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A NEW APPLICATION FOR DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY: COMBINING

DIGITAL TERRAIN MODEL AND GROUND PENETRATING RADAR IMAGERY TO
CHARACTERISE TURBIDITE SHALE DISTRIBUTION IN 3D

Conference Paper · August 1999

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A NEW APPLICATION FOR DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY: COMBINING
DIGITAL TERRAIN MODEL AND GROUND PENETRATING RADAR
IMAGERY TO CHARACTERISE TURBIDITE SHALE DISTRIBUTION IN 3D

J.K. Pringle1, J.D. Clark1, A.R. Westerman1, A. Brown2 and J.D. Floyd3

1
Heriot-Watt University, Petroleum Engineering Department, Edinburgh, UK
2
Earth Science Systems Ltd., Kimpton Enterprise Park, Herts., UK
3
British Geological Survey (BGS), Murchison House, Edinburgh, UK

SUMMARY

Outcrop studies provide valuable information on the architecture and scale of

analogous deposits that form hydrocarbon reservoirs. Such information is routinely
incorporated into 3-D reservoir models. Outcrop sections, however, are essentially
two dimensional, and consequently there are limits in providing analogue datasets for
complex three dimensional geological heterogeneity, important in the characterisation
and modelling of many reservoirs. During production from sand-rich turbidite
reservoirs, fluid flow paths are strongly influenced by discontinuous shale interbeds.
Sand connectivity in analogous outcrops may be characterised in three dimensions if
the size, shape and spatial distribution of shales can be mapped. A pilot study
undertaken in the Scottish Borders demonstrates that Ground Penetrating Radar
(GPR) is able to image thin shale horizons within sand-rich turbidite sequences. By
combining high resolution geophysics with detailed outcrop studies, it may be
possible to measure three dimensional structures accurately.

Digital, stereo-photographic images of the outcrop were used to create a Digital

Terrain Model (DTM) and ortho-rectified image. A 3D-GPR survey was acquired
and processed through a 3D seismic processing sequence. A Normal Incidence Radar
Profile (NIRP) was also acquired and processed through a Zero-Offset Vertical
Seismic Profile (VSP-Z) sequence. The NIRP was used to analyse and control the
interpretation of the 3D-GPR data. The GPR interpretation was then incorporated in
the DTM. The resulting three dimensional model of the solid outcrop may be viewed
as solid or translucent, dynamic or static, as required.

1. BACKGROUND

Large-scale outcrops provide valuable data on the geometry of sheet-like turbidite

sandstones, analogous to those forming important hydrocarbon reservoirs in many
parts of the world. Flow simulations on these exposed analogue sections, suggest that
the size, frequency and distribution of thin discontinuous shales can have a significant
effect on the effective permeability of such reservoir units [1]. Despite this, little is
known from outcrop studies of the 3-D shape of these shales, which act as important
inhibitors to vertical connectivity in sand-rich turbidite units. This study shows the
preliminary results of a new application of digital photogrammetry and Ground
Penetrating Radar (GPR) to delineate and map the 3D shape and distribution of thin
discontinuous shales in deep-water sandstones.

The thin shales, which are the cause of vertical permeability barriers in sand-rich
reservoir units, are deposited by background sedimentation processes between
successive sandy turbidite flows. The shale drape intervals are therefore of basin-
wide extent during their deposition, but become eroded by the next sandy turbidity
current to form amalgamated sands with laterally discontinuous shale intervals. The
shape and size of the erosion events are therefore linked to the erosive potential of the
overlying sand flow. Both single- and multi-phase flow simulations, through 2-D
outcrop sections, have shown that such discontinuous shales have a marked effect on
fluid flow through analogous turbidite sandstone reservoirs [1].

The obvious problem in using 2-D outcrop analogues, is the uncertainty in

characterising the 3-D volume. For example, the length of shale horizons exposed in
2-D outcrops do not reflect 3-D shale distributions, but are more influenced by the
outcrop shape and orientation [2]. The current lack of quantitative data on the 3-D
architecture of these shales is a significant constraint on the reliability of existing 3-D
geological models and upscaling properties of such reservoir units.

2. METHODOLOGY

A co-operative pilot study has been undertaken with the British Geological Survey
(BGS) and Earth Science Systems Ltd (ESS) to investigate the use of Ground
Penetrating Radar (GPR) to image discontinuous shales in sand-rich turbidite systems.
The transmitter/receiver used were selected for operational flexibility and true
amplitude-recording features. Data was processed via the PC-based VISTA seismic
data processing package from SIS plc.

The chosen study area was the Ordovician (Llandovery) turbidite outcrop at Cow
Peel Bridge, south of Innerleithen in the Scottish Borders [3] (Figure 1).

a G
b

Glasgow
Edinburgh
Cow Peel
Bridge V
Newcastle
5m
Belfast

Figure 1. a) Location map, and b) outcrop photomosaic of the pilot study site at
Cow Peel Bridge, near Innerleithen, Scottish Borders, UK. The 3-D GPR grid survey
(G), and pseudo-vertical radar profile (V) are shown. Note the bedding is sub-vertical.
The outcrop is the type section for the Gala Group (GALA 7 Unit). During the
Ordovician, thick sandstone sequences were deposited in high gradient, sand-rich
deep-sea fans [4]. The resulting deposits comprise thick amalgamated graded and non-
graded turbidite sandstones, interbedded with thin-bedded sandstones and shales.
Tectonic deformation has rotated the beds to a sub-vertical orientation, and resulted in
numerous small-scale fractures and faults. The target shale discontinuities in this pilot
study have been offset by minor strike-slip and thrust faults.

Design of the 3-D GPR survey grid was established from pre-survey modelling
conducted by Druzhinin at the Edinburgh Anisotropy Project, BGS. From the
dielectric permittivity and velocity values for typical rocks [5], and those measured
on-site, a sample spacing of 2cm was used, along grid-lines spaced 10cm apart in order
to obtain a 3-D radar volume. The survey lines were processed with established post-
stack surface seismic algorithms, notably 2-D migration and depth conversion (Figure
2).
outcrop surface
50 Length (cm) 100 (base of beds)
0 150 180 0
G1

20
G3

W
idt
h (cm
40

)
G5

60
G7

80
0 G9

Thin sands and shale

inter-bedded horizon
shales younging
direction
Depth (cm)

50

shale
horizon
Thick-
fault zone bedded
sandstone
100

Figure 2. 3-D GPR survey results showing inter-bedded shale horizons offset by a
minor fault. Note that not all the profile lines are shown in this figure, and that the
stratigraphy is inverted in this display.

A Normal Incidence Radar Profile (NIRP) was also acquired (see Figure 3). The field
record shows that the data are of a very high quality compared to equivalent oilfield
Vertical Seismic Profiles (VSP). The NIRP data are being processed with a modified
VSP processing scheme. Special attention is required to manage the d.c. bias typical
of GPR datasets. First break picking is complicated by air-wave arrivals and steps in
the rock surface.
The direct arrivals show a consistent waveform and constant phase. Three reflected
wavefields can be picked out in the field record. The first corresponds to an observed
shale horizon. The other two may be caused by subtle grainsize composition changes
in the sandstone beds, as they can be shown to correspond to vertical fining-up
sequences and grainsize breaks observed in the outcrop (Figure 3).

b
a

4.00 4

Key:
sandstone
shale/ silty shale
grooves
palaeocurrent
flutes indicators
3.00 3
amalgamation surface
faults

c
2.00 2 2

1.00 1 1

Fault
offset

0.00 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
log 1 vf f m c log 2 vf f m c
First Break pick (msec)

Figure 3. (a) First reflector picks from the Normal Incidence Radar profile (NIRP),
showing the velocity of the lithologies. The NIRP profile is taken along the section
shown by log 1 (b). Note the changes in the velocity correspond, in part, to lithology
and grainsize changes in the sequence. (c) Log 2 is the other side of the fault zone
shown in Figure 2, and shows the correlation of the shale horizon across the fault
offset.

Further investigation is underway, involving thin section examination and chemical

analysis of samples from these sandstones and shales using the Heriot-Watt
Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM). Preliminary studies show that
the shale and sand mineral compositions seem to be similar. Authigenic chloritisation
has introduced iron to detrital K-feldspar relicts, and the probable sites of original
porosity. Thus, it may be that the GPR response is able to characterise both shale
proportion and original porosity distribution. This could be established by further
petrological analysis of samples from the section profiled by the NIRP.

3. COW PEEL BRIDGE VISUALISATION

Outcrop photogrammetric techniques have previously been used to characterise the

rugosity of cliff faces to provide detailed quantitative data [6, 7]. This study utilised
these techniques to aid visualisation and interpretation of the 3-D GPR data.

VirtuoZo software (provided by Survey and Development Systems) was used to

generate a detailed Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the outcrop, onto which the
outcrop image was developed. The software is designed for aerial photogrammetry
and uses stereo-photographic images to create a 3-D topographic model of the
specified area. The VirtuoZo algorithm uses the parallax offset from overlapping
photographs, and ground control point (GCP) data, to calculate the relative elevation
of pixels in the image, and to rectify the images in a co-ordinate system.

The terrestrial outcrop photographs were successfully converted using this method
and the DTM and rectified image were visualising using ER Mapper, which allows
combination of multiple surfaces, i.e. the GPR data (Figure 4). The resulting three
dimensional model of the solid outcrop can be viewed as solid or translucent, dynamic
or static, as required combined with the 3D GPR grid and VRP data.

Figure 4. Ortho-rectified Stereopaired image combined with the Digital Elevation

Model (DEM). White line indicates the main fault zone imaged by the GPR (see
Figure 2).
 4. CONCLUSIONS

A new technique of linking high resolution geological studies with high resolution
geophysical data is detailed, utilising Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) on a turbidite
sandstone outcrop in the Scottish Borders. Results show that high frequency radar
can be used to successfully image relatively thin discontinuous shales in three
dimensions. This is important for parameters such as bed shape, continuity and
connectivity which are needed for reservoir models.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of their respective projects at Heriot-
Watt University, being the Genetic Units Project, the GEOTIPE Project and the
GUMPA Project, and their sponsor companies.

We should like to thank Benjamin Morgan and Dominic Tatum for their assistance in
the field, and David Crawford of Survey Development Systems (SDS) Ltd. (UK) for
his VirtuoZo software support.

6. REFERENCES

1. STEPHEN, K. D., CLARK, J.D. and GOOD, T.R., - Modelling the Effect of
Turbidite Amalgamation on Reservoir Flow Properties Using Outcrop Data,
EAGE/AAPG 3rd Research Symposium, Developing and Managing Turbidite
Reservoirs, 3-9th October, Almeria, Spain, 1998.
2. GEEHAN, G. and UNDERWOOD, J., - The Use of Length Distribution in
Geological Modelling, in Flint, S.S. and Bryant, I.D. (eds), The Geological Modelling
of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs and Outcrop Analogues, p.205-212, 1993.
3. FLOYD, J. D., - Lithostratigraphy of the Ordivician rocks in the Southern
Uplands: Crawford Group, Moffat Shale Group, Leadhills Supergroup, Trans. of the
Royal Soc. of Edinburgh: Earth Sci., 86, p.153-165 (1996).
4. KEMP, A. E. S., - Evolution of Silurian Depositional Systems in the Southern
Uplands, Scotland, in J. K. Z. Leggett, G.G., Marine Clastic Sedimentology, Graham
& Trotman, p.124-155, 1987.
5. ANNAN, A.P., - GPR Workshop Notes, Sensora & Software Inc., Mississauga,
Ontario, Canada, 1998.
6. ARNOT, M., Good, T.R. and LEWIS, J.M., - Photogeological and Image-Analysis
Techniques for Collection of Large-Scale Outcrop Data, Journal of Sedimentary
Research, 67, 984-987 (1997).
7. DUEHOLM, K.S. and PEDERSEN, A.K., - Geological Analysis and Mapping
using Multi-Model Photogrammetry, Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse Rapport
156, 73pp., 1992.

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