CONCEPTS OF POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE

Politics is the way in which we understand and order our social affairs, and acquire
greater control over the situation. (B. Pomton and P. Gill, Politics, Introduction.
(New York: Basil Blackwell, 1982, p.6.)

It is also the strategy for maintaining cooperation among people with different needs
and ideals in life, or for resolving the conflict within the group, whether this is a
family, a tribe, a village or a nation-state. (Amable G. Tuibeo, “Politics and
Governance: A Critical Introduction (Makati: Grandwater Publication, 1998),
p.1.

Political Scientist Harold Lasswell, author of a major study of the distributive

consequences of political activity, gave his book the title, Politics--Who Gets What,
When, and How. Lasswell, in effect, defined "politics" as involving questions as to
"who gets what, when, and how." Politics, according to Lasswell, is concerned with
determination, by official governmental decision making and action, of:

a. Who in political society receives what benefits, rewards, and advantages and
how much of them they receive,
b. when they receive the benefits, rewards, and advantages, and
c. the methods by which they receive them.

Conversely, politics is also concerned with determining, by governmental decision

making and action, (1) who in society is denied what benefits, rewards, and
advantages, (2) when and how long they are denied them, and (3) the methods by
which they are subjected to such deprivations.

Politics and Everyday Life

a. Politics is all about the way human beings are governed, which involves order,
power, and justice. It is not just an abstract study;
b. It involves the government’s day-to-day performance;
c. It does not affect only one individual, but is inextricably bound up with the
perpetual quest for what is fair or just in light of the interest of the entire
community;
d. Issue is more or less political based on the extent that the use of political power
affects the lives and well-being of private citizens; and
e. An issue becomes political when the government must render a decision, which
must always be for the common good of the community.
Politics in the Philippines

It takes place in an organized framework of a presidential, representative, and

democratic republic. It revolves around the three separate and sovereign yet
interdependent branches: The Legislative branch (the law-making body, Article VI,
1987 Philippine Constitution); The Executive branch (the law-enforcing body, Article
VII, 1987 Philippine Constitution); and The Judicial branch (the law-interpreting body,
Article VIII, 1987 Philippine Constitution).

MODULE I
CONCEPTS OF POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE
LESSON 2: HOW POLITICS CAN BE STUDIED

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Differentiate the various views on politics; and

2. Explore the connection between the phenomenon (politics) and the method of
inquiry (Political Science)

LEARNING CONTENT:

How is Politics Studied?

Political Science deals with the systematic study of political structures, political
processes and political behavior. A number of approaches and methods have been
suggested and used by thinkers and scholars of political science for the scientific
investigation of political phenomena and
for the arrival at systematic generalizations and theories. 

But, as Giovanni Sartori has pointed out, “approaches and research methods are

largely decided by the kind of evidence which is available for the units, and the kind
of problems with which one deals" In using the term "approach" we mean a
particular orientation or point of view in looking at and interpreting the world of
politics.

By making use of a particular set of concepts and assumptions about the salience of
certain factors, an approach seeks to provide a framework for analysis, explanation
and prediction. In the criterion of time dimension, approaches to the study of political
science, can be broadly classified into traditional and modern or behavioral.
Philosophical, historical and legal-institutional modes of analysis are often called
traditional while value-free, empirical and behavioral modes of enquiry come
under modern approaches.

The dichotomy between tradition al and modern approaches need not be stressed

too far for the simple reason that political analysis is characterized by a
degree of continuity from the distant past to the contemporary, both with regard to
substance and approaches and methods of study.

Traditional Approach

Traditional approach to the study of political science is a combination of views on

and orientations to politics in philosophical, ethical and institutional terms. Since the
time of Plato and Aristotle, the great issues of politics have revolved around the
organization and functioning of the state- the political institution par excellence.
Traditional approaches exhibit certain well defined features.

Characteristics of Traditional Approaches:

1. Traditional approaches are largely normative and stresses on the values of
politics
2. Emphasis is on the study of different political structures and institution
3. Traditional approaches made very little attempt to relate theory and research
4. These approaches believe that since facts and values are closely interlinked,
studies in 6olitical 5cience can never be scientific.

The traditional approach is further divided into various forms:

1. Philosophical-This approach firmly believes that values cannot be separated

from the study of politics and political system. Therefore, its main concern is
to judge what is good or bad in any political society.
2. Historical-As the name of this approach is related to history, it emphasizes
on the study of history of every political reality to analyze any situation.
3. Institutional-This approach is concerned with the study of formal structures
and institutions like legislature, executive, judiciary, political parties, etc.
4. Legal- This approach is concerned with the legal process, legal bodies or
institutions, justice and independence of judiciary.

Behavioral Approach

The behavioral approach to political science mainly emphasizes on scientific,

objective and value free study of political phenomenon. This approach stresses upon
the use of empirical as well as scientific methods of study political behavior. This
approach shifts its emphasis from the study of the state and government to the day-
today problems, activities and behavior of individuals and groups.
Characteristics of Behaviorism:

1. Regularities -believes that there are certain uniformities in political behavior

which can be expressed in generalizations or theories in order to explain and
predict political phenomena.
2. Verification -emphasizes testing and verifying everything. According to the
behaviorists, what cannot be verified is not scientific.
3. Techniques -put emphasis on the use of those research tools and methods
which generate valid, reliable and comparative data.
4. Quantification -After collecting data, the researcher should measure and
quantify those data.
5. Values -believe that to do objective research one has to be value free.
6. Systematization -research in Political Science must be systematic. Theory
and research should go together.
7. Pure Science -believes that the study of Political Science should be verified
by evidence.
8. Integration -Political Science should not be separated from various other
social sciences like history, sociology and economics, etc.

MODULE I
CONCEPTS OF POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE
LESSON 3: MEANING OF GOVERNANCE

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learners are expected to:

1. Recognize the value of politics; and

2. Differentiate governance from government.

LEARNING CONTENT:

GOVERNANCE

Governance has been defined to refer to structures and processes that are
designed to ensure accountability, transparency, responsiveness, rule of law,
stability, equity and inclusiveness, effectiveness and efficiency and broad-based
participation.
Good governance is understood through its eight indicators or characteristics: (1)
Participatory; (2) Rule of Law; (3) Effective and Efficient; (4) Transparent; (5)
Responsive; (6) Equitable and Inclusive; (7) Consensus Oriented; and (8)
Accountability.

They are inextricably related to each other. For instance, without active participation
among the various actors in governance, there would be a concomitant lack of
responsiveness. Likewise, if decision-making is not transparent, then inevitably there
would be no participation, accountability, and decisions are not consensus-oriented.

Elements of Good Governance

1. Participation -Good governance essentially requires participation of different

sectors of the society. Participation means active involvement of all affected and
interested parties in the decision-making process. It requires an enabling
environment wherein pertinent information is effectively disseminated and people
could respond in an unconstrained and truthful manner. It also means gender
equality, recognizing the vital roles of both men and women in decision-making.
Participation is one of the strengths of Philippine governance. The 1987 Philippine
Constitution is replete of provisions dealing with relational and inter-sectoral
governance. The Local Government Code of 1991 was borne out of the need for
decentralization in Philippine governance. As such, these and other related
legislations may be considered as normative standards for good governance.

2. Rule of Law -Democracy is essentially the rule of law. It is through the law that
people express their will and exercise their sovereignty. That the government is of
law and not of men is an underlying democratic principle which puts no one, however
rich and powerful, above the law. Not even the government can arbitrarily act in
contravention of the law. Thus, good democratic governance is fundamentally
adherence to the rule of law. Rule of law demands that the people and the civil
society render habitual obedience to the law. It also demands that the government
acts within the limits of the powers and functions prescribed by the law. The absence
of rule of law is anarchy. Anarchy happens when people act in utter disregard of law
and when the government act whimsically or arbitrarily beyond their powers. In more
concrete terms, rule of law means “peace and order,” “absence of corruption,”
“impartial and effective justice system,” “observance and protection of human rights,”
and “clear, publicized, and stable laws.” Rule of law also requires that laws are
responsive to the needs of the society. Archaic or irrelevant laws must be amended
or repealed to cater to modern demands.

3. Effectiveness and Efficiency -Good governance requires that the institutions,

processes, and actors could deliver and meet the necessities of the society in a way
that available resources are utilized well. That the different actors meet the needs of
the society means that there is effective governance. That the valuable resources
are utilized, without wasting or underutilizing any of them, means that there is
efficient governance. Effectiveness (meeting the needs) and efficiency (proper
utilization of resources) must necessarily go together to ensure the best possible
results for the community. Concretely, effectiveness and efficiency demands
“enhancement and standardization of the quality of public service delivery consistent
with international standards,” “professionalization of bureaucracy,” “focusing of
government efforts on its vital functions, and elimination of redundancies or overlaps
in functions and operations,” “a citizen-centered government,” and “an improved
financial management system of the government.”

Professionalism in Philippine bureaucracy requires competence and integrity in civil

service. Appointments to civil service must be depoliticized and must be based solely
on merits. Effectiveness and efficiency also demands that the programs and
objectives of the various government agencies are aligned with individual
performance goals. The increases in compensation are likewise necessary for the
economic well-being, sustained competence and boosted morale of the civil
servants. Although still insufficient, efforts were made to attain effectiveness and
efficiency in Philippine governance. The Anti-Red Tape Act of 2007 (ARTA), for
instance, was passed to require the setting up of Citizen’s Charter for a simplified
procedure and to facilitate governmental transactions. Also, many government
departments and agencies pursued a rationalization program to check excessive and
redundant staffing.

4. Transparency - As an indicator of good governance, transparency means that

people are open to information regarding decision-making process and the
implementation of the same. In legal terms, it means that information on matters of
public concern is made available to the citizens or those who will be directly affected.
It also means that transactions involving public interests must be fully disclosed and
made accessible to the people. It is anchored on the democratic right to information
and right to access of the same. Transparency is necessary not just from
government transactions but also in those transactions of the civil society and private
sector imbued with public interests.

Reason why there should be transparency - To promote and protect democratic

ideals. When there is transparency, people are placed in a better position to know
and protect their rights as well as denounce corrupt or fraudulent practices in the
public sector and in the private sector.

5. Responsiveness - Means that institutions and processes serve all stakeholders

in a timely and appropriate manner. It also means that actors and structures of
governance easily give genuine expression to the will or desire of the people. In
other words, the interests of all citizens must be well protected in a prompt and
appropriate manner so that each of them can appreciate and take part in the process
of governance. While responsiveness is also a characteristic sought from the private
sector and civil society, more is demanded from the government or the public sector.

Gender equality is engrained in the egalitarian principles of democracy. Gender

concerns that respond to the women and their community must always be part of the
agenda of public sector and civil society. Thus, emerging as important areas in the
study of democratic governance are “Gender and Development” and “Gender
Responsiveness.” The participation of women in governance within the context of
“gendered socialization” rests on how responsive the structures and processes are
to their roles and needs.
Some of the important efforts made to attain responsive governance in the
Philippines are decentralization, creation of citizen’s charter in all frontline agencies
and gender sensitivity programs.

First, through decentralization, local governments, which are more proximate to their
constituents, serve more promptly the people, who in turn become more involved in
decision-making. Second, every government agency now has it Citizen’s Charter,
which provides timeframes for every step in attaining frontline services. Agencies
now must also respond to written queries sent by the stakeholders or interested
parties within a period of ten days, otherwise there will be delayed service. However,
this aspect of governance still remains to be one of the causes for the decline of
public’s confidence in the public sector.

6. Equity and Inclusiveness -Equity and inclusiveness means that all the members
of the society, especially the most vulnerable ones or the grassroots level, must be
taken into consideration in policy-making. Everyone has a stake in the society and
no one should feel alienated from it. Particularly, those who belong to the grassroots
level must not only be the subject of legislation but they must be given the
opportunity to participate in decision or policy making. Social equity refers to a kind
of justice that gives more opportunity to the less fortunate members of the society. It
is based on the principle that those who have less in life should have more in law.
Good governance demands that the actors must give preferential attention to the
plight of the poor. Laws must be geared towards this end and the society must
actively participate in the promotion of the same.

The Philippine Government has done extensive efforts in promoting equity and
inclusiveness. The current Constitution makes it as one of its state policies the
promotion of social justice. Pursuant to this, the Congress has enacted social
legislations like the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law which aims at freeing the
farmer tenants from the bondage of the soil. Also, representation in the Congress,
under the party list system, is constitutionally mandated to have sectoral
representation of the underprivileged. Gender and Development programs are in the
process of being integrated with the various structures and institutions in the country.
But legislation is one thing; implementation is another.
7. Consensus-Oriented -Governance is consensus-oriented when decisions are
made after taking into consideration the different viewpoints of the actors of the
society. Mechanisms for conflict resolution must be in place because inevitably
conflict that will arise from competing interests of the actors. To meet the consensus,
a strong, impartial, and flexible mediation structure must be established. Without
such, compromises and a broad consensus cannot be reached that serves that best
interest of the whole community. Fundamentally, democratic governance is based on
the partnership of the actors of the society in providing public services. Decision-
making must therefore entail recognition of their respective interests as well as their
respective duties. The essential of governance could never be expressed in a
unilateral act of policy making by the public sector or other dominant sectors. Public
hearings or consultations in arriving at a consensus are therefore inherently
necessary in the process of governance.

Among the things done by the Philippines in promoting a consensus-oriented

governance are: (1) creation of a wide-based of representation in the Congress; (2) a
two-tiered legislature or bicameralism which subject legislation to the evaluation of
national and district legislators; and (3) necessity of public hearings or consultations
of various governmental policies and actions.

8. Accountability -Accountability means answerability or responsibility for one’s

action. It is based on the principle that every person or group is responsible for their
actions most especially when their acts affect public interest. The actors have an
obligation to explain and be answerable for the consequences of decisions and
actions they have made on behalf of the community it serves.

Accountability comes in various forms: political, hierarchical, and managerial

accountability. Political accountability refers to the accountability of public officials
to the people they represent. Hierarchical accountability refers to the ordered
accountability of the various agencies and their respective officers and personnel in
relation to their program objectives. Managerial accountability refers to employee
accountability based on organization and individual performance. A system of
rewards and punishment must be in place to strengthen the processes and
institutions of governance.

The Philippines in the recent years had endeavored to comply with the requirements
of accountability. It had put in action the concept of political accountability as it held
answerable erring public officials involved in graft and corruption and for acts
contrary to the mandate of the constitution. It had also strengthened parliamentary
scrutiny through legislative investigations and creation of special committees
exercising oversight functions. The Office of the Ombudsman, considered as the
public watchdog, has become ever so active in investigating and prosecuting graft
and plunders cases. Citizen’s Charter, as required by ARTA, was also an important
tool in promoting professional public service values. In this area, Philippine
governance has done relatively well.

Importance of Studying Governance

From the information learned in the discussion of governance, the people, most
especially the citizens, will be aware of the need for good governance.
Consequently, such awareness should move them to action. For their continued
empowerment and sustainable development, they have to know how to fight for their
rights by knowing what to expect from Philippine governance. Thus, what will follow
is an exposition of the basic concepts of governance, the ideal type of governance,
and the status of the Philippines vis-à-vis the indicators of good governance.