Uninform Search Extra

Characterizing Search Algorithms
b=3
Level 0
d=1
m=1
Level 1
Level 2
b = maximum branching factor, number of children

d = depth of the shallowest goal node
m = maximum length of any path in the state space
Brian Williams, Spring 03 10

Cost and Performance
Which is better, depth-first or breadth-first?
S C
A B G
A
D C D G
D
S
C G C G
B
Search Worst Worst Shortest Guaranteed to

Method Time Space Path? find path?
Depth-first
Breadth-first
Worst case time is proportional to number of nodes visited
Worst case space is proportional to maximal length of Q
Worst Case Time for Depth-first
Worst case time T is proportional to number of nodes visited
Level 0 1
Level 1
b*1
Level 2
b*b
...
Level m b*b m-1
Tdfs = bm + … b + 1
b * Tdfs = bm+1 + bm + … b Solve recurrence
[b – 1] * Tdfs = bm+1 – 1
Tdfs = [bm+1 – 1]/[b – 1] *cdfs where cdfs is time per node

Cost Using Order Notation
Level 0 1
Level 1
b*1
Level 2
b*b
...
b*b m-1
Order Notation
• T = O(e) if T = c * e for some constant c
Tdfs = [bm + … b + 1]*cdfs

= O(bm) for large b
= O(bm+1) more conservatively
S C
A B G
A
D C D G
D
S
C G C G
B

Depth-first bm
Breadth-first
Worst Case Space for Depth-first
Worst case space Sdfs is proportional to maximal length of Q
Level 0
Level 1
b-1
Level m
b-1
...
b
• If a node is queued its parent and parent’s siblings have been queued.
è Sdfs = (b-1)*m+1
The children of at most one sibling is expanded at each level.

è Sdfs = (b-1)*m+1
• Sdfs = O(b*m)
S C
A B G
A
D C D G
D
S
C G C G
B

Depth-first bm b*m
Breadth-first
S C
A B G
A
D C D G
D
S
C G C G
B

Depth-first bm b*m No
Breadth-first
S C
A B G
A
D C D G
D
S
C G C G
B

Depth-first bm b*m No Yes for finite graph
Breadth-first
S C
A B G
A
D C D G D
S
C G C G
B

Breadth-first
Worst Case Time for Breadth-first
Level 0 1
Level 1 b
...
Level d bd
Level d+1 bd+1- b
Tbfs = [bd+1 + bd + … b + 1 - b]*cbfs

= O(bd+1)

S C
A B G
A
D C D G D
S
C G C G
B

Breadth-first bd+1
Worst Case Space for Breadth-first
Worst case space Sdfs is proportional to maximal length of Q
Level 0 1
Level 1 b
...
Level d bd
Level d+1 bd+1- b
Sbfs = [bd+1- b + 1]*cbfs

= O(bd+1)

S C
A B G
A
D C D G D
S
C G C G
B

Breadth-first bd+1 bd+1
Breadth-first Finds Shortest Path
Nodes visited earlier
can’t include G
Level 0
First
Level 1 reached
Level d G
Level d+1 G
Assuming each edge is length 1,

other paths to G must be at least as long as first found

S C
A B G
A
D C D G D
S
C G C G
B

Breadth-first bd+1 bd+1 Yes unit lngth
S C
A B G
A
D C D G D
S
C G C G
B

Depth-first Bm b*m No Yes for finite graph
Breadth-first bd+1 bd+1 Yes unit lngth Yes
Growth for Best First Search
b = 10; 10,000 nodes/sec; 1000 bytes/node
Depth Nodes Time Memory
2 1,100 .11 seconds 1 megabyte
4 111,100 11 seconds 106 megabytes
6 107 19 minutes 10 gigabytes
8 109 31 hours 1 terabyte
10 1011 129 days 101 terabytes
12 1013 35 years 10 petabytes
14 1015 3,523 years 1 exabyte

S C
A B G
A
D C D G D
S
C G C G
B

Breadth-first bd+1 bd+1 Yes unit lngth Yes
Cost and Performance 6.034 Style:
What the Electronic Tutor Thinks
S C
A B
G
A
D C D G D
S
C G C G B
• Assumes d = m in the worst case, and calls both d.

• Takes the conservative estimate: bd + … 1 = O(bd+1)
Depth-first bd+1 b*d No Yes for finite graph
Breadth-first bd+1 bd Yes unit lngth Yes
Iterative Deepening (IDS)
Idea:
• Explore tree in breadth-first order, using depth-first search.
è Search tree to depth 1, ….
Level 0
S
Level 1 A B
Level 2
D C D G
Level 3 C G C G

Idea:
è Search tree to depth 1, then 2, ….
Level 0
S
Level 1 A B
Level 2
D C D G
Level 3 C G C G

Idea:
è Search tree to depth 1, then 2, then 3….
Level 0
S
Level 1 A B
Level 2
D C D G
Level 3 C G C G

Cost of Iterative Deepening
Level 0 d+1
S
Level 1 A B
d*b
...
Level 2
D C D G 2*b d-1
Level d C G C G 1*bd
• Tids = d + 1 + (d)b + (d - 1)b2 +. . . bd = O(bd)

• Tbfs = 1+b + b2 + . . . bd + (bd+1 – b) = O(bd+1)
èIterative deepening performs better than breadth-first!

Summary
• Most problem solving tasks may be encoded as state space
search.
• Basic data structures for search are graphs and search trees.
• Depth-first and breadth-first search may be framed,
among others, as instances of a generic search strategy.
• Cycle detection is required to achieve efficiency and
completeness.
• Complexity analysis shows that breadth-first is preferred in
terms of optimality and time, while depth-first is preferred
in terms of space.
• Iterative deepening draws the best from depth-first and
breadth-first search.

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Characterizing Search Algorithms

b = maximum branching factor, number of children

Brian Williams, Spring 03 10

Search Worst Worst Shortest Guaranteed to

Tdfs = [bm+1 – 1]/[b – 1] *cdfs where cdfs is time per node

Brian Williams, Spring 03 12

Tdfs = [bm + … b + 1]*cdfs

Search Worst Worst Shortest Guaranteed to

The children of at most one sibling is expanded at each level.

Search Worst Worst Shortest Guaranteed to

Search Worst Worst Shortest Guaranteed to

Search Worst Worst Shortest Guaranteed to

Search Worst Worst Shortest Guaranteed to

Tbfs = [bd+1 + bd + … b + 1 - b]*cbfs

Brian Williams, Spring 03 20

Search Worst Worst Shortest Guaranteed to

Sbfs = [bd+1- b + 1]*cbfs

Brian Williams, Spring 03 22

Search Worst Worst Shortest Guaranteed to

Assuming each edge is length 1,

Brian Williams, Spring 03 24

Search Worst Worst Shortest Guaranteed to

Search Worst Worst Shortest Guaranteed to

Depth Nodes Time Memory

2 1,100 .11 seconds 1 megabyte

4 111,100 11 seconds 106 megabytes

6 107 19 minutes 10 gigabytes

8 109 31 hours 1 terabyte

10 1011 129 days 101 terabytes

12 1013 35 years 10 petabytes

14 1015 3,523 years 1 exabyte

Brian Williams, Spring 03 27

Search Worst Worst Shortest Guaranteed to

• Assumes d = m in the worst case, and calls both d.

Brian Williams, Spring 03 31

Brian Williams, Spring 03 32

Brian Williams, Spring 03 33

• Tids = d + 1 + (d)b + (d - 1)b2 +. . . bd = O(bd)

Brian Williams, Spring 03 34

Brian Williams, Spring 03 35

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