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Literature review current through: Aug 2022. | This topic last updated: Feb 10, 2020.
INTRODUCTION
Diabetes in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of fetal, neonatal, and long-term
complications in the offspring. Maternal diabetes may be pregestational (ie, type 1 or type 2
diabetes diagnosed before pregnancy with a prevalence rate of approximately 1.8 percent)
or gestational (ie, diabetes diagnosed during pregnancy with a prevalence rate of
approximately 7.5 percent). The outcome is generally related to the onset and duration of
glucose intolerance during pregnancy and severity of the mother's diabetes. (See
"Pregestational (preexisting) diabetes: Preconception counseling, evaluation, and
management".)
This topic will review the complications seen in the offspring of women with diabetes and the
management of affected neonates. The prenatal management of pregestational and
gestational diabetes mellitus is discussed in separate topic reviews. (See "Gestational
diabetes mellitus: Screening, diagnosis, and prevention" and "Pregestational (preexisting)
diabetes mellitus: Obstetric issues and management" and "Gestational diabetes mellitus:
Obstetric issues and management" and "Gestational diabetes mellitus: Glucose
management and maternal prognosis" and "Pregestational (preexisting) diabetes:
Preconception counseling, evaluation, and management".)
FETAL EFFECTS
Poor glycemic control in pregnant diabetic women leads to deleterious fetal effects
throughout pregnancy, as follows [1]:
● In the first trimester and time of conception, maternal hyperglycemia can cause
diabetic embryopathy, resulting in major birth defects and spontaneous abortions
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( table 1). This primarily occurs in pregnancies with pregestational diabetes [2]. The
risk for congenital malformations is only slightly increased with gestational diabetes
mellitus (GDM) compared with the general population (odds ratio [OR] 1.1-1.3). The risk
of malformations increases as maternal fasting blood glucose levels and body mass
index (BMI) increases when GDM is diagnosed early in pregnancy. These findings
suggest that some of these mothers are probably undiagnosed women with type 2
diabetes [3,4]. (See 'Congenital anomalies' below and "Pregestational (preexisting)
diabetes: Preconception counseling, evaluation, and management".)
● Diabetic fetopathy occurs in the second and third trimesters, resulting in fetal
hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and macrosomia.
• Animal studies have shown that chronic fetal hyperinsulinemia results in elevated
metabolic rates that lead to increased oxygen consumption and fetal hypoxemia, as
the placenta may be unable to meet the increased metabolic demands [5]. Fetal
hypoxemia contributes to increased mortality, metabolic acidosis, alterations in fetal
iron distribution, and increased erythropoiesis [6]. Increased synthesis of
erythropoietin leads to polycythemia [7,8]; promotes catecholamine production,
which can result in hypertension and cardiac hypertrophy; and may contribute to
the 20 to 30 percent rate of stillbirth seen in poorly controlled diabetic pregnancies
[9]. As the fetal red cell mass increases, iron redistribution results in iron deficiency
in developing organs, which may contribute to cardiomyopathy and altered
neurodevelopment [6]. Fetal hyperinsulinemia is also thought to contribute to
impaired or delayed lung maturation. (See 'Polycythemia and hyperviscosity
syndrome' below and 'Cardiomyopathy' below and 'Respiratory distress' below and
"Pregestational (preexisting) diabetes mellitus: Obstetric issues and management"
and "Gestational diabetes mellitus: Obstetric issues and management", section on
'Fetal surveillance' and "Pregestational (preexisting) diabetes mellitus: Obstetric
issues and management", section on 'Initiation and frequency of fetal surveillance'.)
• Oxidative stress may play a role in maternal and fetal complications of diabetic
pregnancies [10,11]. For example, increased generation of reactive oxygen species
with inadequate antioxidant defenses in the fetal heart might lead to abnormal
cardiac remodeling and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy [4,12]. In addition, increased
erythropoietin production with resultant polycythemia in the newborn infant of a
mother with diabetes was related to the degree of oxidative stress [12,13].
• Excessive nutrients delivered from the poorly controlled mother with diabetes cause
increased fetal growth, particularly of insulin-sensitive tissues (ie, liver, muscle,
cardiac muscle, and subcutaneous fat), resulting in macrosomia, defined as a birth
weight (BW) ≥4000 g or greater than the 90th percentile for gestational age (GA)
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NEONATAL EFFECTS
Infants of mothers with diabetes are at increased risk for congenital anomalies, mortality
and morbidity compared with neonates born to a mother without diabetes ( table 2).
Neonatal complications in offspring of mothers with diabetes include [14]:
● Congenital anomalies
● Prematurity
● Perinatal asphyxia
● Macrosomia, which increases the risk of birth injury (eg, brachial plexus injury)
● Respiratory distress
● Metabolic complications including hypoglycemia and hypocalcemia
● Hematologic complications including polycythemia and hyperviscosity
● Low iron stores
● Hyperbilirubinemia
● Cardiomyopathy
Although insulin treatment and intensive prenatal and neonatal care have improved,
neonatal complications and congenital anomalies observed in diabetic pregnancies
contribute to a reported perinatal mortality rate that ranges from 0.6 to 4.8 percent.
Infants of mothers who have insulin-treated DM are more likely to be preterm and
macrosomic than infants born to mothers with type 2 DM not treated with insulin as well as
infants of mothers with gestational diabetes. This was illustrated in a population study of all
live births in Finland between 2004 and 2014. Infants of women with any type of DM who
received insulin therapy were at highest risk for large for gestational age and preterm birth
(40 and 37 percent, odds ratio [adjusted OR] 43.8, 95% CI 40.88-46.93 and 11.17, 95% CI
10.46-11.93, respectively), infants of women with type 2 DM not receiving insulin were at
mild to moderately increased risk (12.8 and 10.1 percent, aOR 9.57, 95% CI 8.65-10.58 and
2.12, 95% CI 1.9-2.36, respectively), and infants of women with gestational DM not receiving
insulin were mildly or no increased risk (5 and 5 percent, aOR 3.8, 95% CI 3.66-3.96 and 1,
respectively) compared with women with no diabetes (2 and 5 percent) [18]. These data can
be useful for counseling women with diabetes about risks for LGA and PTB in offspring. (See
"Pregestational (preexisting) diabetes: Preconception counseling, evaluation, and
management", section on 'Fetal and neonatal risks' and "Pregestational (preexisting)
diabetes mellitus: Obstetric issues and management".)
Congenital anomalies — Infants of mothers with diabetes are at significant risk for major
congenital anomalies due to maternal hyperglycemia at the time of conception and during
early gestation ( table 1) [6]. The overall reported risk for major malformations is
approximately 5 to 6 percent, with a higher prevalence rate of 10 to 12 percent when
mothers require insulin therapy [2,14,16,21]. In a study of 13,030 infants with congenital
anomalies and 4895 without birth defects, when compared with a reference group of
nondiabetic control mothers, the risk of isolated and multiple congenital anomalies was
highest in infants of mothers with pregestational diabetes (adjusted odd ratios [OR] 3.17,
95% CI 2.2-4.99 and adjusted OR 8.62, 95% CI 5.27-14.1, respectively) followed by infants
born to mothers with gestational diabetes (adjusted OR 1.42, 95% CI 1.17-1.73 and adjusted
OR 1.5, 95% CI 1.13-2.0) [22].
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● CNS – Anencephaly and spina bifida are 13 and 20 times more frequent, respectively,
among Infants of mothers with diabetes compared with infants of mothers without
diabetes [21]. The majority of cases of caudal regression syndrome occur in Infants of
mothers with diabetes [25]. This syndrome consists of a spectrum of structural defects
of the caudal region, including incomplete development of the sacrum and, to a lesser
degree, the lumbar vertebrae ( picture 2), and occurs approximately 200 times more
frequently in Infants of mothers with diabetes than in other infants [26]. (See "Closed
spinal dysraphism: Pathogenesis and types", section on 'Risk factors'.)
Perinatal asphyxia — Infants of mothers with diabetes are at increased risk for intrauterine
or perinatal asphyxia due to macrosomia (failure to progress and shoulder dystocia) and
cardiomyopathy (fetal heart rate abnormalities), which often is defined broadly in the
literature to include fetal heart rate abnormalities during labor, low Apgar scores (calculator
1), and intrauterine death ( table 2).
In one study of 162 infants of mothers with diabetes, 27 percent had perinatal asphyxia [28].
Perinatal asphyxia correlated with hyperglycemia in labor, prematurity, and nephropathy.
Maternal vascular disease, manifested by nephropathy, may contribute to the development
of fetal hypoxia and subsequent perinatal asphyxia.
Macrosomia — Macrosomia, defined as birth weight (BW) greater than the 90th percentile
on a population-appropriate growth chart or above 4000 g, is a common complication and
can occur in all diabetic pregnancies. However, the incidence appears to be greater in infants
born to mothers with pregestational diabetes [2,29,30].
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Infants with macrosomia are more likely than those who are not macrosomic to have
hyperbilirubinemia, hypoglycemia, acidosis, respiratory distress, shoulder dystocia, and
brachial plexus injury [30,33]. Fetal macrosomia including risk factors and complications for
delivery and neonate are discussed separately. (See "Fetal macrosomia" and "Large for
gestational age newborn", section on 'Neonatal morbidity' and "Shoulder dystocia: Risk
factors and planning birth of high-risk pregnancies".)
The timing and route of delivery of infants of mothers with diabetes who are at risk for
shoulder dystocia are discussed separately. (See "Gestational diabetes mellitus: Obstetric
issues and management" and "Pregestational (preexisting) diabetes mellitus: Obstetric
issues and management", section on 'Route'.)
● Infants of mothers with diabetes are more likely to be delivered prematurely than
infants born to mothers without diabetes. (See 'Preterm delivery' above.)
● At a given gestational age, infants of mothers with diabetes are more likely to develop
RDS because maternal hyperglycemia appears to delay surfactant synthesis. The
proposed underlying mechanism is neonatal hyperinsulinemia, which interferes with
the induction of lung maturation by glucocorticoids [39-41]. The risk of RDS in preterm
infants of mothers whose diabetes is well-controlled approaches that of infants born to
mothers without diabetes at a similar gestational age [37,42,43].
The clinical manifestations, diagnosis, prevention, and management of RDS are discussed
separately. (See "Pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis of respiratory
distress syndrome in the newborn" and "Management of respiratory distress syndrome in
preterm infants".)
TTN occurs two to three times more commonly in infants of mothers with diabetes than in
normal infants [14,44]. The mechanism may be related to reduced fluid clearance in the
diabetic fetal lung. Cesarean delivery, which is more frequently performed in diabetic versus
nondiabetic pregnancies, may be a contributing factor [2,45]. (See "Transient tachypnea of
the newborn".)
In infants born to mothers with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), the risk for respiratory
distress increases for those with BW >4000 g [3,33,46].
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mg/kg per minute to maintain normal plasma glucose levels beyond the first week of life.
(See "Management and outcome of neonatal hypoglycemia", section on 'Evaluation of
infants with persistent hypoglycemia'.)
Infants of mothers with diabetes who are preterm or small for gestational age (SGA) are at
increased risk for persistent hypoglycemia because glycogen stores are reduced, and
hyperinsulinemia impairs the ability to mobilize hepatic glycogen [52]. In these infants,
hypoglycemia may last longer than two to four days and may require more prolonged and
higher rates of glucose infusion.
Although there are no data on the caloric needs of infants of mothers with diabetes once
glycemic control is established, it appears that the caloric needs of these infants are similar
to those of infants of mothers without diabetes, and that subsequent weight loss and gain is
self-regulated by the infant. However, offspring of diabetic pregnancies appear to be at risk
for excess weight gain during childhood. (See 'Obesity and glucose metabolism' below.)
The lowest serum calcium concentration typically occurs between 24 and 72 hours after
birth. Hypocalcemia usually is asymptomatic and resolves without treatment [14]. As a
result, routine screening is not recommended. However, the serum calcium concentration
should be measured in infants with jitteriness, lethargy, apnea, tachypnea, or seizures, and
in those with prematurity, asphyxia, respiratory distress, or suspected infection.
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Hypomagnesemia usually is transient and asymptomatic and, thus, usually is not treated.
However, hypomagnesemia can reduce both parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion and PTH
responsiveness [56,57]. As a result, in some neonates with hypocalcemia and
hypomagnesemia, the hypocalcemia may not respond to treatment until the
hypomagnesemia is corrected [58].
Low iron stores — The combined erythrocyte and storage iron pools are lower in infants of
mothers with diabetes. The degree of low iron stores at birth is inversely related to the
degree of polycythemia, suggesting a shunting of fetal iron into the red cell mass [61].
However, there are no data on iron supplementation therapy and it is not currently
recommended. It is thought that the excess iron in the polycythemic red cell mass will be
recirculated as the excess red blood cells break down.
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Infants often are asymptomatic, but 5 to 10 percent have respiratory distress or signs of
poor cardiac output or heart failure. The chest radiograph may show cardiomegaly; but
hypertrophy is best detected by echocardiography. Cardiomyopathy is transient and resolves
as plasma insulin concentrations normalize. Symptomatic infants typically recover after two
to three weeks of supportive care, and echocardiographic findings resolve within 6 to 12
months [65]. Supportive care for symptomatic infants includes increased intravenous (IV)
fluid administration and propranolol. Inotropic agents are contraindicated because they may
decrease ventricular size and further obstruct cardiac outflow [66].
Fetal echocardiography shows evidence of hypertrophy starting at the end of the second
and the beginning of the third trimester. Hypertrophy is characterized by marked thickening
of the IVS, and less of the left ventricular (LV) free walls [70]. Another study suggested that a
prenatal echocardiographic measurements (at 35 weeks or more) of IVS thickness ≥4.5 mm
and/or IVS/left myocardial wall thickness (LMWT) ratio ≤1.18 were not only predictive of
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, but were also associated with increased risk for intrauterine
and perinatal mortality [71].
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contractile heart. This condition usually is also reversible as the metabolic derangements are
corrected.
NEONATAL MANAGEMENT
The management of infants of women with diabetes needs to anticipate and treat any
complication associated with maternal hyperglycemia as well as provide routine neonatal
care. The risk of complications varies depending on the gestational age (GA), birth weight
(BW), and the degree and severity of maternal hyperglycemia as discussed above.
● Prior to delivery, an assessment of the need for neonatal resuscitation is made based
on the GA, anticipated BW, presence of a congenital anomaly or labor complications,
and the mode of delivery (eg, cesarean delivery). (See "Neonatal resuscitation in the
delivery room", section on 'Anticipation of resuscitation need'.)
● Immediately after delivery, routine neonatal care is provided that includes drying,
clearing the airway of secretions, maintaining warmth, and a rapid assessment of the
infant's clinical status based on heart rate, respiratory effort, tone, and an examination
to identify any major congenital anomaly. The need for further intervention is based on
this initial evaluation. If the infant does not require additional resuscitation, the infant
should be given to the mother for skin-to-skin care and initiation of breastfeeding in
the delivery room. (See "Neonatal resuscitation in the delivery room", section on
'Resuscitation' and "Overview of the routine management of the healthy newborn
infant", section on 'Delivery room care'.)
• If cyanosis is detected, the infant should be assessed for cardiac and respiratory
disease including measurement of oxygen saturation by pulse oximetry. (See
"Overview of cyanosis in the newborn".)
• Glucose monitoring is performed within one to two hours after birth or whenever
symptoms consistent with hypoglycemia occur. Samples should be obtained before
feedings. Surveillance is performed for the first 12 to 24 hours of life. Monitoring is
continued after 24 hours of life, in infants with low plasma glucose concentrations
(less than 45 mg/dL, 2.5 mmol/L) until feedings are well established and glucose
values have normalized [72]. In our centers, intervention for hypoglycemia is
initiated at glucose levels <40 mg/dL (2.2 mmol/L) during the first 24 hours of life,
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and <50 mg/dL (2.8 mmol/L) between 24 and 48 hours of life. (See 'Hypoglycemia'
above and "Management and outcome of neonatal hypoglycemia".)
• The hematocrit should be measured within the first few hours of delivery. (See
'Polycythemia and hyperviscosity syndrome' above and "Neonatal polycythemia".)
• Calcium and magnesium levels should be obtained in any infant with symptoms
compatible with either hypocalcemia or hypomagnesemia (eg, seizure or
jitteriness). (See 'Hypocalcemia' above and 'Hypomagnesemia' above and "Neonatal
hypocalcemia".)
LONG-TERM OUTCOME
Long-term outcome data show that prenatal exposure to hyperglycemia increases the risk of
postnatal metabolic complications and impacts neurodevelopmental outcome [73-76].
Metabolic risks
The development of type 2 diabetes also is influenced by genetic susceptibility. The lifetime
risk for a first-degree relative of a patient with type 2 diabetes is 5 to 10 times higher than
that of age- and weight-matched subjects without a family history. (See "Pathogenesis of
type 2 diabetes mellitus".)
The development of type 2 diabetes also may be affected by the abnormal intrauterine
metabolic environment of a diabetic pregnancy. Data from studies performed in Pima
Indians, who have the highest rates of gestational diabetes, demonstrate that 45 percent of
offspring of mothers with gestational diabetes develop type 2 diabetes between 20 and 24
years of age compared with offspring of prediabetic (9 percent) or women without diabetes
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(1 percent) [79,80]. This increased risk persists despite accounting for paternal history of
diabetes, age of onset of diabetes in parents, and the child's body mass index (BMI),
suggesting that the intrauterine environment contributed to the development of diabetes, in
addition to genetic factors. In a follow-up study, more than two-thirds of offspring of
mothers with gestational diabetes developed type 2 diabetes by 34 years of age [81].
● In a subsequent report from the National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development (NICHD) Neonatal Research Network of extremely preterm infants
(gestational age [GA] from 22 to 28 weeks) born from 2006 to 2011, there was no
difference in neurodevelopmental outcome amongst the initial three study groups
(infants born to mothers using insulin before pregnancy, infants born to those starting
insulin during pregnancy, and infants born to maternal controls) at 18 to 22 months
corrected age [93].
Other limited data suggest that poorly controlled maternal diabetes during pregnancy may
impact neurodevelopmental outcome [73,94,95]. However, evidence is circumstantial and of
poor quality.
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UpToDate offers two types of patient education materials, "The Basics" and "Beyond the
Basics." The Basics patient education pieces are written in plain language, at the 5th to 6th
grade reading level, and they answer the four or five key questions a patient might have
about a given condition. These articles are best for patients who want a general overview
and who prefer short, easy-to-read materials. Beyond the Basics patient education pieces are
longer, more sophisticated, and more detailed. These articles are written at the 10th to 12th
grade reading level and are best for patients who want in-depth information and are
comfortable with some medical jargon.
Here are the patient education articles that are relevant to this topic. We encourage you to
print or e-mail these topics to your patients. (You can also locate patient education articles
on a variety of subjects by searching on "patient info" and the keyword(s) of interest.)
● Basics topics (see "Patient education: Care during pregnancy for people with type 1 or
type 2 diabetes (The Basics)")
● Beyond the Basics topics (see "Patient education: Care during pregnancy for patients
with type 1 or 2 diabetes (Beyond the Basics)" and "Patient education: Gestational
diabetes (Beyond the Basics)")
Diabetes in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of fetal, neonatal, and long-term
complications in offspring.
● Adverse effects of diabetes during pregnancy that affect the fetus include spontaneous
abortions, major malformations, and stillbirths. In addition, maternal hyperglycemia
leads to increased fetal growth resulting in macrosomia and fetal hyperinsulinemia,
which increase the risk of neonatal hypoglycemia. (See 'Fetal effects' above.)
● Infants of mothers with diabetes are at increased risk for mortality and morbidity
compared with infants born to mothers without diabetes. The risk of neonatal
complications generally increases with poor maternal glycemic control. Potential
adverse effects include:
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• Macrosomia, defined as a birth weight (BW) greater than the 90th percentile or
greater than 4000 g. In infants of mothers with diabetes, macrosomia is associated
with disproportionate growth that results in high chest-to-head and shoulder-to-
head ratios that predispose to birth injury, especially shoulder dystocia
( picture 1). (See 'Macrosomia' above.)
• Hypoglycemia that generally occurs within the first few hours after birth. (See
'Hypoglycemia' above.)
● The management of infants of women with diabetes needs to anticipate and treat any
complication associated with maternal hyperglycemia and also provides routine
neonatal care. It includes a physical examination that focuses on the respiratory and
cardiac status of the infant and identifies any major congenital anomaly. One hour
after delivery, laboratory evaluation includes measurement of the infant's blood
glucose and hematocrit to screen for hypoglycemia and polycythemia. (See 'Neonatal
management' above.)
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Topic 5058 Version 30.0
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GRAPHICS
System Manifestations
Cardiovascular Transposition of the great vessels with or without ventricular septal defect
(VSD), VSD, coarctation of the aorta with or without VSD or patent ductus
arteriosus, atrial septal defect, single ventricle, hypoplastic left ventricle,
pulmonic stenosis, pulmonary valve atresia, double outlet right ventricle
truncus arteriosus.
Gastrointestinal Duodenal atresia, imperforate anus, anorectal atresia, small left colon
syndrome, situs inversus.
Adapted from Tyrala EE. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 1996; 23:221; and Reece EA, Homko CJ. Semin Perinatol 1994;
18:459.
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Rate,
Condition Comments
percent
Perinatal mortality 0.6 to 4.8 Lowest rates reflect very good prenatal
care and strict glycemic control
Prematurity
Congenital anomalies 1.7 to 9.4 Lowest rates are associated with strict
glycemic control preconception and in
early pregnancy
Perinatal asphyxia, including fetal 9 to 27 Lowest rates are seen with close
distress during labor, low 1-minute Apgar monitoring during labor and appropriate
score, and intrauterine death intervention
Hyperbilirubinemia 11 to 29
Cardiomyopathy
Symptomatic 5 to 10
Asymptomatic 30 to 50
Note: The wide range cited for some complications is due to the inclusion of several studies,
which were performed at different times, places in the world, and in different study groups
(infants of all diabetic mothers, or those of gestational diabetic mothers or pregestational type 1
or 2 diabetic mothers). In many cases, different definitions of symptoms or findings were also
used. In general, the lowest rates of complications are associated with improved obstetric care
that resulted in better maternal glycemic control and neonatal management.
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Contributor Disclosures
Arieh Riskin, MD, MHA, PhD No relevant financial relationship(s) with ineligible companies to
disclose. Joseph A Garcia-Prats, MD No relevant financial relationship(s) with ineligible companies to
disclose. Leonard E Weisman, MD Equity Ownership/Stock Options: Vax-Immune [Ureaplasma
diagnosis, vaccines, antibodies, other medical diagnostics and pre-analytical devices].
Patent Holder:
Baylor College of Medicine [Ureaplasma diagnosis, vaccines, antibodies, process for preparing
biological samples].
All of the relevant financial relationships listed have been mitigated. Joseph I
Wolfsdorf, MD, BCh No relevant financial relationship(s) with ineligible companies to disclose. Laurie
Wilkie, MD, MS No relevant financial relationship(s) with ineligible companies to disclose.
Contributor disclosures are reviewed for conflicts of interest by the editorial group. When found, these
are addressed by vetting through a multi-level review process, and through requirements for
references to be provided to support the content. Appropriately referenced content is required of all
authors and must conform to UpToDate standards of evidence.
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