Political Government and Poltics

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INDEX
Unit-1 Approaches to the Study of Indian Politics and Nature of the State
in India: Liberal, Marxist and Gandhian
Unit-2 Lesson-1 Fundamentals of Indian Constitution

Lesson-2 Debates on Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles
Unit-3 Lesson-1 Prime Minister
Lesson-2 Parliament
Lesson-3 Judiciary
Unit-4 Lesson-1 Power Structure in India: With respect to Caste
Lesson-2 Power Structure in India : Class
Lesson-3 Patriarchy
Unit-5 Lesson-1 Debates on Secularism
Lesson-2 Debates on communalism
Unit-6 Parties & Party Systems in India
Unit-7 Strategies of Development in India since Independence: Planned
Economy and Neo-Liberalism
Unit-8 Social Movements

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Q.1 – Compare the Marxian and Gandhian approaches to the study of Indian
politics.
Answer-
Introduction - Following the establishment of factories and the capitalistic mode of

production during the 17th-18th centuries West, the conditions of the workers
deteriorated. The workers who entered the factories were subject to all sorts of
exploitation: long hours of work, life in slums, ill-health etc. The result was exploitation
of the workers, ever-increasing gap between the rich and the poor, economic
inequalities, degradation and alienation.
Karl Marx and Frederich Engels realised clearly the adverse effects of capitalism and
in the process, brought out what is called scientific socialism or Marxism (after the name
of Marx). Those who contributed to the Marxian philosophy after Marx and Engels
include, among others, V.I. Lenin (Russia), and Mao Zedong (China).
Alienation means aloofness, estrangement, apathy, cutting off. Marx finds
alienation in extermination i.e., man finds himself external (alien) to his activity,
his self.
Marxism and its Basic Postulates
Marxism is the political philosophy of the working class as liberalism is the political
philosophy of the capitalist class. It is a theory of social change : why social changes
take place and how do these changes come into effect? The social changes take place
because of the material factors and through a method called ‘dialectical materialistic’
method.

3
Marxism is based on certain assumptions/postulates. These are:
1. Nothing happens in the world on its own; there is always a cause -effect
relationship in what we see around. The relations of production (i.e., material
relations among the people), as the basis of society, provide the cause while the
productive forces constitute the effect

2. The real development is always the material development (i.e., the economic
development). The progressive development of productive forces indicates the
progressive level of development.
3. The material (i.e. economic) factor is the dominant factor in both individual life and
social life.
4. Human being is born at a particular stage of social / material development, i.e.,
born in a social setting which exists independent of him. But being an active being,
human being makes his own social setting. Marx had said, human beings are born in
history, but they make history.
5. Social classes, especially the opposing classes, through their struggle and
following the process of revolution, move in the forward direction. That is why the
Marxists say that every subsequent society is better than the preceding society.
6. Revolutions mean total and wholesome changes; they are not a negative force,
but are what Marx had called, the locomotives of history. When launched and
successful, revolutions take the society to a higher stage of development.
7. The state, being the result of a class society, is a class institution. It is neither
impartial Individual and the State nor just; it is a class institution. It is a partisan,
oppressive and exploitative institution; it exists to serve the dominant class of which
it is an instrument. In the capitalist society, the capitalist state protects and promotes
the interests of the capitalists while in the socialist society, it protects and promotes

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the interests of the working class. By the time the socialist society becomes fully
communistic, the state would, by then, have withered away.
Withering away of the state, according to the Marxists, means disappearing of the
state, i.e., slowly and gradually the state apparatus would go the whole way.
Highlights of Marxism
Marxism revolves around the following theoretical propositions
Dialectical materialism is the sum-total of the general principles which explain as to
why and how social changes take place. The social changes take place because of the
material factors and through the dialectical materialistic method. The dialectical
materialistic method is a triple method. According to Marx,
Relations of Productions constitute the basis of the society at any given point of time.
What are called the social relations among the people are, for the Marxists, the relations
of production.
Productive Forces constitute those elements which originate from the relations of
production, but which, though opposite to the latter, promise more production through
newer methods/devices.
In very simple words, the Marxian theory states that all development takes place
through struggle between opposites and because of factors which are economic.
New Mode of Production is the result of the struggle between the relations of
production and productive forces at a matured stage of their development. The new
mode of production has the merits of both the relations of production and productive
forces; hence a higher stage of economic development.

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Historical Materialism is also called the economic/materialistic/ deterministic
interpretation of history. The Marxian explanation of history is that it is a record of the
self-development of productive forces; that the society keeps marching on its path of
economic/ material development; that each stage of development indicates the level of
development attained; that history is the history of numerous socioeconomic
formations: primitive communistic, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and thereafter the
transitional socialist followed by the communist society; that each succeeding society is
an improvement over the preceeding one; that the socialist society, after the abolition of
the capitalist society would be a classless society but with a state in the form of the
dictatorship of the proletariat; the communist society, which follows the socialists
society, would be both classless society and stateless society.
worker who creates value in the commodity when he produces it. But he does not
get what he produces, he gets only the wages: over and above the wages is what goes
to the employer. That is the surplus value. The surplus value is the difference between
what the value a labourer produces and what he gets in the form of wages. In simple
words, the labourer gets the wages; the employer, the profit. This surplus value makes
the rich, richer and the poor, poorer. It is through surplus value that capitalists thrive.
Theory of Class Struggle is another tenet of Marxism. In the Marxian view, all
hitherto history has been the history of class struggle between opposing classes. Class
struggle is the characteristic of class societies. In the classless societies, there is no class
struggle because there are, in such societies, no opposing/ antagonistic classes. Class
struggle, in class societies, (i.e., in slave-owning society, the feudal society, the capitalist
society) is of mainly three types: economic, ideological, politicalTheory of Class Struggle
is another tenet of Marxism. In the Marxian view, all hitherto history has been the history
of class struggle between opposing classes.

6
Class struggle is the characteristic of class societies. In the classless societies, there is no
class struggle because there are, in such societies, no opposing/ antagonistic classes.
Class struggle, in class societies, (i.e., in slave-owning society, the feudal society, the
capitalist society) is of mainly three types: economic, ideological, and political.
Marxism advocates revolution. Revolutions, the Marxists say, are locomotives of

history. Revolutions occur when the relations of production come into conflict with the
productive forces, leading, thus, to a new mode of production. They bring about a
complete transformation of society, without violence if possible, and with it, if necessary.
Revolutions indicate changes: wholesome changes, changes in the very character of a

given society. They signify the coming up of a higher stage of social development.
Accordingly, the Marxists regard revolution as a positive phenomenon.
Dictatorship of the proletariat means the rule of the working class. It is a state of
the workers in the socialist society which follows the capitalist society. It is the
dictatorship of the workers in the socialist society in the sense there is the dictatorship
of the capitalists in the capitalist society. There capitalists rule the way they want; now
the workers’ rule in the socialist society the way the workers want. Nevertheless, Marx
makes it clear that the dictatorship of the proletariat, i.e., the workers’ state, is an interim
or a transitional arrangement which functions between the capitalist society and the
communist society. Once the socialist society is completely established, the workers
state will not be needed, i.e., it will wither away (disappear slowly). Lenin insists that the
dictatorship of the proletariat is better than the bourgeois state, both quantitatively and
qualitatively (at it looks after the interests and welfare of the whole multitude of the
workers rather than handful of capitalists).

7
The socialist society that follows the capitalist society after its abolition is a
classless society. It is a classless society in the sense that all are workers wheresoever
they work, in the office, in the factory or on the fields: each gets job according to one’s
ability (‘from each according to his abilities to each according to his work’). The
communist society which follows the socialist society, will be both the classless society
and the stateless society.s
Relevance of Marxism
Marxism, both as a philosophy and also as a practice, has attained a position

unparalleled in social and political thought. Its appeal crosses all boundaries, and in fact,
all limits. Its adversaries are as much convinced of its strength as are its admirers. And
yet its shortcomings are obvious.
Changes do not occur simply because of the clashes between the opposing classes.
History is indebted to class cooperation as well for its development. Material factor,
though important and dominating it may be, is not the sole factor in explaining the
whole complex of society’s intricacies. Indeed, man does not live by bread alone, but it is
also true that he cannot live without it. Marxism has underestimated the worth and
strength of national/ patriotic Individual and the State sentiments. To say that the
workers have no fatherland of their own, as Marx used to say, is to make them
parentless. Marxism also underestimated the importance of the state. To say that the
State is a class institution and therefore, an oppressive and exploitative one is to
oversimplify things.

8
The Marxian formulations, in practice, have been really disappointing. Marxism, as
a practice, has failed, whatever be the reasons. One chief reason has been its centralizing
tendency: the dictatorship of the proletariat becomes the dictatorship of the communist
party, the party’s dictatorship becomes, ultimately, the dictatorship of one man: be that
a Stalin or a Mao. In the Soviet Union, reform movement (Glasnost, especially) initiated
by Mikhail Gorbachev marked the beginning of the end of the communist movement
not only in Europe but almost the world over. The communist China has introduced
numerous liberalization measures in its economy and polity. The relevance of Marxism
as an alternative ideology before the world is no more unquestioned.
Gandhism
Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) was the supreme leader of the Indian nationalist
movement which he had led for about thirty years, between 1917 and 1947. He was a
thinker in so far as he had challenged most of the assumptions and doctrines of his
times, and in their places, provided possible and plausible alternatives. It is really difficult
to project Gandhi ji in any particular frame. He was more than a Plato, one can possible
call him a Socrates; he was more than an Aristotle, one can call him a Buddha; he was
more than a Mill or a Marx, one can call him a Guru Nanak. Gandhiji was a liberal among
the Marxists, and a Marxist among the liberals; he was a democrat among the
individualists and an individualist among the socialists. He was an idealist among the
realists, and a realist among the idealists. He had combined in himself the virtues of all
the known ideologies, past and present.

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Gandhi as a Critic of Western Civilization
Gandhi ji was a critic of Western Civilization. His complaint against western
materialism is that it destroys the very essence of spiritualism. He regarded the western
type of man as an atomistic individual, with all flesh and no soul.
As against the state that existed in the West, Gandhi ji advocated what he called,
the Ramrajya; as against the western style of managing things through the centralizing
forces, he stood for a decentralized polity. As against materialism, industrialization and
capitalism, he made a strong plea for Swadeshi, cottage industries and the theory of
Trusteeship.
State, Decentralization, Cottage Industries, Trusteeship
Gandhi ji is not an admirer of the type of the state that exists in the Western
Society. For him, the Western state represented ‘violence in a concentrated form’; it is a
soulless machine. Accordingly, Gandhi ji, as a philosophical anarchist, admitted the state,
but very unwillingly, only when it is most needed.
Anarchist is one who is opposed to every type of state; anarchism is a theory of

lawlessness: without state, without government, without law.
Gandhism stands for a non-violent state based on (i) the consent of the people (ii) the
near unity in the society. Gandhiji advocated decentralization of power: both political
and economic. The spirit of Gandhian democracy is the spirit of decentralization.

Decentralization means devolution of power at each level beginning from individual/
local unit and reaching the apex. The essence of decentralization, according to Gandhiji,
is that all powers flow from below and go up, in ascending order.

10
So considered, political power, in the Gandhian scheme, is vested in the individuals: the
centre of all activity, the repository of Swaraj; from individual, power is transferred to
the village; from village, the power goes to the higher unit, and ultimately, ends up
with the central/ national government which, practically performs only the coordinating
functions.
Thus what is or what cannot be done by the individual is done by the village, what is not
done by the village is done by the local/ regional government; what is not done by the
regional/ provincial government is done by the central/ national government. The spirit
of the Gandhian Ramrajya is that it is a self-regulating system where everyone is one’s

own ruler, and not a hindrance to one’s neighbors.
Gandhiji’s concept of decentralization has an economic aspect. He argued for the
devolution of economic power as well. He advocated village economy through the

promotion of village, small, cottage industries. In fact, he was for the self-reliant village
economy. His concept of Swadeshi is “that spirit which requires us to serve our
immediate neighbors and use things produced in our neighborhood in preference to

those more remote.”
Gandhiji favoured the revival of indigenous industries so that people could have
enough to eat. In his opinion, any kind of economy which exploited people and helped
concentrated wealth in fewer hands, stands condemned. Gandhiji’s idea of trusteeship

was unique. It was unique because it aimed at establishing Individual and the State
cordial relations between the capital and the labour.

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Declaring all property to be the property of the community as a whole, Gandhi ji
pleaded that all the employers (industrialists, capitalists and the like) are the trustees of
what they hold. As such, they all are entitled only for the money they need to satisfy
their necessities as do the employees (the workers etc.). For Gandhi ji no individual is the
owner: all work and all are the workers; everyone gets for the service one renders; the
profit is not of the owner, but is what belongs to the community. The employers are the
trustees, and not the masters; the employees as necessary components of the
enterprises, are the workers and not the slaves.
Ends and Means
According to Gandhiji, ends and means constitute two aspects of the same reality,
i.e., two sides of the same coin. They form an organic whole. Ends grow out of the
means “As are the means, so are the ends”. Gandhiji used to say. He also said, the means
may be likened to a seed; the ends, to a tree and there is just the same inviolable
connection between the means and the ends as there is between the seed and the tree.”
He argued that the state cannot attain its ideal character as long as the means are
tainted with violence. That is why he always laid emphasis on the purity of means to
achieve the ends. Impure means cannot achieve pure ends. He said once: “I would not
accept Swaraj if it comes through bloodshed”. Again, “For me, Ahimsa comes before
Swaraj.” So close and inseparable is the relation between the two that if one takes care
of the means, the ends will take care of themselves. Furthermore, the realization of the
goal has to be, for Gandhiji, in proportion to that of the means.

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Gandhiji was no Machiavelli. For Machiavelli, ends justify the means; for Gandhiji, means
justify the ends.
Society and Sarvodaya
Gandhism is not only a theory of politics, economy, religion, strategy, but also is a
theory of society. Gandhiji’s whole social philosophy is a philosophy of equality:
equality not in the sense of absolute equality, but in the sense that as human beings, all
are equal. A society based on equality, according to Gandhiji, is a society which rejects
any -and every type of discrimination: either on the basis of caste, creed, class, sex, race,
or region. We are born as human beings, not as Hindus or Muslims, We are born as
human beings, not as an upper caste being or a dalit. Gandhiji is opposed to all types of
discriminatory tendencies and trends. For him, there is only one caste, one class, one
religion, one race, and that is humanity.
He, therefore, did not admit any discrimination. In fact, he was more for the welfare of
the weaker, i.e., for women as compared to men; for the weaker sections of society: the
Harijans, the Dalits. It is not that he wanted to deprive ‘A’ and ‘give’ to ‘B’; it is that he
wanted to give ‘B’ more so as to enable him to get to the heights of ‘A’. He advocated
equality so as to level people in social, economic, and political hierarchy. His concept of
equality aimed at bridging the gaps and not distancing them.
Gandhiji’s concept of Sarvodaya sums up his views on the kind of society he used
to dream. Sarvodaya, as Gandhiji had visualised, is the greatest good of all the
members of the society. It is the welfare of all. It is the good of the individual together
with the good of all the individuals, i.e., the good of each with the good of all. The
concept of good in Sarvodaya is not merely material, it is moral and spiritual as well.

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Conclusion-
Marxism is a political philosophy of the working class, which advocates equality, social
justice, absence of all types of exploitation, a planned economy with employment for
each and all. Gandhism is a political philosophy of Satya and Ahimsa, an alternative
solution of all problems faced by humanity, a synthesis of all major political ideologies
of the world.
Q.2 – Describe the salient feature of the Constitution of India.
Answer-
The Constitution of India begins with a Preamble. The Preamble contains the ideals,
objectives and basic principles of the Constitution. The salient features of the
Constitution have evolved directly and indirectly from these objectives which flow from
the Preamble.
Our Constitution has adopted the best features of most of the major constitutions
of the world as per the needs of the country. Though borrowed from almost every
constitution in the world, the constitution of India has several salient features that
distinguish it from the constitutions of other countries.
This article lists the 18 major features of the constitution and comprehensively covers
each of the features in the article.
Constitution of India – Major Features
1. World's Longest Constitution
The Indian Constitution contains 395 articles and 12 schedules, making it the world's
longest written constitution. Just compare it with other countries Constitutions. For

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example, the UK has no written constitution, while the US Constitution contains only
seven articles.
Not only this but since 1951 about 90 articles and more than 100 amendments have
been added. However, since the articles are not added separately as part of an existing
article (e.g. Article 21A, 35A etc.) the total number of articles remains the same at 395.
2. Taken from various sources
The Indian Constitution was framed from multiple sources including the 1935
Government of India Act and Other Countries Constitutions.
Feature of Indian Constitution Borrowed From (Source)
Basic structure (Federal scheme, Judiciary, Government of India Act 1935
Governors, Emergency powers, Public Service

Commissions, Administrative details etc.)
Fundamental Rights
American Constitution
Directive Principles
Irish Constitution
Cabinet form of government British Constitution

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In addition to these, the Constitutions of Canada, Australia, Germany, the U.S.S.R., and
France also adopted various provisions.
3. Federal System with Unitary Features
Federal System with Unitary The Indian Constitution includes all the federal
characteristics of governance such as dual government system (center and
state),division of powers between the three state organs (executive, judiciary and
legislature), constitutional supremacy, independent judiciary and bicameralism (lower

and upper house).
Nevertheless, the Indian Constitution is unique in that it includes many unitary
features such as a strong centre, all India services common to the center and the
states, emergency provisions that can transform the Constitution into a unitary one if
necessary, appointment of governors by the president on the advice of the center, etc.
Indeed, Article 1 clearly states that India is a ' Union of States ' rather than a
federation of States. In India, the states did not come together to form the centre (or
Union) like in the case of the USA which is the purest form of a federation. Rather, for
administrative convenience, it is the center that created the states. Article 3 of the Indian
Constitution makes Parliament the sole authority to create new states clearly indicating
that the Indian Constitution is of a unitary nature with certain federal characteristics.
4. Parliamentary Form of Government
On the pattern of the British parliamentary system of government, the Indian
Constitution has opted for the parliamentary form of government. The key
characteristics of the parliamentary form of government are:

16
1. Executive is members of the legislature
2. Collective responsibility to the legislature of the Council of Ministers
3. Rule of the majority party
4. Prime Minister's or chief minister's leadership in the state
5. Lower house dissolution (Lok Sabha and state assemblies)
6. Government form of the Cabinet
5. Balance between the Sovereignty of Parliament and Judicial Supremacy
A fine balance has been struck between parliamentary sovereignty and judicial
supremacy by the Indian Constitution. The Supreme Court is vacuumed by Articles 13,
32 and 136 with the power of judicial review. By its power of judicial review, it can strike
down any parliamentary law as unconstitutional.
On the other hand, the Parliament, being the representative of the people's will,
has the authority to make laws, and it can also amend the major part of the Constitution
through its video vested powers under Article 368.
6. Independent and Integrated Judicial System
In India, unlike the United States where there is a two-tiered judiciary, a single judicial
system prevails with the Supreme Court at the top, the State and District High Courts
and other subordinate courts below and subject to the supervision of the High Courts.
It is the duty of all levels of courts in India to enforce both central and state laws
unlike in the US, where federal courts adjudicate on federal matters and state courts on
state matters.

17
Not only is the judiciary system well fully integrated in India, but because of the
following provisions it is also independent.
i. Appointment of judges of Supreme Court and High Courts by collegium system
ii. Removal of judges in Parliament through an impeachment procedure that is very
difficult to pass
iii. Supreme Court judges salaries, pensions, and allowances are charged to India's
Consolidated Fund
iv. Power to punish for self – disregard

v. Ban on judges practice after retirement etc
7. Directive Principles of State Policy
In Part IV of the Constitution, the Directive Principles of State Policies (DPSPs) aims
to make India a welfare state. Therefore, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar calls the Directive Principles
as the Indian Constitution's novel feature. The Principles of the Directive are inherently
unjustifiable, that is, they are not enforceable for their violation by the courts.
Their usefulness, however, lies in their moral obligation to apply these principles
to the state in making laws. As such, the principles of the directive are fundamental to
the country's governance.
8. Combination of rigidity and flexibility
The Indian Constitution strikes a fine balance between rigidity and flexibility when it
comes to ease of modification. Article 368 lays down two types of modifications:
i. Some provisions may be amended by a special parliamentary majority, i.e. a
2/3rd majority of the members of each House present and vote and majority (i.e.
more than 50 %) of each House's total membership.

18
ii. Some other provisions can be amended by a special parliamentary majority and
with half of the total states ratifying them. This ensures that with the widest possible
majority, the Constitution is amended.
At the same time, in the manner of the ordinary legislative process, certain provisions of
the Constitution can be amended by a simple majority of Parliament. Such amendments

are not within the scope of Article 368.
There are many other features of the Indian Constitution such as Fundamental
Rights, Fundamental Duties, Emergency Provisions, Universal Adult Franchise, etc. but
the constitution's most important features that define and distinguish it from the other
World Constitutions have been listed above.
9. Single Citizenship: Generally in a Federal Constitution there is a provision for dual

citizenship i.e. citizenship of Centre and of State. American Constitution provides for
dual citizenship. Case of Indian Constitution is different. Despite being a Federal
Constitution it provides for a single citizenship. There is no separate citizenship for the
States. This instills a sense of unity amongst the citizens despite having diversity in many
spheres.
10. A Secular State: Preamble declares India to be a secular State. A secular State in
case of religion is completely neutral. It treats all religions equally and does not
discriminate on the basis of religion. Articles 25 to 28 also consolidate this aspect and
give the right to every person to profess, practice and propagate religion.

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11. Fundamental Duties: Fundamental Duties have been provided in Part IV-A (Article
51-A) of the Constitution. They have been added by 42nd Constitutional
Amendment, 1976. The amendment added 10 fundamental duties which were

increased to 11 by 86th Constitutional Amendment, 2002. It serves as a reminder to the
citizens that they owe certain duties towards the nation apart from enjoying the rights
conferred by the Constitution.
Conclusion-
Constitution of India is a complete blend of all the provisions, and thus the provisions
and articles in it make it the apex law of the state. The soul of the Constituent Assembly
in implementing and interpreting any article of the constitution must always be
considered. The framers of the constitution have tried to incorporate the significant
provisions in the constitution so that there is no scope for ambiguity pertaining as to

how governance would take place in a country and therefore it is the feature of Indian
Constitution which in itself makes it a complete and a comprehensive document of the

country.
Q.3 – Compare the Liberal and Marxian approaches to the study of Indian politics.
Answer-
Introduction - Following the establishment of factories and the capitalistic mode of
production during the 17th-18th centuries West, the conditions of the workers
deteriorated. The workers who entered the factories were subject to all sorts of
exploitation: long hours of work, life in slums, ill-health etc. The result was exploitation
of the workers, ever-increasing gap between the rich and the poor, economic
inequalities, degradation and alienation.

20
Karl Marx and Frederich Engels realised clearly the adverse effects of capitalism and in
the process, brought out what is called scientific socialism or Marxism (after the name of
Marx). Those who contributed to the Marxian philosophy after Marx and Engels include,
among others, V.I. Lenin (Russia), and Mao Zedong (China).
Alienation means aloofness, estrangement, apathy, cutting off. Marx finds

alienation in extermination i.e., man finds himself external (alien) to his activity,
his self.
Marxism and its Basic Postulates

Marxism is the political philosophy of the working class as liberalism is the political
philosophy of the capitalist class. It is a theory of social change : why social changes
take place and how do these changes come into effect? The social changes take place
because of the material factors and through a method called ‘dialectical materialistic’
method.
Marxism is based on certain assumptions/postulates. These are:
1. Nothing happens in the world on its own; there is always a cause -effect
relationship in what we see around. The relations of production (i.e., material
relations among the people), as the basis of society, provide the cause while the
productive forces constitute the effect

2. The real development is always the material development (i.e., the economic
development). The progressive development of productive forces indicates the
progressive level of development.
3. The material (i.e. economic) factor is the dominant factor in both individual life and
social life.

21
4. Human being is born at a particular stage of social / material development, i.e.,
born in a social setting which exists independent of him. But being an active being,
human being makes his own social setting. Marx had said, human beings are born in
history, but they make history.
5. Social classes, especially the opposing classes, through their struggle and
following the process of revolution, move in the forward direction. That is why the
Marxists say that every subsequent society is better than the preceding society.
6. Revolutions mean total and wholesome changes; they are not a negative force,
but are what Marx had called, the locomotives of history. When launched and
successful, revolutions take the society to a higher stage of development.
7. The state, being the result of a class society, is a class institution. It is neither
impartial Individual and the State nor just; it is a class institution. It is a partisan,
oppressive and exploitative institution; it exists to serve the dominant class of which
it is an instrument. In the capitalist society, the capitalist state protects and promotes
the interests of the capitalists while in the socialist society, it protects and promotes
the interests of the working class. By the time the socialist society becomes fully
communistic, the state would, by then, have withered away.
Withering away of the state, according to the Marxists, means disappearing of the
state, i.e., slowly and gradually the state apparatus would go the whole way.
Highlights of Marxism
Marxism revolves around the following theoretical propositions
Dialectical materialism is the sum-total of the general principles which explain as to
why and how social changes take place. The social changes take place because of the
material factors and through the dialectical materialistic method. The dialectical
materialistic method is a triple method. According to Marx,
22
Relations of Productions constitute the basis of the society at any given point of time.
What are called the social relations among the people are, for the Marxists, the relations
of production.
Productive Forces constitute those elements which originate from the relations of
production, but which, though opposite to the latter, promise more production through
newer methods/devices.
In very simple words, the Marxian theory states that all development takes place
through struggle between opposites and because of factors which are economic.
New Mode of Production is the result of the struggle between the relations of
production and productive forces at a matured stage of their development. The new
mode of production has the merits of both the relations of production and productive
forces; hence a higher stage of economic development.
Historical Materialism is also called the economic/materialistic/ deterministic
interpretation of history. The Marxian explanation of history is that it is a record of the
self-development of productive forces; that the society keeps marching on its path of
economic/ material development; that each stage of development indicates the level of
development attained; that history is the history of numerous socioeconomic
formations: primitive communistic, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and thereafter the
transitional socialist followed by the communist society; that each succeeding society is
an improvement over the preceeding one; that the socialist society, after the abolition of
the capitalist society would be a classless society but with a state in the form of the
dictatorship of the proletariat; the communist society, which follows the socialists
society, would be both classless society and stateless society.

23
worker who creates value in the commodity when he produces it. But he does not
get what he produces, he gets only the wages: over and above the wages is what goes
to the employer. That is the surplus value. The surplus value is the difference between
what the value a labourer produces and what he gets in the form of wages. In simple
words, the labourer gets the wages; the employer, the profit. This surplus value makes
the rich, richer and the poor, poorer. It is through surplus value that capitalists thrive.
Theory of Class Struggle is another tenet of Marxism. In the Marxian view, all
hitherto history has been the history of class struggle between opposing classes. Class
struggle is the characteristic of class societies. In the classless societies, there is no class
struggle because there are, in such societies, no opposing/ antagonistic classes. Class
struggle, in class societies, (i.e., in slave-owning society, the feudal society, the capitalist
society) is of mainly three types: economic, ideological, politicalTheory of Class Struggle
is another tenet of Marxism. In the Marxian view, all hitherto history has been the history
of class struggle between opposing classes. Class struggle is the characteristic of class
societies. In the classless societies, there is no class struggle because there are, in such
societies, no opposing/ antagonistic classes. Class struggle, in class societies, (i.e., in
slave-owning society, the feudal society, the capitalist society) is of mainly three types:
economic, ideological, and political.
Marxism advocates revolution. Revolutions, the Marxists say, are locomotives of
history. Revolutions occur when the relations of production come into conflict with the
productive forces, leading, thus, to a new mode of production. They bring about a
complete transformation of society, without violence if possible, and with it, if necessary.
Revolutions indicate changes: wholesome changes, changes in the very character of a
given society. They signify the coming up of a higher stage of social development.
Accordingly, the Marxists regard revolution as a positive phenomenon.

24
Dictatorship of the proletariat means the rule of the working class. It is a state of
the workers in the socialist society which follows the capitalist society. It is the
dictatorship of the workers in the socialist society in the sense there is the dictatorship
of the capitalists in the capitalist society.
There capitalists rule the way they want; now the workers’ rule in the socialist society the
way the workers want. Nevertheless, Marx makes it clear that the dictatorship of the
proletariat, i.e., the workers’ state, is an interim or a transitional arrangement which
functions between the capitalist society and the communist society. Once the socialist
society is completely established, the workers state will not be needed, i.e., it will wither
away (disappear slowly). Lenin insists that the dictatorship of the proletariat is better
than the bourgeois state, both quantitatively and qualitatively (at it looks after the
interests and welfare of the whole multitude of the workers rather than handful of
capitalists).
The socialist society that follows the capitalist society after its abolition is a
classless society. It is a classless society in the sense that all are workers wheresoever
they work, in the office, in the factory or on the fields: each gets job according to one’s
ability (‘from each according to his abilities to each according to his work’). The
communist society which follows the socialist society, will be both the classless society
and the stateless society.
Relevance of Marxism
Marxism, both as a philosophy and also as a practice, has attained a position
unparalleled in social and political thought. Its appeal crosses all boundaries, and in fact,
all limits. Its adversaries are as much convinced of its strength as are its admirers. And
yet its shortcomings are obvious.

25
Changes do not occur simply because of the clashes between the opposing classes.
History is indebted to class cooperation as well for its development. Material factor,
though important and dominating it may be, is not the sole factor in explaining the
whole complex of society’s intricacies. Indeed, man does not live by bread alone, but it is
also true that he cannot live without it. Marxism has underestimated the worth and
strength of national/ patriotic Individual and the State sentiments. To say that the
workers have no fatherland of their own, as Marx used to say, is to make them
parentless. Marxism also underestimated the importance of the state. To say that the
State is a class institution and therefore, an oppressive and exploitative one is to

oversimplify things.
The Marxian formulations, in practice, have been really disappointing. Marxism, as
a practice, has failed, whatever be the reasons. One chief reason has been its centralizing
tendency: the dictatorship of the proletariat becomes the dictatorship of the communist
party, the party’s dictatorship becomes, ultimately, the dictatorship of one man: be that
a Stalin or a Mao. In the Soviet Union, reform movement (Glasnost, especially) initiated
by Mikhail Gorbachev marked the beginning of the end of the communist movement
not only in Europe but almost the world over. The communist China has introduced
numerous liberalization measures in its economy and polity. The relevance of Marxism
as an alternative ideology before the world is no more unquestioned.
Liberalism
Liberalism is fairly an old political ideology. Its roots can be traced to the days of the
sixteenth century. Since then it has passed through numerous stages. The Western
Enlightenment had refused to accept moral goals as absolute truths; the English
Glorious revolution (1688) had denounced the divine rights of the kings;

26
The French Revolution gave the cardinal ideas of ‘Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity’
and the American War of Independence a little earlier (1775-76) laid emphasis on the
declaration of human rights.
Meaning of Liberalism
Harold Laski, an English scholar of Political Science once wrote: “It (liberalism) is not
easy to describe, much less to define, for it is hardly less a habit of mind than a body of
doctrine”. What it means is that liberalism is too dynamic and too flexible a concept to
give it a precise meaning. And yet the scholars have made attempts to define it. Sartori
says, ‘Very simply, liberalism is the theory and practice of individual liberty, juridical
defense and the constitutional state.” According to Koerner, “Liberalism begins and ends
with the ideals of individual freedom, individual human rights and individual human
happiness”. Encyclopedia Britannica defines liberalism “as an idea committed to

freedom, as a method and policy in government, as an organizing principle in society
and as a way of life for the individual and the community
Liberalism is a theory of reforms, for it has stood for reforms in economic, social
and political fields. It is a theory of liberty, individual liberty, individual autonomy, for it
has argued in favour of the development of human personality. It is a theory of
democracy, for it has favoured constitutional government, government based on the
consent of the people, rule of law, decentralization, free and fair elections. To conclude,
we may highlight three aspects of liberalism which clearly help us in understanding its
meanings: in social sphere, liberalism stands for secularism and a society that opposes,
all kinds of social discrimination; in economic sphere, it favours a capitalistic economy,
individual ownership of the means of production and maximum profit-earning motive,

in political sphere, it stands for a democratic polity, individual rights and liberties,
responsive and responsible government, free and impartial judiciary and the like.

27
Features of Liberalism
We may identity certain characteristics of liberalism. These characteristic features are:
(1) Individual Liberty: Liberalism is essentially an ideology of liberty. Its love for
individual liberty is unquestionable. It has become libertarianism. For the liberals, liberty
is the very essence of human personality. It is a means to one’s development.
(2) Individual-centered theory: Liberalism begins and ends with individual. For liberals,
individual is the centre of all activities, the focal point; individual is the end while all
other associations, including the state, are the means, which exist for the individual.
individual is the centre around which all things move
(3) Capitalistic Economy: Liberalism advocates free-market economy, i.e., the
capitalistic mode of economy. It believes in private property system, regarding property
rights as sacrosanct; maximum profit as the only motive; capitalistic mode of production
and distribution as the only essence; the market forces as the controlling means of
economy.
(4) Limited State: Liberalism advocates the concept of limited state. The liberals view
the state as a means for attaining the good of the individual. They oppose every type of
totalitarian state. They are of the opinion that a more powerful state means a less free
individual. Locke used to say, “because the functions of the state are limited, so are
limited its powers.”
(5) Opposed to Traditions/Superstitions: As liberalism rose as a reaction against
traditions/superstitions, it is, by its nature, opposed to all reactionary measures.
Liberalism, emerging from Renaissance and Reformation, stood, and actually stands, for
reason and rationalism. As against the feudal model of man as a passive being,
liberalism favours a model of man who is more active and more acquisitive.

28
(6) Democracy: Liberalism is an exponent of democratic government. It seeks to
establish a government of the people, by the people and for the people; a government
that functions according to the Constitution and constitutionalism; a government that

upholds the rule of law; a government that secures rights and liberties of the people.
Liberalism, McGovern says, is a combination of democracy and individualism.
(7) Welfareism: Liberalism is closely associated with welfarism, as a state activity, is the
idea that state works for the welfare of the people. The liberal concept of state activity is
one where the state serves the people. In other words, the welfare state is a ‘social
service’ state.
Weaknesses of Liberalism
Liberalism has its own inherent defects. It is a philosophy full of tensions. On the
one hand, it unfurls the flag of liberty, and on the other, it argues for equality. On the
one hand, it works, within the framework of market society, it promises equal
opportunities to all. On the one hand, it asks for unlimited rights to acquire property,
and on the other, it seeks to demand a share of profit for the welfare of those who are
unemployed and the needy. On the one hand, it builds a capitalistic economy, ending
up ultimately in inequalities, and on the other, it endeavors to establish an egalitarian

society
Conclusion
Liberalism is a political philosophy which advocates the autonomy of individual, the

constitutional state, the responsive government, rights and liberties of the individual,
free press, rule of law, impartial judiciary, decentralization and the like. You also know
that Marxism is a political philosophy of the working class, which advocates equality,
social justice, absence of all types of exploitation, a planned economy with employment
for each and all.
29
Q.4 – Critically examine the role of the Prime Minister in the context of coalition
politics in India.
Answer- Between 1989 and 2014 no party could form a government at the Centre with a
majority of its own. The vote share of the Congress steadily declined since its top
performance in 1984. There began an era of alliance politics or multi-party governments

in 1989. It was also called 'Era of Coalitions'. The term ‘Coalition' is derived from the
Latin word Coalescere' which means “to come together”. Coalition thus means "an
alliance of political parties forming a government”.
Fragmentation of Indian polity could be attributed to many factors, such as
(i) Decline of the Congress,
(ii) Rise of castebased parties and groups, especially in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
(iii) The rise of a number of regional parties, such as the Telugu Desam Party, Akali
Dal, Shiv Sena and Biju Janata Dal.
Alliance Politics: Coalition Governments
We made a brief description of the National Front Government that was formed in 1989.
There were other such governments made and unmade ever since.
1. The National Front Government: The main constituents of the National Front were
the Janata Dal, Congress-S, Telugu Desam Party and Asom Gana Parishad. V.P. Singh
was the President of the Janata Dal formed in 1988. He was sworn in as Prime Minister
on 2 December 1989. His government was supported by the BJP and Leftists from
outside, which meant that the BJP, the CPI-M, the CPI and other Leftist groups
supported V.P. Singh's National Front without joining the Government.

30
The V.P. Singh's Government fell on 7 November, 1990, since he lost the confidence of
the House. The BJP which supported this government, had withdrawn support to the
National Front.
Chandra Shekhar, who had walked out of V.P. Singh's Janata Dal with 58 MPs, formed
the next government. His government lasted only 7 months.
2. The United Front Governments: The 1996 elections again threw up a hung Lok
Sabha. The Congress had won just 140 seats. The President Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma
invited Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the BJP's leader, to form the government. This government
lasted for just two weeks. On 1 June 1996 the United Front's leader H.D. Deve Gowda
was sworn in as India's new Prime Minister. This government was supported by the
Congress. It ran for 11 months. Thereafter, I.K. Guiral became the Prime Minister, again
with the outside support of the Congress.
Fall of the I.K. Gujral Government: The Jain Commission had accused the DMK for
having granted shelter to LTTE in Tamil Nadu. Since LTTE was suspected of complicity in
Rajiv Gandhi's assassination, the Congress demanded DMK ministers' dismissal from
Gujral's government. When the United Front refused to concede this demand, the
Congress withdrew support to Gujral's government.
3. The NDA Government: On March 1998 BJP-led NDA's leader Atal Bihari Vajpayee
was sworn in as the country's new Prime Minister. His government was shortlived
because in April 1999 Jayalalithaa's AIADMK withdrew its support to the government.
The 12th Lok Sabha was dissolved. The BJP-led NDA obtained a clear majority in the
13th Lok Sabha that was constituted in October 1999. Atal Bihari Vajpayee headed NDA
Government from 1998 to 2004.

31
4. The UPA Governments: In May 2004 the Congress-led UPA (United Progressive
Alliance) formed the government, with Manmohan Singh as the Prime Minister. The UPA
comprised some 15 parties, including the Congress, the RJD, the DMK, the Nationalist
Congress Party, the Telangana Rashtra Samiti, the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha and others.
The UPA government ran with the help of the four left parties, including the CPI and the
CPI-M. The Indo-US Nuclear deal in 2006 had made the left parties extremely angry.
Eventually on 8 July 2008, they withdrew support to Manmohan Singh's government.

The NDA also criticized the UPA Government for hiding the draft of the Nuclear
agreement from people. It said the Indo-US deal would certainly have an adverse effect
on country's long term interests and national security.
The UPA government seemed to be in a minority in the House. Left parties'
withdrawal of support forced the UPA government to seek a trust vote. The Government
won the confidence of Lok Sabha on 22 July, 2008. The General Elections to the 15th Lok
Sabha were held in April-May 2009. The Congress-led UPA emerged as the largest
alliance in the Lok Sabha. Therefore, on 22 May 2009 Dr. Manmohan Singh was again
sworn in as the Prime Minister of India.
Coalition Governments had not been formed on the Basis of Ideological

Similarities : Dangers of Coalition Politics
An important feature of a Parliamentary Government is ‘Ministerial

Responsibility', i.e., the Ministers are collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. They
remain in office only so long as they continued to command the confidence of the
House. The defect of a coalition government is that it is formed not on the basis of
ideological similarity, but with the objective of capturing political power. In 1989 the
National Front Government led by V.P. Singh was supported from outside by the BJP

32
and left parties. The BJP and the left parties did not join the government. Their objective
was to keep Congress out of power.
Between June 1996 and March 1998 the country saw Deve Gowda and I.K. Gujaral
as Prime Ministers, both heading the United Front Governments and being supported
from outside by the Congress. The coalition governments lacked efficiency as well as
stability. Congress' primary objective was to keep the BJP out of power.
The BJP-led NDA government, formed in March 1998, fell in April 1999. Atal Bihari
Vajpayee headed another NDA government from 1998 to 2004. He showed great
statesmanship in managing contradictions and compulsions of coalition politics. It
seemed that coalition politics was maturing.
Era of Coalition Politics is Continuing, but Narendra Modi's Government is

Different from the Previous Coalition Governments
The Verdict of the 2004 Lok Sabha elections was not a clear one. The Congress and
its allies did form the Government with the help of the Communist parties. They also
finalised a Common Minimum Programme (CMP) to guide the government. But the
ideological differences between the Congress and the Communists led to serious
difficulties in the implementation of economic and foreign policies. These tensions,
especially the nuclear deal between India and USA, caused ending of relations between
the UPA government and the Communists. The Prime Minister Manmohan Singh said,
“they (the Communists) wanted me to behave like their bonded slave."
Manmohan Singh's Government, formed in 2004, completed its full term. The UPA
emerged as the largest alliance in 2009 also. Thus the Era of Coalitions was not over.

33
Coalition politics was supposed to stay in India. Therefore, the parties should have
learnt to co-exist with other parties and manage the compulsions of coalition
governments. The question remained: whether coalition governments can give “good
governance” as well as 'political stability to the country?
The country needed a strong and stable government that could provide effective
governance. Elections to the 16th Lok Sabha were held during April-May 2014. The
BJPled National Democratic Alliance (NDA) came to power on 26 May 2014. But
Narendra Modi's Government is different from the previous coalition governments,
because the BJP alone could secure 282 out of 543 elected seats in the Lok Sabha. It was
a clear verdict” in favour of a single political party after a gap of nearly 30 years.
Q.5 – Discuss the role, power and functions of the prime Minister of India.
Answer- As discussed earlier the temporary or political part of the executive
comprises of Prime Minister and the Council of Minister. The executive powers of
the President are actually exercised by the Council of Ministers with Prime Minister. The
President is the constitutional head of the State and nominal head of Government but
the Prime Minister and his/her Council of Minister is the real head of the Government.
As per Constitution of India, the Prime Minister is appointed by the President of India
but the person such appointed must have the majority support of the Lok Sabha.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was the first prime minister of India after independence.
The prime minister of India is the head of the union cabinet. He has to enjoy the
confidence of the majority in Lok Sabha. If there is no majority of his party in Lok Sabha,
in that case, he has to give resignation.

34
Article 74 of the constitution of India
As per article 74 of the constitution of India, “there shall be a council of ministers and
the prime minister will be the head of that council of ministers to aid and advise the
president of India. It simply means that all the powers and functions of the president of
India are used according to the advice of the council of ministers.
Qualification of Prime Minister
 He should be a citizen of India

 Should not hold any office of profit under government or any public officer.
 He should be a member of Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha
 If the candidate is not a member of Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha at the time of his
selection, in that case, he must become a member of Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha
within 6 months.
 If he is a member of Lok Sabha, he should be above 25 years of age.

 If he is a member of the Rajya Sabha, he should be above 30 years of age.
Article 75 of the constitution of India
According to article 75 of the constitution of India, the President of India appoints
the prime minister of India after general elections. After the appointment of the
prime minister, the president administers the oath to the prime minister of India before
he enters the prime minister’s office.
Once the prime minister of India is appointed, the president will take the advice of
the prime minister of India to appoint the council of ministers who will work under the
prime minister of India. The total number of the council of ministers including the prime
minister should not exceed 15% of the total numbers of Lok Sabha.

35
Powers of the prime minister of India
There are different types of powers of the prime minister of India which he can use while
his party is in the majority.
1. Executive powers of the prime minister of India
As we know that three main pillars of the government are legislative, executive and
judiciary.
The councils of ministers are at the top of the executive. The prime minister is the
head of the council of ministers. After the elections of Lok Sabha, it is the power of the
prime minister that he will advise the President of India to appoint the council of
ministers. After the appointment of the council of ministers:
 The prime minister will decide the different departments for these ministers.
 He can interchange these departments between the ministers anytime.
 He can change the decisions of any minister according to the needs of the party.
 The PM can ask any of the ministers to give the resign to the president of India.
2. Appointment powers
The prime minister of India can advise the President of India for the appointment of
different people. He can advise the president for the appointment of:
 Comptroller Auditor General of India
 Solicitor General of India

 Attorney General of India
 Election commission of India
 RBI governor and others
 Chairperson and members of the finance commission

36
 Chief information commissioner of India
 Information commissioners of India.

 Chairperson and UPSC members
3. Legislative powers
As we know that the prime minister is the head of the council of ministers, so if the
prime minister resigns, then the council of ministers cannot make the decisions and it
will be dissolved automatically. If the prime minister thinks that, majority of his party in
Lok Sabha has been dissolved, then he can suggest the President dissolve the Lok Sabha
and ask for re-election. It is the prime minister of India who advises the president of
India to call the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha for their sessions.
4. Military powers
We discussed in the powers of the president of India that the president-elect the
chief of army, navy and air force and the prime minister of India is known as the political
head of these defense forces. To implement any strategic policy made by India related
to the borders, the prime minister of India can do that by using his military powers.
5. Foreign policy powers
The Prime Minister of India plays an important role in implementing foreign
policies. He can take all the necessary steps to implement such policies in India. Rest of
it, he is the head of:
 Niti aayog
 National development council
 Interstate council
 National water resources council
 Wildlife and protection council and many others.
37
In an emergency in India, the prime minister of India becomes the political head of
disaster management.
These are the major powers of the prime minister of India. He can use such powers while
his party is in majority.
Functions of the prime minister of India
1. Duty to announce important policies
The prime minister of India must announce all the important policies made by the
government. For example, all the policies like Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, demonetisation in
India, lockdown in India, etc are announced by the prime minister.
2. The constitutional obligation of the prime minister
The prime minister must communicate all the decisions or proposals made in the
councils of ministers related to the making of new laws or other things to The President.
3. Distribution of work
The prime minister of India helps the president to distribute the work to different
ministers. The prime minister can assign the work to any member of the cabinet which is
not allocated yet.
4. Duty to attend parliamentary sessions
The prime minister of India must attend the parliamentary sessions as a prime minister
and give answers to the questions asked by members.

38
5. Country representation
The prime minister of India represents our country in high-level meetings and
international organizations.
Conclusion-
The Prime Minister of India is the union head of our legislature. All the necessary laws
passed by the legislature are announced by the prime minister. The President of India
can use his maximum powers after advising the prime minister of India only. The Prime
minister is responsible to give all the necessary information to the president of India.
The powers given in the constitution of India are divided between the president and
prime minister so that both can check their decisions.
4. Military powers
To implement any strategic policy made by India related to the borders, the prime
minister of India can do that by using his military powers.
5. Foreign policy powers
The Prime Minister of India plays an important role in implementing foreign policies. He
can take all the necessary steps to implement such policies in India. Rest of it, he is the
head of:
 Niti aayog
 National development council
 Interstate council
 National water resources council
 Wildlife and protection council and many others.

39
Q.6 – Discuss the effects of caste system on Indian politics.
Answer-
Introduction – The caste system is prevalent in India since time immemorial. The Indian
caste system is historically seen as a method of differentiation between people from
different groups. The Indian Caste System is considered a closed system of
stratification, which means that a person’s social status is obligated to which caste they
were born into. There are limits on interaction and behaviour with people from another
social status. The caste system has been changed and altered time and again in the past.
Risley defines caste as “a collection of families or group of families bearing a common

name; claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine;
professing to follow the same hereditary calling; and regarded by those who are
competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community”.
The Indian caste system is divided into four varnas. The two upper castes dominate over
the lower castes and are consider ed to be superior. The Brahmins are at the top,
followed by the Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmin class is essentially
defined by its supposed priority (as the class created first by the creator god), by
knowledge of the Veda, and by the monopoly this class holds on the operation of
sacrifice. These traits justify the social position of the class vis-à-vis others: they are
predominant because they are prior, and they claim to stand outside of the power
relations that govern social life for others because of their superior knowledge and sole
possession of the ultimate “weapons,” sacrificial techniques

40
Effects of Caste System in India
Though the caste system initially performed its positive functions well, in course of time
it became degenerated and instead of doing social good it caused a great harm to the
society. Some of the ill effects of caste system in India are as follows:
1. It hindered national unity - The caste system developed a parochial feeling and
made the people unduly conscious of their own castes. Many a time caste interests were
given priority over national interest. Thus the whole system stood against the very
concept of national unity.
2. It stood against democracy - The caste system ran contrary to the democratic spirit.
Democracy presupposes human equality, but the caste system believed in inequality
and there was a hierarchical arrangement wherein the Brahmins were at the top,
whereas the Sudras were at the lowest rung of the ladder.
3. It resulted in suppression - In the caste system the lower castes were suppressed
and repressed by the higher castes. The Sudras were very ill-treated and they were not
allowed to come to the public places. Even their shadows were considered profane by
the higher caste people. Inter-dining and inter-mixing with the lower castes was not
allowed. Thus the system was solely based on exploitation of the lower castes.
4. It hampered national development - Under the caste system only a few got the
scope to control the national life and the others were engaged in serving the higher
castes, like the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas. In the national interest it is essential that all
the sections of the society should contribute to the social welfare, but the downtrodden
sections did not have any voice in national development and advancement.

41
5. It resulted in treachery and the ultimate fall of the Hindus -In a traditional caste-
ridden society, the Sudras were fully aware that they could not prosper in the Hindu
society. As a result, at the time of invasion by outsiders, some of them leaked out the
strategic secrets to them. They also cooperated with the invaders instead of their own
people. Their treachery ultimately became responsible for the fall of the Hindus.
6. It resulted in religious conversion - The dominance of Brahminism became
intolerable on the part of the Sudras, who were the most neglected people in the Hindu
society. They were easily allured by the ideology and philosophy of Islam as well as
Christianity. Many of them embraced the new faiths. In this way the caste system
contributed to the expansion of Christianity and Islam in India.
7. It undermined the ability and aspirations of the people - Since in the caste system
one’s status and role are fixed up from the time of one’s birth, one’s ability, personal
endeavor or diligence became meaningless in order to bring about any transformation.
Acceptance of one’s own hereditary status became mandatory and unquestionable.
Thus the aspirations and ability of people were relegated to the background in the caste
system.
8. It created a false sense of prestige among higher castes -The higher castes
believed that they had the monopoly of wisdom. They felt that all other castes should
consult them and work for them. This created a wide gulf between the higher and the
lower castes.

42
9. It resulted in the creation of a class of idlers- The Brahmins, being at the top of the
caste hierarchy, were supposed to teach and preach religion. But in course of time they
became apathetic to their avowed profession and did not devote themselves to this
task. They knew it very well that they would not be thrown out of their castes, despite
their insincerity. As a result, they began to live on the labour of other castes without any
useful contribution to the society. Thus a class of idlers came into existence in the Hindu
social system.
10. It resulted in the introduction of untouchability - The worst aspect of the caste
system was untouchability. The untouchable suffered from various social, economic,
political and religious disabilities. In the name of religion, they were thoroughly
exploited in the most inhuman manner. The lower castes were placed in the category of
untouchables. Their children were never allowed to be educated and they were
compelled to take unclean occupation.
The Sudra women were prohibited from wearing presses in the manner the Brahmin
women dressed themselves. They were not allowed to use public well, ponds, places of
worship etc. The fear of the wrath of God and religious conventions made the lower
castes follow all the religious prescriptions and proscriptions.
CONCLUSION – The present Indian society is moving from its closed systems towards a
state of change and progression marked by the assertion of the human spirit
irrespective of castes and creeds Today, OBCs, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes
have good representation in offices and electoral bodies. They have gone on to form
reputed political parties all over India and stand in elections on an equal footing with
the higher castes. Interaction between people from different caste is more visible today.
People from these disadvantaged groups have largely made their way into government
jobs as well as all levels of educational institutions. Many people have gained their

43
deserved respect and stand in the society due to this partial elimination of the caste
system post-independence, till today. The effort India has made in order to eradicate
this inequality from the society is worth appreciating. It is, however, important to work
harder on this issue, so that these caste-based discriminations get eradicated from each
corner of the country forever.
Q.7 – Critically analyze the concept of secularism in Indian Politics.
Answer-
Introduction – The Preamble to the Constitution of India proclaimed that India is a
secular republic after the passage of the Forty-second Amendment in 1976. The
Constitution of India mandates that the Indian state, as well as political parties, be
secular in philosophy and action. The Constitution forbids or prohibits the mixing of
religion and state power. That is the constitutional restraining order. So long as this
Constitution governs this country, no one can argue otherwise.
Any state administration that pursues non-secular policies in violation of the
constitutional mandate exposes itself to Article 356 action. Furthermore, state-owned
educational institutions are barred by law from giving religious instruction, and Article
27 of the constitution forbids the use of taxpayer funds to promote any religion.
Secularism
Someone who is not religious or has no religious convictions is referred to be

“secular.” Religion is open to everyone and is provided as a personal decision to each
individual without any discrimination. It’s similar to the Vedic concept of Dharma
Nirapekshata, or the state’s apathy for religion. Secularism is a concept that provides all
religions equal status, respect, and support from the state, or it can be defined as an
ideology that advocates for the separation of state and religion.

44
A secular person is someone who does not hold religious moral principles. His values
are the outcome of scientific and rational thought. Secularism advocates for religious
nondiscrimination and partiality, as well as equal access to all religions.
India is a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society. This has happened because of
fertile Ganga belt gave an opportunity for foreign invaders to settle in fertile Indo-
Gangetic plain. The ancient religion of India Sanatan dharma also amalgamated people
from different religions and practices. The word secularism slowly found its way in the
Indian constitution by way of constitutional amendments. But there is no secularism in
India. The simple reason is the Supreme law of the land has even been framed from cut
and paste of different constitutions in the world.
The biggest dichotomy exists because most of the countries have one religion but
many ethnic groups whereas we have many religions. Politics in this country as part of
appeasement policy to different religious groups for their votes brought has a secular
term in the constitution. It has become an unending debate because religion and
politics are imbibed in Muslim, Christianity, Buddhism and Sikhism where they have
been thought to love and love their religion except Hinduism which is a way of life. The
Madras religious and charitable act were to bring them under govt control but voracious
protests from Indian minority, Muslim, Christian, Parsi, and Sikh institutions were spared
from govt control.
The appeasement policies for minorities continued in free India and reservation was
introduced first for SC/ST and then reservation for OBC. The religious groups along with
caste made winning combinations for political parties in elections. Politicians continued
what British India did with an eye on earning Hindu temples and are controlling through
the bureaucracy.

45
But politicians did not make any effort to bring the functioning of the masjid,
gurdwara, and churches in their hands as it will antagonize minority communities.
Actually, our politicians have led to the trap of caste and religious politics to such a level
that no party is interested in the abolition of caste-based reservation and enactment of
UCC.
The BJP debacle in the hands of TMC where religious polarization was used by both
parties, but TMC won because outsider tag for BJP. The coming state elections have now
forced BJP for further polarization of votes by a change of guard in those states. Still not
happy BJP and all other parties have also reverted back to OBC categorization by state
govt. Thus this debate of secularism comes into prominence. The core issue for a large
country like India must have a uniform civil code applicable to every citizen with the
abolition of caste reservation. Media and political parties will continue the debate on
secularism in India but this word is not there in any other constitution in the world.
Which party will bell the cat instead of mudslinging of secularism on each other.
Conclusion
Secularism has broadly two meanings: one, separation of religion from the state; and
two, equal respect to all religions by the state or sarva dharm sambhav. Originally, the
Preamble of Indian Constitution did not mention the word secularism. It was inserted
into the Preamble by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment. The Constituent Assembly
discussed whether secularism should be mentioned in the Constitution. There were
three broad arguments in the Constituent Assembly: One argument suggested that
since religion was a personal affair, there was no need to discuss it; Second argument
contended that there should be separation between religion and the state; and the third
argument stated that the state should respect all religions equally or there should be
sarva dharma sambhav.

46
Q.8 – Discuss the comparison between the Fundamental Rights and the Directive
Principle of State Policy
Answer- Fundamental Rights are human rights conferred on the citizens of India. DPSP
are ideals which are meant to be kept in mind by the State when it formulates policies
and enacts laws.
Fundamental Rights Directive Principles of State Policy

Part 3 of the Constitution of India contains Directive Principles are written in Part 4 of
the Fundamental Rights guaranteed to the the Constitution of India. They are given in
citizens of India. Articles 12-35 of the Articles 36-51 of the Constitution of India.
Constitution of India deal with
Fundamental Rights.
The basic rights that are guaranteed to Directive Principles of the Indian
Indian citizens by the Constitution of India constitution are the guidelines to be
are known as Fundamental Rights followed by the Government while framing
policies.
Political Democracy is established in India Economic and Social Democracy is

with the help of Fundamental Rights given established with the help of the Directive
in the Constitution of India. Principles of State Policy
The welfare of each and every citizen is The welfare of the entire community is
promoted through the Fundamental Rights fostered with the help of Directive
Principles.

47
As per the law, the violation of Violation of Directive Principles is not a
Fundamental Rights is punishable. punishable crime unlike violation of
Fundamental Rights
If there is a law which is in violation of If there is a law in violation of Directive
fundamental rights then the courts can Principles, then the courts do not have the
declare it as invalid and unconstitutional. power to declare it as invalid and

unconstitutional.
Fundamental Rights are sometimes Directive Principles are directions for the
considered as a kind of restrictions Government in helping it to achieve some
imposed on the State. particular objectives.
Fundamental rights can be suspended Directive Principles of State Policy can

during a national emergency. But, the never be suspended under any
rights guaranteed under Articles 20 and 21 circumstances.
cannot be suspended.
Fundamental Rights was borrowed from Fundamental Rights was borrowed from
the Constitution of the United States of the Constitution of the United States of
America America
Conclusion-
The differences between the Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of State
Policy imply that both have different but comparable goals and objectives. Each element
of the Constitution, and they themselves, complement one another. It is critical to
comprehend the significance of each and to apply/use them appropriately.

48
Fundamental Rights are rights in the sense that they are available to the public, whereas
Directive Principles are obligations that the state must fulfill, despite the fact that the
Directive Principles include some social and economic rights. Together, they want to
promote democratic and welfare ideals, which can only be accomplished if both parts
work together without conflict.
Q.9 – Discuss the role of Judiciary in the context of Judicial Activism in India
Answer-
Introduction
Judicial activism has always been a source of heated debate, particularly in the light
of recent developments in this regard. In the last few years, with several controversial
decisions, the Supreme Court judges, as well as the numerous High Courts, have again
triggered a debate that has always been very strong. However, what the word “judicial
activism” actually connotes is still a mystery. Under the Indian Constitution, the State is
under the prime obligation to ensure justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity in the
country. In this sense, the Indian judiciary has been seen as the guardian and defender
of the Indian Constitution.
Considering its constitutional duty, the Indian judiciary has played an active role,
whenever necessary, in protecting the individual’s fundamental rights against the State’s
unjust, excessive, and unequal actions/inactions. Therefore, the idea of judicial activism
is the exact opposite of judicial restraint. Judicial activism and judicial restraint are the
two terms used to describe the philosophy and motivation behind some judicial
decisions.

49
Judicial activism in India
The concept of judicial activism found its roots in the English concepts of ‘equity’
and ‘natural rights’. The root of judicial activism in India is very difficult to find. For a
very long time, the Indian judiciary had adopted an orthodox approach to the very
concept of judicial activism. It would be wrong, however, to say that there have been no
incidents of judicial activism in India. Some scattered and stray incidents of judicial
activism have taken place from time to time. But, they did not come to the fore as the
very concept was unknown to India. However, the history of judicial activism can be
traced back to 1893, when Justice Mehmood of the Allahabad High Court delivered a
dissenting judgment which sowed the seed of judicial activism in India.
Judicial activism, as the modern terminology denotes, originated in India much
later. This origin can be traced to the Theory of Social Want propounded by David
McClelland. It was due to executive abuses and excesses that the judiciary had to
intervene during legal proceedings. Let us look into the rationale behind such
intervention. After independence from the British Raj, the executive has always looked
upon the judiciary as a hostile branch of the State. This view gained more momentum
and popularity when the bureaucracy degenerated into a system for personal and not
public gains.
Exploitation and Corruption have been part of the existing political structure. The
masses were oppressed beyond imagination by the unbridled actions of Money Power,
Muscle Power, Media Power, and Ministerial Power. Judicial policymaking can be either
activity in support of or in opposition to, legislative and executive policy choices. But the
latter is generally referred to as judicial activism. The nature of true judicial activism is
the making of judgments under the mood and time of the times. Judiciary policy
activism promotes the cause of social change or articulates concepts such as freedom,

50
equality, or justice. It’s got to be the arm of the social movement. An activist judge
triggers the legal system and makes it a crucial part of the socio-economic cycle.
Since the judiciary has come to be recognized as an autonomous and separate
government body under the Government of India Act, 1935, and subsequently under
the Constitution of India, it would be wise to look at the time following 1935 for the
tracing of origin. A new rule is put in place not only to fix and resolve the present
problem, but also to extend generally to all potential problems which are not presently
before the Court, but are likely to occur in the future. According to Black’s Law
Dictionary judicial activism is described as: “a theory of judicial decision-making by

which judges allow their personal opinions on public policy, among other factors, to
direct their decisions, usually with the implication that adherents to this theory appear
to find constitutional violations and are willing to disregard precedents.”
Judicial activism is when the Courts, after hearing both sides, move from their
conventional position of decision-making to the position of the legislature and make
new legislation, new rules, and new policies. In the first decade of independence,
activism on the part of the judiciary was almost nil, with political stalwarts running the
executive, and the parliament working with great enthusiasm, the judiciary working with
the executive. In the 1950s to the 1970s, the Supreme Court held a full judicial and
institutional view of the constitution.
The first major case of judicial intervention by social action litigation was the case of
the Bihar court which was Hussainara Khatoon Vs State of Bihar. In 1980, in the form
of a written petition under Article 21, some law professors exposed the barbarous
conditions of detention at the Agra Protective Home, followed by a lawsuit against Delhi
Women’s Home filed by a Delhi Law School student and a social worker.

51
In 1967 In Golak Nath v. the State of Punjab, the Supreme Court held that the
constitutional rights of Part III of the Indian Constitution could not be modified, even
though there was no such limitation in Article 368, which only included a resolution of a
two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament.
Subsequently, In the well-known case of Kesavananda Bharati, two years before the
declaration of emergency, the Apex Court ruled that the government had no right to
interfere with the constitution and to change its fundamental characteristics. In
Kesavananda Bharati v. The State of Kerala, 13 Judge Bench of the Supreme Court
overruled the Golakh Nath decision but held that the fundamental framework of the
Constitution could not be changed. As to what is meant by ‘simple structure,’ it is still
not clear, although some later verdicts have sought to clarify it. The point to be
remembered, however, is that there is no reference in Article 368 that the basic structure
could not be modified. Accordingly, the decision has amended Article 368. A significant
number of decisions of the Supreme Court of India, in which it has played an activist
position, refer to Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, and we are therefore dealing with
it separately.
Judicial intervention can be seen in three ways: Firstly, by overturning any statute
as unconstitutional, Secondly, by overturning judicial precedents and, Thirdly, by reading
the Constitution. In simple terms, judicial activism can be seen as the political role
played by the judiciary, much like the other two executive and legislative ones. Judicial
activism is justified on different grounds, such as the fall of the government, which
requires the judiciary to provide assistance and policies for public welfare.

52
The definition of activism differs from community to community, these categories
are law teachers, businessmen, judges, police officers, administrative officials, students,
etc. Any act which is perceived to be activism by one party, but at the same time can
become judicial inactivity for other groups.
The idea of judicial populism can be seen as associated with judicial absolutism,
judicial chaos, judicial hegemony, and judicial imperialism. Judicial restraint, also known
as judicial independence. It is synonymous to judicial liberalism. Judicial intervention and

judicial restraint are words used to stress the ‘right position of the Courts.’
Judicial Activism Examples
It all started when the Allahabad High Court rejected the candidature of Indira Gandhi in
1973.
 In 1979, the Supreme Court of India ruled that undertrials in Bihar had already served
time for more period than they would have, had they been convicted.
 Golaknath case: The questions, in this case, were whether the amendment is a law;
and whether Fundamental Rights can be amended or not. SC contented that
Fundamental Rights are not amenable to the Parliamentary restriction as stated in
Article 13 and that to amend the Fundamental rights a new Constituent Assembly
would be required. Also stated that Article 368 gives the procedure to amend the
Constitution but does not confer on Parliament the power to amend the
Constitution.
 Kesavananda Bharati case: This judgement defined the basic structure of the
Constitution. The SC held that although no part of the Constitution, including

Fundamental Rights, was beyond the Parliament’s amending power, the “basic
structure of the Constitution could not be abrogated even by a constitutional
amendment.” This is the basis in Indian law in which the judiciary can strike down an

53
amendment passed by Parliament that is in conflict with the basic structure of the
Constitution.
 In the 2G scam, the SC cancelled 122 telecom licenses and spectrum allocated to 8
telecom companies on the grounds that the process of allocation was flawed.
 The Supreme Court rolled out a blanket ban on firecrackers in the Delhi – NCR area
with certain exceptions in 2018.

 The SC invoked terror laws against alleged money launderer Hasan Ali Khan.
Judicial Activism Criticism
Judicial activism has also faced criticism several times. In the name of judicial
activism, the judiciary often mixes personal bias and opinions with the law. Another
criticism is that the theory of separation of powers between the three arms of the State
goes for a toss with judicial activism. Many times, the judiciary, in the name of activism,
interferes in an administrative domain, and ventures into judicial adventurism/overreach.
In many cases, no fundamental rights of any group are involved. In this context, judicial
restraint is talked about.
Conclusion
Recently, the nation has seen instances of beneficial judicial activism to a large degree.
Shibu Soren, a high-profile politician, has been convicted of a 1994 murder. Tinsel’s
world-famous Sanjay Dutt of Gandhigiri fame was convicted under the Arms Act of
1993. Navjyot Sidhu, an ex-cracker with a gift from the gab, was convicted of road rage
killing committed 18 years ago. Whatever criticism of judicial activism, it can not be
disputed that judicial activism has done a great deal to improve the conditions of the
masses in the country.

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It corrects a variety of wrongs committed by both states and individuals. Common
people are the most deprived of the protection of the law because of the sluggish
functioning of the judiciary, also referred to as judicial inertia or legal tardiness. Judicial
activism has also begun the process of eliminating these occasional aberrations. This can
only be furthered by sincere and vocal judicial advocacy, and not by dragging the
judiciary down in the eyes of the public. The greatest asset and strongest weapon in the
armour of the judiciary is the trust that it commands and the faith that it inspires in
people’s minds in its capacity to do even-handed justice and keep the scales in balance
in any dispute.
Q.10 – Write an essay on the Debates of Communalism in India
Answer-
Introduction -
Meaning of Communalism: India is a land of multiple faiths and religions leading

often to violence and hatred among the people. Those who fan this religious violence
do not consider religion as a moral order but use it as a means and weapon to pursue
their political ambitions. Communalism essentially leads to violence as it is based on
mutual religious hatred. This phenomenon leads to distinction between a communal
organization and a religious organization. Communalism essentially has following main

features.
 It is based on orthodoxy
 It is exclusive in outlook; a communalist considers his own religion to be superior to
other religions.
 It is based on intolerance.

55
 It also propagates intense dislike of other religions.
 It stands for elimination of other religions and its values.

 It adopts extremist tactics including use of violence against other people.
Impact of Communalism
Communalism has divided our society for long. It causes belief in orthodox tenets and
principles, intolerance hatred of other religions and religious group, distortion of

historical facts and communal violence.
Debates of Communalism in India
Most communal riots prior to 1947 were rooted in the ‘divide and rule’ policy of
the British colonial rule. But after the partition of the country, sections of the Indian elite
from both the communities are also to be blamed for the problem. Communal violence
in independent India has been caused by many factors. Some general factors are:
First the class divisions of our society and the backwardness of our economy has
resulted in uneven development of the economy. It is the upper classes of the less-
developed communities that have enjoyed the fruits of limited growth and hence it is
they who have also enjoyed political power. Over a period of time some sections among
this elite developed a sense of rivalry vis-à-vis their counterparts in other communities.
In order to draw support from the masses of their own community, these leaders have
often encouraged communal feelings to strengthen their political support. Thus, the
traditional beliefs of the society are perpetuated to the advantage of the elites. When
they, many among common people, feel insecure because of some adverse
circumstances, they often tend to rely on religion, which make them vulnerable to
political manipulation to inflame communal passions, sometimes leading to violence.

56
Communal violence also increases because communal parties carry on religious
propaganda in an offensive manner, thereby creating ill-will among the members of the
various communities. The political parties in India which adopt a communal attitude
should be blamed for encouraging communal feelings which often cause communal
violence.
Apart from these general factors, some specific local causes also account for
communal violence in India. First, because the power of smugglers and criminal
gangs, local rivalries between traders of different communities often leads to such
violence. Large cities are also prone to periodic communal riots because of the power of
smugglers and criminal gangs. The communal violence after the demolition of the Babri
Masjid in 1993 is an example. Secondly, communal riots occur in towns which have a
history of communal riots. Aligarh and Hyderabad, among other cities, suffer from this
trend. Presence of a large proportion of religious minorities increases political rivalry

between the upper strata of both these communities who often appeal to their
communal identity to gain support.
Whatever may be the cause of communal violence, whenever it occurs, it

immediately attracts attention of the nation. In our society class identities still remain
submerged under caste and communal identities. With economic problems becoming
important, the ruling elite of our country manages to convert economic problems like
poverty unemployment, price rise etc. into caste and communal ones. People should be
careful not to be influenced by such tactics. Economic problems of the people, like-
poverty and unemployment must be resolved in the country before the problem of
communal violence can be totally eliminated.

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Conclusion- Communalism has divided Hindus and Muslism on religions lines and
thwarted communal harmony. The British during the colonial rule and the self centered
political class promoted religious extremism. As a result communal violence has

disrupted normal life in the country practically. The criminal forces also caught on to
this. Minority communalism and majority communalism alike are harmful to healthy
democracy and economic progress.
Q.11 –Discuss the evolution of women’s movement in India
Answer- The beginning of women’s movements can be observed first from a social
reform movement in the 19th century. During the colonial period women’s
movements in India were born out of the same historical circumstances and social milieu
as earlier 19th century social reform movements, which provoked a new thinking about
various social institutions, practices and social reform legislations. The women’s
movements ideological and social content changed from time to time and continued
into our times.
WOMEN’S MOVEMENTS IN THE COLONIAL PERIOD
1. Social Reform Movements
The women’s movements began as a social reform movement in the 19th century.
The British conquest and its rule over India brought about transformation in Indian
economy as well as in society. The new land revenue settlements, commercial
agriculture and infrastructural facilities like roads, railways, postal and telegraph services
etc. ushered in by the British led to a significant change in kthe Indian village economy.

58
The social reform movement did not radically challenge the existing patriarchal
structure of society or question gender relation. They picked up for reform only those
issues which the British were pointing out as evidence of degeneration in the Indian
society. Even the women’s institutions and organizations that sprang up during this
period do not reveal the development of an independent view. As a result even when
women were speaking for themselves they were speaking only the language of the men,
defined by male parameters.
Women also joined in the struggle against colonialism, but while they were
encouraged to participate by leaders like Gandhi, their work in the struggles was just an
extension of their domestic work. Very few women were allowed to join the front ranks
with men, and the ones that did, spoke of the isolation they felt at times (Kumar, 1993).
As a form of backlash to these new ideas that colonialism brought to India, women’s
roles were being pushed to a more traditional way of life.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Keshab Chandra Sen, Iswarachandra Vidya Sagar, Kandukuri
Veeresalingam Panthulu, M. G. Ranade, Karve, Swami Vivekanantia, Swami Dayanand
Saraswathi and others provided leadership to the women’s movement by frankly

acknowledging the degraded position of Indian women. The social reformers
concentrated their attention on important aspects of women like sati, age of marriage
the sad plight of widows and their right to remarry. The social reformers established a
number of societies like Bramho Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission and others for the cause
of Indian women. The best exponent of liberalism was Raja Ram Mohan Roy who was
the first Indian to initiate a social reform movement and campaign for the cause of
women. He advocated equality between the two sexes and declared that women were
not inferior to men morally and intellectually.

59
Raja Ram Mohan Roy also opposed other evils like early marriage, polygamy etc.
He supported female education and widow and inter-caste marriage. Hem wanted that
women should have the right of inheritance and property. Roy’s Brahmo Samaj played a
significant role in the reform activities concerning women.
Thus the social reformers laid the foundation of the women’s movement in India.
Social reform movement was the first attempt to remove the obstacles in the life of
women. It created awareness among the people that women must be liberated and be
made equal of men.
Nationalist Movements
The partition of Bengal in 1905 resulted in the launching of Swadeshi movement
by the nationalists. Though there was the absence of mass awakening amongst the
women, but meetings were arranged and khadi spinnings were taken up by women.
Women contributed their bangles, nose rings and bracelets to the national fund. In
villages, women started putting away a handful of grain daily for such purpose. The
women of Bengal and Punjab took active part in the Swadeshi movement. The women
workers of the Arya Samaj were also responsible for arousing national spirit among the
people. Swarna Kumari, sister of Rabindranath Tagore and her daughter Sarala Devi
were strong supporters of the Swadeshi movement.
The period from 1911-18 is of great significance in the history of Indian national
movement because for the first time a woman Annie Besant led the national movement
as president of Indian National Congress.

60
Pandita Rama Bai’s Sharda Sadan (1892) in Poona, Shri Mahipatram Rupram
Anathashram in Ahmedabad (1892), Shri Zorastrian Mandal in Bombay (1903), Maternity
and Child Welfare League in Baroda (1914) , Bhagini Samaj in Poona (1916) all were
established and worked with the particular objective of improving women’s lives. These
regional organisations were followed by national organisations like Women’s Indian
Association (1917) and The National Council of Women in India (1920). All India
Women’s Conference (1926) went on to organise 12 women’s conferences till 1937 and
Federation of University Women in India (1920) stimulated the interests of women in
civic and public life and concentrated on the removal of disabilities of women and
promoted social, civil, moral and educational welfare of women and children.
The entry of Mahatma Gandhi with his experience altered the national politics
dramatically. He realised the importance of mass base to Indian nationalism, and
subsequently an ideology which suited the same was introduced. Gandhian style of
mass mobilisation had implications for the Indian women’s movement in as much as
increasing number of women were sought to be mobilised for participation in the

independent movement.
Even though Gandhi recognised the existence of a set of problems unique to

women, he saw no conflict between a women’s movement and a national movement.
During the Gandhian era of national movement, women continued their movement for
political rights and social reform activities by forming organizations.
During the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930, Kamala Devi Chattopadhyaya
addressed meetings and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops. She was incharge of
the women’s wing of the Hindustan Seva Dal.

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WOMEN’S MOVEMENTS IN THE POST COLONIAL PERIOD
The period after India’s independence is called post-colonial period. Immediately
after independence, India had to deal with a variety of problems. Years of colonial
domination had destroyed our indigenous crafts and depleted our natural resources.
Industrialization, changing technologies illiteracy, lack of mobility all resulted in the

inability of women to cope with the new order.
1. Telangana Movement-
The Telangana Movement (1946-51) was a protest of the people who wanted both food
and freedom from the oppressive regime of the Nizam, the Patils and the Jagirdars in
Hyderabad State.
Large number of women who were desperate because of extreme poverty, slavery
and sexual exploitation by the feudal lords fought courageously in this movement.
Crucially affected by the oppression of landlords and money lenders, women who were
a large section of the agricultural labour and tobacco leaf pickers became militant in the
struggle for land, better wages, fair, rent, reasonable interest on cash and grain loans.
Women from all classes participated in the movement with energy and
commitment where both the urban middle class as well as the peasant sections of the
population, drew their support slowly but surely into the movement. The communist
party which seriously took up issues of social reforms for women like widow remarriage,
prohibition of child marriage, education for women and opportunities, also began to
identify women of ability to make the movement stronger.

62
Some of the women who took active part in the movement were Dubala Salamma,
Ch. Kamalamma, Regulla Achamma, Chityala Ailamma, Pesaru Satbamma, Malla
Swarajyam, Dayani Kausalya, Pramila Tail, Chakilam Lalithamma, Bullemma, Narasamma,

Vajramma, Saidamma, Suganamma, etc.
Some changes took place after the withdrawal. Forced labour was abolished,
village became active and people resisted the return of the old Jagirdari system. The
demand for division along linguistic zones to facilitate all round political, social and
cultural development of the people was also subsequently pushed forward. More
important was the fact that it had set a revolutionary tradition among Telugu people.
Chipko Movement
Chipko Movement was born in a small hilly village, Advani in Tehri Garhwal district
of Utter Pradesh. The illiterate adivasi women led this movement in December 1972. It
challenged the old belief that forests mean only timber and emphasised their roles in
making soil, water and pure air as the basis of human life. This philosophy popularised
the movement in many countries. The women symbolically tied sacred threads around
the trees, faced police firing in February 1978 and later courted arrest. This movement
continued under the leadership of Sri Sunderlal Bahuguna in various villages. The
movement’s plan is a slogan to plant five F’s- food, fodder, fuel, fiber and fertiliser to
make communities self sufficient in all their basic needs.
The Chipko women believed that the trees were alive and could breathe like them.
Thus trees should be respected. Besides supporting agriculture and animal husbandary,
the forests grew medicinal herbs used for healing powers. The hill women used fruit,
vegetables or roots from it in times of scarcity. This dependency on forest resources was
institutionalised through some social and cultural mechanisms, like religion, folklore and

63
oral tradition. Many wooded areas bore marks of the hill folk’s instinct for the plantation
and preservation of the forest.
The Chipko movement against tree felling is a phenomenon no less. On April 1974,
these women whose annual per capita income was Rs.129 rose against tree -felling. It is
nationally and internationally discussed as the peoples’ ecological movement for the
protection of the natural environment. Men migrated to the plains and women were left
to cope with an impoverished existence and to provide for the old and the children.
One of the women, Gaura Devi led 27 village women to prevent the contractors
and forest department personnel, about 60 men in all, from entering the Reni forest to
cut 2,415 trees. While the women blocked the narrow passage leading to the forest, the
men used all sorts of threats and also misbehaved with the women. But the women
bravely refused to budge. In the course of this movement, vote irrespective of their
caste/tribe. There is no separation of voters in terms of castez or tribe.
Anti Arrack Movement
In January 1990, the national literacy movement was launched in Nellore district,
Andhra Pradesh. The state-organized mass-literacy campaigns led to women getting
together and discussing their problems. The awareness brought on by these group
discussions resulted in the women discovering that the consumption of locally made,
cheap liquor-Arrack- was the source of their unsettled domestic life. The anti-Arrack
movement was a consequence of these meetings and stemmed as a spontaneous

movement in the small village of Dubagunta in Andhra Pradesh.

64
Anti-arrack movement though started as a spontaneous outburst of lower class
and lower caste women it soon became a rage through classes and castes against local
arrack shops, excise officials, liquor contractors and all the machineries of state involved
in the trade. The inspirational guidance extended by the veteran freedom fighter Mr.
Vavilala Gopala Krishnaiah, added momentum to the movement organized and spread
to all villages in the district. Soon all the arrack supply sources were blocked.
The women’s struggle against the sale of arrack in Andhra Pradesh had 20
nonpolitical organisations that fought for the scraping of auctions and bring about a
complete ban on its manufacture. Through this movement, women have definitely
emerged out winners because they are well aware of their strengths and ability to bring
about change in society.
Conclusion-
women’s movements in America and Britain, in India, the concern for women’s freedom
was first espoused by enlightened males during the British era who had imbibed liberal
ideas. Up to the 1920s the struggle was carried on by men. It was only after Mahatma
Gandhi’s entry into politics, that the nationalist movement under his leadership was
transformed from a middle class movement into a mass movement where women for
the first time raised their voices against the disabilities that they suffered.
It is the women’s movement in India that has been the force behind the long
struggle of women’s advancement from subordination to gender equality and finally to
women’s empowerment. Though a lot needs to be achieved and there are various
impediments in making this reality available to a large section of women, the women’s
movement has brought women’s issues centre stage and made them more visible.

65
Q.12 – Review the functions and powers of Lok Sabha.
Answer- Unlike Rajya Sabha, Lok Sabha is not a permanent body. It is elected
directly by the people on the basis of universal adult franchise. It is also called the
popular House or lower House. The maximum permissible membership of Lok Sabha is
550 out of which 530 are directly elected from the States while 20 members are elected
from the Union Territories. Besides, the President may nominate two members from the
Anglo-Indian community if he/she feels that the said community is not adequately
represented in the House.
Certain number of seats have been reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes in the Lok Sabha. Initially this provision was made for ten years from the
commencement of the Constitution, which has been extended time and again for
further ten years by various constitutional amendments. The 79th Amendment has
extended it for sixty years from the commencement of the Constitution.
Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes means the
persons belonging to SC/ST will represent such reserved seats. That implies that only
persons belonging to SC/ST can contest from the reserved constituencies. But we have
joint electorate and all the voters of the reserved constituency vote irrespective of their
caste/tribe. There is no separation of voters in terms of caste or tribe.
The representation to the Lok Sabha is based on population. Therefore UP which is
the most heavily populated State in India sends as many as 80 members while smaller
States like Mizoram, Nagaland and Sikkim send just one representative each to the Lok
Sabha. Seven members represent Delhi

66
Functions of Parliament
The functions and powers of the Indian Parliament can be divided into legislative,
executive, financial and other categories.
1. Legislative Functions
Basically the Parliament is a law-making body. In an earlier lesson you have seen that
there is a division of power between the Centre (Union) and the States. There are three
lists – Union List, State List and the Concurrent List. Only Parliament can make laws on
the subjects mentioned in the Union List. You know that the Union List has 97 subjects.
Along with the State Legislatures, the Parliament is empowered to make laws on the
Concurrent List. In case, both the Centre as well as the States make a law on the subject
mentioned in the Concurrent List then the central law prevails upon the state law if there
is a clash between the two. Any subject not mentioned in any list i.e. residuary powers
are vested with the Parliament.
Thus the law making power of the Parliament is very wide. It covers the Union List and
Concurrent List and in certain circumstances even the State List also.
2. The Executive Functions
In a parliamentary system of government there is a close relationship between the
legislature and the executive. And the executive is responsible to the legislature for all
its acts. The Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers are responsible to the
Parliament individually as well as collectively. The Parliament can dislodge a ministry by

passing a vote of no confidence or by refusing to endorse a confidence motion. In India
this has happened several times.

67
This happened in 1999 when the Atal Bihari Vajpayee Government lost the
confidence motion in the Lok Sabha by just one vote and resigned. But the no-
confidence motion or the confidence motions are the extreme ways of maintaining the
accountability of the Parliament over the executive. They are employed in exceptional
cases. Parliament also maintains its control over executive in a routine manner through
several ways. Some of them are as follows.
a) The members of Parliament can ask questions and supplementary questions
regarding any matters connected with the affairs of the Central Government. The
first hour of every working day of Parliament relates to the Question Hour in which
the Ministers have to answer the questions raised by the members.
b) If the members are not satisfied with the Government’s answer then they may
demand separate discussion on the subject.
c) The Parliament also exercises control over the executive through several
motions. For example calling attention notice or adjournment motion are such ways
by which some recent matters of urgent public importance are raised. The
government always takes these motions very seriously because the government’s
policies are criticized severely and their likely impact on the electorate whom the
government would have to face ultimately. If the motion is passed then it means that
the government is censured.
d) The Lok Sabha can express its lack of confidence in the executive by disapproving
budget or money bill or even an ordinary bill.

68
3. The Financial Functions
The Parliament performs important financial functions. It is the custodian of the
public money. It controls the entire purse of the Central Government. No money can be
spent without its approval. This approval may be taken before the actual spending or in
rare cases after the spending. The budget is approved by the Parliament every year.
4. The Electoral Functions
The elected member of Parliament one members of the Electoral College for
Presidential election. As such, they participate in the election of the President of India.
They elect the Vice-President. The Lok Sabha elects its Speaker and Deputy Speaker and
the Rajya Sabha elects its Deputy Chairman.
5. Power of Removal
Certain high funtionaries may be removed from office on the initiative of the
Parliament. The President of India may be removed through the process of

impeachment (you have read about it in Lesson No. 10). The judges of Supreme Court
and of High Courts can be removed by an order of the President, which may be issued
only if a resolution of their removal is passed by both Houses of Parliament by special

majority.
6. Functions Regarding the Amendment of the Constitution
Most of the parts of the Constitution can be amended by the Parliament by special
majority. But certain provisions only be amended by the Parliament with the approval of
States. However India being a federal State, the amending power of the Parliament is
highly limited. The Supreme Court has ruled that the Parliament cannot change the
basic structure of the Constitution.

69
7. Miscellaneous Functions
Besides the above-mentioned functions, the Parliament also performs a variety of other
functions. Some of them are as follows: -
a) While it is the power of the President to declare Emergency, the Parliament

approves all such Proclamations of Emergency. Both the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
have to approve the Proclamation.
b) Parliament may form a new State by separating the territory from any State or
by uniting two or more States. It may also change the boundaries and the name of
any State. In the recent years (2000), new states of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and
Uttarakhand were created.
c) Parliament may admit or establish new States in the Indian Union (Sikkim in
1975).
d) The Parliament can abolish or create Legislative Councils in the States. This is
done only on the request of concerned States Assemblies.
Conclusion-
Thus the Indian Parliament, though limited by the federal nature of the political
system, has wide functions to perform. In performing its functions, it has to mirror the
aspirations and needs of the people of India. It also has to function as an agency for
resolving socioeconomic or political conflicts in the country. It also helps in building
consensus on specific issues, which are crucial to the nation like foreign policy
formulation

70
Q.13 – Write Short Notes
i. Peasant movement
Answer- For benefit of aspirants of various exams where general studies form a part of
syllabus, the following quick notes for peasant movements in India will be very
beneficial for revision. Please keep visiting this section for regular updates in study
material.
Under colonialism, Indian peasantry was impoverished and suffered from variety
of problems like high rents, arbitrary evictions, illegal tax levies and unpaid labour in
zamindari regions. Eventually, the peasants started to resist this exploitation and took
desperate measures at several places. these activities came to be known as peasant

uprisings or peasant movements in India during the freedom struggle from 1857-1947.
I. The Indigo Revolt (1859-60):
 It was directed against European planters who exploited the local peasants by
forcing them to take advances and sign fraudulent contracts according to which the
peasants were compelled to grow Indigo, rather than the more profitable rice.
 These foreigners intimidated the peasants through illegal confinements and other
such atrocities.
 The Indigo revolt in Nadia district of Bengal in 1859 and was led by Digambar Biswas
and Bishnu Biswas who organised the peasants to resist the force of planter’s
lathiyals (armed retainers).

 This revolt has been vividly portrayed by acclaimed writer Din Bandhu Mitra in his
play, Neel Darpan. Its publication in 1860 led to the appointment of an Indigo
Commission by the government.

71
II. The Pabna Movement (1872-76):
 The peasantry in East Bengal was oppressed by the zamindars. They frequently
evicted, harassed, and arbitrarily enhanced the rent through ceases (abwabs) and use
of force.
 The zamindars also prevented the peasants from acquiring the Occupancy rights
under the Act of 1859.
 In the Yusufzahi Pargana of Pabna district, Bengal, an Agrarian League was formed in
May 1873.
 The tenants refused the enhanced payments and the peasants showed legal
resistance against the zamindars in the courts.
III. The Deccan Peasants Uprising (1875):
 It was against the corruption of the Marwari and Gujarati money lenders.It started as
social boycott of the moneylenders by the peasants but was later transformed into
an armed peasant revolt in the Poona and Ahmadnagar districts of Maharashtra.
 The peasants then attacked the moneylender’s houses, shops and burnt their records
and bond documents down.
 The uprising later received suppoert from M G Ranade of Poona Sarvajanik Sabha.
IV. The Punjab Peasants Discontent (1890-1900):
 Peasant discontent in Punjab occurred due to rural indebtedness and the large scale
alienation of agricultural land for non-cultivating classes.

 The Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 was passed to prohibited the sale and
mortgage of lands from peasants to moneylenders. This gave Punjab peasants partial
relief against oppressive land revenue demand by the authorities.

72
V. The Champaran Satyagraha (1917):
 He peasants of Champaran district of Bihar were excessively oppressed by the
European planters. They were forced to grow indigo on 3/20th of their land under
the tinkathia system, and to sell this at prices fixed by the planters.
 Gandhiji reached Champaran in 1917 accompanied by Babu Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar

-ul-Huq, J.B. Kripalani, Mahadev Desai to conduct a detailed inquiry into the
condition of the indigo peasants.
 The baffeled district officials ordered him to leave, but he defied the order and
invited trial and imprisonment.

 this led the Government to apoint an Enquiry Committee in June 1917, with
M.Gandhiji as one of its members.
VI. The Kheda Satyagraha (1918):
 The Kheda campaign took place in Kheda district of Gujarat directed against the
Government.
 In 1918, the crops failed in the Kheda districts in Gujarat due to low rains but the
government refused to let go of the land revenue and insisted on its full collection of
revenue.
 M. Gandhi along with Vallabhai Patel came in support of the peasants and led them
to withhold all revenue payment till their demand for remission was fulfilled.
 By June 1918, Government had to concede the demands of the satyagrahi peasants.

73
VII. The Moplah Rebellion (1921):
 The moplah’s were mainly muslim tenants of Hindu landlords in the Malabar ditrict
of Kerala.
 In August 1921, these tenants rebelled due to grievances regarding the lack of
security of tenure, high rents, renewal fees, and other oppressive landlord actions.
 They were encouraged to rebel by the radical leaders there. In 1920, the Khilafat
Movement had taken over the tenant rights agitation which had been ongoing in the
Malabar since 1916. After the arrest of established leaders of the Congress and end
of the Khilafat movement, only radical leaders had control.

 Initially the rebels targated symbols of authority like the unpopular jenmies
(landlords, mostly Hindu), courts, police stations, treasuries and offices, and the
European planters. Later the movemnt took communal turn and eventually lost base.
VIII. The Bardoli Satyagraha (1928):
 In surat district , the Bardoli taluk was the centre of this intensely politicised peasant
movement.
 It was led by Vallabhai Patel. The locals gave him the title of “Sardar” for his
leadership.
 When the British government increased the land revenue by 30% in present day
Gujarat, resistance was showed by the residents.

 This led to the organisation of a ‘No-Revenue Campaign’ by the Bardoli peasants
including women.
 There were unsuccessful attempts by the British to suppress the movement. But
finally an Inquiry committee was appointed to look into the matter. It found the hike
unjustified.

74
IX. Tebhaga Movement (1946):
 In Bengal rich farmers (Jotedars) leased the farms to sharecroppers known as
Bargadar or Bagchasi or Adhyar.
 The Flood Commission, had recommended tebhaga, under that the Bargadars
(sharecropper) should get 2/3 of crop share and the Jotedar (landlord) should get
1/3rd of crop produce share.
 Tebhaga movement was aimed at getting the recommendations of Flood
Commission implemented through mass struggle.
 It was led by – Bengal Provincial Kisan Sabha, against the zamindars, rich farmers
(Jotedars), moneylenders, local bureaucrats and Traders.
 The main slogan of the movemnt was – ” nij kamare dhan tolo”.
 The Muslim league govenment led by the Suharwardy introduced the Bargardari Bill
along with repression by force.

ii. India's new economic policy
Answer-
Before 1991, the Indian economy was strictly under the control of the
government. It was the public companies that ruled the roost. The very few private
companies that operated those days had to follow myriad government-sanctioned dos
and don'ts. However, as 1991 was approaching, the Indian economy was on the brink of
collapse. The government had to take the help of the IMF and it secured a bailout
package from it.

75
As per the terms and conditions of the bail-out package from the IMF, the Indian
government had to deregulate the domestic market, reduce the import tax and other
kinds of taxes. Further, it had to open its market for foreign players. This policy of
opening the market and liberalising it is known as the New Economic policy, 1991. The
Prime Minister, P.V Narsimha Rao, the then Finance Minister Manmohan Singh and the
minister P. Chidambaram were the key players in making this policy see the light of the
day.
The Features of the New Economic Policy
The new economic policy of 1991 brought a sea change in the Indian market and
economy. The government, with this policy, did many reforms and went ahead with
radical policy changes. The basic idea that India was a socialist country was challenged
by the New Economic Policy, 1991.
1. The Government Gave Up Monopolistic Control Over Many Industrial Sector
In the pre-1991 era, the key industrial sectors, namely - the iron and steel industry,
heavy machinery industry, air travel sector, shipbuilding sector, telecommunications and
the general communications sector etc. The private players, after the policy, could enter
these industries without many obstacles. The Indian Railways, the army equipment
industry, the nuclear energy industry etc still remained under the control of the
government.

76
2. The End of License Raj
Previously, the private players had to obtain licenses from the government in
order to start a business in any industrial sector. After 1991, the practice of obtaining a
license for starting a business was largely done away with. The sectors where licensing
still remained were the Alcohol sector, dangerous chemicals sector, cigarette sector,
drugs and medicines sector, explosives sector etc.
3. The Government Transferred Its Equity In Public Sector Enterprises To Private

Player
As part of the New Economic Policy, it was mandated that the government would
have to give up control over the commercial enterprises. This led the government to
transfer its equities held in the public sector enterprises to private players. As a result of
this privatisation, the government achieved significant monetary gains which helped it
to fill the deficits and clear debts.
4. The Financial Sector Reforms
Just like the industrial sector, in the financial sector too, the central bank - the RBI -
ceded much of the power it held in the financial sector. Private Banks could now
operate in the country. However certain key aspects of the financial sector were kept
under the control of RBI to prevent any unfortunate financial incident happening to the
account holders.

77
5. FDI
The foreign direct investment policy in India also became mature after the NEP.
Now, foreign players could easily enter the Indian Market. It was allowed to buy a 51%
stake in a domestic company.
6. Reforms In Taxation
The NEP reformed the prevailing tax policy. On one hand, it benefited the citizens by
lowering the tax rate and on the other, it benefited the government by bringing many
previously non-taxable sectors under the purview of taxation
7. Import-Export Reforms
After 1991, the companies were allowed to import a wider range of products. The
outward-looking approach to trade offered the citizens to enjoy high-quality overseas
products. The monopoly of the domestic businesses was over and the price of the
commodities went down. The import taxes were lowered.
8. Globalisation
Because of the opening up of the Indian market to foreign players and products,
the Indian society tasted the advantages of globalisation. More and more Indian
businessmen, students and politicians came in contact with global powerhouses and the
exchange of ideas proved valuable.
9. Privatization
Due to the disinvestments of the government from many public sector enterprises,
the private players cropped up to gain control of these enterprises. The private players
made these hitherto government-controlled companies disciplined. The common

78
people benefited from the high-quality service that they got from these private
companies.
The preamble to the constitution of India says that India is a socialist country. Yet
socialism failed to lead India towards the light. As a result, the Narasimha Rao
government had to go against the preamble and open up the economy. This led to
private companies getting richer and the government enterprises moving towards the
brink of extinction. Many poor people in the country were not able to get benefited
from the NEP. Yet, without NEP, India would have been just another African country with
no power and no say in international politics.
Conclusion
New Economic Policy was envisioned when the economy was in crisis. There was an
increase in corruption, undue delays, and inefficiency due to increased regulations and
controls by the government. Economic growth started decreasing. So in such a scenario

economic reforms were introduced to reduce the restrictions imposed on the economy.
iii. The rise of regional parties in India
Answer- a Regional Party is a political party that operates primarily within a small
geographic area and whose activities are limited to a single or a few states. The Rise of
Regional Parties is due to ethnic and cultural diversity and the impact of caste and
religious groups. The Rise of Regional Parties even increases political participation and
political consciousness among the people.

79
Background
India is a country that is multilingual, multireligious, and multiethnic. Regional
parties can be sparked by cultural, economic, or political factors. Cultural minorities may
be afraid of being absorbed into the dominant culture and losing their unique identity.
The regional movements led by the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), All India Anna
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), the Akali Dal, the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha
(JMM), and the AGP all have a desire to preserve this cultural distinctness.
Realizing that a region's developmental needs have been overlooked for a long
period may give rise to regionalism and regional parties. In terms of politics, regional
parties can be considered as an anti-centralization movement that is in line with the idea
of a true federation. Some examples of regional parties are Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
(DMK), All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), Telangana Rashtriya
Samiti (TRS), Telugu Desam Party (TDP), and Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM).
Reasons for the rising of Regional Parties in India
The growth of regional parties in India can be ascribed to a number of factors. The
following are a few of them:
 Indian society's cultural and ethnic diversity.
 Inequalities in development due to economic differences and geographical
imbalances
 Due to historical circumstances, certain sections of the population wish to maintain

their distinct identities.
 The deposed's self-interest Maharajas and formerly enslaved Zamindars

 Regional aspirations are not being met by national politics.

80
 State reorganization based on language charismatic personalities of regional leaders
 Within the major parties, there are faction wars.
 The congress party's centralizing tendencies

 At the national level, there is no substantial opposition party.
 Caste and religion's impact on the political process

 Tribal groups are alienated and dissatisfied.
Criticism
 They have put national interests on the back burner in favour of narrow regional
objectives, putting national interests at risk.
 The government is unstable due to the disintegration of national parties.
 They have fueled the trend of dividing states along ethnic lines, such as language,
caste, tribe, and other characteristics.

 They place a greater emphasis on populist initiatives, such as regular loan
 Forgiveness by various states, in order to expand their support base. This, in turn,
undermines the economy's fiscal balance. The country's fiscal deficit also widens as a
result of this.
 As a result of the public's frequent representation by regional parties, separatist
sentiments are on the rise.
 With the rise of regional parties, politics has become a cutthroat rivalry, encouraging
the use of irrational means such as money and muscular strength to obtain political
influence. This may be observed in the violence that erupted during elections in
many Indian states.
 They also make it difficult to implement foreign accords and policies on schedule.
For example, the Trinamool Congress in West Bengal has consistently intervened in
the Indian government's water-sharing agreement with the Bangladesh government.

Political Government and Poltics

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YOUR ENTIRE SYLLABUS HAS BEEN COVERED IN THIS NOTES.

Written by Manish Verma

Where every problem is solved of University of Delhi, SOL, NCWEB

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in India: Liberal, Marxist and Gandhian

Unit-2 Lesson-1 Fundamentals of Indian Constitution

Unit-3 Lesson-1 Prime Minister

Unit-4 Lesson-1 Power Structure in India: With respect to Caste

Lesson-2 Power Structure in India : Class

Unit-5 Lesson-1 Debates on Secularism

Lesson-2 Debates on communalism

Unit-6 Parties & Party Systems in India

Unit-7 Strategies of Development in India since Independence: Planned

Economy and Neo-Liberalism

Unit-8 Social Movements

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Introduction - Following the establishment of factories and the capitalistic mode of

Alienation means aloofness, estrangement, apathy, cutting off. Marx finds

Marxism and its Basic Postulates

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Marxism is based on certain assumptions/postulates. These are:

relationship in what we see around. The relations of production (i.e., material

productive forces constitute the effect

development). The progressive development of productive forces indicates the

progressive level of development.

4. Human being is born at a particular stage of social / material development, i.e.,

successful, revolutions take the society to a higher stage of development.

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Marxism revolves around the following theoretical propositions

Dialectical materialism is the sum-total of the general principles which explain as to

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Historical Materialism is also called the economic/materialistic/ deterministic

interpretation of history. The Marxian explanation of history is that it is a record of the

development attained; that history is the history of numerous socio- economic

formations: primitive communistic, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and thereafter the

society) is of mainly three types: economic, ideological, politicalTheory of Class Struggle

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Marxism advocates revolution. Revolutions, the Marxists say, are locomotives of

Revolutions indicate changes: wholesome changes, changes in the very character of a

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Marxism, both as a philosophy and also as a practice, has attained a position

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The Marxian formulations, in practice, have been really disappointing. Marxism, as

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Gandhi as a Critic of Western Civilization

Gandhi ji was a critic of Western Civilization. His complaint against western

forces, he stood for a decentralized polity. As against materialism, industrialization and

State, Decentralization, Cottage Industries, Trusteeship

Anarchist is one who is opposed to every type of state; anarchism is a theory of

and economic. The spirit of Gandhian democracy is the spirit of decentralization.

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of the Gandhian Ramrajya is that it is a self-regulating system where everyone is one’s

Gandhiji’s concept of decentralization has an economic aspect. He argued for the

devolution of economic power as well. He advocated village economy through the

immediate neighbors and use things produced in our neighborhood in preference to

concentrated wealth in fewer hands, stands condemned. Gandhiji’s idea of trusteeship

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Declaring all property to be the property of the community as a whole, Gandhi ji

Ends and Means

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