Presenting Data in Tables and Charts for Categorical and Numerical Data

Tabulating and Graphing Univariate Categorical Data

Categorical Data

Tabulating Data The Summary Table

Graphing Data

Pie Charts Bar Charts Pareto Diagram

Tabulating and Graphing Univariate Categorical Data

The Summary Table A summary table for categorical data is similiar in format to the frequency distribution table for numerical. It has class groupings (i.e., categories), frequency and percentage frequency.

Tabulating and Graphing Univariate Categorical Data

The Bar Chart In a bar chart, each category is depicted by a bar, the length of which represents the frequency or percentage of observations falling into a category. The Pie Chart The pie chart is based on the fact that the circle has 360o. The pie is divided into slices according to the percentage in each category.

Tabulating and Graphing Univariate Categorical Data

The Pareto Diagram The pareto diagram is a special type of vertical bar chart in which the categorized responses are plotted in the descending rank order of their frequencies and combined with a cumulative polygon on the same graph.

Tabulating and Graphing Bivariate Categorical Data

The Contigency Table The contigency table display two categorical variables, a two way table of cross-classification. The Side by-Side Bar Chart A useful way to visually display bivariate categorical data when looking for pattern or relationships is by constructing a side-by-side bar chart.

Graphical Excellence and Common Errors in Presenting Data

Among the methods for describing and communicating statistical information, welldesigned graphical displays are usually the simplest and the most powerful. Good graphical displays reveal what the data are conveying.

Graphical Excellence and Common Errors in Presenting Data

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The basic features of a proper graph include the following: Showing the data Getting the viewer to focus on the substance of the graph, rather than on how the graph was developed Avoiding distortion Encouraging comparasions of data Serving a clear purpose Being integrated with the statistical and verbal descriptions of the graph

Graphical Excellence and Common Errors in Presenting Data

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Principles of Graphical Excellence: Graphical excellence is a well-designed presentation of data that provides subtance, statistic, and design. Graphical excellence communicates complex ideas with clarity, precision, and efficiency. Graphical excellence gives the viewer the largest number of ideas in the shortest time, with the least ink. Graphical excellence almost always involves several dimensions. Graphical excellence requires telling the truth about the data.

Constructing a Frequency Distribution Table

A frequency distribution is a summary table in which the data are arranged into conveniently established, numerically ordered class grouping or categories. In constructing the frequency distribution, attention must be given to selecting the appropriate number of class groupings for the table, obtaining a suitable class interval, or width of each grouping, and establishing the boundaries of each class grouping to avoid overlapping.

Constructing a Frequency Distribution Table

Selecting the Number of Classes In general, however, the frequency distribution should have at least five class groupings, but no more than 15. If there are not enough class groupings or if there are too many, little new information is leaned.

Constructing a Frequency Distribution Table

Obtaining the Class Intervals
= Range of desired class groupings

Width of int erval

Number

Establishing the Boundaries of the Classes To construct the frequency distribution table, clearly defined class boundaries for each class grouping should be established so that the observations can be properly tallied into the classes. The class-midpoint is the point halfway between the boundaries of each class and is representative of the data within that class.

Relative Frequency and Cummulative Frequency

A relative frequency distribution is obtained by dividing each frequency by the number of observations and multiplying the resulting proportion by 100% A cummulative frequency distribution contains the total number of observations whose values are less than the upper limit for each interval.

Histogram, Polygon and Ogive

A histogram is a chart in which the rectangular bars are contructed at the boundaries of each class.
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Histogram, Polygon and Ogive

The percentage polygon is formed by having the midpoint of each class represent the data in that class and then connecting the sequence of midpoints at their respective class percentages.

Histogram, Polygon and Ogive

The cumulative polygon (ogive) is a graphic representation of a cumulative percentage distribution.
Ogive
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Numerical Data

Ordered Array

Frequency Distributions Cumulative Distributions Ogive Polygons

Stem and Leaf Display

Histograms Tables

Tabulating Numerical Data: Frequency Distributions

Sort raw data in ascending order:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Find range: 58 - 12 = 46 Select number of classes: 5 (usually between 5 and 15) Compute class interval (width): 10 (46/5 then round up) Determine class boundaries (limits): 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 Compute class midpoints: 15, 25, 35, 45, 55 Count observations & assign to classes

Frequency Distributions, Relative Frequency Distributions and Percentage Distributions Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Class
10 but under 20 20 but under 30 30 but under 40 40 but under 50 50 but under 60 Total

Relative Frequency Frequency Percentage 3 6 5 4 2 20 .15 .30 .25 .20 .10 1 15 30 25 20 10 100

Graphing Numerical Data: The Histogram Data in ordered array:

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Histogram 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 6 5 4 3 2 0 5 15 25 36 45 55 0 More

Frequency

No Gaps Between Bars

Class Boundaries

Class Midpoints

Graphing Numerical Data: The Frequency Polygon Data in ordered array:

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Fre q u e n c y

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 5 15 25 36 45 55 More

Class Midpoints

Tabulating Numerical Data: Cumulative Frequency Data in ordered array:

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Class 10 but under 20 20 but under 30 30 but under 40 40 but under 50 50 but under 60

Cumulative Frequency 3 9 14 18 20

Cumulative % Frequency 15 45 70 90 100

Graphing Numerical Data: The Ogive (Cumulative % Polygon) Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Ogive
100 80 60 40 20 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Class Boundaries (Not Midpoints)