The application of Time-Lapse Microgravity for the
Investigation and Monitoring of Subsidence at Northwich,
Cheshire
M.W. Branston & P. Styles
School of Earth Sciences and Geography, Keele University, Keele, Staffs, ST5 BG, UK
Abstract
eter Street is an area of terraced houses in
P
Northwich suffering from subsidence, thought
to be related to salt extraction in the 19th
century. Microgravity and resistivity profiling
have been used as non-invasive techniques to investi-
gate the cause of this subsidence. Repeat (or time-lapse)
microgravity has been used to assess the stability and
evolution of the low-density areas. Time-lapse micrograv-
ity uses the characteristics of anomaly size and gradient
to track the development of cavities as they propagate to
the surface. It is possible to monitor the change in gravity
with time and to model the increase in cavity volume
and/or depth. A gravity low was found to be coincident
with the area experiencing subsidence. Integrated
modelling techniques including Euler deconvolution,
Cordell & Henderson inversion and GRAVMAG modelling
have been used to investigate the depth and size of the
body responsible for this anomaly. Resistivity imaging
has been used to investigate the conductivity of the near
surface and constrain the gravity models. Results from
both techniques suggest that low density ground is now
present at a depth of 3–4 m below the surface in the
subsidence affected area. The use of time-lapse micro-
gravity has shown that there has been an upward
migration of a low-density zone at gravity anomaly C over
the monitoring period.
Keywords: abandoned mines, cavities, evaporites, geophysics,
subsidence
Rock salt was first discovered in Great Britain in 1670
near Northwich. However, it is difficult to determine
the exact number of mines that were sunk in the area as
no official records were kept until 1873. Mining in
Northwich was continuous and important from 1791 to
1928 (Rochester 1985).
Although the salt industry brought work and wealth
to Northwich, the exploitation of the rock salt deposits
has been accompanied by the serious problem of subsid-
ence. As a result of poor mining practices most of the
upper level mines flooded and subsequently collapsed.
This left large crater-like holes, which were a common
feature of the area surrounding Northwich in the 19th
century. The pumping of water saturated with salt from
the mines increased the likelihood of further collapse.
The consequence of pumping this ‘bastard brine’ was the
repeated drawing of fresh water into the mine. The
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 36, 231–244
fresh water dissolved the supporting pillars resulting in
catastrophic collapse. The pumping of ‘bastard brine’
became popular and many brine pumping wells were
established in the Northwich area. This process
extracted the natural groundwater from which salt was
recovered by evaporation. This process accelerated the
dissolution of salt at ‘wet rock head’ i.e. the area where
the top of the salt bed is in contact with groundwater. If
the salt bed terminates below the level of the local
groundwater this surface is termed ‘dry rock head’.
More importantly however, the dissolution was
uncontrolled and often occurred some distance away
from the pumping station at the point where fresh water
first enters the system. Subsidence was common
throughout the town in the late 19th and early
20th centuries. It became part of everyday life to such an
extent that many of the houses built in that era were
mounted on jacks so that they could be re-levelled after
a subsidence event (Rochester 1985).
Peter Street is located in the east of Northwich
(Fig. 1). It was built in the late 19th century at a time
when Northwich was experiencing great prosperity from
the salt industry. In recent decades residents have
reported cracking and settlement thought to be related
to brine extraction. In 1985 the Cheshire Brine
Subsidence Compensation Board, which has statutory
responsibility for dealing with subsidence caused by
brine extraction, demolished several houses in the area
after they had become unstable (Fig. 1). However,
residents still living in the area, report that the road
and waste ground left by the demolition of the houses
in 1985 are both suffering from settlement and
houses adjacent to this area are currently experiencing
subsidence related structural problems.
The aim of the investigation was to establish the cause
of the subsidence experienced in the Peter Street area
and in particular to investigate whether the subsidence
was related to previous salt mining in the area. The
secondary aim of the investigation was to monitor the
development of the causative body.
Adams et al. (1992) conducted an investigation of
a similar site in Marston (approximately 2 km North
of the site described in this paper). The investigation
combined open-hole exploratory drilling and cross-hole
seismic tomography. The investigation was successful in
identifying a significant number of unconsolidated zones
and voids at depths of 50 m upwards. Great variations
in the bulk density of the geological materials were
1470-9236/03 $15.00  2003 Geological Society of London
232 BRANSTON & STYLES
Fig. 1. The site of investigation is located in Northwich.  Crown Copyright Ordnance Survey. An EDINA Digimap/JISC supplied
service.
found. These were due to a combination of processes,
i.e. natural solution at wet rock head, wild brine
pumping and room and pillar mining.
Although this method proved successful in the
classification of the sub-surface geology, it utilized five
pre-drilled, open boreholes. The unavailability of such
boreholes at the Peter Street site and the associated
cost of drilling such holes eliminated the use of this
technique.
Work by Arzi (1975) has shown that where properly
applied, microgravimetric surveys usually in conjunction
with selective drilling provide reliable subsurface infor-
mation at a high resolution. There are many other
examples of the use of microgravity for the detection of
abandoned mines and foundation conditions. Ghatge
(1993) used the microgravity method to detect two
shallow, subsurface abandoned mines in northern New
Jersey, collecting the gravity data along profiles. Yule
et al. (1998) used microgravity to investigate foundation
conditions in a switchyard. Again selective drilling sup-
ports the results. Speed (1970) investigated the detect-
ability of cavities in salt beds using gravity. With the
expected density contrasts, the use of microgravity to
characterize the area was seen as a suitable and cost
effective method. The use of microgravity to target sub-
sequent drilling would also dramatically reduce costs.
Resistivity imaging was also conducted across the
principal area of subsidence to provide information
about the conductivity of the subsurface. It was not
possible to extend the resistivity coverage due to time
and monetary restraints. Ground Penetrating Radar
(GPR) was not acquired in the area, as the subsurface
material (silty sands, clays) and saline water would
compromise the penetration of the technique. The GPR
technique would be unable to establish whether the
subsidence was related to previous mining because
the depth of the mine workings would exceed the
penetration depth of the technique.
To monitor the development of the area the appli-
cation of time-lapse microgravity was identified as
quick, easy and cost effective. There have been several
examples of the application of time-lapse microgravity
in recent years. Forward and inverse gravity modelling
has been carried out on a suite of reservoir simulations
at a proposed water injection site in the Prudhoe Bay
reservoir, Alaska (Hare et al. 1999). Surface gravity
observations were used to monitor the progress of a gas
cap waterflood in the reservoir at 2500 m depth. Differ-
ences in the gravity field with time were shown to reflect
the changes in the reservoir fluid densities.
Repeated microgravity surveys have also been used to
locate textural heterogeneities within the cone of depres-
sion caused by pumping in an unconfined aquifer
(Poeter 1990). 4-D microgravity was successfully used in
the Dead Sea area to predict collapse hazards, detecting
and delineating subsurface cavities and monitoring their
development over time (Rybakov et al. 2001).
Microgravity surveys were acquired in the Peter Street
area in 1998 and 2001. Simon Emsley and Sarah Corrie
of Golder Associates (UK) Ltd acquired the 1998 data
on behalf of the Brine Compensation Board. The first
survey detected an area of low-density coincident with
the reported area of subsidence. The results of the
second survey show how this anomaly has grown in
 TIME-LAPSE MICROGRAVITY APPLICATION
amplitude and steepened in gradient. Through the use of
various modelling techniques we show how this change
in the characteristics of these anomalies correspond to a
shallowing of the causative body.
Introduction to the geology of the
Northwich area
Glacial drift almost completely obscures the surface of
the Cheshire saltfield, and detailed knowledge of the
underlying strata comes principally from boreholes and
shafts. The outline of the geology of the area around
the salt field is a summary of the memoir, which
accompanies sheet 109 for the district by Taylor & Earp
(1986).
The Northwich Halite is predominantly primary
bedded rock-salt with some beds of great purity, but also
contains beds of structureless recrystallized rock-salt
with mudstone inclusions. There are also minor beds of
red mudstone. Due to the solubility of halite the full
sequence is only preserved at depth. Circulating ground-
water dissolves the halite so that it does not outcrop at
the surface. Where it is shown to outcrop on the 1:50 000
geological survey of Great Britain it is in fact covered by
brecciated mudstones that have collapsed as the solution
has proceeded. The middle mudstone division is a rhyth-
mic sequence of red and grey mudstones and siltstones,
alternating between blocky and laminated. Dolomite is
widely present as cement, anhydrite occurs as nodules
and halite, and gypsum occurs as veins or inclusions
(Taylor & Earp 1986). Although most of the Triassic
rocks in Cheshire are covered by thick superficial
deposits, natural brine springs occur at the surface and
salt has been evaporated from these since pre-Roman
times (Bell 1975).
The bulk of the Quaternary deposits were produced
by a late Devensian glaciation. The Basal Till consists of
up to 15 m of variably sandy red clay with far-travelled
and local erratics. The Upper Till occurs up to 24 m
thick, normally overlying sand and gravel. Salt karst has
developed below the collapsed and foundered strata,
over wet rock head. Although many of the bring springs
had ceased to flow as a consequence of brine extraction,
recent work by the British Geological Survey has shown
that brine from springs, is entering the rivers in the
Cheshire salt field again. This is indicative of continuing
salt dissolution and the active nature of the karst process
(Cooper 2002).
Field procedures
Before the 1998 survey, little was known about the cause
of the subsidence in terms of the size and depth of any
sub-surface voids. Preliminary speculation suggested
that the cause of the subsidence was either due to the
233
presence of unknown mine workings or solution features
related to the pumping of brine. Microgravity data were
collected on a 5  5-metre grid giving a good compro-
mise between resolution and site coverage. This resulted
in approximately 130 points being collected over an area
92  47 m.
The 1998 survey was acquired between the 21st and
the 24th of July using a Scintrex CG-3M automated
Microgravity meter. Base readings were taken at the
start and end of each day and at hourly intervals in
order to establish a drift curve for that particular day. At
every location 3 readings were taken in rapid succession
to ensure repeatability of the measurements. Individual
readings, consisting of 60 one-second samples, were
taken over a period of one minute (Emsley & Corrie
1998).
The 2001 survey was acquired between the 10th–13th
July using a Lacoste and Romberg D Meter (D-141).
Base readings were taken at the start and end of each
day and at hourly intervals throughout the day. Repeat
readings were taken at each point to ensure repeatability
and were kept within 3 µGal. The topographic heights of
the survey points needed for the free air and Bouguer
correction were acquired to an accuracy of 2 mm.
The existence of the earlier 1998 microgravity survey
was known but the data were not made available to use
until a later data precluding us from occupying exactly
the same station during the 2001 survey.
As part of the time-lapse monitoring a second base
station and bench mark were set up well away from the
survey area on land that was considered to be stable.
Gravity readings were taken here at the start and end of
each day. This ensures that each gravity survey is
corrected for tares and elevation changes between
surveys.
Both surveys were processed in order to produce
Bouguer gravity maps where the effect of drift, elevation
and the influence of topography are removed. A value of
2.0 Mg/m3 (g/cm3) was used for the calculation of the
Bouguer correction during the processing of each data
set.
As part of ongoing time-lapse microgravity work a
calibration range has been set up at Keele University.
Here a profile of nine points with a height difference of
10 m is surveyed before and after each site investigation
as a quality control. This enables the meter’s perform-
ance to be checked. Large tares, which may have been
incurred between surveys, can also be detected, eliminat-
ing the misinterpretation of gravity changes on site.
From these calibration profiles it has been shown that
the accuracy of re-observations for Lacoste and
Romberg D141 during the period of a short survey will
be at best 3 µGal and at worst 12 µGal (depending on
weather). The repeatability of surveys acquired with
L&R D141 with a two-month time gap will be at best
8 µGal and at worst 18 µGal. Repeatability of heights
234 BRANSTON & STYLES
Fig. 2. A Bouguer contour map showing the extent of the 2001 microgravity survey. A negative anomaly can be seen to trend across
the site in a NW–SE direction. The black rectangle represents the original microgravity coverage, acquired in 1998.  Crown
Copyright Ordnance Survey. An EDINA Digimap/JISC supplied service.
after a two month time gap is 4 mm equating to
0.92 µGal (Speed 1970).
Gravity results
The full extent of the 2001 gravity survey is shown in
Figure 2. The main feature is a negative anomaly of
amplitude
60 µGal trending from the NW to the SE.
A second anomaly branches off this and trends towards
the NE, the principal area of subsidence. The black
rectangle shows the extent of the original 1998 survey
and it is this area of the 2001 survey, which has been
used to investigate the subsidence affecting the houses in
Peter Street and Wade Street. This paper will concen-
trate on the results obtained from this area of overlap
between the two surveys.
In both Bouguer gravity maps a local trend dipping at
1.34 mGal/km to the SW was present. Owing to the
small extent of the area, a first order polynomial was
fitted to the data and removed from both data sets in
order to highlight the local gravity anomalies.
The positions of the gravity stations for the 1998 and
2001 surveys are shown in Figure 3. It should be noted
that no data was collected from the area occupied by the
remaining houses. Anomalies, which appear within this
area, are simply functions of the contouring process.
The residual Bouguer gravity map for 1998 is shown
in Figure 4. The gravity map shows negative anomalies
(A & B) located around the position of the houses. These
are partly due to the terrain effect of the houses and
partly a consequence of the poor data coverage within
the houses and the effect that this has on the contouring
process and consequently they should be ignored. There
are two other small negative anomalies located around
C and D. This is the position of the terraced houses that
were demolished in 1985. They were connected to the
existing houses and extended to the NE. The houses
currently experiencing structural problems are located at
the northeastern end of both of the remaining terraces.
However, the amplitude of the anomaly is small and if
interpreted independently, would be of little concern.
The residual Bouguer gravity map for 2001 is shown
in Figure 5. It shows the amplitude of anomaly C has
increased to c. 30 µGal and extended towards the north.
The anomaly at D has also increased in size, with an
amplitude of c. 30 µGal.
In order to investigate the change in gravity, both sets
of data have been contoured onto the same grid without
removing the first order polynomial which accounted for
local geology or correcting for terrain effects. The 1998
data has then been subtracted from the 2001 data set.
This produces a difference plot where terrain and
regional gravity effects have been accounted for, as they
will not have changed significantly during the 3-year
period. In order to do this accurately a calibration
correction must be made between the two gravity
meters. In this case, as it was not possible to calibrate the
meters away from the survey, topographic data from the
two surveys were used to identify two points that were
coincident and whose gravity was well known. It was
 TIME-LAPSE MICROGRAVITY APPLICATION 235

Fig. 3. Location of gravity station coordinates for the 1998 and 2001 surveys. No data was collected within the area occupied by the
remaining houses.

Fig. 4. A contour map of the reduced Bouguer gravity acquired in July 1998. A 1st order polynomial surface has been removed to
account for local geology.  Crown Copyright Ordnance Survey. An EDINA Digimap/JISC supplied service.

also important that these two points were away from the N 0.239 m, E 0.132 m. A correction of
3.78 µGal was
area of subsidence. The 1998 base station and a repeated then applied to the whole of the 2001 survey.
point on the 2001 survey were used to derive a constant It was not possible to measure the change in ground-
datum. The offset in position of these two points was water level at the time that either of the gravity surveys
236 BRANSTON & STYLES
Fig. 5. A contour map of the reduced Bouguer gravity acquired in July 2001. A 1st order polynomial surface has been removed to
account for local geology.  Crown Copyright Ordnance Survey. An EDINA Digimap/JISC supplied service.
were acquired. However, both surveys were acquired
during the same season and consequently the ground-
water regimes should be similar. It has been assumed
that any changes in the groundwater level will be
constant across the site and will therefore be accounted
for in the datum correction. Errors may be present in
this assumption as a result of brecciated material or void
(i.e. the anomalous body) taking up more water than the
surrounding area. This would lead to a decrease in
the density contrast and an underestimate of the size of
the brecciated area. The presence of a water table
deviation of this nature would also accelerate the
propagation of a void of zone of loose material. How-
ever, time and monetary constraints have not allowed
for the detailed evaluation of the local water table.
The change in gravity between July 1998 and July
2001 is shown in Figure 6. A maximum change of

48 µGal is present in the area around D. The area
adjacent to the east corner of the northern block of
terraces (C), has also experienced a change in gravity of
c. 30 µGal. The third negative of c. 25 µGal is to the SW
of the northern block of terraces around E. The appar-
ent positive anomaly seen at Anomaly A has been
generated because the 1998 survey contains an extra
acquisition profile. The contour map therefore has a
more extensive negative anomaly than in the later sur-
vey. This then leads to an apparent positive in the
difference map at Anomaly A. As a result of the holes in
the data caused by the presence of the houses, the
investigation into the possible cause of the nega-
tive anomaly has been carried out along profile X X$
(Fig. 7). This profile was chosen as it crosses the main
anomaly (C) and is of sufficient length as to contain
enough data points to fully delineate the anomaly.
Topographic results
If we contour the topographic data acquired for each
gravity survey, we can create a difference plot, which
shows how the ground has subsided over the 3-year
period (Fig. 8).
We can see that the area has subsided by up to 23 cm.
The area of subsidence is located around the site of the
houses that were demolished in 1985. Subsidence has
occurred in the same area in which negative gravity
anomalies are present, as would be expected.
We have calculated the terrain correction for the
change in topography associated with the subsidence
that occurred between the two surveys. The maximum
value over the area was found to be c. 0.2 µGal which is
insignificant compared with the change in the gravity
anomaly.
Resistivity profiling
Two expanding Wenner Resistivity profiles were
acquired along Wade Street and the cinder track run-
ning between the houses on Wade Street and Peter Street
(X X$ in Fig. 7). The aim of this survey was to identify
the lateral limits of the source of the negative gravity
 TIME-LAPSE MICROGRAVITY APPLICATION 237

Fig. 6. A contour map of the gravity change between July 1998 and 2001. Both sets of data have been reduced using the same
parameters before being contoured on to the same grid where a simple subtraction is calculated. Local geology and terrain
corrections are automatically accounted for, as their causes have not changed significantly over the monitoring period. Letters (C),
(D), and (E) show the areas of maximum gravity change. Various interpretation methods are used along profile X X$ and are
illustrated in Figures 8, 9 and 12.  Crown Copyright Ordnance Survey. An EDINA Digimap/JISC supplied service.

change and to eliminate some of the inherent ambiguity
associated with gravity modelling.
An ABEM LUND Resistivity Imaging system was
used with a profile length of 80 m. The electrode spacing
was 1 m for the 20 m region either side of the centre
point and 2 m for the remaining length of the profile.
The results were inverted using RES2DINV (Loke &
Barker 1996), and are shown in Figure 9.
The main characteristic of the resistivity section is a
low resistivity zone at depth, with a near surface band of
higher resistivity. The lower resistivity zone extends
from about 2–15 m with resistivity values of 9–30
m,
typical of clay rich material. The band of higher
resistivity is generally confined to the top 1 m and has
resistivity values of 40–80
m. This zone most likely
represents the dryer, compacted (and hence more
resistive) material which makes up the cinder track along
which the profile was acquired.
Within the section, there are two anomalous areas of
higher resistivity. The main resistivity anomaly is located
at 10–14 m along the profile and has a maximum
resistivity of 55
m. Investigating the spread of
resistivity values, the minimum is 14.86
m, the maxi-
mum is 69.05
m and the average is 29.84
m. From
this it can be concluded that the area between 10–14 m is
significantly different from the average, which is to be
considered anomalous. This anomaly coincides with the
location of the main negative gravity anomaly along
profile X-X$. The second resistivity anomaly is located
between
2 and
7 m along the profile and corre-
sponds to a small negative gravity anomaly. However, it
is less significant as the maximum resistivity contrast is
only 40
m and the gravity anomaly has an amplitude
of only 4 µGal. It is unlikely that the two blue zones of
very low resistivity in the bottom corners of the inver-
sion are real because of the limited data coverage. These
areas are probably a result of the inversion process.
A simple, qualitative interpretation has been derived
from the resistivity profile. This has then been used as a
starting point for the 2.5D gravity modelling. Using this
secondary data in this way removes some of the inherent
ambiguity associated with the gravity modelling.
Discussion
The interpretation of gravity data is by its nature
ambiguous. Many combinations of size, depth and
density contrast can be found for the source, which will
reproduce the recorded gravity anomaly. The way we
have tackled this is to use the resistivity information
together with Euler deconvolution and Cordell &
Henderson inversion to produce a 2.5D model of what
we believe to be the most likely solution to the problem.
238 BRANSTON & STYLES

Fig. 7. Map showing the location of the resistivity profile and Euler depth estimates (X X$) and the profile used for the 2.5D
modelling (Y Y$).  Crown Copyright Ordnance Survey. An EDINA Digimap/JISC supplied service.

Fig. 8. The change in height over the three-year period has been calculated using the topographic data from the gravity surveys. The
areas of maximum subsidence are located around the site of the demolished houses.  Crown Copyright Ordnance Survey. An
EDINA Digimap/JISC supplied service.

The resistivity section suggests that the anomalous nature of the causative body. The main resistivity
body associated with gravity anomaly C lies at a depth anomaly has a maximum value of 55
m. This makes
of 3–10 m and has a lateral extent of between 3 and 4 m. the presence of a void highly unlikely. Instead, we
The resistivity values also give an indication of the believe it suggests the cause of gravity anomaly C is the
 TIME-LAPSE MICROGRAVITY APPLICATION 239

Fig. 9. Plot showing the consistency between the gravity low and the anomalous area within the resistivity profile. (A) Gravity profile
extracted from the gridded data. (B) Resistivity profile acquired along XX$ in August 2001. The left-hand axis is depth and relates
to a local datum (ground level = 40 m). (C) Plot of the Schematic diagram of the qualitative interpretation that has been derived
from the resistivity profile.

presence of brecciated material. The relatively low
resistivity value (55
m) would suggest that the
brecciation is low and from this we can assume the
density contrast would also be low.
This allows us to place constraints on the gravity
modelling solutions. We can assume that the causative
body is 6–8 m wide and therefore the primary means of
matching the observed wavelength of the gravity
anomaly is to vary the depth of the body. We can also
take into consideration that the resistivity section sug-
gests that the top of the anomalous body is situated at a
depth of 3 m.
We can further constrain the gravity model by taking
into account the likely cause of the anomalous body.
The area of Northwich has a long history of salt related
subsidence. The relatively small amplitude and extent of
the gravity anomaly suggests that the subsidence is not
related to mine workings. The principle cause of subsid-
ence (not mine working related) in the Northwich area is
the dissolution of salt at the wet rock head. This is
caused by groundwater coming into contact with
the top of the salt bed and subsequently dissolving it.
The cavity may then propagate towards the surface
through a series of roof collapses, back-filling the
cavity with brecciated material. Compaction of the
brecciated material by the weight of the overlying strata
can then lead to subsidence at the surface. If we assume
the body was created by this mechanism and has
propagated towards the surface in a similar manner, we
can limit the possible dimensions of the body during
modelling.
During August 2001 a borehole was sunk in the Peter
Street area at the location shown in Figure 6. The
drillers log enables us to add geological units to the 2.5D
model. The log reports that the wet rock head acquifer
was encountered at 23 m depth and was under pressure.
From this we can estimate the base of the anomalous
body.
240 BRANSTON & STYLES

Table 1. A summary of the depth solutions calculated using the Table 2. Maximum thickness predictions derived from the
Euler Deconvolution method for Anomaly C. Cordell & Henderson inversion method.

Structural Index Depth below Depth below Density Depth to which the top of the
surface (m); 1998 surface (m); 2001 contrast  solution is fixed (m)
1 2 3 4 5
0.6 4–6 3–4
1.0 6–8 5–6 0.1 27.9 30.5 33.4 36.9 41.0
2.0 11–13 11–12 0.15 11.6 12.5 14.7 16.0 17.5
0.2 7.6 8.3 8.7 9.8 10.5
0.3 4.8 4.9 5.2 5.7 6.5
Modelling 0.4 3.4 3.6 3.7 3.7 4.2
0.6 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.6
0.8 1.6 1.7 1.75 1.8 1.9
Depth estimates 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.35 1.4 1.5
Euler deconvolution is a method for locating the sources
of potential fields, based on both their amplitudes and ings. By modifying these two variables a suite of solu-
gradients, providing an estimate of the probable depth tions can be obtained for the thickness of the causative
of the causative body (Thompson, 1982; Reid et al., body. Table 2 summarizes the maximum thickness
1990). The technique is appropriate for use in micro- obtained by inverting the data with solution horizons
gravity surveys where high-quality, closely spaced data varying between 1 and 5 m below the surface and density
are available. contrasts of between 0.1 Mg/m3 and 1.0 Mg/m3. The
In this study, Euler deconvolution has been applied to results suggest that for a body with a depth of 3–4 m (as
a profile which has been extracted from the two data sets suggested by both the resistivity section and the Euler
along X X$. As a consequence of the large gaps in the depth estimates), a density contrast of between 0.15 and
data set caused by the presence of the houses, the 0.3 is most likely to fit the geological situation present at
application of 3D Euler deconvolution to the whole data Peter Street.
set was unsuitable. The lateral extent and thickness of the body respon-
In order to determine the correct depth for the body, sible for anomaly C have been plotted for 2001 using a
Euler’s equations have been solved for a range of density contrast of 0.2 Mg/m3 and assigning the top of
structural indices, which represent the possible vari- the body to 3m below the surface (Fig. 10). It is also
ations in structure of the causative body (a structural possible to image the change in thickness of the body
index of 2 representing a sphere of uniform mass). The over the three-year period by inverting the difference
results are shown in Table 1. The most realistic solution gravity map with the same parameters determined here.
is obtained with a structural index of 0.6. It indicates Figure 11 shows that the body has increased in thickness
that the top of the body has shallowed from a depth of by a maximum of 10 m.
4–6 m in 1998 to a depth of 3–4 m in 2001. Increasing
the structural index increases the depth of the solution
2.5D Modelling
obtained. However, most of the solutions obtained lie
within the dimensions of the body suggested by the Using the gravity-modelling package, GRAVMAG we
resistivity section, giving further confirmation of the are able to model the possible cause of the gravity
relationship between the gravity low and the high anomaly. GRAVMAG is an interpretation package
resistivity anomaly identified in Figure 9. These results developed by the British Geological Survey to model
allow us to constrain the depth of the body during gravity and magnetic anomalies based on the method of
further modelling. Talwani and Ewing (1960).
Figures 12a and 12b show two models created using
Thickness estimates GRAVMAG for the 2001 and 1998 data respectively.
The data has been modelled along profile Y Y$ (Fig. 7).
In order to give an indication of the thickness of the The geology has been derived from a borehole that was
causative body and an estimate on its likely density drilled in August 2001; the position of this borehole is
contrast, the gravity data has been inverted using the show in Figure 6. The densities and unit names of the
Cordell & Henderson method (1968). The program polygons used in the model can be found in Table 3.
iteratively calculates the thickness of the causative body The results from the Euler Deconvolution and the
using the Bouguer slab equation by minimizing the information gained from the resistivity section allow us
misfit between the calculated and observed anomalies. to constrain the 2001 model by fitting the top of the
The method requires assumptions about the depth body to a depth of 3–4 m. The results from the Cordell
horizon to which the solution is pinned and the density & Henderson inversion suggest that body responsible for
contrast between the causative body and the surround- anomaly C has a density contrast of between 0.2 Mg/m3
 TIME-LAPSE MICROGRAVITY APPLICATION 241

Fig. 10. The thickness of the causative body related to Anomaly C (2001). The top of the solution has been fixed at 3 m below
surface. The maximum thickness of Anomaly C is 8 m, i.e. the base of the body lie at 10 m below the surface.  Crown Copyright
Ordnance Survey. An EDINA Digimap/JISC supplied service.

Fig. 11. The increase in thickness of the causative body related to Anomaly C between 1998 and 2001. In this solution the top of
the causative body has been fixed to 3 m below the surface and given a density contrast of 0.2 Mg/m3. With these attributes the
solution shows that the body has increased in thickness by a maximum of 10 m.  Crown Copyright Ordnance Survey. An EDINA
Digimap/JISC supplied service.
242 BRANSTON & STYLES

Fig. 12. (a) 2.5D GRAVMAG model for 2001. Polygons 9 and 10 are areas of low density. Polygon 10 represents the back fill of
polygon 9. The densities and geological interpretations of the polygons are listed in Table 3.

Fig. 12. (b) 2.5D GRAVMAG model for 1998. This model has been constrained using the 2001 model. Polygons 9 and 10 are areas
of low density. Polygon 10 represents the back fill of polygon 9. The densities and geological interpretations of the polygons are
listed in Table 3.

and 0.3 Mg/m3. These assumptions, together with the
lateral extent derived from the resistivity section allow us
to eliminate much of the ambiguity associated with
gravity modelling.
The resultant model for anomaly C can be found
in Figure 12a. The model only tries to represent
anomaly C located at approximately 24 m along the
profile. In this region the model fits the observed
gravity well.
The size of anomaly C in 1998 is less than 10 µGal and
as such would normally be considered insignificant.
However, using the information we have about the
body in 2001 we can model the possible dimensions
of the body in 1998 by assuming the bodies width
 TIME-LAPSE MICROGRAVITY APPLICATION
Table 3. Density values for Figs 12a & 12b. These values have been estimated from the driller’s logs.
Polygon # Depth of bed (m) Thickness (m)
3 0 1.3
2 1.3 1.7
1 3 7.3
7 10.3 0.7
8 11 3.5
4 14.5 1.5
5 16 6.5
6 22.5 1.5
9 Varies Varies
10 Varies Varies
11 0.0 0.75
and density has not changed over the 3-year period
(Fig. 12b).
Conclusions
The area around Peter Street in Northwich has subsided
by up to 23 cm between July 1998 and July 2001.
Microgravity surveys have shown that this subsidence is
associated with negative gravity anomaly (C), inter-
preted to be a region of migrating lower density. Time-
lapse microgravity has shown that this anomaly has
grown in size over the three-year period by 20–30 µGal.
Gravity modelling techniques indicate that the causative
body now lies at a depth of 3–4 m below surface and
extends to the local wet rock head at 23 m below surface.
It is unlikely that the body is an air filled cavity because
of the relatively low resistivity values but is more likely a
diffuse area of lower density consisting of brecciated
material generated by cavity propagation. The propa-
gating cavity roof of this body has risen by approxi-
mately 6 m over the last three years and low-density
area has increased in volume by approximately 2100 m3
(Fig. 11).
In summary, we suggest a cavity has developed at wet
rock head as a result of salt dissolution. Over time, this
has migrated towards the surface, backfilling the space
as it does so. This has resulted in a diffuse area of
low-density material, extending from wet rock head up
to 4 m below surface with a lateral extent as shown by
the thickness estimates. Surface subsidence has then
affected the area as this material compacts. It is likely
that the dissolution is a result of continuing brine
pumping drawing fresh water into the system.
As it has now been established that the body is not
related to mine workings within the salt but lies at a
much shallower depth, further work involving GPR and
pseudo 3D-resistivity imaging would further constrain
its dimensions and properties. However, time and
monetary constraints have restricted their application in
this study.
243
Geology taken from Drillers Log Density Mg/m3
Made ground 1.3
Soft light brown sandy Clay 1.7
Stiff sandy marl 1.65
Gravel bed 1.65
Stiff dark brown Boulder Clay 1.72
Wet silty sand 1.65
Stiff dark brown Boulder Clay with silty sand bands 1.69
Weathered red marl 1.2
Propagating area of low density 1.25
Backfill of polygon 9 1.45
Near surface high density object 1.8
Carefully acquired and processed time-lapse micro-
gravity has proven to be a useful tool in the investigation
and monitoring of subsidence affected areas and can
be used to determine the rate and extent of cavity
growth. It is also a valuable tool in the evaluation and
implementation of the remediation process.
Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank ICI and
NERC for their funding and support. They would also like to
acknowledge Simon Emsley and Sarah Corrie who conducted
the original geophysical surveys in 1998. Thanks must also go
to Richard J. McGrath who helped with the acquisition of the
topographic survey and the residents of Peter Street for their
hospitality.
We are grateful to an anonymous reviewer who drew our
attention to an important reference and made suggestions,
which significantly improved the manuscript.
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Received 22 November 2002; accepted 5 June 2003.