CROPSCI 101

Principles in Crop Production

Module 4
Plant Growth, Development, and Reproduction

Overview and Objectives:

This module discusses the physiological processes occurring during growth,

development, and reproduction in plants. Plants undergo several transitions of
growth which is determined by several factors. During plant growth and
development, the major metabolic processes involved are photosynthesis,
respiration, transpiration and translocation. Ultimately, the plant reaches the
state of reproduction to produce the next generation followed by senescence.

The efficiency of these metabolic processes affects crop production and

management, thus the need to study and understand them.

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

 Understand the concept and phases of plant growth and development
and the different factors that dictate these metabolic functions
 Discuss the different plant life processes
 Describe the sexual and asexual reproduction of plants
 Demonstrate the importance of these biological processes in crop
production and management

I. Concept of Growth and Development

 Growth is defined as an irreversible increase in the size of an organism which

occurs throughout the plant’s life cycle. Growth is shown by the elongation of
roots and stems, leaf enlargement or the increase in the size of flowers and
fruits.
 There are two aspects of growth in plants:
a. Primary Growth – takes place in young, herbaceous organs resulting to
increase in length of shoots. Monocots and herbaceous dicots typically
exhibit only primary growth.
b. Secondary Growth – follows primary growth in some plants and results in
an increase on girth as layers of woody tissue are laid down. Woody dicots
exhibit both primary and secondary kind of growth.
 On the other hand, development or morphogenesis is defined as a series of
changes by which an individual plant passes from lower to a higher state of
being from embryonic stage to maturity. Growth involves the differentiation of
cells to form tissues, tissues form organs, organs form organ systems, and
organ systems form an organism.
II. Phases of Growth

 A sigmoid (S-shaped) growth curve is exhibited by numerous annual plants

and individual parts of both annual and perennial plants.
 This curve is comprised of the logarithmic or exponential phase, linear phase
and stationary phase which would ultimately lead to plant senescence.
 Phases of Plant Growth:
1. Logarithmic or Exponential Phase – Involves seedling growth and
establishment. The size of the plant increases exponentially with time
which is slow at first but will later continuously increase. This stage also
relates to the germination of seeds.
2. Linear Phase – The linear phase of growth is also called the grand phase
of growth. There is rapid and often an increase in dry matter production and
vegetative growth. This phase terminates with the onset of flowering.
3. Stationary Phase – Involves the reduction in growth rate until growth stops
at crop maturity. At the end of the growth period, water is lost from the aerial
parts, photosynthesis stops, and the crop begins to senesce.

Figure 1. Phases of Plant Growth

III. Other Concepts Related to Plant Growth

 Law of the Minimum – Also known as Liebig’s Law as it was proposed by

Justice von Liebig. It states that growth is dictated not by the total resources
available, but by the scarcest resource (limiting factor). Yield is proportional to
the amount of the most limiting nutrient, whichever nutrient it may be. If one of
the essential plant nutrients is deficient, plant growth will be poor even when
all other essential nutrients are abundant.
 Law of Limiting Factors – Also known as Blackman’s Law of Limiting Factors.
This law states that a number of factors in different amount affects the process
as a whole. This law particularly applies to photosynthesis as photosynthesis
will only proceed at the rate determined by the factor in shortest supply.
 Figure 2. Law of the Limiting Factors in Relationship with Photosynthesis
In the graph shown above, if CO2 increases, the rate of photosynthesis also
increases. But after a limit in light intensity, any further increase in CO 2 has
no effect and the rate of photosynthesis becomes constant. Light intensity
became the limiting factor.

 Law of Diminishing Returns – Also known as Mitscherlich’s Law states that

the increase in any crop produced by a unit increment of a deficient factor is
proportional to the decrement of the factor from the maximum. The increase in
yield of a crop per unit of available nutrient decreases as the level of available
nutrient approaches sufficiency.

Figure 3. Law of Diminishing Returns in terms of Nutrient Application

As the plant is supplied with the deficient nutrient, there is an evident
increase in plant growth. This growth plateaus when the plant is supplied with
the adequate amount of nutrient but further addition will have detrimental
effects on the plant which is the same effect when the nutrient was deficient.
IV. Factors Affecting Plant Growth and Development

There are several factors affecting plant growth and development. The following are:

1. Hereditary or Genetic Factors

 Control the general species characteristics of the individual and set limits on
size and rate of growth. The genetic structure, through DNA and RNA patterns,
acts by regulating protein synthesis especially on the synthesis of enzymes.
2. Environment
 Nutrition, light, temperature, water, and other environmental factors affects the
growth and development of plants. The environment as a separate factor and
its interaction with the genotype of the plant affects the overall performance of
the plant.
3. Hormones
 The word hormone is derived from the Greek word hormone which means to
set in motion. Plant hormones are organic compounds synthesized in one part
of the plant and transported to another part of lower concentration.
 Hormones are substances which at low concentration, promote, inhibit, or
modify any physiological response which are effective in small amounts.
 Plant hormones are also called plant growth regulators or phytohormones.
 Major plant hormones in plant growth and development

a. Auxin
o Auxin is the first plant hormone discovered. Charles Darwin was the
first to discuss how plants respond to light which led to the discovery
of auxin. If a seedling is grown in the dark, it will become tall, skinny
and white.

Figure 4. Auxin and Phototropism

When light is directed towards the meristem, auxin spreads
equally down both sides of the plant. As a result the plant grows in
a straight, normal manner. When light is directed on the sides of
the plant, auxin collects on the shady side which results to the
bending of the plant.
 o Auxin is found in pollen and actively growing tissues such as the
shoot and root meristem, young leaves, developing seeds and
developing fruits.
o The functions of auxin are as follows:
 Active ingredient in rooting mixtures
 Stimulates secondary growth by stimulating cambium cells
to divide and secondary xylem to differentiate
 Promotes apical dominance
 Promotes ethylene production
 Promotes flower initiation
 Production of seedless fruits
 Used as defoliants and herbicides

b. Gibberellin or Gibberellic Acid

o In 1962, Eiichi Kurosawa, a Japanese researcher studied a rice
disease was known as the bakanae disease or the foolish seedling
disease in Japan.
o Plants with foolish seedling disease grew extremely fast, spindly,
pale and break off easily. Kurosawa detected that the reason for
this abnormal growth is a substance that is secreted by a parasitic
fungus Gibberella fujikoroi (anamorph Fusarium moniliforme). This
substance was then termed gibberellin.
o Gibberellin (GA3) was the first commercially available gibberellin.
GA3 has been studied much more other than other forms of GA
(because of it availability), so it is commonly referred to as
gibberellic acid.
o Gibberellic acid is synthesized in roots, young leaves and seeds,
among which young leaves are the primary site of synthesis.
o The functions of gibberellic acid are as follows:
 Causes resetting or dwarfing in plants
 Used to promote bolting or the production of a flowering
stem on agricultural and horticultural crops before the crop
is harvested, in a natural attempt to produce seeds and
reproduce.
 Promotes cell division and enzyme induction
 Stimulates flowering in long-day plants
 Used in fruit setting and causes fruit enlargement
 Promotes staminate flower formation in monoecious plants
 Triggers the release of α-amylase and other hydrolytic
enzymes important in converting starch to sugar in
germinating seeds
 Used to break seed dormancy

c. Cytokinin
o The discovery of cytokinin is related to work in tissue culture. Van
Overbeek discovered that plant embryo grows faster when they are
given coconut water.
o Zeatin is the most common form of naturally occurring Cytokinin
which was isolated from corn.
 o Synthetic cytokinin includes kinetin, benzyladenine and
pyranylbenzyaldenine. Kinetin was the first cytokinin not found in
plants.
o The functions of cytokinin are as follows:
 Promotes cell division
 Promotes organ formation
 Used to break dormancy
 Retards leaf senescence by stimulating RNA and protein
synthesis and delaying degradation of chlorophyll.
 Delays senescence of cut flowers and vegetables

d. Ethylene
o Ethylene has been used since the ancient Egyptians, who would
gas figs in order to stimulate ripening. The ancient Chinese burned
incense in closed rooms to enhance ripening of pears.
o Croker (1935) proposed ethylene was a plant hormone responsible
for fruit ripening as well as inhibition of vegetable tissues.
o Unlike the other plant hormones, ethylene occurs in a gaseous
form. Ethylene could be natural or synthetic. Ethephon is a synthetic
form of ethylene which is in its liquid state.
o Ethylene is produced in ripening fruits, aging flowers and
germinating seeds. Fruits are classified in two types according to
ethylene production.
a. Climacteric Fruits – Fruits that can ripen after harvest. These
fruits produce much more ethylene than non-climacteric fruits.
After harvest, climacteric fruits continue to ripen (e.g. mango,
papaya, banana)
b. Non-climacteric Fruits – Fruits which once harvested do not
ripen further. They produce small amounts of ethylene and do
not respond to ethylene treatment (e.g. orange, watermelon,
rambutan, grapes)
o The functions of ethylene are as follows:
 Increases respiration
 Triggers flowering in some bromeliads (pineapple)
 Increases fading in flowers
 Triggers senescence of cut flowers
 Decreases green pigments and increases other colored
pigment formation
 Promotes leaf abscission

e. Abscisic Acid (ABA)

o During the 50’s, the shedding of fruits and leaves and the dormancy
of buds were intensely studied. This led to the discovery of abscisic
acid.
o Abscisic acid promotes seed dormancy. Seeds germinate when
ABA is degraded by some environmental action. Breaking
dormancy is relative to the GA and ABA ratio. The low levels of ABA
in maturing seeds promote premature germination.
o The functions of abscisic acid are as follows:
  Promotes seed dormancy
 Promotes leaf abscission
 Promotes stomatal closure in response to water stress

V. Plant Life Processes

1. Photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis serves as the connecting link between solar energy and life on
Earth. Photosynthesis is the only process on Earth by which solar energy is
trapped by autotrophic organisms and converted into food for the rest of the
organism.
 The photosynthesis chemical equation is:
6CO2 + 12 H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6 H2O
 Energy rich compounds like carbohydrates are synthesized from simple
inorganic compounds like carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
chlorophyll and sunlight with liberation of oxygen
 The site of photosynthesis is the chloroplast. Chloroplasts are green plastids
distributed uniformly in the cytoplasm of plant cells. The grana and the stroma
of the chloroplast are the main sites of photosynthesis.
a. Grana – The grana is made up of stacks of disc-shaped structures
known as thylakoids. The thylakoid is the site for the process of
light-dependent reactions of the photosynthesis process. The grana
is the site of conversion of light energy into chemical energy.
b. Stroma – The stroma is the homogenous matrix which contains the
grana and is similar to the cytoplasm in cells in which all the
organelles are embedded. The stroma also contains various
enzymes, DNA, ribosomes, and other substances. The stroma is
the site of the dark reaction.

Figure 5. Parts of the Chloroplast

 There are several pigments involved in photosynthesis that act as light
harvesting complexes.
a. Chlorophyll – Chlorophyll are green pigments in the chloroplast which
consist of Chlorophyll A and Chlorophyll B. Chlorophyll A's central role is
as an electron donor in the electron transport chain. Chlorophyll B's role is
to give organisms the ability to absorb higher frequency blue light for use
in photosynthesis. Green light is not absorbed by chlorophyll and is
reflected back causing plant leaves to appear green.
b. Carotenoids - Carotenoids absorb the blue and green areas of the visible
spectrum. They complement the absorption of light by chlorophyll. The
energy absorbed by those pigments is passed to chlorophyll and used in
photosynthesis and thus act as accessory pigments. Carotenoids are
classified either as carotenoids (orange and red) and xanthophylls (yellow).
c. Phycobillins – Phycobillins are pigments mainly found in blue-green algae
(cyanobacteria) and red algae.
 Photosynthesis is dictated by the visible spectrum.
a. Absorption Spectra - Represents the light absorbed at each wavelength
by pigments. The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a and b indicate that
these pigments mainly absorbs blue and red light.

Figure 6. Absorption Spectra of the Different Photosynthetic Pigments

b. Action Spectra - Represents the rate of photosynthesis at different

wavelengths. The action spectrum shows that maximum photosynthesis
takes place in blue and red regions of the spectrum. Between blue and
red wavelengths, blue light carry more energy. However, the most efficient
wavelengths of light in photosynthesis is red light. Green is least effective.
 Figure 7. Action Spectra of Photosynthesis

 Photosynthesis is divided into two phases, the light-dependent and the light-
independent reactions.
a. Light reaction, photochemical reaction or light-dependent reaction
o Utilizes light to produce organic energy molecules, ATP and NADPH.
o Summary of light reaction
 A photon (sun energy) hits a chlorophyll molecule in
Photosystem II. An electron absorbs this energy and gets
excited.
 The excited electron in Photosystem II is carried away by a
mobile electron carrier.
 To replenish the lost electron, Photosystem II splits a molecule
of H2O, producing hydrogen ions (single proton) and oxygen as
byproducts.
 All the excited electrons are delivered by electron carriers to the
Cytochrome Complex, which is an intermediary between PSII
and PSI and at the same time uses little energy from the excited
electrons to pump another proton into the thylakoid.
 As more protons are produced in the thylakoids, the protons
make their way to the ATP synthase which utilizes the proton
energy to pack an inorganic phosphate onto ADP, making ATP.
The protons are charging the thylakoid to create a concentration
gradient.
 The electron gets re-energized upon delivery to the
Photosystem I. After photons re-excite the electrons, the
electrons is then again transported by an electron carrier.
 The energy from the excited electrons in PSI will be utilized to
make NADPH. Another enzyme called NADP+ reductase will
 combine two electrons and one hydrogen ion with NADP+ to
produce NADPH.
 At the end of the light dependent reaction, the products are ATP,
NADPH and the byproduct is Oxygen.

Figure 8. Light Dependent Reaction

o The light reaction can be divided into three components

 Photolysis of Water – Water is split into hydrogen ions (H+),
electron (e-) and molecular oxygen (O2)
2H2O + light 4H+ + 4e- + O2
 Reduction of NADP+ to NADPH – The electrons of water are
transferred through the photosynthetic electron transfer system
to NADP+ to form NADPH
NADP+ + H+ + 2e + light NADPH
 Photophosphorylation – Light and inorganic phosphate (Pi)
are used to convert adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to ATP
ADP + Pi + light ATP
b. Dark reaction, biochemical reaction or light-independent reaction
o Light-independent reaction occurs without the presence of light energy.
Utilizes the ATP and NADPH from the light reaction to produce other
energy molecules.
o In dark reaction, carbon dioxide is fixed. The CO2 fixation can occur by
one of the three pathways:
a. Calvin-Benson Cycle or C3 Pathway – In C3 plants, the dark
reaction consist solely of this pathway. All reactions take place in
the mesophyll cells.
Phase I: Carbon Fixation
 CO2 is fixed to three molecules of Ribulose Bisphosphate
(RuBP) with the help of the enzyme ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate
carboxylase (RuBisCo). RuBisCo is inefficient. It sometimes
 bind with O2 instead of CO2 and creates a toxic byproduct
called phosphogycolate in a process called photorespiration.
 The 6 carbon chain breaks apart to create two molecules of 3-
phosphoglycerate which are the first stable products of the
Calvin Cycle.
Phase II: Reduction
 ATP donates a phosphate group to the 3-phosphoglycerate to
create 1,3-biphosphoglycerate.
 NADPH donates some electrons to produce two molecules of
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P), which is a high energy 3-
carbon compound plants can convert to carbohydrates
(glucose).
 One of the G3Ps could be converted to glucose (short energy
storage), cellulose (structure), or starch (long term energy
storage).
 Five G3Ps are used to regenerate the 3 RuBPs that were
utilizes at the beginning of the Calvin Cycle.
o The ultimate products of photosynthesis is G3P: 1 G3P is stored and
leaves the cycle while 5 G3P is used to regenerate the original 3
RuBPs.
o The cycle utilizes: 9 molecules of ATP and 6 molecules of NADPH
(products of the light dependent reaction)

Figure 9. The Calvin Cycle

b. Hatch-Slack Cycle or C4 Pathway – CO2 is initially fixed into C4
acids in the mesophyll. Then the acids moves into C4 acids in the
mesophyll. The acids then move into the bundle sheath where they
are decarboxylated. The first stable product is oxaloacetic acid
(OAA). OAA has four carbon atoms hence the name of the pathway.
Summary of the C4 Pathway
 CO2 is fixed to phosphoenol pyruvate by PEP carboxylase
to produce oxaloacetate (OAA), a 4 carbon stable
compound in the mesophyll cells.
 NADPH reduces OAA to malic acid or malate.
 Malic acid is then transferred to the chloroplast in the bundle
sheath cell where decarboxylase removes CO 2 to produce
pyruvic acid, a 3-carbon compound
 Pyruvic acid is then converted back to phosphoenol
pyruvate by ATP.
 Because of the arrangement of the mesophyll cells around
the bundle sheath, the entry of O2 is inhibited and the plant
have access to almost pure CO2 which boosts the
performance of RuBisCo while bypassing photorespiration.
 The CO2 then enters the Calvin Cycle. The rest of the cycle
continues like the C3 pathway.

c. Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) Pathway – CO2 is fixed

at night because the stoma of CAM plants closes during the day
and opens at night to conserve moisture.
Summary of CAM pathway
 CAM photosynthesis begins at night, when the plant’s
stomata open and CO2 gas is able to diffuse into the
cytoplasm of CAM mesophyll cells. The CO2 molecules
encounter hydroxyl ions, OH−, which they combine with to
become HCO3 the enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate
carboxylase (PEP carboxylase).
 PEP carboxylase catalyzes the following reaction to add the
CO2 to a molecule called phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).
 Oxaloacetate then receives an electron from NADH and
becomes a molecule of malate.
 Malate is now stored in vacuoles within the plant cells, until
the sun rises and photosynthesis begins. When that
happens, malate enters the Calvin Cycle, just like 3-
phosphoglycerate would in a plant using a 3-carbon, or “C3”
pathway for carbon fixation.
 Figure 10. C4 Pathway Figure 11. CAM Pathway
Table 1. Comparison of C3, C4 and CAM Pathway

Characteristics C3 C4 CAM
Plant Species Typically temperate Typically tropical or Typically arid zone
species (spinach, wheat, semi-tropical species species (cacti,
potato) and tropical (corn, sorghum, pineapples, most
species (rice, taro, sweet sugarcane) orchids, other
potato) Plants adapted to succulents)
Most plants are C3 high light intensity
plants and temperature
Leaf Anatomy Mesophyll without no Mesophyll with Mesophyll with large
distinct bundle sheath distinct bundle sheath vacuoles
(Kranz Anatomy)
CO2 Fixation One Two in separated Two separated in time
space
 Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

 Internal Factors
a. Nutritional status of the plants – Nutrient deficiency will causes decrease
in photosynthetic rate in leaf as chlorophyll contains N and Mg
b. Stomatal aperture – The rate of photosynthesis is usually controlled by
the stomatal aperture or opening and the number of stomata per unit area
c. Leaf age – Young leaves have usually low photosynthetic ability but
increases as the leaf approaches full expansion
 External Factors
a. Light or Irradiance – The process of photosynthesis is “driven” by the
visible portion of the light spectrum or radiant energy
b. Temperature – The light dependent reaction of photosynthesis is slightly
affected by the temperature but dark reaction is very temperature
dependent
c. Carbon dioxide concentration – Photosynthetic rates are enhanced by
higher CO2 concentration.
d. Moisture – Water is a substrate for photosynthesis
e. Wind – Wind is important to the photosynthetic efficiency of the crop

2. Respiration
 Cellular respiration is the process used by plants to convert glucose into energy
which fuels the plant’s cellular activities.
 Respiration can be summarized in the chemical equation:
C6H12O2 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
 The chemical reaction of aerobic respiration is grouped into three stages,
namely glycolysis, the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain.

a. Glycolysis
 Glycolysis is literally the process of breaking down glucose. It occurs
in the cell cytoplasm.
 The six carbon glucose is broken down into three carbon molecules
called pyruvic acid in a series of 10 enzymatic reactions.
 Glycolysis utilizes 2 molecules of ATP per cycle in order to operate.
 At the end of one cycle of glycolysis, 2 molecules of pyruvic acid, 4
molecules of ATP (2 net), and 2 molecules of NADH are generated

b. Citric Acid Cycle

 Also called the Krebs Cycle (in honor of Hans Adolf Krebs, an English
biochemist) or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
 Involves the breakdown of the pyruvate molecules in a series of 9
enzymatic reactions to yield energy and carbon dioxide.
 Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix which begins with the oxidation of
the two pyruvic acid yielded from Glycolysis.
 One of the carbons of the pyruvic acid bonds with oxygen to produce
carbon dioxide. Acetate, the remaining two carbon molecules, binds
with a coenzyme to produce Acetyl Coenzyme A (Acetyl CoA).
 Acetyl CoA condenses with oxaloacetate to form citric acid. Citric acid
is converted back into oxaloacetate in a series of 8 enzymatic reactions.
The oxaloacetate is then again ready to accept another Acetyl CoA
molecule.
 One Krebs Cycle yields: 6 NADPH, 2 FADH2 and 2 ATPs derived from
the 2 molecules of pyruvate

Figure 12. Glycolysis

 Figure 13. Citric Acid Cycle
c. Electron Transport System
 A series of proteins in the cristae of the mitochondria will utilize the
electrons from NADPH and FADH2 to send the hydrogen protons from
the matrix to the intermembrane space of the mitochondria.
 After the protons are sent to the intermembrane, the protons enter back
to the inner membrane through a special protein called ATP synthase.
 The energy generated from this proton flow in the different protein
complexes drives the addition of phosphates to ADPs to produce ATPs
by the ATP synthase.
 An average of 34 ATPs are generated in the Electron Transport Chain
with H2O generated as a by-product.
 Electron Transport Chain Reactions
1. Redox of NADH+H+ at Complex I – electrons go to Complex I, four
hydrogen protons are pumped from the matrix to the
intermembrane space
2. Redox of FADH2 at Complex II – Coenzyme Q picks up electrons
from Complex I and II and transports them to Complex III
3. Redox of Complex III – four protons pumped from matrix to
intermembrane space, carries C transports electrons to Complex IV
4. Redox of Complex IV – two protons pumped from matrix to
intermembrane space, formation of H2O
5. ATP synthase action – pumps protons from intermembrane space
to matrix, produces ADP + Pi + energy
 Figure 14. The Electron Transport Chain

Factors Affecting Cellular Respiration

 Temperature – Within the range of 0°C – 35°C, the rate increases
about three times for each 10oC rise. The effect of temperature on
respiration is an important factor in the storage of some crops.
 Oxygen concentration – The rate of respiration decreases as oxygen
concentration decreases
 Soil condition – Compacted or water logged soils are generally poorly
aerated. This condition reduces respiration in the roots resulting in poor
plant growth and would result to fermentation.
 Light – Low light intensities exhibit lower respiration rates; low light
reduces photosynthesis, thus decreasing the amount of carbohydrates
available for respiration
Table 3. Comparison of Photosynthesis and Aerobic Respiration
Criteria Photosynthesis Respiration
Raw materials CO2, H2O C6H12O6
End product C6H12O6 CO2, H2O
Plant cells involved Plant cells that contains All plant cells
chlorophyll
Parts of the cell involved Chloroplast Cytoplasm, Mitochondria
Pathway of energy Light energy – NADPH/ATP – Energy stored in fuel
energy stored in molecules – NADPH/ATP –
carbohydrates energy for work in cells

3. Translocation
 Translocation is the movement of materials (water, organic and inorganic
compounds) from the leaves to other tissues throughout the plant.
 Plants developed two translocation systems: the xylem and phloem.
 Xylem provides the pathway by which the water and mineral nutrients
absorbed by the roots are distributed to all parts of the plants.
  Phloem provides the pathway by which sugar and other organic
compounds/organic ions produced in the leaves move to other parts of the
plants.

Figure 15. Xylem and Phloem Vessels

4. Transpiration
 Transpiration refers to the loss of water vapor from aerial parts of plants. It
is basically an evaporative process.
 The driving force of transpiration is the vapor pressure gradient between
the leaf and the atmosphere.
 The two stages of respiration includes the evaporation of water from cell
surfaces and the diffusion of water vapor out of the plant, mainly from the
leaves.

Figure 16. Stomatal Transpiration

Vapor pressure tends to move from an area of high concentration to low
concentration.
  Types of Transpiration
a. Cuticular Transpiration – The loss of water in the form of water
vapor through the cuticle.
b. Lenticular Transpiration – The loss of water in the form of water
vapor through the lenticels present in woody stem and fruits.
c. Stomatal Transpiration – The loss of water in the form of water
vapor through the stomata which are minute pores confined to the
epidermis of green leaves and shoots.

Figure 17. Types of Transpiration

 Transpiration is a necessary evil since it can result in excessive loss of

water from plants, as in periods of low relative humidity and high
temperature. However, transpiration benefits plants through helping in the
mobilization of soil nutrients towards roots, aiding in the translocation of
mineral nutrients by the roots and cooling the plants, thereby maintaining a
favorable plant temperature for growth and development.

Factors Affecting Transpiration

 Solar radiation – It is the main source of energy for the evaporation
of water, visible light can directly or indirectly induce the opening of
stomata which is the reason why transpiration is high during the
day.
 Temperature – An increase in temperature increases the capacity
of the air to absorb water vapor.
 Relative humidity – As relative humidity becomes lower,
transpiration increases.
 Wind – A gentle breeze increases the rate of transpiration compare
to still air
 Moisture available – When there is lack of water in the soil,
transpiration is reduced
 CO2 concentration – An increase in CO2 reduces transpiration
 Plant adaptation – CAM plants have lesser transpiration compared
to C3 and C4 plants

VI. Plant Reproduction

1. Sexual Reproduction
 Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes to
form a zygote, in a process called double fertilization, which develops into
 an embryo to form a seed. In crop plants, male and female gametes are
produced in specialized structures known as flower.
 Pollination refers to the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma of the flower. There are two modes of pollination in crops:
a. Self-pollination or Autogamy – Self-pollination is the transfer of
pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or to the stigma
of another flower on the same plant.
b. Cross-pollination or Allogamy – Cross-pollination is the transfer of
pollen to the stigma of a flower on different plant

Figure 18. Self-pollination vs. Cross-pollination

 Floral Mechanisms Promoting Self-pollination

a. Cleistogamy – Flowers do not open at all.
b. Chasmogamy – Flower open, but only after pollination has taken
place, flower open but the stamens and the stigma are hidden by other
floral organs.
c. Anthers burst before extrusion (e.g. wheat)
d. Stamens form a cone-like enclosure around the stigma (e.g.
tomatoes)

 Floral Mechanisms Promoting Cross-pollination

a. Dicliny or Unisexuality – Flower are either staminate (male) or
pistillate (female)
o Monoecy – Staminate and pistillate flowers occur in the same
plant, either in the same inflorescence or in separate
inflorescence.
o Dioecy – The male and flowers are present on different plants
b. Dichogamy – Stamens and pistils of hermaphrodite flowers may
mature at different times
o Protogyny – Pistils mature before stamens
o Protandry – Stamens mature before pistils
c. Self-incompatibility – Failure of a flower to fertilized the same flower
or other flowers on the same plant
d. Male sterility – Refers to the absence of functional pollen grains in
otherwise hermaphrodite flowers
Figure 19. List of Self and Cross Pollinated Crops
2. Asexual Reproduction

 Involves the use of vegetative parts of the plants like the roots, stem, or
leaves to increase the number of the plants of the same kind. There is no
union of the male and female gametes is involved. Asexual reproduction is
also known as vegetative propagation

 Advantages of Asexual Reproduction:

o The resulting plant possess characteristics as the mother plant.
o Used in plants where seed propagation is impossible or difficult.
o The trees are usually smaller and bear fruits than those grown from
seeds.

 Disadvantage of Asexual Reproduction:

o For artificial vegetative propagation, a seedling is indispensable.

 Types of Asexual Reproduction

1. Conventional asexual/vegetative propagation (Natural vegetative

propagation)
a. Separation – Propagation using naturally detached organs
 Runners – strawberry
 Slips – pineapple (from the base of the plant)
 Suckers – banana
 Crown – pineapple
 Bulb – onion
 Bulblets – small bulbs (multiplier onion)
 Bulbils – aerial plantlets (agave)
 Offsets – bulblets grown into full size (dendrobium)
b. Division – Method of asexual propagation wherein specialized or
modified stem and roots are cut into pieces or sections with at least
one bud or eye per section.
 Corm – stem structure containing nodes and internodes
(abaca, gabi)
 Cormels – small corms
 Tuber – potato
 Rhizomes – horizontal stem which grows below the surface
of the ground (ginger)

2. Artificial Vegetative Propagation

a. Cuttage – Use of cuttings is the method of artificial vegetative
propagation involving regeneration of a several plant parts from
parent plants.
Types of Cuttage:
 Leaf cuttings (snake plant, begonia)
 Leaf bud cuttings – Consist of leaf blade, petiole and short
piece of the stem with axillary bud (black pepper)
 Stem cuttings – Types of cuttings commonly used:
 o Hardwood – From mature wood from few years old
(poinsettia)
o Semi-hardwood – Cuttings from partially mature
wood (rose)
o Herbaceous stem cuttings – Soft wood cuttings
b. Grafting – Grafting is the process of joining together a rootstock and
a scion until they unite permanently. Rootstock is usually the
seedling in which scion is inserted while the scion is any plant part,
usually stem, taken from desired plant. Cleft grafting, saddle grafting,
side grafting, approach grafting and splice grafting are some of its
types.

Figure 20. Types of Grafting

c. Budding – Specialized type of grafting in which a single detached

bud is used as scion and place in a stock plant (rootstock) also bud
grafting. Shield or T-budding, patch budding and chip budding are
examples of budding.

Figure 21. Types of Budding

d. Layering – A method of vegetative propagation wherein plants are

allowed to generated other parts while still attached to the parent
plant.

e. Marcotting – The process of inducing the branch to produced roots

while still attached to the parent plant. It is also called air layering.
Activity/Methodology
 Lecture
 Class participation
 Group discussion

Materials
 Powerpoint slides
 Educational videos

References
 LANTICAN, R.M. 2001. The Science and Practice of Crop Production. Southeast Asian
Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture. UPLB. ISBN 971-560-
060-3

Questions to Answer

1. Differentiate plant growth from plant development.

2. Identify and describe the three phases of plant growth.

3. Explain the following laws: Law of the Minimum, Law of the Limiting Factors and Law of
Diminishing Returns.

4. What are the functions of the five primary phytohormones?

5. What is photosynthesis? Explain the process of the light-dependent and light-independent

reactions.

6. What is respiration? Explain the three stages of aerobic respiration.

7. What is translocation? Why is it important in plant growth and development?

8. What is transpiration? Why is it a necessary evil?

9. Differentiate sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction in plants.

10. What is the significance of understanding plant metabolic processes? How does it relate
to crop production and agriculture?