Nat i onal

communi cati on
systems
gome Policy Issues
and Options,
by E. Lloyd Sommerlad

Unesco
ISBN 92-3-101248-7
French Edition 92-3-2012484
Spanish Edition 92-3-3012484

Published by 72e Unesco Press,

7,Place de Fontenoy, 75700Paris (France)
hinted in the workshops of Unesco
0Unesco 1975 [BI
hinted in France
 Contents

PREFACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

I. THE FUNCTIONS OF C O M M U N I C A T I O N IN SOCIETY . . . . . . . 8

1. Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2. Education and culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3 . Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4. Political and social mobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5. Entertainment and recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6. Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

II. S T R U C T U R E OF THE S Y S T E M AND POLICY ISSUES. . . . . . . . 11

1. Point-to-pointcommunication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2. The mass media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
(a) print media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
(b) broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
(c) cable television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
(d) broadcasting satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
(e) film and cinema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3 . Inter-personal communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4. Supporting services and human resources. . . . . . . . . . . 20
(a) news agencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
(b) information services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
(c) audio -visualmedia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
(d) library and information systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
(e) manpower and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
(f) communication research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
(g) media and professional associations . . . . . . . . . . . 23
(h) advertising and promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

III. THE IMPLEMENTATION OF COMMUNICATION POLICIES . . . . . 25

1. The socialist approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
2. Public investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3. Mechanisms for social control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4. Pre -operational requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5. Media ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6. Entry to the profession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
7. Control of material resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8. Financial constraints and incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
9. Control of media content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3
 1O . International constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3O
1 1. Media councils and self-regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
12. Protection of private rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
13. Participation access and feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
14. Communication planning and co-ordination . . . . . . . . . . 33
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4
 Preface
This publication is directed not only to students
interested in policy issues related to communi-
cation systems, but more importantly to the
policy-makersthemselves who have to decide
upon these issues, often with little information
on available options.
Over the last five years, many Member
States of Unesco have become more and more
concerned with the establishment of national
communication policies and the harmonization of
institutional policies, so that the available means
of communication can be better integrated into
national development planning.
This interest took shape at the sixteenth
session of Unesco's General Conference in 1970,
which authorized the Director-Generalto "help
Member States in the formulation of their mass
communication policies".
In his introduction to Unesco's programme
for 1973-1974,the Director-General highlighted
the importance of this concept as follows:
"The espousal of the idea of a national communi-
cation policy.. .completes the process which,
beginning with educational planning twelve years
ago, has progressively geared the various parts
of the programme to the task of systematically
directingnationalefforts in the fields of Unesco's
competence in pursuit of specific objectives - in
a word, in furtherance of a policy which is itself
an integral part of comprehensive planning for
total development".
Is it possible to find c o m m o n ground for the
establishment of communication policies with
so many different socio-political systems
represented among Unesco's Member States? Is
not the mere mentioning of policies going to call
up contradictions between ideologies and suggest
confrontations between media and governments?
Not necessarily, sinoe many issues are in
c o m m o n and many different options for actionare
available.
This study has elaborated some of the policy
issues and options which arise when the rale of
communicationin various societies is considered
in parallel with the changing structures of
communication systems. It provides us with
numerous examples of the apparent dichotomies
of viewpoints and interests which have to be
resolved when communication policies are being
formulated.
The appearance of this publication at this
time is opportune. In 1975, as part of Unesco's
programme in this area, the first Intergovern-
mental Conference on Communication Policies
will be convened in LatinAmerica. The purpose
of this Conference and others which will sub-
sequently follow in Asia and in Africa, will be
to exchange experience on communication
systems in relation to economic and social
development and to consider the establishment
at national and regional levels, of governmental,
administrative, technical, research and training
infrastructures for the formulation,implementa-
tion and evaluation of communication policies.
The present publication is seen as useful back-
ground documentation for these meetings.
The author is E. Lloyd Sommerlad, Chief
of the Division of Communication Research and
Policies of Unesco, who brings to the problem
wide experience withinthe media, as an adminis -
trator and policy-maker in press and broad-
casting and as a parliamentarian. This mono-
graph was prepared by Mr. Sommerlad while a
Senior Fellow at the East-West Centre, Hawaii,
during the course of study leave from Unesco.
5
 I nt roduct ion
Communication is part of the very fabric of
society. It takes place at all levels between
peoples and between institutions, from govern-
ment to people, from people back to government,
and through many channels both inter -personal
and mediated.
The ways in which communication is used,
the networks through which it flows, the structures
of the media system, the regulatory framework
for the system, and the decisions of the people
who operate it, are all the outcome of communi-
cation policies. Policies are the principles,
rules and guidelines on which the system is built
and m a y be specifically formulated or remain
largely implicit.
In any society, the communication system
must fit organically into the political and socio-
economic system of the State, and be consistent
with its cultural values. While there are many
c o m m o n features in all communication systems,
objectives, functions and policies will differ
depending both on the degree of development of
the country and its political philosophy.
In centrally planned States, communication
policies are likely to be precisely expressed in
decrees, economic regulations, party directives
and the civil and criminalcodes. When the social
organization is not well developed and in societies
based on libertarian doctrine, the policies are
more likely to be latent than clearly articulated,
and rooted in tradition, custom and precedent.
F e w countries with open communication
systems have felt the need to elaborate their
communicationpolicies in any formal or compre -
hensive way. The systems have evolved over a
long period of time, forming a part of traditional
culture, with intee-personal communication
being first supplemented by print, and then by
film,radio, television and other communication
technologies at an accelerating pace. Neverthe -
less, implicit policies have existed even if they
have been based largely on the principle of
laissez-faire until such time as nationalsecurity,
the public welfare or vested interests have been
threatened.
Increasingly, the need for explicit policies
is being recognized. Even in the most liberal
Statesthe growth of technology and the electronic
media have led to government regulation, in
order to ensure their orderlyuse and an equitable
allocationoflimited resources. And the potential
impact for good or ill of the powerfulmass media
on political, social and cultural life is such that
many States have felt obliged to take measures
to promote or protect the public interest.
The formulation of policy is not only the
functionofgovernments but also of media enter -
prises, professional bodies and community
organizations. In a democracy, the policies of
governments represent an amalgum of the forces
and pressures and traditions of the particular
society, reflecting in some degree the policies
of the media and other non-governmental
institutions.
The purpose of this paper is to sketch a
profile of an organized communication system,
to describe its various components, and to
identify some of the important issues and options
which arise in defining the objectives of the
system, in organizing its structure and in formu -
lating measures to control or support it.
While matters relating to transportation and
roads are obviously a basic part of a country's c o m -
munication system and intimately affect the capac-
ity for face-to-facecommunication,and the logis-
tics of distribution and maintenance services, they
are outside the scope of this study.
7
 I. The functions of communication in society
While the rale of communication in all societies
is to inform,educate, animate and entertain,the
emphasis placed on its various functions differs
greatly, in accordance with a nation's political
system and communication policies. In this
section,the principal functionsof communication
are summarized with particular reference to
aspects bearing on policy formulation.
1. Information
Information flows constantly through a myriad of
channels. Administrative, commercial and
official correspondence, conversations and other
communications are the indispensable basis of
government and business activity. A modern
State cannot function without them. News and
informationflow throughthe system to individuals
making them aware of what is happening in their
community, their country and the world at large,
and providing them with the facts required for
personal and professional decision-making .
Individuals need not be merely passive recipients.
in the communication process. They m a y parti-
cipate in it and have access to information
channels for horizontal communication with their
fellows or for a vertical feedback of information
to leaders and government. Provision of such
facilities will depend on communication policy
decisions. In most societies, more. information
is available than can be handled by the system
and a process of selection takes place. This m a y
be undertaken by media exercising independent
judgment as to what is important or interesting.
Or the flow of information m a y be subject to
control by authorities whodecide what the popula-
tion should know. As a result of spectacular
advances in communication technology, some
industrialized States have developed high capacity
systems delivering what is being called an
I',
information overload", and facing individuals
with a dilemma of choice from the many available
channels and sources.
8
2. Education and culture
It is difficult to draw a distinction between
information and educational and cultural
communication. Education and culture are
continuing processes, in which communication is
a fundamental element and they are influenced by
the daily flow of information from all sources
including the mass media. People learn from
the media whether consciously or not. However,
communication systems can be used positively
for educational and cultural purposes and this is
a matter of deliberate choice by policy-makers.
They m a y supplement the formal education
system; either enriching the normal programme
or forming a significant integrated part of the
curriculum, or carrying a large part of the
teaching burden as with correspondence courses,
a "school of the air", an "open university" and
individual computerized instruction. They can
provide vocational training, teach literacy and
cover a wide field in adult education. The print
media provide the reading material for new
literates, without which they will lapse back
into illiteracy.
The media also have powerful cultural
impact, sometimes eroding traditional values,
debasing standards and facilitating foreign
cultural domination, or on the other hand,
capable of contributing to the fulfilment of
cultural objectives. They m a y help the preserva-
tion of traditional forms of artistic expression,
cultivate an appreciation of indigenous cultures
and provide opportunity for popular access to
them, support the performing arts and develop
new creative art forms as well as opening
peoples' minds for the development of new
cultural values and life styles.
3. Development
Communication is an important element in the
matrix of influences which lead to innovationand
modernization of a society. If used constructively,
the media can help create an environment
favourable for change and development. They
can enlarge horizons, bringing information
about the experience of others, raise aspirations
and help provide the motivation for improved
practices and social conditions. They are part
of the process of teaching new and better ways
of working and living. The extent to which
communication,both interpersonal and mediated,
contributes to development depends on the
policies and strategies adopted and the skill
with which the tools are used. Essential will
be the planned use of extension services and
the media; a co-ordination of the parallel
channels of communication,co-operationbetween
the various government and private agencies
involved in development; a programme appro-
priate to cultural background and providing for
participation, feedback and a multilateral flow
of information.
4. Political and social mobilization
Nation building, modernization, politicizing of
the masses cannot take place without the co-
operation of the people and a mobilization of the
human resources of society. Communication
m a y be a tool to these ends. Leaders m a y use
it instrumentallyto increase political awareness,
focus attention on national problems, build a
sense of national unity and rally support for
national leaders, policies and programmes.
Communication in a modern democratic society
is the vehicle for involving the people in the
political process, for facilitating public debate
and decisionmaking and reaching consensus on
important issues. In socialist countries (i.e.
those following a Marxist ideology), the media
m a y be used more directly as instruments of the
party and the government. The press, according
to Lenin, should be a "collective propagandist,
agitator and organizer". Through a centrally
controlled media system, the party line can be
promulgated and directives given to all levels of
the organization; "political revelations" can be
disseminated and the "real meaning" of events
interpreted to the masses; deviants from the
official line can be exposed and humiliated;
criticism of officals and of the inefficiencies in
the system can be publicized both by those who
operate the media and by the people who m a y be
encouraged to use them as an outlet for their
suggestions and complaints. In this situation,
communication is an integral part of the political
system, guiding and motivating the people in
conformity with the policies of the nation's
leaders. It is evident that the social and political
objectives and the political philosophy of the
State will determine how communication is used
in the mobilization of human resources.
5. Entertainment and recreation
The philosophy of the free enterprise mass
circulation media is to give the public what it
likes. The objective is to attract the largest
possible reading, listening or viewing audience.
Hence, an emphasis in content on entertaining
and titillating material. "What the public likes''
generally turns out to be stories, either fact or
fictional, involving excitement, human interest,
humour, crime, love and conflict, and these will
be found in various guises in newspapers and
magazines, books, radio,television,the cinema
and live theatre. Other popular fare consists of
sports, the light music which forms a large
ingredient of the new l'pop culture", and the
drama, variety shows and contests which are
the stock in trade of so many television stations.
Entertainment and recreation are entirely
legitimate rales for communication; they are
justifiable in their own right, though they m a y
raise questions ofstandards and tastes. Further-
more, entertaining communication need not
necessarily be trivial; it can at the same time
be informative, educational, cultural or have a
serious social purpose.
Nor is entertainmentan exclusive preoccupa-
-
tion of the free enterprise media even those
seekinglarge audiences. In a competive system,
media content is generally a judicious mix of
information and recreational material. The
size of the entertainment segment in the mix
will be the result of policy decisions at several
levels. It will be influencedbythe communication
structure, by possible government regulations
on media content, by financial resources and by
the objectives and social conscience of the
managers of media enterprises.
6. Advertising
Privately owned media belong to the business
community; they sell news, information and
entertainment to their public and space or time
to their advertisers. They respond to the laws
of supply and demand, and are viable only when
they can trade profitably. In many cases, how-
ever, particularly with newspapers, radio and
-
television stations they fulfil the dual rôle of
business enterprise and public utility. They
voluntarily perform the traditional functions of
seeking out news and information, providing
background and interpretative features, and
acting as "public watchdog", commenting,
exposing and criticizing as the public interest
m a y require. The business and social rôles of
the media are sometimes in conflict and are
resolved in terms of the degree of socialrespon-
sibility accepted by the owners.
Advertising provides, in whole or part, the
financial resources for most newspapers and
9
 many broadcasting organizations, and thus
forms the economic base of many media systems.
Advertising is also, itself, an important form
of communication, and has a positive rôle in a
free market system and ineconomicdevelopment.
Inmangsocieties, media advertising represents
a conscious choice as to the most effective and
efficient way to generate consumer demand and
a mass market, thus lowering costs of produc-
tion and distribution. In a developing country,
it can form part of the "raising aspirations"
rôle of the media and can be a motivating force
for better living standards; but it also runs the
risk of contributing to "rising frustrations"
when economic means do not exist to satisfy
desires that m a y be stimulated.
10
Under some political systems, advertising
is prohibited or strictly curtailed as being
inappropriate to the economic organization.
Others m a y consider it as culturally
objectionable or as socially undesirable. It
is sometimes opposed as contributing to a
"consumer" orientation which is alien to
traditional culture. A fundamental issue is
whether industrialization and modernization
can take place without some movement toward
a consumer society in which advertising is an
inevitable part. Many questions of communica-
tion policy centre around attitudes to advertising
on the part of government, media organizations
and consumer bodies.
 II. Structure of the system and policy issues
Communication systems m a y grow in accordance
with the needs of the people or to serve the
purposes of those in positions of power. They
will respond to the progressive development of
communications technologies; new means of
communication m a y replace old or establish
parallel channels. Market forces m a y determine
the place of the various media in the system, or
governments m a y have to resolve conflicts when
new technologies threaten vested interests or
dislocate established networks. The extent to
which governments should intervene to maintain
an integrated and harmonious system is itself a
major policy issue.
Inthis sectionw e will examine the structure
of communication systems, the various
components which comprise them and some of
the issues both governments and private organiza-
tions must consider in deciding on the policies
which will shape the system.
1. Point-to-pointcommunication
This part of the system covers the generation and
transmission of messages from a sender to a
designated recipient or recipients. It embraces
a wide spectrum of delivery patterns, from the
personal courier to a communication satellite.
In most countries, point-to-pointcommuni-
cation services are the responsibility of the
Post and Telegraph Administration. This is
usually a government department but the Post
Office, for example, m a y have the status of an
independent statutory authority, and some tele -
phone services might be at the municipal level.
Parts of the system, such as overseas
communications m a y be operated by separate
instrumentalities.
In some countries, however, telephone,
telegraph and associated services are left to
private enterprises operating under franchise
as "common carriers". They are required to
provide specified minimum services, to be non-
discrimatory and to maintain secrecy of
communications. Governments willbe concerned
to ensure that franchise holders respond to
users' needs, and to social and technological
changes.
The basic public point -to-pointservice is
the postal system which, because of the inter-
national flow ofmail, must conform to principles
adopted internationally by the Universal Postal
Union. The domestic postal service will be
operated in accordance with a host of policy and
management decisions on such matters as
extent of the service, means of transportation,
frequency of mail clearance and deliveries,
postalrates, concessions and conditions,manual
or mechanized handling, contracted mail
services, postal agencies, prohibited mail
matter, etc.
In the telephone and telegraph services,
whether publicly or privately operated, similar
issues arise as to the extent and standards of
the service, and tariff rates and policies, as
well as technical questions such as automatic
switching, direct dialling, etc. The tele-
communicationnetworkof microwave or satellite
links or cables will need to be developed in
accordance with an integrated master plan
responding to traffic demands and the projected
needs of users.
The spectacular advance of communication
technology in recent years has greatly extended
the range of available communication services
which, in time, m a y affect the very organization
of society. They embrace both point-to-point
facilities, as considered here, and distributive
servicesto be considered later. The distinction,
it might be noted, becomes blurred as person-
to-person messages are multiplied and
computerized and telephones are linked to
programmed information sources such as
weather, entertainmentand stockmarketreports.
11
 Advanced communication technologies add
sight to sound in the videophone, provide direct
customer transmission and automatic print -out
by means of telex, tele-mail delivery, remote
multi-partyconsultationsthroughtele -conference
facilities, computer -assisted instruction for the
individual student and networks for the transmis -
sion and processing of data.
It is the converging trend of the technologies
of communications and computers which willhave
the most profound effect on the communication
system and onthe future of society itself. Coupled
effectively, communication and computers can
establish information systems for use in research,
business, industry, defence and government;
they canbe used for airline and hotel reservations,
stock market quotations,banking, credit reports,
medical diagnosis, legal searches and exchange
of, and remote access to, scientific information
and documentation. Distance need be no obstacle,
as computers on opposite sides of the world can
be linked by satellite.
The establishment of such an information-
based society would fundamentally affect the
nature and capacity of the telecommunication
network. The band-widthrequired would be much
beyond that provided at present by most telephone
distributionsystems. The replacementof existing
networks by wide -band cable systems would
require large resources and long-rangeplanning.
Hence, the need to elaborate policies, standards
and guidelines for the phased development of the
system in accordance with agreed objectives,
and taking account of the implications in such
distantly related areas as urban planning and
transportation.
The growth of broad-band technology, the
multiplication of data and documention systems
with interactive capacity to store and release
information on demand, the need for additional
or modified institutionsto handle the new services,
the problems of privacy of communication and
proprietory information all raise questions about
the regulatory framework needed to ensure
orderly and responsible use of technically
advanced communication systems.
Some of the policy issues to be decided are:
(i) What instrumentality will be respon-
sible for an integrated system development?
(ii) What controls are to be imposed on
access to computerized data?
(iii) What will be the relationship between
the telephone and datanetwork and CATV systems?
(iv) What protection is to be given to exist-
ing vested interests?
(v) Is a domestic satellite required and, if
so, who will manage it?
(vi) Are carriers to have any control over
content?
(vii) What institutions should be responsible
12
for providing inter-active services for informa-
tion, documentation and instruction?
(viii) Should major users like the military,
broadcasters or news agencies be permitted to
set up their own communication or distribution
networks ?
(ix) What boundaries are to be established
between the telecommunications authority and
the customer? Under what conditions and at what
point will the customer be permitted to link
terminal devices to the transmission system?
Will users, for example, be free to own telex
machines and teleprinters, facsimile printers
and videophones, or will they be available only
on lease from the telecommunication authority?
2. The mass media
In this section, w e will deal with the flow of
public information through impersonal media to
undifferentiated mass audiences. Modern
communication media require a technical infra-
structure and are generally seen as a channel
of information from 'lone to many". N e w uses
of the media, however, are extending the one-
way flow to a multilateral flow by providing
opportunity for public access to and participation
in media facilities.
Structuresofmedia systems for print, broad-
casting and film followvaried patterns according
to the r81e attributed to them in the political
system and the sophistication of the society.
(a) Print media
Newspapers and periodicals
A unique characteristic of a newspaper is that
its selling price is lessthanits cost of production.
The gap must be bridged by the sale of advertising
space or by some form of subsidy. Or the
publicationmaybean official activity and financed
from public funds. Except in socialist couiltries,
newspapers are generally under private or
institutioï~alownership and obtain their revenue
from sales and subscriptions and from advertising.
They are normally run for profit but the motive
m a y be prestige or influence, as is frequently
the case with party-politicalpapers.
Ownership alternatives are: individual,
corporate, institutional (e.g. political parties,
trade unions, the military, religious groups),
government, publishing foundations, private
trusts, employee co -operatives.
Daily papers are confined to urban centres
with sufficientpopulation and advertising potential
to provide the necessary economic base. Provin-
cial and small town papers generally publish
once or twice a week and m a y augment their
revenue by engaging in commercial printing as
well as publishing. Most developing countries
have few papers in rural areas for a variety of
economic and social reasons. A high rate oT
illiteracy,the multiplicity of vernacular languages,
the low per capita income, and lack of distribution
facilities limit the possibilities of obtaining a
reasonable circulation. Finance for printing
plant is difficult to obtain, newsprint is costly
and advertising scarce. However, in some
developing countries, unsophisticated "mineo-
newspapers" are produced on inexpensive equip-
ment and service a limited local public at the
grass roots level.
Distribution is a major component in the
cost of a newspaper enterprise, and particularly
in the case of dailies is complicated by the need
for speed, so that the paper is in the reader's
hands while the news is fresh and topical. Papers
are home delivered by newsboys, sold in the
streets or in newsagents' shops or distributed
through the post, while national papers are trans -
ported to distant places by rail or air or some-
times by a special fleet of trucks. Newspaper
managements m a y organize the distribution of
their publications individually or through co-
operatives; but, frequently, contract with agents
for sale and delivery, in return for an agreed
percentage of the selling price.
Under a socialist system, the economic
viability of the media is not necessarily a
consideration and newspapers are published in
accordance with an integrated national plan
providing coverage of the whole population. Their
publication by party or union, or possibly by the
armed forces, is usually authorized bydecree or
licence. Advertising m a y provide part of their
revenue but it is not a crucial factor as in the
case of a commercial operation. The character
of the socialist press is generally different from
free enterprise publications. The competitive
element is missing, timely news is of less
importance, and newspaper content is more
oriented to the political and social goals of the
government.
The press, as in the Soviet Union and China,
m a y be hierarchical in structure, with papers at
the top of the pyramid providing leadership for
those published at lower levels. The major
national papers, printed in the capital or a few
key cities, circulate throughout the nation and
are a principal source of guidance for public
officials as well as for other media. At lower
levels are daily papers published in provincial
cities and large towns, and non-daily papers
under the control of the smaller units of local
government. Of particular importance in China
is the wall newspaper or "big character" poster
displayed in public places, and often inscribed
by hand. Inthis system,the newspapers announce
the general directives of the party and provide a
feed-backmechanism from the grass roots to
the governmmtkhrough "letters to the editor"
columns.
In both socialist and capitalist countries,
general interest newspapers are supplemented
by specialist publications, either newspapers or
periodicals, directed toward farmers, factory
workers, women, youth, house owners, industry
and-professionalgroups, etc. They are frequently
institutionally owned and publishedto disseminate
technical and professional information rather
than essentially for profit.
In developing countries, periodicals m a y be
an integral part of a literacy programme with
the dual objective of providing reading material
for new literates and information that will
contribute to socia1 development .
Policy issues affectingthe structure and r61e
of the press include the following:
(i) Is the press system to be left to develop
in a free market or is it to be centrally planned
and licensed?
(ii) Is ownershiptobeinstitutional, private
or co-operative?
(iii) Are restrictionsto be placed on foreign
ownership and newspaper chains?
(iv) Is the government to engage in publish-
ing?
(v) Are newspapers to be subsidized or
supported in other ways?
(vi) Is content to be directly controlled or
subjectto some other form of social supervision?
(vii) Should the press be free to be an
"adversary" of government?
Books and libraries
A s the most permanent of the communication
media, books constitute a storehouse of accumu-
lated knowledge. While they have a general
cultural rale, they are of particular importance
ineducationand in the dissemination of scientific
and technical knowledge.
The book industry can be subdivided into the
following components:
(i) authors, editors, translators,
designers, illustrators ;
(ii) printers and publishers;
(iii) distributors;
(iv) booksellers;
(v) libraries.
Remunerationof authors is normally by a royalty
on book sales. Prices are generally fixed by
publishers and book sellers buy for resale at a
standard rate of discount.
As with other media, whether the industry
is placed in the public or the private sector
depends on the economic system of the State. In
many countries, publishing is essentially a
private enterprise activity; in socialist countries,
13
it is aplanned public programme, while developing
countries m a y favour a mixed system. Because
of the importance of textbooks in the school
system, and in the absence of an adequate book
supply, governments m a y decide to undertake
educational publishing themselves. Authors and
illustrators would work under contract, printing
would be undertaken on government presses or
by private printers on a contract arrangement,
and distribution and sales would be through either
official or private channels.
The alternatives to full localbookproduction
are importation, with policy issues of foreign
exchange and tariffs, or localprinting and possibly
translation of works by foreign authors. In this
case, the problems concern publication rights
and copyright, which are covered by international
agreements.
Book imports are generally subject to some
form of censorship. The content of domestically
produced books will probably receive the same
type of surveillance as applies to the press.
Of particular importance in the populariza-
tion of books has been the "paperbackrevolution".
Not only have cheaper production techniques
been developed bringing low priced books within
the income range of many more readers, but
distribution methods have opened up many more
sales outlets. Large print runs of paperbacks
are necessary to keep prices low, as is a steady
flow of manuscripts to maintain series publication.
The provision of specially prepared books in
local languages for new literates is a concern of
developing countries. Such books should have
simple design, large type, interesting adult
subject-matterand use selected vocabulary. They
will require public funding or subsidization
because of the low income level of the people for
w h o m they are intended.
Printinn infrastructure
Newspapers, periodicals and books are manu-
factured products as well as being vehicles for
information and ideas. They are dependent upon
a graphic industry, printing plant, paper, ink
and skilled technicians.
Recent technical advances have made
possible sophisticated high speed printing and
computer based composing, but such high cost
techniques have application only in the most
advanced countries.
Conventional printing equipment is manu-
factured in comparatively few countries and
most developing countries are obliged to import
it. This is a serious constraint on the develop-
ment of the printing and publishing industries
and raises the question of priorities in imports
under conditions of scarce foreign exchange.
Subject to import authorization, publishers will
14
have to choosebetweenthe alternatives of a large
investment in modern, more efficient, automatic
plant and the retention of out -moded equipment
often manually operated. Despite the advantages
of offset printing and photo or mechanical
composing, the choice in developing countries
will frequently be for the latter because of the
shortage of investment capital and foreign
exchange and the availability of cheap labour.
Printing capacity m a y be concentrated in a
few large establishments, under private, institu-
tional or government ownership, printing books,
newspapers and periodicals ontheir own account
or under contract for other publishers. O n the
other hand, the pattern m a y be for newspaper
publishers, both large and small, to own their
own presses. In both cases,the publishers will
have the option to undertake general commercial
printing as a parallel activity.
The vital raw material for the publishing
industry - paper - is produced in adequate
quantities by a very few countries and has to be
imported by most. Newsprint in particular
becomes a veryheavy charge on available foreign
funds. Total annual imports of paper will be
fixed by the government, if foreign exchange is
controlled, and the basis of allocationof available
supplies will be a policy decision of the authorities.
T o overcome supply problems and avoid the
drain on foreign exchange, governments m a y
examine the feasibility and encourage the estab-
lishment of a domestic paper manufacturing
industry. This will require long-range planning,
involve heavy capital investment and probably
government aid or foreign technical assistance.
(b) Broadcasting
Because radio and television involve the use of
the radio spectrum which is a limited natural
resource regulated by international agreement,
governments are bound to apply conditions to the
operation of these media. A broadcasting control
authority m a y be designated to supervise the
domestic broadcasting system and decide on such
matters as number and location of stations,
allocation of frequencies, licensing procedures
and operating conditions. The control authority
m a y be within the Post and Telegraph Adminis -
tration or placed within some other ministry
such as Communications, or Information and
Broadcasting, or be directly responsible to a
Council of Ministers.
Governments will decide whether they wish
to engage in external radio broadcasting directed
at audiences beyond national frontiers. This will
require special programming in appropriate
languages, possibly with a political orientation.
Control of this service m a y be with the national
broadcasting organization, the Information
Ministry or the Ministry for Foreign Affairs.
The structure of the broadcasting system
will depend upon policy decisions in the following
areas:
Ownership: The system m a y consist of a
publicly-owned monopoly, or a privately-owned
commercial system, or concurrent operation of
public and private stations.
Transmission facilities m a y be owned by
licensees or owned by the government and leased
to licensees.
Radio and television servicesm a y be provided
by the same organization or by separate entities.
The ownership pattern m a y take any of the
following forms:
In the case of a public system:
(i) under direct government control on
national or State level;
(ii) a public corporation with full indepen-
dence or subject to reserve powers vested in a
Minister of State;
(iii) a partnership between State and private
interests, such as a public company with govern-
ment holding majority of shares;
(iv) under local community or municipal
ownership ;
(v) controlled by the political party in a
one party State.
In the case of a private system:
(i) individual or corporate;
(ii) institutional (e.g. political parties,
religious or educational groups) operated c o m-
mercially or on a non-profit basis.
Finance: While private broadcasting will
be financed by advertising (with possible institu-
tional or government subsidy), public systems
will obtain their funds in one or more of the
following ways:
(i) consolidated revenue;
(ii) listeners' fees;
(iii) advertising;
(iv) voluntary contributions;
-
(v) pay TV.
Licences: Publicly-owned national systems
will be required to conform to technical, opera-
tional and financial conditions laid down by
legislation or decree.
Privately-owned stations will be controlled
through conditions attached to a licence to
operate. The control authority must determine
the conditions and the procedures for licence
allocation, e. g. after public hearing, by c o m -
petitive tender, etc.
Technical standards: The broadcast control
authority will decide the technical characteristics
and standards of the system, including:
(i) AM and/or FM for radio;
(ii) short wave or medium wave trans-
mission;
(iii) lines per inch for television;
(iv) type of colour system, if any;
(v) location, power, frequency and aerial
characteristics of transmitters.
Licensees will generally determine the tech -
nical characteristics of production and studio
equipment including
. . - cameras and VTRs.
Distribution: Radio and television pro-
grammes m a y be broadcast over the air or
rediffused by wire or cable networks.
The services m a y be centralized, with a
single centre for programme origination, and
distributed throughout a network by relay and
retransmission; or they m a y be decentralized
with localprogramme origination facilities. This
is a particularly important policy issue as it will
determine the character of the broadcasting
service - whether there will be diversity in
programming, a response to local needs and
interests and community participation.
Radio listening and television viewing m a y
be individual and in the home, or collective by
means of loud speakers in public places or
community sets in schools, community centres
or coffee houses.
Programme content
Programming is the responsibility of the broad-
casting organization; content will depend upon
the objectives of the service and the audience in
the coverage area. Public systems will generally
endeavour to provide a balance of news, educa-
tional, cultural and entertainment programmes
and, if serving rural areas, will include develop-
mental information aimed at improving agricul-
tural practices and social and economic conditions.
Commercial stations will programme in
order to attract the largest number of listeners
or viewers. This will result in a concentration
on news, music and light entertainment. In a
competitive situation, with a number of stations
serving the same market, there is some tendency
for diversification of programming because
audiences fragment in accordance with their
particular tastes and interests.
However, the broadcasting contro1 authority
m a y require compliance with certain programme
standards, for example:
(i) Licensees m a y be required to provide
"comprehensive programmes to serve the best
intersts of the general public".
(ii) Broadcasts in certain languages m a y
be compulsory or prohibited.
(iii) It m a y be obligatory to broadcast speci-
fied types of programmes such as: announce-
ments of national importance, ministerial state -
ments, public service, religious, cultural or
children's programmes. Some stations m a y be
devoted exclusively to education.
15
 (iv) If an A M and an FM radio station is
underthe same ownership,identicalprogramming
m a y be forhidd'en.
(u)' Licensees m a y be required to proxide
oppartunfityf w free discussion of topicsofpublic
interest and to devote equal time for both sides
of cantroversial issues.
(vi) Special'provisions m a y apply to the
broadcasting of political matter during election
periods, e. g., all recognized parties m a y be
granted specified free time.
(vii) T o encourage the maintenance of the
nationa1 culture or to help support local creative
and artistic talent conditions m a y be imposed
regarding national and foreign programming.
(viii) In radio "talk-back" and "public access''
programmes, certain safeguards m a y be required
to ensure that undesirablematter is not broadcast.
Programme production: P rogranimes m a y
be produced by the broadcasting - organization
- way interactive communication for a range of
itself, supplied by other 'luser"ministries, or
by commercial clients, purchased from
contractors, imported or exchanged with other
broadcasting organizations.
"User" ministries, such as Education, Agri-
culture, Health and Family Planningmay establish
their own production units or m a y co-operate
withthe broadcasting organization in programme
production, using the latter's facilities. Alterna-
tively, a centralized Media Production Centre
m a y be established to serve all ministries for
audio-visual material, films and television
programmes.
Advertising: In systems permitting adver - political system; conventional broadcasting
tising:
(i) The volume,content, presentation and
placement of advertising matter m a y be left to
individual stations, m a y be subject to voluntary
restrictions under an industry code or m a y be
regulated by the broadcasting contro1 authority.
(ii) Certain categories of advertising m a y
be prohibited or subject to restrictions as to
manner of presentation, e. g. cigarettes, liquor,
medical and pharmaceutical.
(iii) Advertising m a y be prohibited at
certain times or on certain days.
(iv) The maximum number of minutes of
advertising permissible in each hour m a y be
laid down, as well as the number of times each
hour programmes m a y be interrupted for c o m -
mercial "breaks".
(v) Only l'spot'' advertising m a y be per-
mitted, or advertisers m a y also sponsor
programmes.
(c) Cable television
Television programmes can be distributed by
means of a broad -band cable system, as a supple
16
ment to or an alternative to over-the-airbroad-
casting. They m a y carry from 12 up to 40 (or
even more ) simultaneous television channels,
according to the system design.
The system m a y be used for any or all of
the following purposes:
(i) retransmission of localbroadcasttele-
vision programmes, with a view to providing
better quality reception;
(ii) importation of broadcast programmes
from distant places outside the reception range
of conventional television antennae;
(iii) origination of local television pro-
grammes;
(iv) distribution of public service informa-
tion;
(v) facsimile print-outs of newspapers,
stock market information, etc. ;
(vi) with suitable terminal equipment, two-
services (as outlined in section on point-to-point
communication).
In addition to the above, the cable system
m a y at the same time carry radio programmes,
telephone circuits and data, etc., and it is a
matter of policy to determine what services will
sharethe same electronictransmissionfacilities.
In some countries, cable television m a y be
forbidden or restricted to the distribution of
local and other "over-the-air" television pro-
grammes picked up from community antennae.
Community access and local programming m a y
not be favoured in countries with a centralized
services m a y be considered adequate and cable
installations too costly; or the exploitation of
the technology m a y have to await the resolution
of conflicts over the instrumentality authorized
to install and operate the system.
As with the press and broadcasting, owner-
ship and operation of cable systems are major
questions with many alternative solutions. The
system will usually be controlled through a
licensing procedure, the control authority
probablybeing either the same as for broadcasting
or the Post and Telegraph Administration.
Control m a y be exercised centrally, or
guidelines m a y be laid down by the central
authority and licensing carried out at the municipal
or local level.
The system m a y be publicly owned, privately
owned, or be a partnership between public and
private interests. It m a y be decided as a matter
of policy that owners of the transmission system
should not themselves engage in programming,
but should provide facilities on a contract basis.
Cross-ownership by other media m a y be for-
bid den.
- Publicly-owned systems m a y be operated
under franchise by private companies or c o m -
munity organizations or by public utilities. In
some countries, concessions for rediffusion of
television broadcasts are granted at municipal
level, to the instrumentality responsible for
electricity distribution.
Revenue will generally be obtained by a
monthly subscription payment from households
connected to the system. Whether or not adver-
tising is to be permitted is for the policy-makers
to decide. The system m a y also be supported
by government or municipal subsidy. Supple-
mentary programming such as entertainment
films, concert, drama, opera, or sports, m a y
be available for extra payment through a ''pay
TV" mechanism.
The large number of channels available in a
cable TV system gives opportunityfor diversified
programming and for responding to the interests
of minority viewing groups as well as providing
access to the system for organizations and
individuals other than media professionals.
Operators maybe required to put studio facilities
and cameras at the disposal of users of the system
at an approved scale of fees.
Conditions attached to a licence to operate a
cable TV system will require adherence to
certain programme principles and m a y include
regulations relating to the following matters:
(i) retransmission of localTV broadcasts;
(ii) importation of distant broadcasts;
(iii) provision of channels and facilities for
educational progra m m e s ;
(iv) availability of channels for local pro-
gramme origination by the system operator;
(v) networking of programmes to and from
other cable operators;
(vi) provision of a channel for the local
government authority for its own use, for
approved community organizations and forSocial
services;
(vii) availability of one or more channels
forpublic access,possibly on a non-discriminatory
basis;
(viii) allocation of a channel for continuous
news and public service information;
(ix) availability of other channels for lease
on appropriate conditions.
The use of the "non-designated" channels
m a y be placed under the supervision of a local
publicly appointed body. A n important and
controversial policy issue is the relationship
between the cable system and over -the-air
broadcasting. Questions arise as to payment for
programmes, and for copyright, and the number
of competitive programmes brought into the
system from outside the local area, thereby
fragmentingtheaudience. The conflict of interests
m a y have to be resolved by the government.
(d) Broadcasting satellites
W e will deal here with satellites capable of
broadcasting directly to community television
receivers and not with communication satellites
providing a point -to-point service.
A broadcasting satellite is part of a radio/
televisiondelivery system and not a new medium
in itself. It is such a major undertaking however
that it raises many problems for communication,
educational and cultural policy-makers and
planner s.
The satellite is one component in a system
requiring planning and co-ordination,and con-
sisting of the following:
(i) one or more satellites in orbit;
(ii) transmitting and control station(s);
(iii) community reception installations
including antennae, adaptors and receivers;
(iv) power sources;
(v) maintenance and repair services;
(vi) programme production;
(vii) programme utilization;
(viii) supporting printed instructional
materials;
(ix) feedback : and evaluation mechanism;
(x) system management;
(xi) manpower and training.
The technical design ana capacity of the
system will vary according to national needs and
should be based on research and cost benefit
studies including a comparison of the relative
advantages of satellite or terrestrial distribution.
The satellite m a y be designed exclusively for
broadcasting or m a y be multi-purpose withtrans -
ponders for both telecommunications and direct
broadcasting. The satellite system will be linked
with the terrestrial television system and the
satellite programmes will be broadcast to direct
reception installations, or retransmitted through
conventional TV stations or low powered trans -
lators or distributed by cable depending on
economic and social considerations.
A satellite m a y form part of the general
broadcasting service or m a y be used to establish
a dedicated educational system.
Some ofthe policy questions to be considered
before deciding on a satellite system for education
and development purposes are the following:
(i) Is a commitment to be made tousetele-
vision as an integralpart of the education system,
acceptingthe implications for educational reform?
(ii) H o w many educational programmes
would be required for the various levels of the
school system, and consequently how many
simultaneous channels would be needed?
(iii) T o what extent is the system to be used
for adult education and literacy,and to disseminate
developmental information?
17
 (iv) What proportion of the total population,
particularly in remote and rural areas, is it
desired to reach with a television service?
(v) IS community viewing by adult audiences
practical from a social and culturalpoint of view?
(vi) Can an adequate number of community
TV sets be installed, powered and maintained in
service?
(vii) What part of the system hardware can
be manufactured locally and would the establish-
ment of the system create an undesirable degree
of technological dependence ?
(viii) Is there a sufficient capacity for local
production of software to supply the programme
requirements?
(ix) Is there enough skilled manpower avail-
able to operate the system?
(x) What is its cost, is it economically
feasible,and how does it compare with alternative
systems for the distribution of TV programmes?
(xi) H o w can the system be funded and from
what budgets would the operating costs be drawn?
(xii) What instrumentality would be respon-
sible for management?
One characteristic of satellite systems is that
they need to serve a large and widespread audience
in order to be economical. Some developing
countries m a y find that the best approach to this
problem is to join with neighbouring countries in
a regional system. This would require a high
degree of mutual confidence and co-operation,
and would raise a number of practical questions,
such as the following:
(i) Would the system require a substantial
degree of c o m m o n programming by the partici-
pating countries?
(ii) If so, are culturalvalues and traditions
similar enough?
(iii) Is there a c o m m o n language (or alter -
natively would simultaneous dubbed versions be
satisfactory)?
(iv) Are school curricula compatible?
(v) Could agreement be reached on joint
or co-ordinated programme production?
(vi) D o differenttime zones inthe coverage
area make programme scheduling too difficult?
(vii) Could agreement be reached on the
location of the master transmitting station and
the management machinery for the system?
The fact that satellitestransmittheir signals
over national borders raises internationalissues.
There must be agreements about power and
frequenciesto avoid mutual interference. Nations
will also have to take positions about the possible
transmission from their own territory and
reception from other countries of satellite pro-
grammes directed to foreign audiences, taking
into account the implications of political inter-
ference and cultural imperialism. One issue is
whether such broadcasts should take place only
18
with the prior agreement of the countries
concerned.
(e) Film and cinema
The film is at the same time a means of artistic
expression, a mass medium and an industrial
process. It plays a major rale in providing
popular entertainment and serves also as a
medium for education, information and reportage.
As an art, the film enriches a country's
cultural resources and has relevance to national
policies regarding the arts and leisure.
Modern film-makingis a highly sophisticated
and complex technology requiring an industrial
base, substantial investment and adequate
arrangements for apprenticeship and training.
The many categories and types of films
include the following: feature films and short
subject films for showing to the general public
in cinemas; documentary or short films for
education and instruction, for cultural, tourist
and commercial uses, and for specialized
audiences interested in science,research or the
arts; news films to record current events; and
films made primarily for television.
The short film is an important tool for
education and is used extensively among adults
in developing countries for spreading information
about national goals and achievements, and about
agriculture, health, family planning and social
welfare. In some countries, special studies exist
for the production of films for children and special
children's showings are arranged. Inthe scientific
field,newtechniques of cinematography combined
with the microscope or telescope have been used
for teaching and research in biology, medicine
and astronomy as well as for the popularization
of science.
The film is a major ingredient in television.
While many old features and documentaries made
for the cinema are now televised, many films are
made especially for television by film producers
or by broadcasting organizations themselves.
Some of these are purely for entertainment,some
are documentaries of cultural and social interest,
and many are news filmsproviding commentaries
or inserts in television news services.
The film industry is structured in three
parts - production, distribution and exhibition,
thoughthey are not necessarily mutually exclusive.
A few countries have a general law of the cinema,
and under socialist systems the whole industry
maybe administered by a central film directorate.
But inmost countries, legislation and administra-
tion is fragmented,and responsibility for various
aspects of the industry m a y rest with Ministries
of Culture, Education, Communication, Informa-
tion, Commerce or Tourism.
Production of entertainment films is usually
left to private industry, though public assistance
m a y be given in particular cases. State enter-
prises or workers' co-operatives m a y be respon-
sible for all production under a socialist system.
Commercial film-making is a "high risk,
high gain'' undertaking, as the revenue for
producer, distributor and exhibitor all comes
from the admission price paid by the cinema
audience (together with sale of TV rights in some
cases), and success is measured in terms of box
office receipts.
Production of some documentary films is
usuallyundertakenby officialbodies,while private
film-makersalso work in the same field, supply-
ing amongst others, the industrial, educational
and advertising markets.
Governments m a y choose to centralize all
officialfilm-making in a central production unit,
placed for example under a Ministry of Informa-
tion or an independent Film Board; alternatively,
different government agencies m a y establishtheir
ownunits or commission films, as required under
contract arrangements. Educational and teaching
films m a y occupy only a part of the activities of
a multi-media production centre.
Co-production of films is often undertaken
on an international basis, particularly for educa-
tional and cultural programmes on television but
also for theatrical feature films.
Responding to the growing emphasis on
"participation" in the communication process,
amateur film production and films made by
students in schools are recent important
developments.
Distribution of entertainment films takes
place through commercial channels, often in
terms of exclusive agency arrangements. In
most countries, a large proportion of films on
the commercial cinema circuit are of foreign
origin, andmaybe subject to import restrictions.
Internationaldistribution of films is covered
by foreigntrade agreements and large producers
frequentlyoperate through overseas subsidiaries.
Non-commercialfilms are not likely to be
distributed on an organized basis except through .
film libraries which maintain catalogues and lend
films on demand.
Exhibition: Cinemas are generally licensed
but this is more likely to be a safety rather than
a control mechanism. But in most countries,
films are subject to censorship and are rated
for exhibition in various categories. Exhibitors
m a y be required to comply with quotas laid down
for domestically produced films and to screen
specified short films.
While some documentaries m a y be exhibited
commercially in cinemas and on television,most
are for non-theatrical showing in schools and
training institutions, and by film societies,clubs,
community organizations and, in some countries,
factories and offices.
Many developing countries have compara-
tively few cinemas, even in urban areas, and
none at all in rural areas; screeningsare there-
fore organized in the open air and mobile vans
are equipped with projectors, power and screens
to visit villages and show governmentinformation
and educational films to local audiences.
Important policy issues are the extent to
which a domestic feature film industry .isto be
encouraged; the use to be made of the short film
as a tool for education and development; relation-
ship between the film and television industries;
whether government production is to be central-
ized; restrictions to be imposed on imported
films;conditions attached to domestic exhibition;
expansion of exhibition facilities through mobile
cinema vans; the establishment of national film
training facilities and of film archives; the
introduction of screen education in the school
curriculum.
3. Inter-personalcommunication
While most face-to-face communication takes
place privately between individuals, inthe family
or in informal groups, there are many organized
interpersonal channels which form part of the
public communication system.
In this category fall the live performing arts,
whose r81e m a y be essentially cultural and enter -
taining, but which m a y also be used as carriers
of messages with social significance. Indeed, in
some countries where mass media are not well-
developed, itinerant song and dance groups,
puppet shows and similar "folk media" are
organized to attend festivals and visit villages;
and, in the course of traditional performances,
they transmit information and project ideas
which m a y influence attitudes and behaviour.
Public meetings also are forums for reports,
statements, discussions and debates which m a y
ventilate grievances, resolve conflicts, achieve
consensus or assist decision-making on issues
of public interest.
The conventional education system is also
based on interpersonal communication, as are
many forms of adult instruction from literacy
classes and vocational training to agricultural
demonstrations and advice on health and hygiene.
A n essential part of the communication
system in a developing country is the network of
extension officers who make direct contact with
rural people to advise them in such areas of day-
to-day living as agriculture, health, family
planning, nutrition, home economics, etc. In
this category also are the government information
officers and community development officers
working in both rural and urban environments.
Extension services are essentially action-
oriented with the objective of improving social
standards, increasing efficiency and productivity,
19
 changing values, beliefs and habits and introducing
innovations. Therein lies the particular import-
ance of the person-to-personrelationshipbecause
the m a s s media, while being carriers of informa-
tion, are not effective alone in changing attitudes
and practices.
T o organize social action or achieve behav-
ioural change, a face-to-face relationship is
necessary. And, for most people, the approval
of a group of social peers is also required.
In s o m e countries political cells or cadres
are organized at various levels and are the
vehicles through which social and political action
is promoted.
The m a s s media, however, have an important
rale in this process. They provide a parallel
channel of communication and are normally the
first to establish awareness and provide informa-
tion about innovations. They m a y be used to
support the cadres, to relay views of the central
authority or to reinforce new ideas being dissem-
inated through other communication channels.
Apart from the work of the professional
"change agents", such as community development
or extension officers, other interpersonal c o m -
munication networks develop m o r e spontaneously
at all levels of society and m a y be incorporated
in the organized system. In every community,
s o m e individuals emerge as leaders whose views
and behaviour have an important influence on
others in their community. Opinion leaders
seek out information, often obtaining it from
the m a s s media, and pass it on in a "two step"
flow to those in their circle of influence. If
opinion leaders can be correctly identified, their
particular standing among their peers m a y be
used as an effective means of communicating
with and mobilizing the community for action.
But, apart from this indirect support given
by m a s s media to interpersonal communication
networks, the media can be used m o r e directly
in conjunction with face -to-face channels. For
example, radio, television, films, video tapes,
m a y be used in the classroom for instructional
purposes, supplementing the work of the teacher
or being utilized as the major instructional tool
under the supervision of a monitor.
O r the media m a y become the focal point
for meetings and group discussions on questions
of political, economic or social interest. Radio
forums, tele-clubs, video or f i l m clubs, or
newspaper dicussion groups m a y be organized
on a regular schedule to listen to or view a pro-
g r a m m e or discuss a newspaper feature with a
view to joint decision-making and action. While
having great potential as an instrument of social
action linking the information function of the
media with the dynamics of group discussion,
media forums, to be effective, require complex
organizational support, including the appointm e nt
of convenors and leaders, selection of partici-
pants, meeting arrangements, long-range sched-
uling of programmes, printed material as a
guide for group discussions, a feedback m e c h -
anism, programmes involving audience partici-
pation and an organization for supervision and
inspection.
Policy issues relating to interpersonal c o m -
munication revolve around the extent to which
this form of communication is to be utilized and
organized, and integrated with other parts of
the system. If communication is to be used to
promote social action, decisions must be taken
on how to structure the system, organize and
brief the field staff or cadres, provide the
mechanisms forfeedback and the linkages between
the interpersonal networks and the media.
4. Supporting services and h u m a n resources
The communication channels which carry the
message, whether they be point -to-point, inter-
personal or the m a s s media, depend upon a
range of supporting services and, above all, upon
skilled and organized h u m a n resources. Such
services and resources form part of the communi-
cation infrastructure and will be considered here
briefly, with particular referenceto policy issues
involved in their development.
(a) N e w s agencies
National news agencies perform all or s o m e of
the following functions:
(i) organization of news coverage through-
out the country and its dissemination to informa-
tion media, government departments,commercial
outlets, etc. ;
(ii) reception of overseas news services
and their distribution to subscribers;
(iii) provision of national news to world
news networks.
Individual media m a y prefer to m a k e inde-
pendent arrangements for gathering national news
or to subscribe directly to agencies supplying
world news, but there are obvious economic
advantages in centralizing and sharing these
services. Governments m a y also wish to channel
news through a single source for purposes of
control; and the independence of the news agency
from government influence is frequently a major
policy issue.
The ownership structure of national news
agencies responds to both political and economic
considerations. N e w s agencies m a y be:
(i) owned Co-operativelybythenews media
and operated as a c o m m o n service;
(ii) owned privately and operated c o m m e r -
cially;
(iii) owned by the government and operated
by the Ministry of Information or an official body;
 (iv) vested in some form of public instru-
mentality with a degree of independence;
(v) owned by government in partnership
with the media and operated as a non-profit
company.
Foreign shareholding in national news
agencies m a y be prohibited in an endeavour to
protect independence and integrity of news.
Revenue is obtained by the sale of services,
the relative cost to subscribers generally being
fixed in proportion to newspaper circulations or
the number of broadcast receiving sets in the
coverage area.
Relationships between national news agencies
and world agencies supplying international news
are usually determined by negotiated contracts,
but governments m a y intervene. National agencies
m a y obtain exclusive rights for local distribution
of overseas services. They m a y also diversify
their sources by subscribing to several world
services.
The services of some of the world agencies
include photographs, feature articles and c o m -
mercial and commodity information as well as
hard news, and several specialized organizations
provide international distribution of news film
for television stations.
The experience of all developing regions of
the world is that news tends to flow from the
advanced to the less advanced countries, and
the channels for news-flow directly between
developing nations are generally rudimentary.
This is largely a reflection of the communication
infrastructure. H o w to remedy the situation is
a preoccupation of governments and media in
developing countries and raises the question of
the feasibility of regional news agencies or other
news exchange arrangements.
(b) Information services
Governments in developing countries will organize
official information services as communication
pipelines to the people. Information officers
throughout the country,helped by the media when
available, will be the focal point for dissemina-
tion of political and developmental information.
Working in conjunction with specialists in
agriculture, health, literacy, etc., and in co-
operation with local groups they will interpret
the policies of government to the people, spear-
head the campaigns, and promote and participate
in community development activities.
Equally important, though often neglected,
is the information officer's function to feed back
information to the central organization. H e m a y
be the source of local news for the national news
agency, but in any case should be an important
channel for keeping the government administra-
tion up to .date on local conditions and needs,
deficiencies in the machinery of government and
the reaction of the people to official policies
and actions.
Governments concerned about their image
abroad also establish channels for the dissemina-
tion in overseas countries of official statements
and information about their national resources,
goals and achievements. Press statements, radio
tapes, TV programmes, films, and print material
prepared at home will be distributed to media
and interested organizations by information
attaches on embassystaffs. While some countries
appoint media professionals to attache posts,
others assign career diplomats to carry out this
function.
(c) Audio-visualmedia
In addition to the major audio-visualmedia of
sound films and television, a large and growing
sector of the communicationindustry is concerned
with the recording and reproduction of sounds
and images, frequently on relatively inexpensive
equipment.
Slides, film strips and tape recordings have
extensive educational, professional and pro-
motional uses and m a y be used together, for
sophisticated multi-screen presentations. Discs,
sound tapes and cassettes, while also having
educational applications, are produced in huge
quantities for the entertainment market. Taped
software is often available on a rental basis.
Audio-visual aids play an important r81e in
developing countries, as they provide the means
ofpresenting locallyproducedmaterial for educa-
tional and development purposes without requiring
costly production and a complicated distribution
network.
The newly developed technologies of video
tape recording and video cassettes and video discs
are about to break into the popular market, but
m a y have even more important institutional
applications. The fact that portable video tape
machines are easy to use and do not require
-
studio facilities adds great flexibility to produc
tion, changing the relationship between producer
and subject, and making it much more informal.
For example, they make it possible to record
live in the field, the opinions and reactions of
townspeople and villagers for incorporation in
television programmes.
The development of the half-inch video tape
recorder with instant playback and re-usable
tape also opens up the possibility of using VTR
as a participatory medium. Community video
centres provide opportunity for self-expression
and experimentation with new art forms, for
-
training and experience that m a y lead to profes
sional careers and for the presentation and
discussion of community and social issues. In
21
a developing country, video taping in a village
m a y help create community awareness and
activism and provide a new and vital channel
open even to illiterates, for direct communi-
cation with government agencies and with other
communities.
Another use of video tapes is to overcome
the disadvantages of the ephemeral nature of
broadcasting. Video recordings of educational
programmes m a y be recorded at the point of
reception and replayed at a time convenient to
the school'sschedule,or collected and stored in
a central library and circulated as desired to
schools or universities.
(d) Libraries and information systems
Libraries provide the means of collecting and or-
ganizing for record, reference or lending, books
documents and graphic material such as films and
sound recordings. Libraries are almost invari-
ably public services and are frequently free, but
charges m a y be made to book borrowers. They
m a y be established at the national or local level
and m a y be for general public use or for specia-
lized institutions such as universities, legisla-
tures, schools, professional, scientific,cultural
and trade organizations. Mobile libraries m a y be
provided for rural areas.
The task of collecting and preserving national
archives is a library function. To ensure the
establishment of comprehensive national collec-
tions, legislation m a y lay down that copies of all
newspapers and films produced in a country, as
well as other historic records such as tape or
video recordings, be deposited in one or more
prescribed libraries.
Library activities include classifying, index-
ing, and abstracting books and documents, pre-
paration of bibliographies, microfilming records,
establishment of systems for recording, storing,
retrieving, distributing and exchanginginforma-
tion.
N e w technologies have greatly extended the
range of services of library and documentation
centres. Bibliographic and reference data m a y
be computerized and transmission links estab-
lished with other libraries or directly with those
using the reference services.
Co-ordinated development of national library,
documentation and archive services, the introduc-
tion of :modern technologies and the possible
establishment of a national computerized infor-
mation system and international exchange arrange-
ments are all matters of public policy, relying on
the allocation of public funds.
The ever-increasingquantity of scientific and
technical information and the need for ready access
to and exchange of such data raises the issue of
the advisability of a separate scientific informa-
tion system outside the framework of established
library services.
22
(e) Manpower and training
A communication system can perform only as
well as the people who run it. Hence, training
in a wide variety of communication skills is a
key point in the development of the system.
Engineers,technicians and maintenance personnel
are required for the telecommunications and
broadcasting networks; printers and compositors
for the press rooms of newspapers, magazines
and books; cameramen,directors and technicians
for the film and television studios. Authors,
script writers, journalists and editors must
prepare the content of the media. Information
and extension offers need training in the process
of communication and persuasion, and teachers
in the utilization of technological aids. Indeed,
a new multidisciplinary professional, a
communicator-educator-animatormay have to
be created and trained. And granted the c o m -
plexities and rapid changes in modern communi-
cations, expertise is needed in economic evalua-
tion, system planning and management.
A basic problem is to match the needs of
the system with available manpower resources.
A country m a y elect to plan in detail its educa-
tional system at various levels and its profes-
sional and vocational training programmes over
alongterm, and m a y carefully control the intake
of students, thereby endeavouring to provide
skilled personnel in appropriate numbers to fill
the nation's manpower needs. Whether this
planned approach is adopted or the law of supply
and demand is permitted to sort out personnel
placement is a policy matter. While the former
m a y limit freedom of career choice and possibly
affect job mobility the latter is likely to cause
manpower bottlenecks and slow down development
or to produce "educated unemployed" with
consequent waste of valuable resources. Where
freedom of choice of a vocation is permitted,
the question of service conditions and economic
and social status of positions in the communi-
cation industry is of vital importance. University
graduates and other well-qualified personnel will
not be attracted to or retained in responsible
journalistic and other communication posts if the
rewards are not comparable with those available
in the civil service or other industries.
If shortages of key personnel persist, the
question arises as to whether foreigners should
be recruited and employed under contract. This,
however, m a y run counter to national policy.
Other major issues for policy-makersare
methods of recruitment and how the training of
technicians and professionals is to be carried
out. Some skills are best learned ineducational
institutions, others on the job. These are some
of the questions which must be resolved:
(i) What technical skills should be taught
under an apprenticeship scheme, forwhat period
and under what conditions?
 (ii) Should supplementary theoretical
training at technical colleges be mandatory?
(iii) Should journalists be trained on the
job or should they follow full-time educational
courses?
(iv) Should such courses be at universities
or at specialized communication institutes, and
what proportion of the curriculum should be
technical and professional?
(v) Should professional qualifications
be obtained before recruitment or should
employers pay salaries during the training
period?
(vi) Should Information and Education
Ministries, Broadcasting Organizations and
Media ProductionCentres have their own training
wings or should the training be centralized and
should it be done in independent institutions?
(vii) T o what extent can training be under-
taken by correspondence, by means of handbooks,
manuals and guides and in conjunction with broad -
cast voc ational programmes ?
(viii) What communicationcomponents should
be included in the training programmes of
teachers, extension officers and field workers?
(ix) What training is required for communi-
cationresearchers and planners and where should
this be undertaken?
(x) What facilities should be provided for
short courses for retraining or up-grading staff?
(xi) What incentives should be provided to
the staff of media to acquire higher qualifications
and improve efficiency? , organizations themselves. One of the character-
(xii) Should key personnel be sent abroad
for training and experience?
(xiii) Should training experts be obtained
from abroad,and should aprogramme be instituted
for the training of trainers?
(xiv) Should regional training institutions be
established on a co-operative basis?
(XV) Should there be training programmes
in the schools and elsewhere, for the consumers
of the mass media to encourage discriminating
attitudes?
(f) Communication research
The formulation of communication policy must
be founded upon a knowledge of the existing
system of communication and how it works; of
the impact of the mass media and their effects
on society; and of the communication needs of
the people and the government.
These are all tasks for research.
In the first place,researchcangiveapicture
of the communication pattern in society. It can
provide an inventory of resources, trace the
channelsthrough which information flows, identify,
count and categorize the audience, and analyse
the content of the media. From this starting
point, an assessment of needs can be made, and
answers obtained to such questions as:
(i) Where are the gaps in the communica-
tion networks?
(ii) What additional capacity is required?
(iii) Are more effective ways necessary to
disseminate development information?
(iv) Are changes necessaryinthe communi-
cation structures to conform to cultural patterns
and technological innovations?
(V) Are there adequate channels for feedback?
(vi) Are there opportunities for public
access and participation?
(vii) What are the manpower requirements
and training needs?
More difficult, but equally important, is the
task of assessing the social consequences of
the media and their effect on opinions, attitudes,
values and behaviour. This requires a study of
the whole process of communicationand its inter-
relationshipwith other socialand culturalfactors.
Only on the basis of research in all these
areas can coherent communication policies be
formulated, existing policies revised, and
communication strategies devised. Without this
basic knowledge, decision-makers,in media
enterprises, in government planning offices, in
the ministries concerned with information and
development, are working in the dark, and the
use of communication as a social tool will fall
short of its potential.
Research is frequently undertaken by media
istics of the mass media is that they have no
in-built system of feedback. "To know the
audience", which is one of the first principles
of effective communication, it is necessary to
employ scientific research methods to measure
and obtain profiles of listeners, viewers and
readers, The media need this information for
programme planning, as well as for advertising
promotion and to provide marketing services.
Commercially -motivated research of this
type, however, does not touch on many larger
problems faced by planners and policy-makers.
Policy-orientated research m a y have to be
carried out by government agencies or at least
be commissioned by them. The allocation of
funds for this purpose depends on enlightened
government recognition of the importance of
research and development in this field. The
social science departments or communication
institutes in universities are probably best
equipped to carry out multidisciplinary research
of this type.
(g) Media and professional associations
Important policy-making bodies, outside the
framework of government, are the associations
23
of media employers, the professional and
employee organizations and various groups
comprising the "consumers" of communication.
Each is concerned with determining policies for
its particular segment of the communication
system and exerting pressures to promote the
special interests of its members.
In free -enterprise countries, owners and
employers with c o m m o n interests in newspapers,
printing, periodicals, books, film, radio or
television,group together for certain co-operative
activities while maintaining competition within
the industry. The association provides services
to its members, regulates certain business prac-
tices, represents the industry in negotiations
with government, other media and employee
organizations. Joint promotional and public
relations activities m a y also be undertaken.
Employee organizations for journalists,
printers, broadcast producers, radio technicians,
musicians, actors, etc. are formed for both
economic and professional purposes. Frequently,
the principal objective is to provide solidarity
for negotiation or direct actionto improve salaries
and working conditions. Either by virtue of
government policy, or because of the strenght of
the trade unions, membership m a y be compulsory
for all employees working in the particular
industry.
The associations,both employer and employee,
m a y have as an objective the maintenance of
professional standards and will formulate
standards of practice or codes of ethics to guide
professional conduct.
-
In socialist countries particularly,the profes
sional organizations have more extensive
programmes and responsibilities. They m a y be
represented on management or editorial boards
of media enterprises, or actually run them as
co-operatives. They m a y conduct training
courses, undertake research, and provide their
members with arange of welfare and recreational
services.
Consumer bodies are generally less well-
organized, but are gaining strength as pressure
-
groups to influence media content particularly
-
television and to counter dishonest advertising.
With the growth of public participation in the
media, associations of "users" of media such as
cable TV will have an increasingly important
role in enlarging opportunities for access and
organizing utilization of the facilities.
24
(h) Advertising and promotion
The place of advertising in the communication
system rests on both economic and political
considerations.
Inasocialist system,it has a minor rale and,
when permitted, is inthe nature of a public service.
In a developed free enterprise economy,
however, advertising is itself a major industry.
Not only does it provide financial support for the
media, but it is an important form of communica-
tion in its own right. Its messages m a y be
commercial and persuasive, relating to the sale
of goods and services, or promote ideas,opinions
and political views, or be essentially informative
and prestigious. It m a y take the form of display
space or classified advertisements in newspapers
and magazines, commercials on radio and tele-
vision, slides or shorts in cinemas, films,
mailing pieces, posters, brochures, outdoor
signs, or the packaging and presentation of the
goods themselves.
The advertising industry consists of adver-
tising agencies who advise on marketing and
merchandising, cr eate advertise m ents and
service national accounts, the representatives
ofthe media who sell space, time and promotional
ideas, and the staffs of the advertising depart-
ments of manufacturers and retailers. Working
in close co-operation with the advertising
specialists, are public relations organizations,
marketing and media survey companies, psycho-
logists and researchers, artists and designers,
audio-visual production companies and branches
of the graphic industry.
Advertising agencies obtain their earnings
from fees from their clients and/or commissions
from the media. Their right to earn commis-
sions m a y be dependent on their "accreditation"
by media organizations. Through the accredi-
tation system, the media m a y impose rigid
conditions on agencies relating to standards,
ownership and financial structure, particularly
to ensure high credit reliability.
Important policy issues are whether adver-
tising should be permitted on government broad-
castjng and on cable TV services; whether it
should be restricted in areas considered to be
socially undesirable or hazardous to health,
such as gambling, financial speculation, cigar -
ettes, liquor, certain pharmaceutical products
and medical "cures". Prohibitions m a y be
imposed by law or by the media themselves in
the public interest. Another issue is measures
forthe protection of the public against objection-
able, false or dishonest advertising.
 I I I. The i m p I e m entat i on of c o m m u ni cat i on po I i cies
Modern communication is of such central impor-
tance to society that the public interest demands
that it be subject to some form of social super-
vision. The nature of that supervision will
conform to national communication policies,
implied or expressed.
Depending on the political philosophy and
socio-economicstructure of the State, govern-
ments m a y attempt to implement their communi-
cation policies through direct control of the
system, or by exercising constraints on private
interests undertaking communication activities
and providing support and incentives to encourage
the system's development in desired directions.
Concurrently with government action,
privately-owned media organizations and other
social institutions will be following their own
policies which m a y sometimes conflict with
official views.
In the following pages, we will consider some
of the alternatives for formulating and imple-
menting communication policies, and action
which might be taken to help co-ordinate the
various components in the system and ensure
that it develops in a harmonious and integrated
way.
1. The socialist approach
It might be said that when one chooses a political
system, to a large degree one chooses a
communication system. In some socialist
countries, with strong central control and plan-
ning and where all the means of production and
distribution are nationalized, communication is
an integral part of a total social and political
programme. The various components of the
communication system are not clearly defined
and separated, and interpersonalnetworks in
particular, such as party cadres, perform
multiple functions both political and develop-
mental. Goals and objectives are determined at
~
the highest level and, although implementation
will be decentralized and feedback channels
developed, the allocation of resources and the
theme of the communication campaigns are the
result of central decision-making, Directives
pass down to the cadres through the party
organization and, taking their cue from the
centralnews agency,the hierarchy of information
media from the national to the local level give
guidance to the party workers and reinforce the
interpersonal communication channels they
establish in towns, factories, villages or
communes. The media reiterate the slogans,
the exhortations of leaders, the criticism of
deviants and of outdated concepts and reinforce
the current campaign goals by publicizing and
praising cases of outstanding success.
2. Public investment
It is not only in socialist countries that govern-
ment activities form the backbone of the communi-
cation system. In many developing countries,
both the establishment of the communication
infrastructure and the utilization of communica-
tion for development are very largely a public
sector responsibility, and there is very little
economic incentive for private investment in the
media. It is generally the elite who have access
to the media, because only the literate can read
a newspaper and only the well-off can afford a
television set or even a newspaper subscription.
And media relying on advertising for their
financial support have little to gain from an
audience without purchasing power. If informa-
tion is to be widely disseminated, and if the
mass of the people and particularly those in
rural areas are to have access to communication
services, it is the government who must provide
them.
Whether to establish a telephone trunk-line
network or expand the number of radio stations,
25
introduce an educational television system, set
up a film production unit, establish a communi-
cation training institute, provide extension
services for agriculture, institute a programme
for research and evaluation, etc. must depend
on the availability of resources and the importance
attributed by government to the various communi-
cation programmes. H o w much to invest in the
communication system and what priority to give
to communication in national planning is a prime
question for government decision-makers, and
will largely determine the rale and effectiveness
of communication in the society and in the devel-
opment process.
3. Mechanisms for social control
Most countries choose systems where public and
private sectors coexist, Given the power and
influence of the media, governments find it
necessary to establish some rules or control
mechanisms to protect the public interest. While
freedom of expression is almost universally
accepted as a basic human right and is enshrined
in many constitutions, the interpretation of
freedom varies widely. In some systems,freedom
of the press is regarded as a corner-stone of
democracy and is defended by the courts; in
others freedom is qualified by the government's
judgment of the nation's needs and is not extended
to "the enemies of the State".
The nature of the controls imposed on the
communication system rests largely on the
attitude to the principle of press freedom and on
the performance and responsibility of the media
themselves. Under some systems the freedoms
and constraints applying to the media are based
on custom and precedent and legislation is limited
to a number of strictly defined fields such as
national security, defamation and obscenity, and
to the use ofthe newer communicationtechnologies
such as the electronic media. In liberalcountries
of this type, the media are one of the "checks
and balances" of democracy. They frequently
play an adversary rale, investigating and
criticizing government policies and performance.
Many developing countries consider that they
cannot afford the luxury of serious and consistent
dissent in a situation of social and political
instability, and it becomes a dilemma for both
editors and government as to the extent to which
political oppositionbythe media can be tolerated.
Some countries codify the law and lay down
specia1 regulations governing media enterprises
which are more rigorous than ordinary commer-
cial requirements.
Still other countries, acting under national
security powers,exercise an arbitrary authority
over the media, issuing or withdrawing permits
to operate by administrative action, banning
26
programmes or suspending publication, confis -
cating papers, books, films or presses, and
punishing editors, journalists or publishers who
do not conform to directives.
Considerationin detail of some ofthe mechan-
isms of social control of the communication
system will follow.
4. Pre -operationalrequirements
The publication of a newspaper, the operation of
a broadcasting station or the exhibition of a film
m a y be subject to prior official approval or at
least m a y have to comply with certain statutory
formalities.
Control m a y be exercised through a licence
system authorizing the enterprise and laying
down in detail the conditions under which it m a y
operate. Licences m a y be issued by adminis-
trative action or after a public hearing by an
examing or judicial body. In some cases, the
licence m a y be awarded to the highest bidder
for a particular franchise. Once granted,
licences m a y expire after a fixed term, be auto-
matically renewed subject to good conduct or
they m a y be revoked or suspended for a breach
of conditions.
Even if advance authorization is not
mandatory, declarations m a y be required
covering all aspects of the enterprise and making
a full disclosure of its owners and directors.
Newspaper and magazine publishers m a y have
to register their publications and deposit a
security bond which is forfeited in the event of
contravention of the law. It m a y be required
that every issue contain an "imprint", setting
out the name and address of the person who
takes legal responsibility for its contents.
5. Media ownershiv
It is obviously easier for governments to imple-
ment communication policies in those parts of
the communication system under direct political
authority. One of the options open to govern-
ments, therefore, is to operate media enter-
prises under public ownership,either exclusively
or concurrently with the private sector. Govern-
ment broadcasting and publishing m a y also be
undertaken, not for reasons of social or political
control, but to meet a need when private media
would not be viable in a free market situation,
or in order to provide diversity in sources of
information and programming.
As a compromise between direct political
control and private ownership and in order to
ensure some degree of independence in manage -
ment and editorial policy, an alternativestructure
is a public corporation operating along the lines
of a public utility. A government Minister m a y
be vested with a reserve power to intervene if it
is considered that the public interest is not being
served.
Joint ownership of communication facilities,
media or news agencies is another option, the
controlling interest being public or private,
according to policy. Mechanisms m a y be estab-
lished to protect editorial independence. F o r
example, in a national news agency, with amajor
government shareholding but serving both private
and public media, financial management m a y be
the responsibility of a Board representative of
owners, but direction of the agency's service
m a y be under an editorial committee of
subscribers.
Conditions relating to private ownership m a y
be prescribed by law. For instance, publication
of daily newspapers m a y be permitted only by
approved corporate institutions. Ownership of
non-governmentbroadcasting stations m a y be
restricted to certain categories of organizations
such as political parties, educational institutions
or community bodies for operation on a non-
profitbasis, and be denied to ordinary commercial
companies.
Governments generally regard concentration
of media ownership as socially undesirable as it
reduces the safeguards inherent in diverse and
multiple outlets for news and opinion and risks
development of a private power that might be
use& irresponsibly.
Legislation m a y therefore limit the number
of newspapers or radio, television or cable
licences owned or controlled by one individual
or company, and m a y prevent cross ownership
of media in a single market.
Similarly, prohibitions or limitations are
sometimes placed on ownership of media by
foreign interests on the principle that this
sensitive area should be reserved for national
investment and information channels should not
be subject to outside control.
6. Entry to the profession
Under liberal democratic political systems, the
journalistic profession is open to all and the
right to freedom of expression includes the right
to publish and to work in the media without
restrictive qualifications.
In socialist systems, media personnel must
be politically reliable and are generally drawn
from the ranks of the Party.
Some countries include. in their press law,
personal qualifications for directors, editors or
journalists laying down, for example, minimum
age and educational standards, and requiring
that they have citizen status and work full time
in the profession. Indeed, the government m a y
reserve the right to approve the appointment of
the editor or members of theBoard of Directors,
even of privately-owned media.
Practice ofthe profession of journalism m a y
also be restricted to those who hold "press cards".
Cards will probably be issued only to members
of a journalists' organization which will specify
entry qualifications and exercise some discipline
over members. Holders of press cards m a y
also be entitled to certain privileges such as
rights of access and travel concessions.
Media employee organizations m a y also
attempt to introduce "closed shop'' policies
which limit employment to union members.
7. Control of material resources
A convenient tool for implementing government
policy is the control exercised over the private
sector through the allocation of resources
essential for media production and distribution.
Under contitions of shortage and particularly
where foreignexchange is required, governments
are in a position to impose import restrictions
and quotas and control the distribution of avail-
able supplies. They m a y also lay down conditions
relating to local manufacture.
In the case of the press, authority to import
printing machinery m a y be required with possible
obstacles being placed in the way of establish-
ment, expansion or modernization of plant for
production of newspapers, periodicals or books.
But the most vulnerable aspect of print media
operations is their dependence upon a scarce raw
material - printing paper. F e w countries are
self-sufficient in newsprint, and governments
can impose regulations governing the quantity
imported and its allocation to users. Newsprint
allocations to existing media m a y be strictly
equitable, based on consumption during a base
period, but establishing a minimum allocation
sufficient to ensure production of small local
papers. In cases of severe scarcity, the regula-
tions m a y specify the format, number of pages,
and proportion of advertisements and fix the
maximum circulation of newspapers and
periodicals.
Control of newsprint supplies m a y also be
manipulated by administrative action to favour
newspapers supporting government policy and
publishing official handouts, but discriminating
against those who criticize and oppose the
government.
Film-makingand broadcasting can also be
inhibited by government restrictions on produc -
tion equipment and materials, projectors, radio
and television transmitters and receivers,many
of which are imported by developing countries.
Controls on listening to or viewing foreign
broadcasts might also be attempted by technical
means, such as making it illegal to manufacture,
27
or to be in possession of, receiving sets capable
of receiving other than specified frequencies or
owning antennas which could, for example, pick
up direct satellite broadcasts.
T o promote the growth of the media, govern-
ments of developing countries m a y undertake
capital investment from public funds to provide
production facilitiesforcommunication activities
and then lease or hire them on favourable terms
to private operators. Such a policy might apply
to printing establishments, broadcasting trans-
mitters, film studios and laboratories, in cases
where private capital resources are not attracted
to the venture, but the government wishes to
encourage media development for economic and
social reasons. For example, regionalprinteries
might be set up to undertake centralized produc-
tion of a number of privately-operated local
newspapers serving district communities.
Government support might also be extended -
by means of joint enterprises or specialconditions
for foreign firms - to enable the growth of
domestic newsprint, electronic, radio and tele-
vision receiver manufacturing industries, etc. ,
which would promote the expansion ofthe communi-
cation system.
8. Financial constraints and incentives
Fiscal policies and the pricing of government
services maybe used as instrumentsto encourage
or discourage certain types of communication
activity. Sympathetic policies and even direct
public expenditures m a y facilitate the establish-
ment of media in the private sector, increase
their revenues or reduce their operating costs.
Harsh regulations and taxes, on the other hand,
m a y make the enterprise unprofitable.
Taxes m a y be levied on admission tickets or
box office takings of cinemas and theatres, on
advertising revenues of newspapers and broad-
casting stations, on sales of newspapers, maga-
zines and books. Owners or renters of radio
and television receivers m a y be required to pay
an annual fee. Charges for licences to operate
mediamaybe heavy, and based on a considerable
percentage of the revenue ofthe business. Import
duties on capital equipment and raw materials
such as paper, film, records and tapes m a y
greatly increase costs of establishment and
operation.
These various types oftaxes maybe designed
essentially to contribute to consolidated revenue
rather than to place particular hardships on
media enterprises and some of them will apply
in principle to commercial activities in other
sectors.
However, if in the government's view, the
media perform an essential public service, con-
tribute to development,and are in need of official
28
encouragement, the tax laws m a y be framed to
avoid taxes which fall exclusively on communi-
cation media (like an entertainment tax, or an
advertising tax) and to grant them exemptions
or concessions in the areas of sales tax and
import duties. Generous depreciation allow-
ances m a y be permitted for purposes of income
tax assessment in order to encourage investment
in modern productive equipment.
Credit facilities such as loans from develop-
ment banks and guarantees for equipmentpurchase
can ease establishment problems of media
enterprises, as can favourable central banking
policies relating to advance payments for
hnported machinery and raw materials.
Competitive imports such as feature films
m a y be restricted by quota or embargo.
Specialprovisions for media are c o m m o n in
the area of tariffs for postal and telecommunica-
tion services. These m a y be justified on the
grounds of large-scale usage of the facilities,
but are more often concessions granted by
virtue of the important social function of
communication, particularly the dissemination
of news. This is a matter for government policy
decision, as Post and Telegraph Administrations
frequently contend that tariffs for the mass
media should be the same as for ordinary
commercia1 traffic.
Reduced postal charges m a y be applied to
the distribution of newspapers, periodicals and
books and special low rates established for news
transmissions by telephone, telegraph, telex,
teleprinter and international cable. Government
transport services m a y also allow concession
freight rates for the carriage of newspapers and
other information materials.
Post offices, as one of their services, m a y
act as collectors for newspaper subscriptions
and book purchases, as well as for broadcast
receiver licences.
T o improve media revenues, governments
m a y provide financial subsidies or purchase
media output or services. A s acceptance of
official patronage might create an obligation
which destroyed editorial independence, ways
are sometimes sought to provide financial
assistance on a systematic basis without involving
direct grants.
In countries where the principal newspapers
are conducted by political parties, governments
sometimesmake grantsto all recognized parties,
with the understanding that some of the funds
will be used to support the party press.
Another option is for the government-to
purchase advertising in the private media. The
advertisements m a y be official notices, such as
taxationrequirements,tenders and staffvacancies,
but m a y also be in support of government
campaigns and programmes in education,health,
safety, family planning, co-operatives,etc. T o
avoid discrimination in advertising allocations,
principles m a y be laid down by agreement with
media organizations or some independent body
could be given the responsibility of equitable
distribution.
A further option, of mutual benefit, is the
awarding of government contracts to the private
media; for example, for official printing, text
books or other publications, or for the production
of films.
Higher standards in the communication
industry can be promoted by the government
through subsidized professional training and by
the award of study fellowships.
Artistic creativity can be encouraged also
through literary funds, awards to artists and
performers, and competitions and prizes for
films and books.
Apart from government action, subsidization
of media by institutions or individuals is not
uncommon. In such cases, the newspaper or
broadcasting station must have particular value
as an opinion outlet, as is often the case with
political parties or religious organizations. The
circulationsand revenues of institutionally-owned
newspapers and periodicals can be augmented by
making compulsory subscriptions to the publica-
tions an integral part of the organization’s
membership fee.
9. Control of media content
Where public information is subordinated to
political authority, control m a y be exercised
through the party, through the military or by
government administrative action. Prior censor - for the exhibition in cinemas of locally-made
ship of publications m a y be imposed, or media
m a y be subject to scrutiny after publication and
editors held responsible for content. If it breaches
official guidelines, the issue might be suppressed
or the paper suspended, and the editor arbitrarily
penalized.
Under liberal systems, prohibitionsto publish
are defined by law and offences are punishable by
the courts after a judicial hearing. Many of the
laws affecting the media are contained in the
penal code applicable to everyone, and there are
additionally specific laws hposing certain con-
straints on what m a y be printed or broadcast.
While many countries minimize such restrictions,
others set out in precise detail a long list of
prohibitions in a Press L a w and in Broadcasting
Regulations.
Prohibited material falls into three general
-
categories information inimical to the national
interest, that which m a y be harmful to social
life and that which is injurious to the individual.
In the first category are matters dealing with
national security and official secrets, which all
countries protect from disclosure whatever
their political system. The prohibitions, however,
m a y be expanded to cover a wide area of news
and comment such as incitement to riot, attack
on the constitution, insult to the Head of State,
prejudice to relations with foreign countries,
spreading false or tendentious news, propaganda
in favour of war, etc., while a blanket provision
may, in effect, provide a basis for political
censorship.
A n area of increasing concernto governments,
with the development of communication technol-
ogies and the growth of the mass media, is their
social and cultural impact. Constraints may,
therefore, be placed on print media, radio,
television, film exhibitors, bookshops and news
stands to prevent action considered harmful to
public morality, public health, family life and
the interests of children and social relationships
within the community. Laws in this area include
those on indecent publications and pornography,
depiction of violence, censorship and classifica-
tion of films and televisionprogrammes,dissem-
ination of information about drugs, publications
and programmes for children, reports of court
proceedings concerning juveniles, racial and
religious discrimination, etc. Restrictions m a y
alsobe placed on advertising matter dealing with
medical treatment and pharmaceutical products,
alcohol and cigarettes, gaming and betting,
lotteries, financial speculation, etc.
The protection of cultural values m a y be
attempted by banning the importation of certain
types of publications, films, records or tele-
vision programmes. Another approach to the
same problem is to establish minimum quotas
films, the broadcasting of locally-composed
music on radio and the televising of domestically-
produced programmes using local artistic talent.
The interests of society also require that
the media should not interferewiththe processes
of justice and rules are therefore established
relating to contempt of court and restricting the
publication of material which might prejudice a
fair trial. However, in the public interest, reports
of the proceedings of open court hearings are
normally permitted.
The law and the courts also protect individuals
from malicious and defamatory statements reflec-
ting on their personal reputations. Even in such
cases, however, the public good m a y override
the private injury and the defamatory statement
m a y be justified on grounds of truth and public
benefit or if made on a “privileged” occasion
such as in parliament or the courts.
Apart from prohibitions on publication,
another aspect of control of media content is a
requirement for compulsory publication. This
m a y take the form of a broadcast on a matter of
29
national importance, but only in the case of an
authoritarian government, or in times of crisis,
is it likely that the press would be compelled to
publish an official statement. Compulsion,
however, is rarely necessary if the matter is of
genuine public interest, and if that is not the case,
the announcement might take the form of paid
advertising.
While good professional practice requires
that factual corrections be made voluntarilywhen
necessary and that differing points of view be
given opportunity for expression, some countries
provide a legalright of correctionand reply. The
rights m a y be confined to public officials acting
in their public capacity and be restricted to the
press. O n the other hand, the principle m a y be
broadly applied in order to provide fairness of
access for opposing opinions of all types and
have particular relevance for media such as
broadcasting where the number of outlets is
limited.
Of greater social significance in most
societies than government control of content is
the policy of the media themselves. The manage-
ments of broadcasting organizations decide their
programme policies and the relative prominence
devoted to news, entertainment, education,
cultural pr ogammes , development information,
sports, etc. Newspaper publishers and editors
determinewhether their paper will seek a popular
readership with sensational presentation and
coverage of crime, sport and human interest
stories, or will aim at quality with wide and
balanced news coverage, informative features
and interpretative articles or whether it will
have a strong political bias.
The media also must take important policy
decisions on matters of principle such as
suppression of news, exposure of misconduct,
protection of news sources, separation of news
and comment, identification of advertising
matter, etc.
10. International constraints
While communication policy is essentially a
matter for national determination, it cannot be
formulated or implemented without regard to
international implications. In an interdependent
world, in which national boundaries are continu-
ously crossed, international co-operation is
indispensable in establishing a regulatory frame-
work for the movement of information, materials
and persons between States, and in the use of the
radio waves which recognize no frontiers.
In their mutual interests, States m a y accept
constraints on national communication policies
in order to conform to international standards or
agreements in such areas as transport, civil
aviation,travel and immigration,postal services,
30
telecommunications, radio frequency allocations
and controls, informationexchange,broadcasting,
import regulations, tariffs and copyright. The
great expansion of international travel, the
development of technologies such as space
communication and data transmission, and the
increased volume of telecommunication traffic
have enhanced international communication and
at the same time rendered more urgent agree-
ment on conditions for international exchanges.
Agreements m a y be negotiated on abilateral
or regional basis, or m a y be determined by the
international community within the framework
of the United Nations system.
International instruments such as conven-
tions impose obligations on States and require
ratification by those countries wishing to adhere
to them. Examples in the communication field
are the Conventions on Copyright and Neighbour-
ing Rights and the Unesco Agreement on the
Importation of Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Materials. Of particular importance
fortelecommunications and broadcasting are the
Convention and Regulations of the International
TelecommunicationUnion and its various organs,
which have treaty status and world-wide acceptance.
The flow of information both inwards and
outwards is a vital concern of most countries;
and, while it m a y be promoted or controlled
nationally, an objective will be to establish
adequate structures and policies at the regional
and international levels. Developing countries
which experience a large inflow of news, broad-
cast programmes and printed material and a scant
flow in the opposite direction might co-operate
with other countries in their region to promote
news, feature and programme exchanges and in
the establishment of a regional news agency.
International and regional associations of
professional and media organizations make an
important contribution to international CO -
operation by establishing mechanisms for
exchanging services, undertaking joint enter -
prises, harmonizing operational policies and
adopting standard practices.
A n important and often neglected issue is
the technical suitability and compatibility of
imported equipment. Manufacturers developing
new communication technologies in a competitive
field, will frequently adopt different standards
and produce incompatible equipment. Developing
countries accepting foreign aid m a y find them-
selves committed to the installation of equipment
from a donor country which proves inappropriate
in technical design or standards.
National policy decisions should be taken as
early as possible with regard to technical
standards and specifications to ensure that
technical systems are developed on sound bases
and imported equipment conforms to local
requirements as well as international standards
such as those laid down for electronic equipment
by the C.C.I. R. (an organ of the International
T elecommunic ation Union).
11. Media councils and self regulation
Liberal democratic countries face the dilemma
of exercising social control over the communica-
tion media, while at the same time retaining
freedom of expression.
A substitutefor direct control is the principle
of social responsibility under which the media
voluntarily accept their accountability to society
as a whole and submit themselves to the constraints
imposed by public opinion, professional ethics
and consumer pressures.
Self-regulationby the media frequently starts
with the elaboration by media or professional
organizations of principles of conduct which are
subscribed to by their members. These m a y
take the form of codes of ethics, creeds or
standards of practice, and are sometimes
reinforced by disciplinary measures within the
organization. A further step in self-regulation
is the establishment of councils or courts of
honour which investigate and adjudicate on
complaints ofirresponsible publication and whose
findings are given wide publicity. The councils,
frequently set up by co-operativeaction between
publishers, editors and journalists,m a y have no
powers of sanction, but can still achieve status
and authority through the strength of public
opinion.
Media councils of this type m a y have juris-
diction over all media, or be limited to either
press or broadcasting. They m a y consist solely
ofrepresentatives of the media and the profession -
-
thereby exercising judgment as peers or the
council m a y be more representative and include
judicial, government or citizen members.
A further option is for the council to be
established by statute and vested with legal
powers, including possibly the right to impose
penalties.
The councils m a y have broader functions
thanthe consideration of complaints by the public,
such as the defence of the independence of the
media and the rights to freedom of expression
and advice to the government on media legislation.
A n alternative to a media council is an
Ombudsman, appointed either by the government
or the media, who amongst other duties will
undertake investigation of complaints and
endeavour to secure rectification and fair dealing
inmatters of news coverage and editorialcomment.
Organized consumer action provides another
pressure on the media to exercise care and
responsibilityinmat eria1 published, particularly
in the case of advertising. Governments can
support the efforts of consumer protection
organizations by a programme of consumer
education and by appointing a Consumer Affairs
Bureau to handle complaints including those
concerning false or misleading advertising.
For their part, media and advertising
organizations can institute a self-regulatory
system laying down rigid standards of advertising
practice, policing them internally and joining
advertisers, advertising agencies and media in
a voluntary advertising authorityto help maintain
high ethical standards and, in the absence of
other mechanisms, to deal with complaints
against national advertisers.
12. Protection of private rights
Individual rights, broadly recognized but often
under threat in modern communication systems,
are those relating to intellectual property,
personal reputation and privacy.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
proclaims a person's right to protection of the
moral and material interests resulting from any
scientific, literary or artistic production of
which he is the author. This protection is
embodied in national copyright legislation and
maybe extended world wide interms of reciprocal
agreements under international copyright conven-
tions. The legislation will endeavour to maintain
a balance of rights between the owners and the
users of copyright material.
The complexities of the laws governing
copyright and "neighbouring rights'' will not be
enlarged upon here but they are extremely
important in a communication system, as they
cover both the media's own copyright in original
material published or broadcast, and the rights
of authors, composers and performers in their
works printed, recorded, filmed or broadcast
by the media.
Copyright gives the owner the rightto control
the use of the copyright work and, in the case of
amusicalwork, the right includes not only control
of publishing and recording but also of public
performance and broadcasting. Conditions
applying to the use of copyright material by
media are generally settled by contractual
agreements within the framework of the copy-
right law.
Some rights are often claimed but not recog-
nized and, inthe absence of agreement, a number
of controversial issues m a y have to be settled
by legislation; for example, the payment of
royalties to performers and record companies
for the broadcasting of recordings, use of copy-
right material for educational purposes, royalty
payments to authors for books borrowed from
libraries or for photocopying extracts from books
and documents, copyright liability of cable
31
operators for the retransmission of broadcasting
programmes, re-recording of records for c o m -
mercial sale, rebroadcast without prior authori-
zation of programmes such as sports events.
transmitted by point -to-point satellites. Some of
these issues are covered by international conven-
tions, to which States have the option of adhering.
Individuals are also entitled to protection
from attacks on their honour and personal reputa-
tion, and media must be constantly on guard not
to publish or broadcast statements which leave
them open to actions for libel or defamation.
(SeesectiononControlofmediacontent, page 29. )
N e w communication technologies, computers
and electronic devices threaten to intrude on the
individual's right to privacy. National legislation
m a y prohibit or at least strictly curtail "wire
tapping" of telephone conversations, surveillance
of mail and telegraph or other transmitted
material, or secret recording of private discus - individualreplies and are referred to appropriate
sions. Safeguards are also required to ensure
the confidential nature of personal data and
financial information, etc. collected for specific
official purposes and stored in computers, and
to prevent unauthorized access to it.
A policy dilemma is created by the conflict
between the right to "seek and impart" informa-
tion and an individual's right to privacy. The
unreasonable intrusion by the media into personal
privacy is a problem which might be approached
by enacting a legal right to privacy, but is mostly
left to the sense of responsibility of the media
themselves, which is not infrequently abused. If
a function of the media in modern society is one
of vigilance, inquiry and exposure in the public
interest legal constraintson investigative report
ing m a y be prejudicial to the public good and
encourage the conduct of public affairs in secrecy.
A distinction m a y be made between the public
activities of m e n and women in public life and
their purely private and family affairs. If this
is not covered by legislation, it is a matter
meritingthe attention of the self-regulatingbodies
established to promote ethical practices and high
standards of conduct and integrity by journalists,
photographers and press and broadcasting
enterprises.
13. Participation access and feedback
Communication is a multilateral process and the
workings of a democracy necessitate a flow of
information not only from leaders to people but
from people back to leaders and laterally between
groups and communities. Traditionalmediatendto
provide a one-way flow from the centres of author-
ity; such a top-downward communication system
fails to provide opportunity for adequate involve -
ment ofthe public in social and political debate and
in the process of democratic decision-making.
32
Means are therefore sought to make possible
public accessto the media and to provide feedback
channels for a response to the messages which
flowthrough the system. Interpersonalcommuni-
cation of course enables immediate feedback,
and this is the great strength of that part of the
communication system based on field workers,
extension agents, information officers and party
cadres, who are involved in direct dialogue with
the people and relay reactions and problems
back through an organized communicationnetwork.
The combined use of media and group discussion,
as in a radio farm forum or tele-club, is another
effective means of organized participation and
establishes links between the information source
and the audience.
Newspapers devote space to "Letters to the
Editor", which in some countries are very
voluminous and those not published receive
government agencies for action. Broadcasting
stations can provide similar opportunities for
airing listeners' opinions, answering questions
or responding to requests.
Community ownership of local media, such
as newspapers and radio stations is a possibility
while advances in communication technology
create new opportunities for participation and
access.
Members of the listening public canbe linked
by telephone to the studios of a radio station and
engage in live "talk-back" with the announcer or
experts in the studio and comment, askquestions
or discuss matters of topical interest.
Video-tape recorders provide a new means
- of self-expression,selfdevelopmentand dialogue
for people in isolated communities; they enable
exchanges between community leaders and
organizations in neighbouring towns and villages
and lend impact to a two-way exchange with
government officials,often resulting in a more
responsive attitude to local representations.
Cable television greatly enlarges the possi-
bilities of public access to the communication
system. Governments can ensure that some of
the available channels are reserved for community
use and placed at the disposal of individuals and
groups for experimentaland culturalprogramming
or talks and discussions on academic questions,
and investigations of social problems. While
maintain'ing the principle of non-discrimination
in the allocation of channel time, conditions m a y
be laid down to prevent abuse of the facility,
and to provide an adequate support framework
in order to ensure that public access channels
are used purposefully to reflect aspects of life
not covered by conventional television services.
Another means by which the public can
feedback their reactions to the media is through
consumer societies, which monitor programmes
on radio and TV and act as self-appointed "watch
dogs" on programme standards.
A n aspect of the principle of access is the
right of press representatives to attend and
report public meetings and to examine official
reports and documents on matters of public
concern. This frequently creates conflicts with
government administrators as much material
passing through their hands is confidential or
classified. The problem m a y be resolved by
administrative decision and court rulings, or
governments m a y define in legislation the rights
of the public and the media to examine public
documents including the limitations imposed on
such a right.
14. Communication planning and co-ordination
While the media are in some senses competitive,
sharing an audience's time and attention, they
are interrelated and complementary. For example,
while television has reduced theatre and cinema
attendances, it has increased enormously the
total number of viewers of many feature films
and theatricalproductions. It m a y have diminished
the time spent in reading, but newspapers have
rarely been put out of business by the broadcast-
ing media, though their content m a y have been
modified to provide details and background of
news first heard on radio or television. Broad-
casting has had a considerable literary impact;
many books have been dramatized,plays produced
for radio and television, authors interviewed and
book sales stimulated. Radio has popularized
music al compositions, established reputations
of performers and promoted record sales.
Technological developments such as cable
television, and displayed news information and
electronic delivery of printed material in the
home, will blur the boundaries betweenthe media
and while placing still more information at the
disposal of the public, m a y well dislocate some
existing services and institutions.
While media relationships under some
systems are largely left for determination by
economic pressures and mutual agreement,
there is increasing recognition of the need for a
globalview and coherentplanning of the communi-
cation system, and for co-ordinationat the levels
of policy formulation, strategic planning and
operational implementation. The utilization of
technology for social economic and cultural
development has so many aspects and such a
vast potential, that a coherent programme for
research, policies and planning for social
communication becomes essential. In the past,
planning has generally been ad hoc and rarely on
an integrated national basis.
There are communication components in the
activities of many government departments, as
well as a large private sector in most political
systems. But individual media make their own
decisions and each ministry has its own
programme and sets its own priorities.
In developing countries particularly, this
creates problems because public sector activities
assume much greater importance, and the effec-
tive use of communication in the development
process requires conscious planning and CO-
ordination at all levels and the active participa-
tionof those at the receiving end of the communi-
cation network.
Communication, by its nature, is inter-
disciplinary, but the structures of government
are generally rigidly vertical with each minister
having individual responsibility for the plans
and programmes of his department. The need,
therefore, arises for some mechanism to ensure
that the communication system is seen as a
whole, so that gaps, duplications and inconsis-
tencies can be identified, the interrelationship
of the components and technologies understood,
policies harmonized and plans integrated. At
the same time, many countries would wish to
avoid too much centralized direction, and to
maintain flexibility, diversity and freedom of
expression and involve the community in the
planning and execution of communication
activities.
There is no simple solution to this problem,
and a number of options exist, involving more
or less centralization depending upon political
and social goals and norms.
T o assure communication an adequate place
in national economic planning and to integrate
the various components of the communication
system into the overall plan, a communication
unit might be established inthe Planning Ministry.
Such a unit would be concerned not only with
telecommunications, but with the whole of the
communication infrastructure, and would co-
ordinate the communication components in the
development plans of "user" ministries such as
Information, Education, Agriculture, Health,
Community Development, etc.
Planning ministries, however, generally
confine themselves to long-term economic plan-
ning in the public sector and, important as this
is, it does not embrace the problems of co-
ordination at the operational level. This might
be achieved by an interministerial co-ordinating
committee which could usefully harmonize the
programmes ofthe various ministriesfor develop-
ing and utilizing the media and interpersonal
communication networks.
Both these solutions, however, leave gaps
in the global approach to communication'srale
in society. T o realize the potential of communi-
cation for social progress and development
requires more than economic planning, more
33
than interministerial co-ordination; it requires
agreement on goals and policies, a will to use
communication in the development process, a
knowledge of ways and means based on research,
co-operationof the media and the professionals,
and the participation of the community.
Such a broad-based approach to communica-
tion and its implications for society m a y require
a new structure to enable consultations amongst
all interested government agencies, the private
sector and the general public. This might take
the form of a representative national group,
which could be called a National Communication
Policy Council.
The Council m a y be an advisory body with
members drawn from both government and non-
governmental organizations. It might establish
study groups or task forces on specific aspects
of communication development, and make recom-
mendations on policy issues, priorities, co-
ordination, and strategiesfor utilizing communi-
cation for social purposes.
There are many other alternatives for the
organization of such a council, and developing
countries m a y wish to incorporate it within the
government structure and vest it with statutory
authority. The council could operate at several
levels. At the top might be a Ministerial C o m -
mittee consisting of ministers concerned with
communication infrastructures, programmes and
development, together with the Ministers of
Planning, Finance and Foreign Affairs. This
would, in effect, be a cabinet sub-committee
with authority to make policy decisions and give
instructions for their implementation. At the
second level could be a committee of officials
from the same ministries together with representa-
tives from media and community organizations.
This group would make recommendations to the
ministerial committee and implement its decisions.
The committee would be served by a number
of expert sub-committees which would permit
wide participation by non-governmentalorganiza-
tions and qualified individuals. The technical
34
sub-committees might be established to deal
with the following:
(a) development and utilization of broad-
casting;
(b) press, periodicals, printing, newsprint;
(c) book publishing;
(d) film production and distribution;
(e) extension services and media support;
(f) new communication technologies;
(g) cultural policies and the media;
(h) manpower and training;
(i) communication research.
While policies and strategic plans m a y be
determined at the top, operational planning and
co-ordinationtakes place at lower levels and
m a y be decentralized to regional, district and
local units or organizations. Mobilization for
social change of groups and individuals in towns
and villages will be much easier if the people
participate in the decision-making process and
are involved in planning and implementing
community activities. Communication is part
-
and parcel of this process and involves the inter
action of the media, the extension workers, other
interpersonal communication channels, and
local groups.
Attaining development goals almost invari-
ably involves the planned use of the mass media
and interpersonal channels in campaigns which
focusattention on particular problems or advocate
concerted action. Successful campaigns adopt
a multi-media approach; they use all available
communication channels, the one reinforcing
the other; a series of messages in the mass
media form the basis for explanation and demon-
stration by field workers and for community
discussion and action.
The concentrated use of the communication
networks in this way requires advance planning,
careful research and design of the messages to
be transmitted, and close co-operation amongst
the media, the extension services, and all the
various agencies concerned with the campaign's
goals.
 REFERENCES
A.ustralianPost Office: Report for Seminar on
National Telecommunications Plan (Sydney,
February 1974)
Canadian Ministry of Communications, Instant
World (Ottawa, Information Canada, 1971)
Federal Communications Commission, Cable
Television (Washington,Federal Register
Vol. 39, No. 78, Part II, A.pril1974)
Augustin Girard, Cultural Development: Experi-
ence and Policies (Paris,Unesco, 1972)
James D. Halloran, - Mass Media and Society:
The Challenge of Research (Leicester
University Press, 1974)
International Broadcast Institute, Intermedia,
No. 2, 1973; No. 6, 1974 (London)
Daniel Lerner and Wilbur Schramm, Communica-
tion and Change in Developing Countries
(Honolulu East-WestCenter, 1967)
Ithiel de Sola Pool, Wilbur Schramm et al.,
Handbook of Communication (Chicago,Raad
McNally College Publishing Company, 1973)
Ithiel de Sola Pool, The Rise of Communication
Policy Research, Journal of Communication,
Vol. 24:2, Spring 1974 (Annenberg School of
Communications)
Wilbur Schramm, Mass Media and National
Development (StanfordUniversity Press,
1964)
Fred S. Siebert et al., Four Theories of the
-
Press (Universitv of Illinois, 1963)
E. Lloyd Sommerlad, The Press in Developing
Countries (SydneyUniversity Press, 1966)
E. Lloyd Sommerlad, Outlook for Satellite
Broadcasting Systems (paper presented at
United Nations Panel on Satellite Broad-
casting Systems for Education, Tokyo,
March 1974)
Fernand Terrou, Legislation for Press, Film,
Radio (Paris,Unesco, 1951)
Unesco, Report of the Meeting of Experts on
1
(Paris, COM/MD/24, 1972)
Unesco, Reports and Papers in Mass Communi-
cation, No. 68, Cinematographic Institutions,
(Paris 1973)
Unesco, Communication Policies in Hungary
(Paris,Unesco Press, 1974)
Unesco, CommunicationPolicies in Ireland
(Paris, Unesco Press, 1974)
Anthony Williamson, The Fogo Process (a paper
presented at Unesco Meeting on Planning
and Management of New Communications
Systems, Paris, October 1973)
Unesco, Revised Guidelines for the Economic
Evaluation of National Communication
Systems, C O M / W S /366, Paris, February
1974
35
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