
Separation of powers:
 There is no coordination in the organs of government.

 There is no interference in the legislation which is a defect in this system.
 Interference is necessary sometimes with the changing of conditions.
 This is inconvenient when president is from one party and in legislature there is another party in
majority.
 Keeping in view this point, the USA has introduced interference in the form of checks and
balance system.
 Separation in the form of rigid leads to despotism.
Rigid government:
 In this system the term of office is fixed and cannot be removed from office except some
conditions but those are rare in occurrence.
 Changes in the government are necessary sometimes which is a difficult task in presidential
system.
 Legislature cannot move a no-confidence movement on the executive.
 So, flexibility is necessary sometimes to bring changes accordingly.
Absence of responsibility:
 President is not responsible to the legislature.

 His acts are not according to the people as there is no responsibility except in the reelecting him.
 He can use those powers according to his interests rather than common people.
No effective council:
 He has the power to select his ministers according to his own sweet will.
 Those may be ineffective ministers.
 Due to that the system becomes ineffective.
Weak administrative policy:
 The governmental policies are just the outcome of one person, president.
 He formulates policies according to his well.
 It remains weak than parliamentary system.
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Democracy
Introduction
Democracy can be defined as the form of government with supreme power placed in the hands of the
people. It can be conceived as a political system, an ethical or social condition. We can describe a state,
institution, a society or an idea as democratic.
Background:
The word democracy is derived from two Greek words, “Demos” that means “the people” and
“Kartos” that means “the rule”. Therefore, literally the word democracy means the rule of the people. As
a form of government it means the rule of many or rule of majority.
Modern democracy is a product of three historical developments: English parliamentary system,

the French Revolution of 1789 with its slogans, “sovereignty of the people” and “liberty, equality and
fraternity”, and the Industrial Revolution that began in England in 18th century and spread to the entire
Europe till 20th century. The modern Indirect democracy came into practice in 19th century and spread to
almost the entire world in 20th century.
Types of Democracy on the Basis of Practice:
 Full Democracy: Which possesses all democratic institutions, values, practices etc, like, UK,
USA and Sweden etc.
 Semi-Democracy: Blend of democratic and autocratic institutions and ways of government like,
India, Thailand.
 Pseudo-Democracy: Artificial democracy where only the name of democracy us used but in
reality the practices are dictatorial or totalitarian like, Ayub reign in Pakistan.
Kinds of Democracy: There are two major kinds of democracy:
1. Direct or Pure Democracy: The type of democracy in which people of a country directly and
physically participate and express their will on public matters in a mass assembly rather than
through representatives. It can only be practice in state with limited population and area. Some
elements of direct democracy can be found in cantons of Switzerland like, Appenzel, Uri and
Glarus etc.
2. Indirect or Representative Democracy: the type of democracy in which the will of the people
in formulation of laws or policies is expressed through their elected representatives. It is the
modern form of democracy that is practice in majority of the modern states. People delegate their
authority to their elected representatives for policy making and governing the country.
Aspects of Democracy
Democracy is practiced from three perspectives:
1. Political Aspect: in this sense, democracy means the sovereignty of the people and the enjoyment
of political rights and liberties by every adult citizen. It means that every adult citizen of the state
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has the political right to vote, stand for election, hold public office and have the right of freedom
of association, freedom of opinion etc.
2. Economic Aspect: From economic perspective, democracy establishes a classless society by
providing economic rights to all citizens alike. Democracy ensures the right to work, right to have
private property for all citizens irrespective of race, colour or ethnicity.
3. Social Aspect: It is based on social justice and equality of the citizens. This aspect of democracy
ensures social and legal equality of people like equality before law, equality between genders and
other groups.
Pillars/Tenants/Principles of Democracy:
 Citizens‟ Participation.  Check and Balance over the Abuse of

 Equality. Power.
 Political Tolerance.  Separation of Power.
 Accountability.  Security of Basic Human Rights.
 Transparency.  Multi-party system.
 Regular, Free and Fair election.  Neutrality of the state‟s institutions.
 Economic Freedom.  Rule of law.
Conditions for the Success of Democracy:
For maintaining democracy in a society, the citizens must have the following qualities and
abilities:
 Enlightened Citizenship  Education

 Character and Ability/Political  Organization and Leadership.
Socialization  Enjoyment of Fundamental Rights.
 Vigilance/Alert  Common Goals
 Tolerance and Responsibility
Defects of Democracy or Attacks on Democracy
 Impracticability: Democracy is often criticized for being impracticable. It is believed that in

theory people are the sovereign but in practice landlords, mill owners, big merchants, and clever
politicians are the sovereign. Oswald Spangler says that, “government by the people is a sheer
impossibility”. Similarly, Laski also bewails the unfitness of the masses for self-government or
democracy.
 It is the Rule of Ignorance: Plato criticized democracy for being the rule of ignorant masses.
Lecky also holds the opinion that, democracy is the “government of the poorest, the most
ignorant, the most incapable, who are necessarily the most numerous”. Lincoln says,
“Democracy is the government off the cattle by the cattle and for the cattle”.
 Democracy is based on False Principles: Iqbal holds that one man one vote results in that the
vote of wise and intelligent man has no more value than of ignorant man. He argues that we do
not weigh heads but we count them. As he says in a verse,
“Jamhoriat aik tarz-e-hukomat hay k jis may Bando ko gina karty hay tola nahi karty.”
Similarly, no skills and training is demanded from the representatives for ruling the country.
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 Democracy is Capitalist and Imperialist: The socialists criticize democracy for favouring the
capitalist class. The democratic states are often dominated by landlord, businessmen,
industrialists, and financiers.
 It is not Stable form of Governmnet: according to Henry Maine, “popular government lacks
stability. it is often overturned by mobs and military because it is based on universal suffrage that
is the natural basis of tyranny.
 Democracy is Weak in Times of War and Crisis: Democratic process of policy making and
implantation is slow and procedural that does not suit in time of war and crisis.
Causes Failure of Democracy:
In his book “Representative Government” Mill has laid down certain causes of the failure of democracy:
 Democracy cannot function where the people are too unruly.

 Secondly, when people are too passive
 Thirdly, where sectional, and parochial interests are stronger than national interests
 Where selfish interests are preponderant/predominant.
 Where the controlling body is ignorant and incapable.
 Where the desire to govern is stronger than the desire for personal liberty.
Apart from the abovementioned causes, there are certain other causes of failure of democracy.
 Absence of Awareness/illiteracy.
 Spread of fundamentalism
 Political hatred.
 Inherited politics.
 Disintegrated politics.
 Weak political institutions and socio-economic conditions.
 Dominant Status of Army in politics. (Modernized army vs weak political system).
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DICTATORSHIP/ TOTALITARIANISM
INTRODUCTION:
Today, democracy is challenged by a new form of government i.e. Dictatorship.Dictatorship is a system

where all powers are belong to single person who controls everything with his discretion and often
supported by a political party or a clique. This form of government was known to the Greeks and Romans
as tyranny. The difference at the time was that Greeks captured the power by force and the Romans
dictators were the outcome of consult of the senate. The former was held by force and the later by
consent. Modern dictatorship is established through coup d’etat and may be a life-long or until overthrow
by others. Lord Bryce writes “that there was a growing disposition of to trust one man, or few people led
by one rather than elected representatives.
Modern dictatorship can be classified in to three distinct types:
 First, The Communist Dictatorship arose during the WWI in RUSSIA in 1917 by the Lenin.
 Second, The Nationalist Dictatorship arose in 1921 in Turkey by the Kamal Ataturk.
 Third, The Fascist Dictatorship arouse in Italy by Benito Mussolini.
Salient features of Dictatorship:
Product of crises:
 Due to constitutional, political, social or economic crises, it emerges.

 Inability of the democratic institutions.
 The lack of abilities in political leadership.
 Examples are Marcos in Philippines in 1987, Newin in Burma in 1988 etc.
Arbitrary exercise of powers:
 All powers are belong to one man only, dictator.

 Monopoly over power.
 He may share power little with other elites but just to remain him in office for long time.
Aggressive and dynamic methods of decision making:
 Policies and decisions are very aggressive.

 These are dynamically implemented.
 This is the reason why the dictatorship is more successful than democracy but for few years.
Employment of despotic methods of political and social control:
 He uses force, intimidation, terror and propaganda to make the people obey him.
 Political parties are banned, newspapers are suppressed.
 Civil and fundamental liberties are done away with.
Abolition of constitutional and legal basis of political power:
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 By its nature the dictatorship means that illegal unconstitutional establishment of power and
force.
 The first thing a dictator does, is abolishing the constitutional basis of power.
 The abolition of constitution is the successful way of lasting the rule because under this system
there cannot be made a successful attempt easily to install a new system until a bloody coup or
revolution in the country.
Merits and demerits of dictatorship
Merits:
Political stability:
 This system is in the reaction of political instability.

 It provides temporary stability and people welcome it.
 Here ruler is the originator of all power.
 They can coup quickly with the crises or national issues.
Appointment of intelligent persons:
 If a dictator is faithful, he may appoint skillful and experienced personnel for running the smooth
administration.
 He needs no parliament, no committee and no opponents to compromise.
Economic development:
 For getting people support, a dictator may introduce various reforms and present a developmental
plan.
 Ayub‟s military regime introduces such plans and that led the country to high GDP growth in the
1960s decade.
 Political stability and economic growth is interdependent, if both are good,, the stability will last
long. If one of them remains imbalance, the system fails then.
Military development:
 Military is given special attention here.

 Lag amount is given to military to make it efficient.
 Hitler raised his military and made it much powerful that led to WWII.
Demerits
Violence:
 All sorts of freedom and liberty are snatched by the dictator.

 Political parties, press and media are banned.
 All sorts of opponents are banned.
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State is an End and individual is a mean:
 It forces the individuals to obey what state asks from them.

 Dictatorship controls everything and asks the obedience.
 State is dominated by the individual.
 Individuals live for the glory of the state.
No political stability in-fact:
 Although it control political crises but in actual sense it bans on parties.

 There is no political stability in this system as they serve their personal likes and dislikes.
 Political bribery, inequalities and favoritism and some other evils leads them to instability.
No peaceful transfer of power:
 Political powers are not transfer peacefully.

 They frame the constitution like body according to their sweet likes.
 So transfer of power is possible only through violent means.
 The crises are more dangerous created by the dictator than those of previous.
Politics of personalities:
 In this system the politics is revolving around the personalities.

 But these personalities are mortal and institutions are immortal.
 Therefore. Politics of seasonal politicians and opportunists personalities are dangerous.
Absolutism:
 Here the powers of the three organs of government are belong to a single person.
 He is unrestrained to use them.
 He is not answerable before the people or anyone else.
 His consultants give him wrong decisions which make him more absolute.
Fascist dictators lead to wars aggression:
 Though the nationalist and communist dictators pose peace and tranquility, but the fascist
dictators lead to war and aggression with foreign countries.
 They are revenge-seeking, power-seeking and dominating themselves.
 It is born with a sword in his hands and prepare feverishly for war and aggression.
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Political Ideologies
Capitalism
Introduction:
Although, the manners of capitalism have existed in medieval ages in Europe but the term came
into spotlight after 1848 after the publication of Karl Marx‟s book “The Communist Manifesto”.
Capitalism is a form of economic organization where the means of production are privately owned.
Capitalism generally flourish where private property rights and the rule of law are enforced.
Since the 15th century, economies organizing themselves on capitalist lines have experienced greater
economic dynamism: increasing productivity, increasing employment and generating more rapid
advancements in economic wealth, living standard and improved health facilitation.
Forms of Capitalism:
 Free market-led capitalism: such as practiced in US.

 Corporatist or State-led Capitalism: where the government exerts significant guidance,
leadership, and influence over the development of private capital, e.g. France or Japan in 1980‟s.
 Managed Capitalism: In which worker groups and broad social welfare issues exert significant
influence on private corporate behaviour, e.g. Swedan, Germany.
Features of Capitalism:
 Commodity production and exchange: In its simplest form, a commodity is a good or service
that is produced in order to be exchanged. The real function of producing goods is gaining by
exchanging the commodities.
 Market: The mechanism through which the commodities are exchanged. A forum in which
buyers and sellers compete for advantage. Historically, markets were subject to social and ethical
constraints with limited freedom of buying and selling but with the ascendance of capitalism,
markets are no more constrained by social limitation. Markets are ubiquitous and unfettered.
Capitalism permeates all social relationships on the basis of material gains and may turn close
neighbors into economic rivals.
 Property as Private Investment: In capitalism every aspect of human life and natural world are
reduced to assets or private property through the production and market exchange of
commodities. Capitalism focuses on private ownership of resources. In modern capitalism,
private ownership may be in the form of entrepreneurs who own a business, shareholder or
investors who own a corporation.
 Wage Labour: In capitalism, means of production are owned by limited industrialists
(bourgeoisies) and a major part of population doesn‟t own assets that earn profit (the proletariat).
Therefore, they sell their time, energy and skills to others in order to make a living. Selling one‟s
ability to work in exchanges for a payback is known as wage labour.
 Surplus Value and Exploitation of Labour: In the capitalist economy the workers produce all
the wealth and yet remain poor, while the capitalist‟s wealth grows. Using the labour theory of
value, borrowed from the British classical economists, Marx explained that the workers generate
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value by turning raw materials into finished products, but only receive a fraction of this value
back in the form of wages; the rest, what Marx called „surplus value‟, goes to the capitalist as
profit.
Right to property;
 All the citizens are allowed to have their personal property and right of having it.
 These rights are protected by the state and these are inviolable rights.
 Personal property motivates individuals to work with interest.
 Zeal and zest for more property increase the quality and quantity of production.
Privatization:
 In this system, all the means of production are in the hands of common people..com
 Capitalists establish industries, business and agricultural land etc.
 Government only formulates such policies and regulations which make this struggle peaceful.
 To avoid the controversies and clashes between the capitalists.
 State interference minimizes.
 State allows the people to adopt new methods to bring quality in the production but within the
legal framework.
Co-ordination structure:
 Coordination under capitalist economies has a market mechanism in which market forces of
demand and supply are allowed to work in order to determine price and output in economy.
 The forces of supply and demand push prices upward and downward in response to the decision
of individual buyers and sellers.
 This mechanism is commonly referred to as Adam Smith‟s invisible hand.
 Within this economic system, there is no state intervention to ensure that economic activities are
carried out properly and that economic goals are fulfill.
Decision making structure:
 Absence of centralized decision making authority.

 Market prices direct the actions of decentralized decision makers.
 The various private parties that possess property rights to produce and resources decided
by/among themselves what to produce, how to produce and for whom to produce.
Ideology of Modern Society: In capitalist society the ruling class is the bourgeoisie, who control the
finance, the factories and the machines upon which modern industrial production is based, and therefore
have the power to exploit the industrial workers (the proletariat). The classical laissez-faire liberalism of
the early nineteenth century, with its principles of free markets, individual liberty, equality of opportunity
and limited parliamentary democracy, is the ideology of capitalism. But freedom, equality and democracy
are all seen as a sham so long as the ruling class owns the means by which the masses earn their living.
Therefore, capitalism as a political ideology is predominated by materializing all aspects of social
and political life. All institutions, policies and social relations operate through economic lens where
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society is divided into economic classes (bourgeoisies and proletariat) where the bourgeoisie class
competes by increasing production by exploiting the proletariat class in order to surpass each other.
Performance under capitalism:
In looking at the performance under capitalism, we evaluate the economy under the following
performance criteria;
Economic efficiency:
 Being efficient is being able to accomplish a task with minimum expenditure on as many levels as
possible.
 This performance criterion looks at how well the economy is able to allocate its resources best
maximize its production on goods and services while taking the welfare of individual into
consideration.
 A capitalist economy is efficient as it yields high level of GDP, innovation is encouraged and one
is allowed to exercise freedom of choice.
Economic stability:
 Unemployment rate, inflation rate and real economic growth are some of the economic indicators
used to determine economic stability within the economy.
 Economic stability in a capitalist market is unstable due to the fluctuation in inflation,
unemployment as well as real economic growth.
Income distribution:
 Capitalism renders unequal distribution of income in the economy.

 Income is distributed according to the skill and qualifications on individual possesses.
 High income will be received by those who possesses skill and not by unskilled.
Economic growth:
 Economic growth can be measured by the real increase in GDP.

 Productivity is the key component i.e. producing more at less operational cost.
 Economic growth is said to be slow in the capitalist economy.
 However, where there isfluctuation in business cycle this may cause economic growth to be
unstable suggesting that the economy maybe in or going through a recession.
Criticism:
 Social inequality.  Social alienation.
 Unfair distribution of wealth.  Economic dictatorship by rich.
 Unfair use of power.  Unemployment.
 Repression of workers.  Economic instability.
 Suppression of trade unionists.  Unplanned economy.
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Communism
Introduction:
Communism is an economic order in which property and the means of production are held in
common in classless society. Elements of socialism can be traced back to the times of Greeks and even
before. Plato in his book “The Republic” has given certain elements of communism. Thomas More in his
book “The Utopia) in 15th century has also attempted to establish a perfect society. But the concept of
modern communism is basically attributed to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Their book “The
Communist Manifesto (1848)”, explains the concept in detail. According to them:
Division in Society: modern capitalism divides society into two hostile camps, the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat. The former owns all means of production and the latter sells their skills and time in order to
live. This division is dynamic process that passes through the establishment of cultures and civilization
and evolution of society.
Feudalism to Capitalism and then to Communism: Marx focuses on the transition from Feudalism to
capitalism. But to Marx, capitalism is not the end of development. Marx believed that the transformation
of the capitalist stage into one further and final stage, communism, could be predicted. It would
necessarily be the final stage since it would resolve all conflicts and contradictions yet synthesise the best
in all previous societies.
Surplus Value and Exploitation of Labour: In the capitalist economy the workers produce all the
wealth and yet remain poor, while the capitalist‟s wealth grows. Using the labour theory of value,
borrowed from the British classical economists, Marx explained that the workers generate value by
turning raw materials into finished products, but only receive a fraction of this value back in the form of
wages; the rest, what Marx called „surplus value‟, goes to the capitalist as profit. The capitalist, therefore,
exploits the workers, and the more he can exploit them the more successful he will be. According to
Marx, the capitalist himself adds nothing to the process of value-creation, and so the capitalist class as
such is entirely parasitic.
Competition for Greater Production causes Greater Exploitation: At the same time the capitalist,
unlike the feudal lord, has to compete. He must constantly strive to better his rivals by producing more
goods at lower cost, by exploiting his workers more and more, to extract ever greater quantities of surplus
value. This fierce competition inevitably produces winners and losers: the stronger capitalists flourish
while the weaker ones go out of business. Thus, the capitalist class grows smaller and richer, while the
proletariat grows larger and more wretched.
Destruction of Bourgeoisie: Capitalism is characterized by successive boom and slum. Marx believed
that each successive boom would develop faster and higher, and each successive slump would be deeper
and more catastrophic than the last. Eventually the slump would be so great that the impoverished
working class would be forced by sheer necessity to overthrow capitalism and establish a workers‟ state.
Revolution: The working class has the opportunity to achieve what Marx called „class consciousness”. In
short, the working class will come to realise (assisted by intellectuals like Marx and Engels who defect to
the proletarian cause) that communism is the true outlook of the working class, and the only hope for the
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future of humanity. Thus, when the revolution does come, the workers will understand their historical
task, which is not only to seize control of the means of production and the instruments of the state, but to
go on to build a communist society. Marx believed that the communist revolution would only come when
capitalism had reached the full peak of its development. But wherever it began, it would be a worldwide
revolution.
Global Class Consciousness: Marx thought that nationalism was an aspect of bourgeois ideology,
whereas proletarian class-consciousness was truly international: that is, workers had more in common
with fellow workers in other countries than with their own bourgeoisie. When the communist revolution
began in one country, therefore, it would quickly spread to others and eventually the whole world, so that
the whole of humanity would be emancipated together.
Transition Period after Revolution: The communist revolution would be immediately followed by the
establishment of the communist society. There would have to be a transitional period, which Marx called
the „dictatorship of the proletariat‟ in which the proletariat will be in control. They will have two tasks:
one to preserve and extend the resolution and second to prepare the stage for the establishment of a
classless, stateless communist society.
True Emancipation is in Communism: However, Marx completely rejected the idea that political or
natural rights were the means to human emancipation, as for example the French Revolutionaries seemed
to think (arguing that if the „inalienable rights of man‟ could be proclaimed and enforced, then humanity
would be free). This kind of freedom to enjoy life, liberty and property was, Marx thought, little more
than the right of individuals to exploit other individuals. It merely sanctified their isolation and the
competition of capitalist society. Genuine emancipation of humanity can only come about through
communism, when private property and with it capitalism, exploitation, alienation and their consequences
are all overcome and abolished. Only then will humanity be restored to its fullness, the human psyche
made whole, and the individual‟s relationship with nature and with fellow human beings be what they
ought to be in accordance with essential human nature.
Strict Party Discipline: Communist parties were founded to advance the practical and effective cause of
the proletariat and achieve communism through political action based upon strict party discipline.
Features of Communist Society:

Communist society was not some utopian blueprint that people must aspire to but the actual society that
they would build as they thought best. However, some general features can be given.
 No Private Property: It will be a world without class divisions and without private property.
 Classless Society: Communism will end all the economic classes from society. Communist
society will be a classless society.
 No Exploitation: No one will be exploited for profit. There will be no more poverty or wealth.
 Stateless Society: It will be a world without the state, at least as we have known it, since Marx
sees the state as an instrument of class oppression, so that in a classless society the state will, in
Engels‟ phrase, „wither away‟.
 No Other Ideology: There will be no other ideology, no more distorted perception: people will
see the world as it really is.
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 Abundance of Production: It will also be a world of abundance. Capitalism has taught humanity
the secrets of production, and once production is designed to meet human needs and not the need
for profit there will be more than enough for all.
 Consequently, society can be organised on the principle of „from each according to his ability, to
each according to his need‟. In other words, everyone will contribute to society according to their
talents and capacities, and all will take whatever they need from the common stock. In this
society every individual will be able to develop all their talents – physical, intellectual and
creative – to the full.
Defects in Communist Rule:
Despite of the aforementioned features of communism, there are certain defects which have surfaced
in the communists regimes like USSR and China. Some them are the following:
 One party rule.
 Corrupt and inefficient bureaucracy.
 Brutal and repressive secret police organization.
 Forced labour camps.
 Strict censorship and thought control.
 The systematic murder of political opponents and entire groups of people considered
dangerous to the state.
 Although, Communist regimes succeeded in establishing huge armies but have failed to
provide for basic needs of their people. Beginning in 1987, major communist regimes, led by
Russia openly admitted the failure of communism and have been looking to capitalism and
pluralist systems for restructuring their government, economies and societies. For example,
Gurbachev introduced two economic policies: Glasnost and Perestroika in order to give
access to his people for free marketing which resulted in disintegration of various eastern
European states from communism.
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SOCIALISM
Introduction:
 Socialism is rule by the working class.

 They have the power to decide how it will work.
 Socialism is a political ideology which advocates for an egalitarian redistribution of wealth and
power in the society through the redistribution of the means of production in the society.
 It is making more of an effort to balance the scale between the rich and the poor.
 The main theme of socialism is a visualization of human beings united by their common
humanity.
Objectives of socialism:
 Property, disease and ignorance shall be eliminated.

 Property and privilege in any form shall be strictly limited.
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 All citizens shall have equal rights.
 Ethical and spiritual values shall contribute to the enrichment of the individual and communal
life.
Features of socialism:Following are the features.
Public ownership:
 It is characterized by the public ownership of the property.

 All the means of production are in the hands of the working class.
 Production and distribution are in the hands of labor class.
 Collective ownership in mines, farms, factories, financial institutions and distribution agencies
are totally controlled by the working class.
 A small private sector also exists in the form of small business units which are carried on in local
villages in local sector for local consumption.
Central planning;
 Everything is regulated by the central authority and supervision.

 It lays down the objectives and policies and to be accomplished within the planned period.
 Central economic planning means that the making of major economic decisions and quality of
goods to be produced.
 How, when and where to be produced are determined by the central authority.
 Using of income in a deliberate way to achieve the defined planning and objective for the
sustainability of the futuristic economy.
Definite objectives:
 A socialist system works within the definite socio-economic objectives.

 These objectives may concern aggregate demand, full employment, satisfaction of communal
demands, allocation of factors of production and distribution national income.
 To achieve these objectives, the gallant targets and priorities are fixed to achieve these aims.
Equality of income distribution;
 In a socialist economy, there is a great equality of economic distribution.

 The unearned income in the form of rent, interests and profit go to the state which is utilizing by
the state by providing free education, public health facilities and social securities to the people.
 As far as the wages and salaries are concerned, modern communist do not rigidly consider it
equal. The occupation and skills implies wages and salaries differentials.
Planning and the pricing process:
 The pricing process under socialism does not work freely but under the central authority.
 Prices are fixed in the central authority.
 The market prices are also administered by the authority.
 There is also accountings prices on the basis which the managers decide about the production of
consumer good and investment goods and also about the choice of producing the production.
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Types of socialism:
 Democratic socialism: It promotes socialism as an economic principles ( the means of

production should be under the control of working people and democracy as a government
principle through ballot box. Accepting basic liberal democratic principles like consent,
constitutionalism and party competition.
 Revolutionary socialism: This type of ideology refers to the revolution in the center and the
complete overthrow of central government vie revolution and placing the socialist society.
 Utopian socialism: later philosophers and scholars who created the hypothetical vision of
egalitarian and communalist societies without actually concerning themselves with the manner in
which these societies could be created or sustained. They precluded all political actions and tried
to attain their ends by peaceful means.
 Libertarian socialism: This type of ideology aims at creating a society without political,
economic and or social hierarchy in which every person would have free and equal access to
tools of information and production.
 Market socialism: This type of ideology elucidates an economic system in which there is a
market economy directed and guided by socialist planners where prices would be set through
trail and error, making adjustment as shortage and surpluses occurs, instead of relying upon a
free price mechanism.
 Eco-socialism: This type of ideology amalgamated aspects of Marxism, socialism, green
politics, ecology and anti-globalization movement. They promote the non-violent dismantling of
capitalism and places with the common ownership of the means of production.
 Scientific socialism: It undertakes a scientific investigation of historical and social development
which in the form of Marxism, proposes not that socialism „should‟ replace capitalism, but
forecasts that it inevitably „would‟ replace capitalism.
Criticism on Socialism:
 The national economy develops relatively slow.

 There is an inability to obtain the upmost profit from the use of resources, labors and land.
 Places that have a geographical advantage lose chances to develop better and people who
have intelligence and wealth lose chances to make their business become bigger and more
powerful.
 People lose initiative to work and enthusiasm to study as doing more is not rewarded.
Critiques says, it lacks of incentive in state institutions to act on information as efficiently in
capitalist firms because they lack hard budget constraints, resulting in reduced overall
economic welfare for society.
 Critiques says, socialist system based on economic planning are unfeasible because they
lack the information to perform economic calculations in the first place, due to a lack of
price signals and a free-price system, which they argue are required for rational economic
calculation.
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Fascism
Introduction:
Background: The word Fascism is of Italian origin that means a Band or Group. It was a
political movement that resulted from WWI. During WWI, Italy joined Anglo-French Alliance in order to
get colonies of Africa, Albania and Asia in case of victory. But after the war Italy was not granted any
colony in the Paris Peace Conference which enraged Italy.
Causes of Fascism:
 The war has resulted in economic, social and political crisis in Italy.
 Apart from that communism was rising in Russia after victory which furthered the worries in
Italy.
 Corruption was weakening political institutions in Italy.
 Workers and unions were striking against economic crisis.
Therefore, in such situations, the people of Italy needed a messiah to safeguard the society of anarchy and
protect their rights and defend the country against communism.
Mussolini’s Capturing Power:

 Mussolini and his fascist party, The Direct Action, captured political power in Italy.
 He organized the armed bands (fascio di combattimento) to smash political opponents.
Communists and striking workers.
 Finnally Mussolini captured power in Rome in 1922. In January 1922, he destroyed the
parliamentary system and established the Fascist state in Italy.
 In 1929, king became nominal and all the powers were given to the DUCE (Leader).
 Fascists were greatly inspired by the ancient Roman Empire.
Structure and Policy of Fascist State

 Mussolini abolished parliamentary system and assumed all powers.
 All opponent political parties were dissolved or sentenced.
 One party state was established with National Fascist Party.
 Members to the fascist party are admitted after strict test of loyalty and fascist character.
 Mussolini established a new corporative parliament federations to control social, economic and
political activities.
 All individual‟s rights and liberties were crushed by repression, terrorist reign of killing,
kidnapping, and beating of opponents.
 Censorship was imposed on media and official propaganda was spread. Duce would direct all
media means.
Principles of Fascism:
Mussolini hated all abstract thinking and theorizing, “My programme is action, not talk”, he once
said. He also says, “We want to come out of the clouds of discussion and theory”. There are certain
obvious principles of fascism:
 A philosophy of Action and Violence: Fascism came by force and maintained its position by
force.
 Fascism repudiates democracy, liberty, equality and majority rule.
 Government of the elite and by the elite.
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Dr. Lawrence Britt has given fourteen principles of fascism:
1) Powerful and continuing nationalism.
2) Disdain for the recognition of human rights.
3) Identification of enemies/scapegoats as a unifying force.
4) Supremacy of military.
5) Rampant sexism.
6) Controlled and strictly censored mass media.
7) Obsession with national security.
8) Religion and government are intertwined.
9) Corporate power is protected.
10) Labour power is suppressed.
11) Disdain for intellectuals and art.
12) Obsession with crime and punishment.
13) Rampant cronyism and corruption.
14) Fraudulent elections.
“War is to man, what maternity is to woman”, Said Mussolini.
Mussolini was overthrown in 1944.
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Nazism
Nazism refers to the political principles of the National Socialist German Workers Party founded in
1930‟s by the Adolf Hitler.
Background:
Result of WWI: WWI brought communism in Russia, Nazism in Germany and Fascism in Italy.
Germany‟s defeat in WWI smashed her desire of getting colonies in case of victory.
Humiliating Terms of Treaty of Versailles (1919): Apart from that, the humiliating treaty of Versailles
was imposed upon Germany. Under thus treaty:
 Germany had to pay heavy war reparations to the victorious allies,
 surrender Ruhr and Saar territories to France, and
 Germany was forbidden to build a strong army of its own.
Establishment of Parliamentary system and Crises: Parliamentary system was established in Germany
which badly failed due to economic and political crisis in the country. The Great Economic Depression of
1929-31 was the last blow to Weimar Parliamentary System because it was a complete economic
collapse. As result of such crises:
 Inflation and unemployment rose.
 Gold fled from Germany.
 Workers‟ strikes and political instability prevailed.
 Allies extorted huge war reparations.
 The influence of communism increased.
Therefore, in such situation, the landlords and industrialists would welcome anyone to save the country
and their interests too.
Adolf Hitler and His Doctrines:
 He organized the Nazi Party and captured political power in 1933.
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 He introduced the Nazi doctrines: a political movement. He practiced militarism, racialism and
nationalism. White races were considered superior while the coloured were considered inferior.
Hitlor said, “If men wish to live, they are forced to kill others.” Similarly, he said, “the
meaning of life is to kill because survival is for the fittest”.
 He introduced one party system by establishing his, National Social Party in 1933.
 State was idealized and idolized. State was regarded as superhuman entity, state worship and
hero-worship was preached. “Individual is nothing, Das volk (folk) is everything, said Hitler.
According to his ideology, state is an end and the individual was a means to this end.
 All institutions are regulated by the state. Every truth is what the state says.
 Fuhrer Principle: Fuhrer was the leader like the Duce in fascism who was supposed to be
worshipped. The actions of Fuhrer were beyond criticism, he was infallible. He was always right.
Obedience to the Fuhrer was a sacred duty.
 Nazi Slogan: the major idea was “One Fuhrer one Reich, one Volk which mean, (one leader, one
state, one folk). Similarly, Duty, Discipline, Sacrifice was another slogan. “Hail Hitler” phrase
was supposed to be recited 50 times a day by every citizen.
 Imperialism: Lebensraum Nordic (Living space) and “Trade follows the tank”, slogans were
preached.
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Islam as an Ideology:
Introduction:
Islam is a complete code of life without division or segregation. It gives us a vast and comprehensive
economic understanding within a given premises laid down by it. Islam does not distinguish between the
political or religious realms. Islam is a religion for Muslims but an ideology for others. Because they
follow it as a religion and God gifted while others consider it as an ideology following with unconscious
mind. The sovereignty of this kingdom is only rest with the Allah. Two methods are adopted by Islam for
the welfare of the society which are the following:
i) To look after the welfare activities of the society by the state.
ii) Motivating individuals for social welfare out of the state authority.
In-fact, for achieving the balance between the state and individuals, the western philosophers presented
two extreme theories i.e. collectivism and individualism. Here the only balance relationship between the
two has been kept by Islam which is in-between the two. The political system of Islam has been based on
three principles;
i) Tauheed, the oneness of Allah.
ii) Resalat, the prophet-hood.
iii) Khilafat, the caliphate.
The Tauheed means the oneness of Allah and there is no other creator of this universe nor there is one to
whom the power of regulating this universe is shared with. He is the only commander of this universe and
worship is only due to Him.
Resalat, is the only mean and medium through we receive the laws of God. We received two things from
this source i.e. The book in which Allah has expounded His laws AND the authoritative interpretation and
exemplification of the book of Allah by the prophet SAW, through his words, actions and deeds.
Furthermore, the book of divine has laid down the principles in a written shape to model our system based
on the Holy Book.
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The Khilafat, in Holy verses Allah says “behold, thy lord said Allah to angels: I will create a vicegerent
on earth”. This is Khilafat which encompasses to activities of this human being. It consists of settlement
on earth, exploration of its resources and energies and fulfillment of Allah‟s purposes of making use of
these resources while developing life on it.
The purpose of Islamic state:
The holy Qur‟an clearly state that the real purpose of Islamic state is the establishment, maintenance and
development of those virtues, with which the creator of this universe wishes the human life to be better
and prevent those actions and deeds on which the human life damages and God gets displease. The state
in Islam is not intended for the political purposes or serving the interests of some particular sect of people,
but Islam places a highly ideal position for which the state has to use all the means for the attainment of
those goals. Those purpose are the quality of purity, beauty, goodness, virtue and success.
All kind of exploitation, injustices and inequality should be eradicated totally. Exploitation of human
beings strictly prevented in the ideal of state based on Islamic principles. Keeping in view the desired
goals which are to restrain from evil and order of goods, the Islamic state can plan for it welfare plans.
The undesirable acts shall be prevented in it to attain the highest ideal of what has been stated for the
Islamic state. The relation of the ruler and ruled must be balance and precedence must be given to the
truth, honesty and justice to the material consideration.
Features of Islamic ideology:
Neutral idea:
 Islam presents a neutral and balance idea which is in-between the two extremes.
 State is bound to provide the basic necessities of life to its citizens.
 On the other hand, people are motivated to participate in the state affairs through proper way.
 Social welfare services also needed to be adopted for pleasing Allah.
 Economic system is balanced one and not that much extreme as the others.
Collective justice:
 Islam emphasizes on collective justice and mutual cooperation.
 Islam trains an individual in such a way that he forgets his self-interest and focus on collectivism.
 It creates in human love, affectionate, sympathy and brotherhood.
 It presents Usher and Zakat system to bring equality in the human beings.
Against monopoly:
 Islam discards monopoly of any class or sect in the community on every aspect of human life.
 The non-muslims are also given equal rights as that of muslim.
 No one is dominant to others.
State responsibilities:
 Islam has bound the state to assure the happy economic life by being utilizing the individuals‟
moral and materialistic needs.
 According Hazrat Muhammad SAW “government is the guide of those who do not have any kind
of guidance.
 Islamic state provides basic necessities like food, shelter, health facilities and clothes.
Spiritual up-gradation:
 Islam stresses on the evolution of spiritual aspects of an individual.
 Desire for wealth has been discouraged and the spending of money in the way of Allah only gives
the real happiness and that makes an individual peaceful inside.
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 Storage of wealth has also been discouraged and the system of zakat introduced by Islam to
support the weaker in the society.
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Political Participation
Pressure Groups
Definition:
A pressure or interest group is a formal social group that differs from a political party in seeking
only to influence the government – and not to become a formal part of it.
A group of individuals organized to promote their common interests by molding government
policies, public opinion or influencing government officers in a favourable way.
Encarta defines it as: A group of people who acts or works together in support of a cause. For example,
trade union, commerce chamber etc.
A pressure group is also called interest group.
 e.g. a lobby is also an interest group that mold legislation in legislature by influencing the
legislators or political parties. In USA every important sector has a lobby like, school lobby,
railroad lobby.
 Pressure groups may operate or secretly.
Prof. Finer call them the “anonymous empire”.
Richard D. Lambert calls them the “Unofficial government”.
Effectiveness of Pressure Groups: They often do not have public interests rather having private interest.
Their power depends on their size, leadership, socio-economic status and financial resources.
Objectives of PG: Pressure groups are not political in nature. They do not seek direct power. They do not
contest election but they only support a party of their choice. Similarly, they do not have political
ideologies and their interests are usually specific and limited.
Types of Pressure Groups:
1) Anemic Interest Group: It comes into existence out of immediate interests. Such groups have no
organization, discipline and leadership. They do not have any charter or ideology that determines
their success of failure.
2) Non-associational interests Groups: Such groups are the index of customs, families, race,
language, territory, class or status. They do not have any proper charter, or philosophy. They are
more organized than anemic group. They have a tribal or religious leader. They are based on
kinship, neighbourhood or religious grounds.
3) Institutional Interest Groups: They are the orderly and systematic forms of groups like,
political parties, Commerce Corporation, army, bureaucracy etc. they present their interests in
legal and regular way with responsibility. They have organizations, discipline and charter.
Sometimes, they use violence too to gain their interests.
4) Associational Interest Groups: They are well-organized groups with discipline, charter, offices
and leaders like trade unions, transport unions, students inions etc. its employees are given
salaries. Leaders of such groups present their interests in legal and regular way. In these groups,
the elites and influential members influence the government policies.
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Modes/Strategies of Pressure Groups:
They use various strategies and modes to build pressure on government or public officers in order
to achieve their interests:
 Non-cooperation: this technique was adopted by the Iron and Steel industry in Britain
against the nationalization policy of the Labour Party in Britain just after the WWII.
 Strikes and Demonstrations: PTI Dharna after 2013 election
 Electioneering: They support a favourable political party or candidate in election
campaign.
 Publicity Campaign: they propagate a cause through media or other means to publicize
the matter in order to pressurize government or public officer.
 Violence or Direct Action: As a last resort, they may use violence through public
demonstrations, sittings, or strikes at public places by violent attacks.
Functions or Importance of Pressure Groups:
 Bridge between Government and Public: They take govt policy to public through their
activities and get their feedback or reactions which help government mold their policies
accordingly.
 Check on Government Policies: they also keep check on government policies in order to make
them comply with the ideologies of the state.
 Promote Public Participation: Through demonstrations and strikes, public participate in policy
making.
 Source of information: They also provide the government with public opinion regarding a
policy.
 Policy Formation: they are not policy makers but no policy is formed without thei approval or
consultation.
 Promote Minorities’ Interests: they help in promoting minorities interests when they are
ignored in policy formation.
 Public Opinion: They are helpful in spreading public awareness.
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Political Parties
Definition:
Group that collectively represent a political ideology and struggle for its realization through
democratic means.
A group of persons with more or less organized who hold similar views or opinion on an issue
confronting the state and who seeks to control the government by contesting election in order to realize
their policies. They come up with the aim of fixing the political agenda and policies of the state.
Theories about the Origin of Political Parties:
1) Human Nature Theory: Human nature is split into two tendencies: conservative and
progressive. The former is normally followed by the old age people while the latter is
advocated by the youth in a society. Therefore, these people come together to fight for
their natural tendencies.
2) Theory of Ideological Motivation: Humans by nature hold certain ideas, beliefs and
philosophies. Therefore, the like-minded people get together to make a party.
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3) Theory of Economic and Class Conflict: according to Karl Marx the society is divided
into two classes, Haves and Haves not on the basis of their economic resources.
Therefore, class conflicts on the basis of economic resources form political parties to
fight for the preservation or attainment of their respective rights.
Elements of Political Parties:
Political parties are normally made up of six essential elements:
1. Voluntary Members, 2. Principles/Constitution 3. Programme or Charter,
4. Leadership 5. Flag 6. Governmental Power
Political parties first came into existence in England. According to Laski, Political parties exist due to the
fact that human beings tend to disagree.
Structure:
Political Parties have a proper organization having: Offices, office bearers, slogans and ideology.
Characteristics of Political Parties:

There are certain distinctive characteristics of political parties:
 Agreement on fundamental Views and Ideas. It is a voluntary association of like-
minded people. Birds of same feathers flock together.
 Organization and Leadership: No tangible achievement is possible without proper
organization. Similarly, organization within a group of persons is due to leadership.
 Legal and Constitutional Method: Political parties fight for aims not with bullets but
with ballots. Their every action should be in accordance with the laws and constitution of
the state.
 Promotion of National Interests: Promotion of national interests both at national and
international level remains the top priority on political parties‟ charter.
Types of Political System: there are three types of political system based on political parties.
1) One-party system: in authoritarian regimes like China, USSR, Cuba, North Korea.
2) Two-party system: practiced in Canada, Britain and USA.
3) Multi-party system: Practiced in heterogeneous states like Pakistan, India.
Function and Importance of Political Parties:
 Need of democracy to contest election by presenting a charter and nominating candidates
for election and form people‟s government.
 Organization and Formulation of Public Opinion by providing them a choice in political
agendas through their manifesto.
 They train the general public politically.
 Formation of government and promotion of general will.
 Formation of opposition in parliament to keep check on government policies and
activities by exposing government‟s weaknesses, inefficiencies and drawbacks.
 They make bridge between government and general public. Both the majority party and
opposition represent different views of public in parliament.
 They bring supremacy of public interests in the parliament.
Demerits of Political Parties:
 Encourage disunity and disruption in the state.
 Leads to moral corruption.
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 They encourage bossism, factionalism and political adventurism.
 Leads to aristocracy or dominance of a particular group that is against the true spirit of
democracy.
 They sometimes lead to political disharmony and disturbance.
 They become hurdle in smooth legislation.
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Public Opinion
Introduction:
Literally, opinion refers to an individual‟s judgment formed about something, not necessarily
based on fact or knowledge. The opinion no two individual may be the same even if they live under the
same roof. But sometime the opinion of a person becomes the opinion of many people that is called
public opinion.
Definition: Public opinion is generally understood as the opinion of public, common people or the voice
of the citizens. But the public does not mean homogeneous people; a society may have many publics.
Public refers to a section of society sharing common interests.
 It is not the opinion of all. Not even of the majority. It is the aggregate opinion of a section or
sections of the society that affect or interest the society.
 It is not the subjective opinion of an individual, he or she may be highly be respected.
 The opinion may be social or political in nature.
Characteristics of Public Opinion
 It is about living social or political issue.

 It is not unanimous opinion but there is a general agreement on the issue.
 It may change with time, circumstances and new information.
 It reflects diversity of opinion.
 Intensity of opinion: more weight is given to expressed opinion than unexpressed.
 Informed opinion: the elite class of society has more weight due to its education, awareness and
economic resources.
Importance of Public Opinion:
 Pubic Opinion is considered to be the essential element for successful working of democratic
communication in the system.
 It provides an insight to government about an issue and help in law making.
 It also provides information to government about the tendency of public.
 It can confront and shake the structure of despotism and dictatorship.
 Respecting the minds of people strengthens democratic norms and helps in achieving the
democratic goals.
 Acts as watchdog on government policies.
 Helps in protecting the rights and liberties of citizens.
 It also acts as a powerful force in developing a positive picture of a society in international
sphere.
Conditions for Sound Public Opinion
 Education (free from prejudice and fanaticism)
 Free press/electronic media.
 Freedom of discussion
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 Social harmony (not divided on social or religious lines).
 Economic security (not too much economic disparity).
Agencies Influencing Public Opinion
There is no definite and automatic process for the formation of public opinion. Whenever an issue of
public concern emerges, various sections of the society express their views. In this process, some views
receive more attention than others and become public opinion. Various formal and informal processes
contribute to the formation of public opinion.
 Family and Other Groups (Subconscious and Environment): Family, neighbor, friends,
locality and the region play an important role orienting the attitude, beliefs and personality of an
individual. Such beliefs determine the reaction of an individual towards a social or political issue.
 Educational Setting: educational institutions, study circles, literary clubs etc easily mould public
opinion by influencing the youth. Therefore, the right kind of training, eminent leaders and
educationists may help in producing constructive public opinion through debates, talks, seminars
and other co-curricular activities.
 Radio, Television, and Cinema: they act as the reflection of social life. Therefore, Radio, TV
and Cinema can play an important role in educating masses on certain sensitive social or political
issues.
 Press: Print and electronic media including pamphlets, periodicals, journals, leaflets etc provide
insight into social and political issues in the world to the educated class. Press act as a watchdog
on the actions and policies of democratic government. Scholars and common people express their
criticism of government policies through media talks, or articles. Similarly, government also
propagates her policies and programs through media. Therefore, press plays an important role in
formulating public opinion.
 Political Parties and Pressure/Interest Groups: they also mould public opinion through rallies,
political gatherings, protests and election campaign.
 Legislature: In democratic government the opposition parties in legislature provides information
about government policies and may promote diverse public opinion.
 Government: “to rule is to educate”, Plato. Government also spreads and formulates public
opinion by securing public support for their policies.
 Social Media: The emergence of social media has revolutionized formation of public opinion. It
has provided a new dimension to the general public as well as government and political or social
groups for spreading their policies and views.
Hindrances in the formation of Public opinion
 Indifferent attitude of common people to various social or political issues.
 Illiteracy.
 Poverty and economic disparity.
 Ethnic and racial disharmony in the society.
 Biased and hypocrite press.
 Spreading of false information on social media.
 Despotic role of the government.
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Propaganda
Introduction
Propaganda is the means or techniques of influencing public opinion in terms of promoting political or
social ideologies. It is designed to persuade people to adopt a particular belief, attitude or course of action.
Although propaganda has remained before 20th century but after 20th century almost every political
system has extensively used it as tool of promoting their ideologies. The propagandists do not admit theat
they are using propaganda, they name it as policy statement or public diplomacy but it is their opposition
who dismiss their claims and call their statements mere propaganda.
Background:
 The term was frits used by Catholic Church against Protestant.
 In Germans during the inter-war era asserted that Germany was not defeated in the field but by
the Allies‟ propaganda. So in WW2 the Nazi dictator established a propaganda ministry headed
by Goebber. Hitler said, “The bigger the lie the more readily the people believed it to be true.”
 Khomeni‟s Revolution was brought through cassettes.
 The Soviet leaders used it in two sense, the propaganda and agitator. For educated indoctrination,
rational historical and scientific arguments should be employed while for uneducated, slogans,
parables and half-truth are employed.
Utility of Propaganda:
 Propaganda appeals to emotion rather than to reason. It tries to distort facts in order to deceive
people.
 It is a psychological weapon in the hands of political leaders. A propagandist presents
information in such a manner that leads to what to think rather than how to think. Therefore,
propaganda is actually developing a narrative or discourse in favour of one‟s political or social
interests.
Factors of Propaganda:
1) The propagandist and his message.
2) The strategy or techniques of carrying the propaganda.
3) The people who are aimed at by and exposed to the propaganda.
Principles of Propaganda:
1) Simplicity
2) Repetition
3) Credibility
Means of Propaganda:
Propaganda can be promoted through words, printed books, pamphlets, articles, slogans, symbols,
mass media, social media etc.
Cause of Success of Propaganda:
 Crisis and war situation.  Winning side,
 High degree of accuracy.  Existing of censorship.
 Appeal to specific group.  Marginal issues.
Propaganda has become an essential tool to achieve goals of one own choice, between the rival parties,
government and individuals. Modern states use, misuse and even abuse propaganda.
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Political Socialization
Introduction:
People are not born with political ideas nor do we manufacture them. Rather political ideas are
learnt through a process called Political Socialization. It is a life-long process by which people form their
ideas about politics and acquire political values.
Types of Political Socialization:
Direct or Manifest Political Socialization: in which the contents of the transmitted information, values
or feelings are clearly political. Like, family, curricula and certain other agencies explicitly promote
certain patterns and ideologies.
Indirect and Latent Political socialization: Attitude towards non-political values which affect attitude
towards political roles and behaviours. E.g. submission to the authority of Father in family makes us
submit to the authority of in political system.
Agents of Political Socialization: From childhood throughout the entire life, we are exposed to a variety
of individuals, social, educational, cultural and political groups which help us in developing our political
consciousness and are known agents of political socialization. They are:
 Family: Children spend much of their time with family and acquire family‟s beliefs, habits and
attitudes. The family imparts all these values unintentionally through its actions and that is the
reason that children often follow the same political affiliation as of their family.
 School: schools educate children about their country through curriculum or civic education and
history. Similarly, they are introduced to election and voting when they choose their class leader.
Colleges and universities teach them the more sophisticated election of campaigning and
associations and different ideologies. Schools themselves are involved in politics: issues such as
funding, curriculum reforms and government support often air debate that involves students,
teachers, parents and the community.
 Peers: Academic, professional and general peers and acquaintances often influence one‟s beliefs
and manners.
 Religion: One’s faith or religion has a significant influence on his or her political beliefs.
 Minority status: Feeling of alienation and marginalization often affect the political beliefs of
children from minority classes.
 Socio-economic status: Socio-economic status of family also influences their children
socialization.
 Media: Most of the political information comes from mass media. Talks shows, news, speeches,
election campaign, newspapers, magazines and currently, social media significantly influence
political socialization.
 Key-events: Major political development such as, winning a war, making a major agreement,
carrying a mega project etc can influence the attitude of an entire generation. E.g. Achieving
Nuclear capability in Pakistan during Nawaz‟s Sharif reign.
 Political Parties and Pressure/Interest Groups: Political parties and interest groups also
socialize their party members and general public through election campaign, rallies, seminars, set
ins and other political activities.
 Students’ and other Unions: Students unions and other business or social unions also educate
and socialize their members politically.
 Role of Government: Government determines the school curricula and regulates media.
Therefore, government can play a leading role in politically socializing its citizens.
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Plato‟s had devised his own state-regulated education system in order to prevail political socialization
for his ideal state.
Therefore, political socialization of people in a country plays an important role in deciding the
political fate of the country. Politically socialized and aware people elect able people and lead to
successful political and democratic government while politically unaware people often fall prey to the
hollow slogans and false propaganda of political parties and lead to political crisis in the country.
Functions of Political Socialization:
 Maintaining Political Culture: it communicates political culture from one generation to
another if the state is politically stable.
 Modification of Political Culture: Political socialization often brings positive changes in
political culture. E.g. Britain transformed absolute Monarchy to Constitutional Monarchy
through political socialization.
 Creating Political Culture: Political Socialization also helps in establishing a new political
culture in accordance with the demands of the new era and situation.
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Political Culture
Introduction:
A political culture is a set of attitudes and practices held by a people that shapes their political
behaviour. It includes moral judgment, political myths, beliefs, and ideas about what make a good society.
It refers to historically-based, widely-shared beliefs, feelings, and values about the nature of political systems,
which can serve as a link between citizens and government. The notion of political culture does not refer to
attitudes toward specific actors, such as a president or prime minister, but rather denotes how people view
the political system as a whole and their belief in its legitimacy. The building blocks of political culture
are the beliefs, opinions, and emotions of the citizens toward their form of government.
Political culture may be defined as the political psychology of a country or nation (or subgroup thereof).
Governments can help shape political culture and public opinion through education, public events, and
commemoration of the past. Political cultures vary greatly from state to state and sometimes even within a
state.
Difference between Political Culture and Political Ideology: The term 'political ideology' refers
to a code of beliefs or views about governments and politics that may influence the way we vote or
whether or not we support certain legislative actions.
For example, two people can share a political culture, but have different political ideologies. In other
words, a right-wing conservative can be from the same political culture as a left-wing liberal. In other
words, political culture is something we share, while a political ideology is something we use to define
ourselves and make political decisions.
Types of Political Culture:
1) Parochial: In a parochial political culture, citizens are only indistinctly aware of the existence of
central government.
2) Subject: In a subject political culture, citizens see themselves not as participants in the political
process but as subjects of the government.
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3) Participant: In a participant political culture, citizens believe both that they can contribute to the
system and that they are affected by it.
According to American political scientists Gabriel Almond and Sydney Verba, the political culture of the
people of a country decide whether democracy, monarchy, dictatorship or any other form of government
suit them. Almond and Verba‟s core idea was that democracy will prove most stable in societies where
subject and parochial attitudes provide ballast to an essentially participant culture.
Political Culture of Pakistan
Pakistan since it inception has inherited a governance system heavily influence by the colonial
tendencies of centralization of power and controlling of subjects.
The political system is mainly dominated by landlord, businessmen and religious clergy.
Voting and election campaign are also divided on linguistic, ethnic and religious line, like Sindhi,
Balochi, Punjabi and Pathan. Similarly, Sunni, Shia etc. Sindh and Balochistan are dominated by land-
owning class, while in Punjab, caste and Biradary still dictate the political orientation. The people of KP
see politics from religious and nationalist perspective.
The history of political culture of Pakistan has remained undemocratic due to certain reasons:
 Bureaucratic control over state affairs instead of supremacy of political leaders.
 Institutional imbalance (Strong military and weaker civilian).
 Military interference that shunned political parties.
 Cultural and Religious differences such as Punjabi and the rest and Sunni and Shia. The Ahmadi
Conflict in 1953/54.
 One province hegemony.
Recommendations:
 Proportional representation to ethnic identities.
 Equal economic opportunities to all ethnic groups.
 Bringing homogeneity among religiously divided sect through the strong thread of Islam.
 Political socialization.
 Giving proportional representation to women.
 Producing unbiased media.
 Reducing military interference in political affairs.
Hope for Change:
 Social Media.
 Emergence of national political parties like, PTI.
 Rising literacy rate.
 Rising interest of youth in political and state affairs.
 Regular election of Local Government
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Rights and Duties

Persona and Social Needs/Aspects of Man:
Man has two aspects: personal and social. Personal needs are bodily needs, desires, feelings etc
while his instinct demands sociality which needs companionship, family, culture, and other such social
relationships. Personal needs can be determined by the physical and mental strengths of a person but
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social needs are subjected to the direct or indirect, explicit or implicit approval of society and other
companions. Here come rights and duties.
Rights:
Claim and Recognition: When a claim or power to have or do something is recognized by others
members of society, it becomes a right. Therefore, right is a socially recognized claim arising from the
very nature of human personality and society. Therefore, claim of entitlement and recognition by the
society are the essentials of rights in a society.
Society recognizes only those claims and desires which do not injure others and those actions which
promote common good and harmony. Therefore, individual‟s claims, and action must be in harmony with
the good and safety of other members of society. Rights of one are subjected to the safety of similar right
of others.
Oxford defines rights as, “Moral or legal entitlement to have or do something.”
Rights are legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or entitlement that is, rights are fundamental
normative rules about what is allowed of people or owed to people according to some legal system, social
convention or ethical or moral theory.
Essentials of Right: There are three essentials for the entitlement of rights:
1) The needs of human personality (claims and desires).

2) The social recognition (recognition of claims and desires by others members). Recognition of
right is given by conscience of men, by social opinion of people, or by the state. State does not
create rights, it merely recognizes them, for rights arise from human nature.
3) Promotion of common good or the moral nature of social life. Rights promote socially protected
or guaranteed freedom and liberty.
Classification of Rights:
Rights are broadly divided into legal and moral rights. Legal rights are further divided
into civil/social and political rights.
Moral Rights: Rights which are recognized by the moral sense of people and which are not subjected to
punishment or reward in the legal system. They merely based on our sense of morality and justice. E.g.
helping poor, Donating blood, being polite to aged people etc. moral rights often become source of legal
rights.
Legal Rights: rights enjoyed by a citizen against other citizens, association or government, recognized by
the state and upheld by its authority and law. Violation of legal rights is subjected to punishment by the
legal system or courts of the state. Similarly, legal rights bear corresponding duties. Legal rights are
divided into political and civil rights:
Political Rights: Those rights through which a citizen is able to participate in the formation and
administration of government. E.g. right to vote, form association, right to hold public office etc.
Civil or Social Rights: Civil or social rights are concerned to the life and property of the people of a
state. They are essential for the social and personal development of citizens. They are rights to life and
property, freedom of speech, freedom of movement, work etc.
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Rights
Legal Rights Moral Rights
Civil/social Rights Political Rights
Right to family, Right contract,

Right to property, Equality before law.
Right to work
Right to education
Right to vote
Right life Right to contest election
Right to speech/press
Right to free movement Right to public office
Right of association
Right of religious belief
Duties:
Duties are actions to do or not to do for the sake of society or state. They are things we owe to
other as social beings. They are the reciprocal and corresponding action of one‟s legal rights for the
common good of the society. Therefore, rights and duties are inseparable. They are the two sides of a
coin. They are obligation imposed upon members of society by the state or other legal authority. Every
right has a corresponding duty. Protection of one‟s life and property must ensure protection of others‟ life
and property. Thus right of one person is the duty of another.
Kinds of Duties: Duties can be divided into Moral and Legal duties. Moral duties are performed on moral
or ethical grounds and their violation is not subjected to punishment by the legal system, while legal
duties are imposed by the state or other legal authority and their violation is subjected to punishment by
the legal system of the state.
Rights of State: State owe certain rights to its citizens like, obedience to law, allegiance to the state,
payment of taxes, duty to vote etc.
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Fundamental Rights in Islam

Introduction:
Islam is a complete code of life that provides guidance in all spheres of life like, social, political
and legal.
There are two types of rights in Islam:
 Haqooq-ul-Allah/Right of Allah: the rights of Allah upon human beings like,

worshipping Allah, obeying the principles of Quran and Ahadiths.
 Haqooq-ul-Ibad/Rights of Human Beings: These are the rights of human beings to
other human beings. Islam lays more emphasis on the observance of Haqooq-ul-Ibad.
 Rights of Non-Muslims: Islam provides complete basic rights to Non-Muslims.
Sources of Human Rights in Islam:
Human Rights in Islam basically derive from Qura‟an, the Traditions or Ahadiths of the Holy Prophet
PBUH, and the Pious Caliphs. Similarly, the Charter of fundamental human right proclaimed by the Holy
Prophet PBUH in his Farewell Sermon provides a detailed account of fundamental human rights.
Fundamental Rights in Islam
 Right to life.  Freedom of Opinion.

 Right to property  Freedom of Conscience and Religion.
 Right to Inheritance.  Equality before Law.
 Right to Personal Freedom.  Rights of Women.
Rights of Non-Muslims in Islam:
Islam provides equal fundamental rights to its Non-Muslim citizens without imposing equal
duties. Non-Muslims are known in Shariah as Dhimmis (Zimmis) whose protection is responsibility of
the Islamic state. Non-Muslims are exempted from Jihad.
Types of Dhimmis: According to Shariah, there are three types of Dhimmis:
1) Those who have entered into a treaty or agreement with Muslims at the time of submission and
which determine their rights and duties. They pay Kharaj to Muslim state.
2) Those Non-Muslims who submitted to Muslims after defeat in war. They pay Jizya or poll tax to
the Islamic state.
3) Those Non-Muslims who submitted to Muslims without any treaty or defeat and accept the
superiority of Muslim state.
Fundamental Rights of Non-Muslims:

 Right life and property.
 Freedom of religion and worship.
 Protection of their places of worship.
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 Exemption from Jihad.
International Human Rights

Human rights are inherent to all human beings regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language,
religion or any other status. It includes right to life, and liberty, freedom from slavery and torture,
freedom of opinion and expression, right to work, right to education, right to vote, right to make
association etc. everyone is entitled to them without any discrimination.
UN has defined a range of internationally recognized rights including civil, cultural, economic, political
and social.
International Human Rights Law:
These are internationally recognized law administered by the International Court of Justice that
lay down obligations of governments to act in certain ways or refrain from certain acts in order to protect
human rights.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights Dec, 10, 1948.
The UN General Assembly passed Universal Declaration of Hman Rights on Dec, 10, 1948,
through the resolution 217 A (III). Since its establishment, it has expanded human rights law to
encompass specific standard for women, children, persons with disabilities, minorities, and other
vulnerable groups. UDHR has been translated to more than 500 languages.
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)
It prohibited the crime of Genocide.
International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
This convention prohibited any form of discrimination on the basis of race or colour.
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
 The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights entered into force 1976 that
established the right to work in just and favourable condition.
 The right to social protection, adequate of living.
 Highest attainable standard of physical and mental well-being.
 It also established the right to education, enjoyment of cultural freedom, and scientific progress.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
Its first Protocol entered into effect in 1976 and Second Protocol in 1989 which established the
following human rights:
 Freedom of movement.
 Equality before law and right to fair trial.
 Freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
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 Freedom of opinion and expression, peaceful assembly.
 Freedom of association and participation in public affairs.
 Protection of minorities‟ rights.
Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
Through this convention, women were given equal status and discrimination on the basis of gender was
prohibited.
Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
This convention described and established the rights of children.
Convention on the Rights of the Persons with Disabilities (2006)
This convention established the rights of persons with physical or mental disabilities.
Human Right Council
It was established in 2006 by the General Assembly. It has the representation of 47 states that monitor
human rights condition in 192 states who give Universal Periodic Review.
UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR)
It serves as secretariat for Human Rights Council. It is the monitoring body that observes compliance of
states with human rights‟ treatise.
Human Rights In Pakistan

Pakistan Human Rights Commission
It was established in 1987 that aims to monitor and evaluate human rights conditions and
compliance of laws with human rights in the country.
Human Rights Violation in Pakistan

1) Child Abuse: Child sexual abuse and child labour are the major violation of human rights in
Pakistan which violates the UN Covenant of the Rights of Child 1989.
 3445 cases of child sexual abuse were reported in 2017 only.
 12 schools were burnt in August 2018 by Taliban in Gilgit.
 Over five million primary school-age children are out of school.
 141 child sexual abuse cases were reported from Lahore in six months of 2018 only.
 In January 2019 Zainab Ansari, an eight years girl, was raped and murdered.
 In August a 5-years old girl was raped and murdered in Mardan KP.
 According to SAHIL organization 91 sexual abuse cases are reported daily.
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 In 2015, a well-connected ring of pedophiles in Kasur made headlines after hundreds of
videos depicting sexual abuse of children surfaced.
Discrimination against Women
Article 25 (2) of the constitution of Pakistan says that, “there shall be no discrimination on the
basis of sex”.
 According to World Economic Forum Global Gender Gap Report 2020, Pakistan ranked 151 out
of 153 countries, just ahead of Yemen and Iraq. the lowest in South Asia.
 According to a survey (2017-18), only 22.8% female participate in labour force while 81.1%
male of age 15 and above participate in labour force.
 According to Punjab Social and Economic Wellbeing of Women Survey 2017-18 shows that of
total women in the age of 18-29 years, only 22% have attained grade 12 or above education.
 11% women from minorities have grade 12 or above education with 2.6% employment.
 21% females get married before the age of 18 and 3% before the age of 15.
 About 1000 honour killings take place every year. At least 66 women were killed in Faisalabad in
the first six months of 2018.
 According to Local 479 attacks against transgender women were reported in KP during 2018.
Freedom of Speech and Expression
Article 19 of the constitution says, every citizen has the right to express him/herself.
 Mashaal Khan‟s Case in AWKUM Mardan.

 Ban on PTM.
 Media censorship by PPEMRA. Idea of making Media Courts.
 Suspension of 3G and 4G internet service in FATA and Balochistan.
Discrimination against Ethnic and Religious Minorities
 About 1000 girls from Hindu, Christian and other minorities are forced to marry Muslims every
year.
 Many persons from minorities fall prey to Blasphemy Law.
 The population of minorities in 1947 was 23% that has reduced to 3 or 4% in 2019.
 Minority in Kilash valley Chitral once had a population of more than 20000 that has reduced to
only 4000 in 2019.
 Taliban and other terrorist attack religious minorities.
Target Killings and Deaths in Custody:
 Extra judicial killing is common in Pakistan. Only Rao Anwar an SP in Sindh police is reported
to have killed more than 400 person without fair trial.
 On July 13, 2019, 128 people were killed in election rally held by Balochistan Awami Party in
Mastung including Nawabzada Siraj Raisani.
 On July 10, Haroon Bilour of ANP was killed along 20 others in blast.
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 In Sahiwal, four innocent person including children and woman were shot dead by police n June
20, 2019 and the convicts were later acquitted by the court.
Reforms by Pakistan Government
UN Human Rights Commission has given recommendation after 23rd August 2017 observation related to
death penalty, enforced disappearance, extrajudicial killing and freedom of religion, conscience and
belief. It asked Pakistan to:
 Review the Action of Civil Power Regulation 2011 that give extra jurisdiction to armed forces in
FATA and other areas.
 To criminalize enforced disappearance.
 To investigate all cases of extra judicial killings thoroughly.
Contrary to it, Pakistan passed KP Action in Aid of Civil Power Ordinancein August 2019 that extends
the extra power of armed forces to the entire province of KP.
 Pakistan parliament passed a law guaranteeing basic rights for transgenders. The law grants
individuals the right to self-identity as male or female or blend and to have that identity registered
on all legal documents like, CNIC, Passport, license etc.
 Zainab Alert Recovery and Response Bill 2020 was passed that brought reforms in handling the
child abuse cases. The bill underlies life imprisonment and one million rupees fine as maximum
punishment. The cases of child abuse are supposed to be investigated in 3 months.
 Child alert app was launched by PM Imran Khan.
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Sovereignty
Background
Political science revolves around two things: sovereignty of the state and liberty of the individual.
The word sovereignty is derived from Latin word “supreanus” that means supreme or paramount.
Although, sovereignty is a modern concept but its roots are found in the writings of Aristotle who spoke
of the “supreme power of the state”. In its technical form it was first used by French writer Bodin in his
book “Republic”. According to Bodin, “sovereignty is the supreme power of the state over citizens and
subjects unrestrained by law”.
Introduction:
State is a politically organized society of individuals and associations, institutions and groups.
Therefore, sovereignty is the legalized authority of the state that aims to preserve spcial unity, peace, and
regulates and coordinates the activities of all under its authority through law and customs. Modern states
are sovereign states. There can be no state without sovereignty. Sovereignty distinguishes state from all
other associations and organizations.
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Definition:
Blackstone defines it as, “it is the supreme, irresistible, absolute, uncontrolled authority in the
state”.
Friderick Pollock defines it as, “sovereignty is that power, which is neither temporary, nor delegated and
nor subject to particular rules which it cannot alter”.
Thus:
 It is supreme, unlimited and absolute power of the state.

 It is the supreme power to make laws and enforce them.
 Its authority cannot be resisted and disobeyed.
Attributes/Characteristics of Sovereignty
2) Absoluteness: it means the power or authority of the sate is absolutely supreme and unlimited
over all persons and association within its territory and against all powers and authorities outside
its frontiers. The state is both internally and externally supreme.
3) Indivisibility: sovereignty cannot be divided. Every state must have one supreme power in it. It
is impossible to have two or more equal supreme powers in the state. The state is one unity
otherwise there will be no state at all. “to divide sovereignty is to destroy it”, says John C.
Calhoun.
4) All Comprehensiveness or Universality: Sovereignty of state is all-comprehensive and
universal. It means that sovereignty of the state extends to all persons, associations and groups
within the territory of the state. No one is exempted from its authority and law. Only the foreign
ambassadors and diplomatic officials are exempted from its laws for the sake of international
cooperation.
5) Permanence: sovereignty of the state lasts as long as the state continue to exist. This is the basic
difference between state and government: state is permanent association while government is
temporary. The government and rulers change but state continues to exist.
6) Exclusiveness: it means that quality by virtue of which there can be only one sovereign power in
a state which is entitled to be legally obeyed by its citizens. “there cannot be two kings in a
kingdom”, Persian proverb.
7) Inalienability: it means that the supreme power cannot be alienated from the personality of its
holder without destroying it. To alienate sovereignty is to destroy it.
8) Imprescriptibility: sovereignty is not lost even if its holder does not exercise or assert it fro a
long period of time. The state remains sovereign whether it asserts its supreme power for a period
of time or not.
Limitations on Sovereignty: Although, many thinkers like, Rousseau, Bodin, Austin, have asserted that
sovereignty is absolute , unlimited, original and supreme power of the state but this concept of monistic
sovereignty is contested and rejected by others on various grounds.
1) Moral Limitations: legally state can do everything but in practice is cannot do many things. The
legislature cannot pass a law that is morally unacceptable.
2) Natural Limitations: A sovereign cannot be what is naturally impossible.
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3) Human Limitations: sovereign is a human and has to deal with human. Therefore, Gilchrist
called them, “the limits of human endurance”. The powers of a sovereign are inevitably limited
by the strengths or weaknesses, capacity or incapacity of his character, mind, body and
personality as well as education, knowledge, religion, morals and environment.
4) Constitutional Limitations: Written and rigid constitution put certain limitations on the
sovereignty. For example, no sovereignty can formulate laws against basic human rights.
Pakistan‟s constitution prohibits legislation that is in conflict with the principles of Islam.
5) Limitations of International Laws: International laws, conventions, treaties, and agreements are
regarded as another limitation on the sovereignty of a state. Bluntschli puts in these words, “there
is no such thing as absolute independence- even the state as a whole is not all-almighty, for it is
limited externally by the rights of other states and internally by its own nature and the rights of its
own individual members”.
Aspects of Sovereignty:
Internal Sovereignty: The supreme authority exercised by the state over the people, associations
or subjects within its territory.
External Sovereignty: It means the freedom or independence if the state from any control,
compulsion and interference by a foreign state or power. The state will not submit to the interference
or command of foreign power. Sovereignty is actually internal power. Therefore, “independence” is
better used for external sovereignty.
Types of Sovereignty
1) Legalistic/ Austinian or Monistic Theory of Sovereignty: John Austin in his book

“Lectures in Jurisprudence” has explained his theory of sovereignty based on the teachings of
Hobbes and Bentham. His theory says that:
 In every independent society there is a sovereign power and this sovereign is a
determinate person or body of person.
 The power of the sovereign is legally unlimited. There is no law to limit the power of
the sovereign.
 The sovereign receives habitual obedience from the bulk of its people. Obedience
must be a matter of habit merely occasional.
 The power of the sovereign is indivisible. The sovereign power is absolute and
incapable of limitations.
 Laws are the commands of the superior and without the superior.
In short, legalistic, Austinian or Monistic sovereignty is absolute, inalienable, indivisible, all

comprehensive and permanent.
2) Pluralistic or Political View of Sovereignty:

It was a reaction to the monistic or absolute theory of sovereignty. It believes that sovereignty
is not the exclusive prerogative of the state and is shared by various groups and associations
in the society. It is also a reaction against unlimited authority of the state. It believes in
limiting, controlling and dividing the sovereignty of the state. He political sovereign is the
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sum-total of the influences and forces in a state which stand behind the law because the will
of the sovereign is actuated by many and varied forces and influences in the society.
Reasons for Pluralistic theory: Firstly, state has become welfare state rather than just
maintaining law and order in the state and secondly, modern technology has brought the state
together and made them interdependent on each other. Therefore, exercising absolute
sovereignty is impracticable in the modern state.
 Society is not unity but unity in diversity. State‟s absolutism is rejected and is against
international relationships.
 State is an association like many other associations in the society. Therefore,
sovereignty and state are not all-comprehensive.
 Sovereignty of the state is not indivisible. It should be divided between state and
other associations.
 Society is federal and pluralistic. A man has to show allegiance to other associations
and organizations in the society. His total allegiance is not and cannot be towards the
state. The associations are autonomous and sovereign.
 Sovereignty is not the source of law. Law is not the command of the sovereign, rather
is based on moral, and natural rules, customs and traditions.
 The external sovereignty is restricted by the international laws.
Islamic Concept of Sovereignty

Islamic Concept of Sovereignty: Islamic concept of sovereignty is radically different from Western
theories of sovereignty. It is derived from the Quran and Sunnah which are the basic sources. Essential
elements of Islamic Theory are :
 Sovereignty of Allah: Allah is the supreme, absolute, original, universal, all-comprehensive,

indivisible, inalienable and eternal sovereign of the entire universe.
 Vicegerency (Khialafat) of man: Man is the vicegerent of Allah on earth. Therefore, man has to
live and practice his abilities as directed by Almighty Allah in His Book, Qur‟an and His Prophet
Muhammad PBUH in His Ahadiths.
 Amir or legislature been given delegated or limited authority of legislation: The Amir is not
absolute in formulating laws. His authority is to practice the delegated powers from Allah in
accordance with the principles of Quran and Traditions.
Difference between Islamic and Western Concept of Sovereignty

 Western state comprise of four elements: area, population, government and sovereignty while
Islamic state has three elements: area, population and government and sovereignty exclusively
belongs to Allah.
 In both views sovereignty is the supreme authority but to west it is the state while in Islamic
concept it is Almighty Allah.
 Sovereignty in western concept lies with the monarch or legislature of the representatives while in
Islamic concept sovereignty belongs to Almighty Allah only.
155 | P a g e
 Absoluteness of state: In western concept the state or sovereignty is not bound to any other
authority but is absolute while in Islamic concept, the powers of state or delegated authority are
restricted by the Divine law and Islamic principles.
 Origin: Another difference lies in the origin of the sovereignty: in Islamic view, Allah is the
originator of sovereignty while in western view, human mind is the originator of sovereignty.
 Permanency: Allah is eternal and supreme while western sovereign is weak and short-living.
 Nature of Obedience: In Islamic concept, citizens obey the sovereign from spiritual perspective
while in western concept citizens only obey the sovereign for material interests.
 Vicegerency: In Islamic view, man is the vicegerent of Allah with delegated powers. While in
western concept, man has no spiritual authority over him.
 Theocracy/secular: in Islamic concept, religion and politics are linked. The function of the state
is the implementation of Islamic principles while western concept separates religion and politics.
 Actual and Man-made: the concept of sovereignty in Islam is actual while the concept in West
is man-made.
 Source of Law/Legislation: In Islamic view, the sources of legislation are Divine Laws which
are free of errors, while in western concept, laws are man-made which are liable to errors.
 Accountability: In Islamic view, Allah is the supreme sovereign and is not accountable to any
one and the Islamic Amir is accountable to his creator for his actions. In Western concept,
sovereign is either accountable to the people who elected him or international laws etc and the
king or ruler is beyond any check and balance.
 Transferability: Sovereignty of Allah is not transferable while in Western concept, sovereignty
can be destroyed, snatched or transferred to another state or ruler.
156 | P a g e

Political Science Notes 1

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Political Science Notes 1

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Prepared by: Rashid khan from Malakand, SS English/ MPhil English.

Ahmad Khan from Malakand (MA Political Science Gold Medalist)

Political Science Paper 1 Notes

S. No. Topic Title Pg.No.

Platonic Concept of Ideal State

Distinctive features of Platonic Ideal state

 Brain--------reason/knowledge: the Ruling class (Philosopher kings)

 Plato‟s concept of state is theoretical:

Plato’s Concept of Justice

Previous Theories of Justice:

Cephalus: He presented his concept of justice in three lines:

i. Justice is telling the truth and paying one‟s debts.

Polemarchus and Thrasymachus:

Plato’s Concept of Justice:

Plato’s Theory of Communism

Features of Plato’s Communism:

Criticism on his idea of communism

Comparison of Plato’s and Modern Communism

Plato’s Classification of Government

Number of rulers Subject to law/pure form Unrestrained by law/perverted

He severely criticized Athenian democracy that he is looked at as an arch-enemy of democracy.

Aristotle on the origin of state

Aristotle on the State of Nature

Aims and Objectives of State:

Aristotle Concept of Government

Ruler and administration:

Difference between State and Government

Basic Principles in the Formation of Government

 There are three principles: Birth, Wealth and Number.

Aristotle Classification of Government

a) The number of persons in whom sovereign power is vested.

Aristotle gives three possibilities for citizens‟ possession of property:

1. External good. (material condition)

Salient features of Aristotle’s Ideal State

Niccolo Machiavelli of Florence (1469-1527)

Machiavelli a child of environment

Machiavelli on Human Nature/Nature of State and End of State.

Machiavelli: Separation of ethics and religion from politics

Machiavelli’s Concept of Diplomacy

Machiavelli’s Concept of Power Politics

Machiavelli’s Impact on later Political Thoughts

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Hobbes on State of Nature

Transformation towards Social Contract:

 It is neither fully utilitarian nor ideal.

Hobbes Natural Rights:

Hobbes Social Contract

Implications of this Contract:

John Locke (1632-1704)

Locke’s Political Theories

Locke on Human Nature

Locke on State of Nature

Defects in the state of nature:

Locke’s Social Contract

 Legislature cannot exercise power arbitrarily.

Characteristics of the state under the social contract:

Implications of the Social Contract:

 He painted the picture state comparatively realistic.

Locke’s Secularism or state-Church Relationship

Jean Jacques Russeau (1712-1778)

Rousseau on Human Nature and State of Nature

Rousseau’s Social Contract

Theory of Separation of Power